1 INTRODUCTION

Automatic data acquisition and data interpretation

have become an integral part of all medium and
large-scale instrumentation projects and monitoring
programs. Automatic data acquisition is of funda-
mental benefit, because the measurements are auto-
matically taken and the data stored in a compatible
format for computer-assisted data processing, visu-
alization and reporting (Choquet et al. 1998). The in-
struments and the people being the only two aspects
of the monitoring performance; the reliability of the
instruments becomes the overriding feature in the
selection of a technology. Reliability takes its most
important sense when the instrumentation project is
located in a remote area or when the instruments are
embedded in concrete, grouted in place, buried in
ground or down in a borehole and therefore inacces-
sible.
Good instrument design, manufacturing tech-
niques and quality control can usually create ade-
quate durability at the installed environment. If the
instrument reliability is defined as the probability of
a measuring assembly to work properly, other im-
portant factors for the sensors are accuracy, resolu-
tion, repeatability, reproducibility which depends on
zero drift and hysteresis. The sensor is the essential
link that generates the electrical signal and hence
provides a record of the quantity being measured.
Thus a good long-term reliability is of utmost im-
portance especially if decisions concerning perform-
ance and safety are to be taken with any degree of
accuracy and confidence.
This paper presents some results of laboratory
experiments, field tests and case histories for differ-
ent types of vibrating wire sensors to verify their be-
haviour and their reliability. Different factors affect-
ing gage performance such as zero drift,
repeatability, temperature change, impact and vibra-
tion were evaluated.
2 VIBRATING WIRE GAGES
The vibrating wire gages are particularly known to
give superior performance in geomechanical applica-
tions where long-term reliability, minimum zero drift
and signal immunity to electrical noise are of prime
importance (Bordes & Debreuille 1985, Tunbridge &
Oien 1988, McRae & Simmonds 1991, Larive et al.
1995).
The sensor operating principle is to calculate a
physical parameter by measuring the change in the
frequency of a vibrating wire stretched on a frame
deforming with or by the quantity to be measured.
A length of high strength resistant steel wire is
clamped at its ends and tensioned so that it is free to
vibrate at its natural frequency. Figure 1 shows the
operating principle of a Roctest strainmeter mounted
between two welded end blocks.
Reliability, long-term stability and gage performance of vibrating wire
sensors with reference to case histories
P.Choquet & F.Juneau
Roctest Ltd, Montreal,Canada
P.J.Debreuille
Telemac s.a., Gretz-Armainvilliers (77), France
J.Bessette
Roctest Inc.,Plattsburgh, N.Y.,U.S.A.
ABSTRACT: Recent evolution of automatic data acquisition system and data interpretation has enabled
readings to be taken automatically on instruments. This emphasizes the need for reliable instruments to
monitor in real time the behaviour of structures. The use of vibrating wire sensors in the field of geomechan-
ics is particularly considered for these applications where long-term monitoring is expected. The paper de-
scribes some experiences about long-term stability and reliability of different kinds of vibrating wire instru-
ments such as pressure sensor, strain gage and displacement transducer. Special tests are described to verify
the influence of artificialy aging the sensor during manufacturing. The accuracy over time and gage perform-
ance is also reported with reference to case histories. The effects of disturbing factors like temperature change,
impact and vibration are also analyzed. Information on electrical connection cables and lightning protection is
also provided in the paper.
Figure 1: Schematic principle of Roctest vibrating wire strain-
meter
As with a guitar string, the frequency of vibration
varies with the wire tension, and thus with the small
relative movements between the two end blocks.
Therefore this movement can be monitored with the
pluck and read method by magnetically plucking the
wire with an electrical coil placed at its mid-point, by
measuring the natural frequency of the wire with the
same coil and by relating the frequency change to
microstrain. Then the vibrating wire theory can be
expressed with the following equation:
( )
2
0
2
2
4
f f
E
L
L
L
=

=

(1)
Where
f = resonant frequency of wire vibration
L = change in length of vibrating wire
L = initial length of vibrating wire
= volumetric weight of wire
E = Youngs modulus of the steel wire
The vibration of the wire induces in the plucking
coil an alternative current of identical frequency as
the frequency of vibration of the wire. The frequency
signal can be transmitted over long lead cables and
displayed by a portable readout or monitored by a
data acquisition system.
Use of this principle then called acoustic indicator,
was patented in 1931 in France by Andr Coyne,
founder of the French consulting engineering firm
Coyne et Bellier and designer of more than 55 arch
dams. After World War II, various vibrating wire in-
struments were developed by a number of manu-
facturers including Telemac, founded in 1947 by
Andr Coyne, and Irad Gage, founded in 1970 by
Dr. Ivor Hawke. Those firms were acquired respec-
tively in 1991 and 1988 by Roctest, which has carried
on the manufacturing and design improvement and
widened the line of vibrating wire instruments.
The vibrating wire principle is utilized in different
configurations to make many types of sensors and
instruments for various applications in which strain,
displacement, piezometric level, force and pressure
are the required quantities to be measured.
3 LONG-TERM STABILITY TESTS
If a vibrating wire sensor is to be used for long-term
applications, it is important to be sure that there will
be no zero drift and a minimum change in sensitivity.
To achieve this goal, advanced manufacturing tech-
niques and artificial aging procedures are necessary
to minimize drift. Many comparative tests were done
in laboratory to improve these techniques. In this
section we will present some test results on three
transducers types to show the beneficial influence of
artificial aging process.
3.1 Pressure transducer
In a pressure transducer the vibrating wire is attached
and measures the deformation of a sensitive mem-
brane. The pressure acting on the membrane causes
a change in wire frequency. A calibration is neces-
sary for each sensor to correlate the applied pressure
versus the frequency change. Three barriers of pro-
tection against water infiltration protect the PWS
sensor from Roctest as shown in Figure 2. Inside the
piezometer we have a bulkhead seal, epoxy resin and
watertight connector is used around the cable. The
initial tension of the wire is about 10% of yield which
minimizes any creep tendencies.
Figure 2: Schematic principle of a vibrating wire piezometer
In the following example a piezometer was in-
stalled in a water column of 4.5 m and readings were
taken with a portable MB-6T vibrating wire readout
unit manufactured by Roctest over a period of 600
days. Before each reading measurement, the column
was filled up with water up to 4.5 m in order to com-
pensate for evaporated water and a period of time
was allowed to stabilize the reading. Figure 3 shows
the readings after corrections for temperature and
barometric pressure variations. The response of the
transducer remains well within the 0.5% full scale
(F.S.) accuracy of the sensor. Similar results were
obtained with two others sensors.
Figure 3: Long-term test of a pressure transducer in a water
column
3.2 Strain gage
In a strainmeter the vibrating wire is clamped be-
tween two end blocks as illustrated in Figure 1.
Strainmeters from Roctest have been studied in labo-
ratory to evaluate the reliability of the measurement.
Two gages were fixed to an unloaded steel I-beam
which was placed on a stable base. This test was
done to observe the stability of the reading over time.
The gages were set initially at a frequency between
787 and 789 Hz corresponding to 2520 and 2530 lin-
ear unit or around the mid-range of the sensor (784.5
Hz). Gage readings were taken during 1400 days
with a portable MB-6T vibrating-wire readout unit.
Figure 4 shows the excellent stability of the reading
over time, well below the 0.5% F.S. accuracy rating
of the gage. One reason of a zero drift in the field can
be attribuated to the external support of the gage.
Careful precautions must be done to check the loos-
ening of the support nuts for one type of bracket and
welded connection between the gage block and the
structure for another type of bracket. Under con-
trolled environnemental condition like in laboratory
investigation we do not have this kind of problem
and it is easier to evaluate the stability of the reading.
Figure 4: Long-term test of vibrating wire strain gages under
laboratory conditions
3.3 Displacement transducer
In a displacement transducer the vibrating wire is
connected in series with a spring and a connecting
rod. This spring is used to achieve a displacement of
25 to 100 mm. Movement of the rod changes the
tension in the spring and consequently the frequency
of vibrating wire. A ball joint assembly allows the
fixation of the transducer on the structure as shown
in Figure 5.
Figure 5: Vibrating wire displacement transducer
Figure 6 shows readings of a vibrating wire joint-
meter monitored over a period of 1215 days. The ini-
tial tension of the transducer is set to 50% of full
scale. As can be seen on the figure, no significant
zero drift was detected and the reading remained well
within the 0.5% F.S. accuracy rating of the gage
Figure 6: Long-term test of a vibrating wire displacement trans-
ducer
4 GAGE PERFORMANCE
The performance and accuracy of vibrating wire
strain gages and pressure sensors depend on several
factors. Among these factors we have gage sensitiv-
ity to strain changes, repeatability, reproducibility,
zero drift, temperature change, impact and vibration.
Different tests were done to evaluate each of the pre-
vious characteristics and some tests will be summa-
rized in this section.
2400.0
2440.0
2480.0
2520.0
2560.0
2600.0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
Time (Days)
R
e
a
d
i
n
g

(
m
i
c
r
o
s
t
r
a
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)


Gage A Gage B
0.5%F.S.
-7.500
-5.000
-2.500
0.000
2.500
5.000
0
2
2
5
0
6
9
1
2
0
2
3
1
2
5
4
2
8
1
2
9
3
3
0
2
3
1
0
3
2
0
3
3
1
3
4
5
3
7
0
4
0
0
4
2
9
4
6
7
5
1
8
5
8
6
Time (Days)
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

v
a
r
i
a
t
i
o
n

(
k
P
a
)
.



0.5%F.S.
6535
6555
6575
6595
6615
6635
6655
6675
6695
6715
6735
6755
6775
3
1
0
1
9
4
1
6
3
1
0
1
1
4
7
1
6
8
2
0
3
2
2
7
2
6
2
2
7
9
3
0
1
3
4
2
3
6
7
3
8
8
4
0
9
4
7
9
5
0
0
5
2
1
5
4
3
5
6
4
5
8
4
6
0
6
6
2
6
6
6
8
7
0
2
7
3
1
8
4
5
9
1
4
1
2
1
5
Time (Days)
R
e
a
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g

(
l
i
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a
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u
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i
t
)
.


0.5%F.S.
4.1 Repeatability and reproducibility
Generally it is difficult or even impossible to
check the reproducibility of a vibrating wire pie-
zometer over long period of time because the sensor
is often inaccessible. Three piezometers were in-
stalled in three differents boreholes in a project in
U.S.A. After five years in the field we have retrieved
the sensors to evaluate the gage sensitivity and
maximum error of non-linearity. Table 1 shows the
variation of the calibration factor after five years and
the maximum non-linearity error in percentage full
scale. The reference pressure sensor used for the re-
calibration was different from the original calibration
but its precision is 0.025% full scale, which means 20
times more precise than the rated linearity of 0.5%
full scale of the sensor. The variation of the calibra-
tion factor for the three sensors is between 0.09%
and 0.11% and these values are better than the accu-
racy of the sensor which confirms the stability of the
transducer calibration factor.
Table 1: Recalibration of piezometers after five years in field.
Sensor Original Calibration
Calibration 5 years later
C.F. A 0.11999 0.11987
B 0.06616 0.06610
C 0.07122 0.07114
%F.S. A 0.15 0.17
B 0.08 0.04
C 0.03 0.06
*C.F.= Calibration factor in psi/linear unit
%F.S.= Maximum error of non-linearity
A mechanical test was carried out to assess and
characterize the strain sensitivity and repeatability of
a vibrating wire strain gage. The strainmeter investi-
gated was the surface-mounted type SM-5A of
Roctest Ltd. The setup shown in Figure 7 allows to
elongate axially two strainmeters while maintaining
their two end blocks to a steel square bar. Six con-
ventional resistive strain gages were bonded in the
middle section of the square bar as reference strain
signal. The steel bar was loaded up to 1600 mi-
crostrains. Figure 8 shows the comparison for both
the vibrating wire gage and the electrical strain gage
during the calibration test. The result of the vibrating
wire gage is calculated by averaging the readings of
the two strain gages located on opposite sides of the
strut. The result is thereafter correlated to the average
of the six electrical strain gages reading. The graphic
shows a perfect correlation between the measure-
ments obtained from the vibrating wire gages and
those from the electrical strain gages and shows that
strain response is very linear.
The average slope of the best fit straight line of 10
sensors is 1.009 / and means that the gage factor
of the SM-5A is in good agreement with vibrating
wire theory as explained is section 2.0. The experi-
ment was repeated several times with different sen-
sors during short period of time and long period of
time of 2 years and similar results were always ob-
tained. Then it appears that the strainmeter is very
repeatable and reproducible.
Figure 7: Experimental setup for traction test on vibrating wire
gage
Figure 8: Comparison of strain measured by SM-5A vibrating
wire gage and electrical strain gage
A test of reproducibility was also done with four
displacement transducers as presented in Figure 5.
These transducers were placed in a structure in Por-
tugal. After four years on field structure, these sen-
sors came back to the factory for a recalibration. Ta-
ble 2 shows the comparison of the original
calibration factor and the new calibration factor. The
difference in gage sensitivity is between 0.15% and
0.38%.
Table 2: Reproducibility test of displacement transducer of 25
mm range.
Sensor Original Calibration
Calibration 4 years later
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800
Vibrating wire strain gage reading (microstrain)
E
l
e
c
t
r
i
c
a
l

s
t
r
a
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n

g
a
g
e

r
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a
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g
.


(
m
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a
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)


C.F. A 0.0044151 0.0044242
B 0.0044110 0.0043941
C 0.0041000 0.0040937
D 0.0041620 0.0041467
%F.S. A 0.06 0.09
B 0.05 0.06
C 0.05 0.07
D 0.06 0.06
*C.F.= Calibration factor in mm/linear unit
%F.S.= Maximum error of non-linearity
4.2 Temperature change
4.2.1 Pressure sensors
Laboratory tests were conducted to determine the
effect of temperature during the calibration of a vi-
brating wire piezometer. Different calibrations were
done at four temperatures of 0, 20, 40 and 60
o
C as
shown in Figure 9. The difference in gage sensitivity
between 0 and 60
o
C is 0.2% and remains within the
rated linearity of 0.5% full scale of the sensor.
Figure 9: Influence of temperature during calibration of PWS
piezometer
4.2.2 Strain gage
The difference in thermal expansion between vi-
brating wire strain gage and the structure on which
the gage is attached can influence the accuracy of
measurements. The following test has been done to
evaluate the influence of a temperature change by
observing the response of a vibrating wire strain gage
to a fluctuation of 15
o
C to 105
o
C.
First two end blocks have been welded to a steel
structure as shown in Figure 1 and thereafter the vi-
brating wire sensor has been attached to the weldable
end blocks. Figure 10 shows temperature dependen-
cies of 0.25 microstrain/
o
C. As we can see the gage is
almost compensated because the coefficient of steel
is about 11.5 microstrain/
o
C. The small variation
comes from the difference in the thermal coefficient
of expansion between the components of the gage
and the coefficient of the host material on which the
gage is fixed. The sensor were tested under no-load
condition. The temperature of the gage was meas-
ured internally by means of a thermistor.
Figure 10: Thermal test on SM-5A vibrating wire strainmeter
4.3 Impact and vibration test on piezometer
Some tests were done with PWS piezometers of
Roctest to evaluate the influence of zero drift when
the transducer is subjected to vibration and shocks.
Many piezometers transducers were installed on a
shaking table to simulate vibration. A vibration test at
5g during one hour lead to insignificant zero drift for
different ranges from 200 to 7000 kPa.
To evaluate the influence of impact many pie-
zometers transducers were dropped at different posi-
tions and height on cement floor. Laboratory tests
have showed that the sensor is not sensitive to verti-
cal shocks when dropped from a height of up to 0.5
meter. For horizontal shocks a more detailed investi-
gation needed to be conducted. For this test the
transducer was held horizontally or parallel to the
floor at a known height. The transducer was released
from rest and accelerated under its own weight until
it impacted on the floor. Table 3 summarizes the test
for different sensors with different ranges. After each
impact, the output reading was recorded and com-
pared with the initial reading. Similar results were
obtained with others piezometers but the lower range
sensor is more sensitive to horizontal impact than
higher range as presented in Table 3.
As we can see there is a zero drift after horizontal
impact for lower range sensors especially the 175
kPa range sensors. Therefore it is important to handle
the sensor with care before installation. During
shipment the sensor is protected with a foam. The
same horizontal test as before was repeated with a
protective foam and the results are presented in Ta-
ble 4. The results demonstrate that there is no signifi-
cant shift with the foam if the sensor is dropped
horizontally from a height of 30 cm and even from a
height of 100 cm.
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Reading variation (Linear Unit)
P
r
e
s
s
u
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e

(
k
P
a
)
.


0C 20C 40C 60C
y = 0.2472x + 2558.5
2350
2400
2450
2500
2550
2600
2650
2700
2750
-20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Temperature (
o
C)
V
i
b
r
a
t
i
n
g

w
i
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e

s
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a
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n

g
a
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r
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.

(
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)

After these impacts tests all sensors were recali-
brated to evaluate the influence on the stability of the
calibration factor. The results demonstrated that even
if there is a zero drift of up to 125 linear units due to
shocks loads there is insignificant shift in the gage
sensitivity.
Table 3: Influence of horizontal impact on piezometer if sensor
is dropped at different height without any protection
Gage 5 cm 10 cm 15 cm 30 cm
175 kPa 3754.5 3670.5 3660.9 3631.9
350 kPa 2658.4 2658.1 2641.1 2605.7
700 kPa 3211.4 3210.4 3208.2 3207.5
3500 kPa 3309.3 3309.4 3309.3 3309.2
* The readings presented in Table 3 and 4 are in lin-
ear unit and have been recorded with a MB-6T port-
able readout unit.
Table 4: Influence of horizontal impact on piezometer if sensor
is dropped at different height with a protective foam
Gage 5 cm 10 cm 15 cm 30 cm
350 kPa 3359.6 3359.6 3359.8 3359.7
700 kPa 2961.7 2961.7 2961.8 2961.8
700 kPa 3374.1 3373.9 3374.1 3374.0
5 CABLE AND LIGHTNING PROTECTION
One advantage of vibrating wire sensors is that
the frequency signal is imperturbable and can be
transmitted over long cable length. To prove this fact
a piezometer has been tested with a cable length of
2.7 km. The reading was stable and was within 0.1%
compared with 1.5 m. This proves that no booster
amplifier is necessary with long cable length and it
does not affect the reading. Materials like polyethyl-
ene and polypropylene are good insulators and must
be used for individual conductor insulation.
Lightning protection is very important for protec-
tion against external disturbances. It is for this reason
that all Roctests piezometer come with a gas dis-
charge tube. This device is made of two electrodes
isolated by a small gas chamber that will produce an
electric arc if there is overvoltage. However it must
be emphasized that even with best lightning protec-
tion device, 100% effectiveness cannot be guaran-
teed due to unknown effects.
6 CONCLUSION
The characteristics and the behaviour of different
kinds of vibrating wire sensors have been presented
in this paper. We have seen the importance of an ap-
propriate artificial aging process during manufactur-
ing to minimize the zero drift.
Many tests in laboratory, including long-term
tests, have been done to evaluate the gage perform-
ance. Long-term tests of piezometers, strainmeters
and displacement transducers over a period varying
between 600 and 1400 days have presented good
stability of readings. Recalibration of PWS pie-
zometers after 5 years in field have presented a small
variation of 0.1% of the gage sensitivity. Another test
proves that the strainmeter SM-5A was repeatable
and reproducible and the strain measured was in
good agreement with electrical strain gage reading.
We have seen that temperature has almost no influ-
ence in the calibration factor of a piezometer. The
slight temperature dependencies of 0.25 mi-
crostrain/
o
C for a strainmeter is due to the slight
mismatch in the coefficient of thermal expansion
between the vibrating wire gage and the host material
on which the gage is attached. Even if there is a zero
drift of a piezometer due to shocks loads there is in-
significant shift in the gage sensitivity. Vibrating wire
gages are suitable for use with long cable lengths and
in situations where they are not accessible for recali-
bration.
Many vibrating wire gages have been installed in
different civil engineering structures for many years
and we can conclude that their response is stable, ac-
curate and offers highly valued reliability features for
geomechanics uses. However proper care is always
necessary during installation to take adavantage of
their long-term performance.
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th
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rd
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