Conduction in metals

Free electrons in metal have a wide range of energies & velocities o they behave as a "cloud" or "sea" of electrons o individual electrons collide with ion cores as they drift through crystal o individual electrons may travel in many different directions There is no net flow of current o the flow in one direction is randomly balanced by the flow in another o the average velocity of the electrons is zero The electron cloud can be accelerated by applied external electric-field o this constitutes a potential difference being applied across the ends o the electron cloud moves in opposite direction to field with drift velocity vd o this constitutes an electric current in direction of field

Conduction of electrons in a metal For n electrons/unit volume, the current flow through the conductor is in the direction of the electric field! I = total charge/unit time = - nqAl /t = - nqAvd The current density, is J = I/A = - nqvd The force on each electron under influence of applied E-field F = -qE ut, F = mea

a = -qE/me = vd/ !here Thus vd = -q E/me is average time "et!een collisions

Thus the current density J = nq# E/me

E$pressing conductivity as = nq# /me

%e have the current density as

J=

OHM's LAW

That the a"ove equation is indeed a representation of &hm's (a! can "e verified "y su"stitution of E = )/ l, = */ , and J = I/A

Elektron bebas di (dalam) metal mempunyai suatu cakupan luas energi& percepatan o mereka bertindak sebagai " awan" atau " laut" tentang elktron o elktron individu menabrak dengan inti ion [sebagai/ketika] mereka mengapung melalui/sampai kristal o elktron individu boleh bepergian di (dalam) banyak arah berbeda idak ada aliran arus [netto/!aring] o arus di (dalam) [satu/ orang] arah secara acak seimbang oleh arus di (dalam) yang lain o kecepatan rerata dari elktron adalah nol "wan elektron dapat dipercepat oleh medan elektrik eksternal yang diterapkan

o ini [mendasari/membuat] suatu beda#potensial yang sedang diterapkan ke seberang akhir o awan elektron pindah ke arah kebalikan ke bidang dengan kecepatan hanyut penyakit kelamin/ kotor o ini [mendasari/membuat] suatu arus elektrik di (dalam) arah bidang

"onduction #ot to cold $ hot ob%ect will always transfer energy to a cooler ob%ect by heating it& 'f they are in contact with each other, then the energy is transferred by conduction& 'n conduction, the moving particles pass energy between each other& (et)s see how this happens& "onducting particles *icture + shows the surface of an ,lectric $rc Furnace& The metal surface of the furnace is extremely hot -.// 0"!& The air around the furnace is not so hot& 1e can zoom in on the surface to see the particles roll over on diagram!& The metal particles are vibrating vigorously because they are so hot& 2n the other hand, the air particles are not moving so fast& 3o, if an air particle comes into contact with an energetic metal particle, it will rebound at a higher speed& 't has pic4ed up energy from the surface of the metal& ,nergy has been transferred by conduction to the surrounding air& 5ou can find out more about the electric arc furnace in the "hemistry of steelma4ing e-source& 1hat are refractories6 The inside of a blast furnace is extremely hot up to 78// 0" in places!& The inside surfaces have to withstand these extremely high temperatures without crac4ing& The inside is lined with firebric4s made from special refractory materials& These can withstand extremely high temperatures without crac4ing or ta4ing part in any chemical reaction& E$amples of refractory materials include+ alumina ,Al#&-., silica ,/i&#., fireclay ,hydrated alumina silicates. and car"on0 The inside of a "last furnace is lined !ith "ric1s made from different mi$tures of these su"stances0 The choice of material for a particular part of a furnace depends on+

the chemical conditions acidic or basic! the temperature ranges the li4elihood of sudden shoc4s or large forces whether it needs to be an insulator or a conductor

5ou can find out more about the electric arc furnace in the "hemistry of steelma4ing esource& 'nsulators 't ta4es a lot of energy to heat up the metal inside a furnace& 't is important that as little of this as possible is wasted& Therefore the furnaces are well insulated& The refactory bric4s that line the furnace are designed to be poor conductors of heat& "onducting across a solid The particles in the bric4 are bound together& ,nergy is transferred across the bric4 by the vibrations of the particles& The particles on the inside surface are vibrating vigorously because this surface is so hot& They ma4e their neighbours vibrate and, eventually, the particles on the outside of the bric4 will be vibrating vigorously as well& #owever, the rate at which energy is passed through the

bric4 is slow& "ertainly, it is slower than it would be if the bric4 were made of metal& 9etals and conduction 9etals are good conductors and so is carbon& "arbon, being a refractory, can be used at the extremely high temperatures in furnaces& :ood conductors are useful in situations where we need to 4eep something cool by conducting the heat away& For example; to stop the hearth of a blast furnace overheating cooling the steel in the mould and rollers of a continuous casting mill 2etals and car"on are such good conductors "ecause their electrons are free to move0 As one side of a sla" gets hot, the electrons speed up and move through the lattice, "ashing into ions and ma1ing them vi"rate0 The free electrons carry energy across the "loc1 much faster than the vi"rations in an insulator0
$epemimpinan panas $e dingin %uatu obyek panas akan selalu memindahkan energi [bagi/kepada] suatu obyek lebih dingin [oleh/dengan] pemanasan itu& 'ika mereka dalam hubungan dengan satu sama lain( kemudian energi ditrans)er oleh kepemimpinan& *i (dalam) kepemimpinan( partikel nsur/butir yang yang ber/gerakkan lewat energi antar[a] satu sama lain& +ari kita lihat bagaimana ini ter!adi& ,elaksanaan partikel nsur/butir -ambar . pertun!ukan [adalah] permukaan dari suatu *apur busur cahaya& permukaan +etal dari tungku perapian sangat panas (/ 011 2 3)& "ngkasa di sekitar tungku perapian bukanlah [yang] sangat panas& $ita dapat memperbesar pada [atas] permukaan untuk lihat partikel nsur/butir ( berguling pada [atas] diagram)& partikel nsur/butir 4ang metal sedang bergetar dengan penuh semangat sebab mereka men!adi sangat panas& ,ada sisi lain( angkasa partikel nsur/butir tidaklah ber/gerakkan sangat [puasa/cepat]& +aka( !ika suatu partikel nsur/butir udara berhubungan dengan suatu partikel nsur/butir metal giat( [itu] akan memantul kembali pada suatu yang lebih tinggi kecepatan& [5tu] telah mengambil energi dari permukaan dari metal& Energi telah ditrans)er oleh kepemimpinan kepada udara sekitar [itu]& $amu dapat menemukan lebih banyak tentang dapur busur cahaya di (dalam) 5lmu kimia steelmaking e#source& "pa [yang] keras kepala6 *i dalam suatu tungku perapian peledakan sangat panas ( sampai kepada 7811 2 3 pada tempatnya)& *i dalam permukaan harus withstand ini temperatur sangat tinggi tanpa pecah& *i dalam dilapisi dengan )irebricks buat dari material keras kepala khusus& kaleng ini 9ithstand [yang] yang sangat temperatur tinggi tanpa pecah atau ambil bagian dalam manapun reaksi kimia0 3ontoh [dari:ttg] material keras kepala meliputi; oksid aluminium ( "l0<=)( tanah kerikil ( %io0)( )ireclay ( oksid aluminium silikat hydrated) dan karbon& *i dalam suatu tungku perapian peledakan dilapisi dengan batu bata buat dari campuran [yang] berbeda [dari:ttg] unsur ini& ,ilihan material untuk tertentu bagian dari suatu tungku perapian tergantung pada; bahan kimia kondisi#kondisi ( acidic atau dasar) temperatur mencakup kemungkinan [dari:ttg] goncangan mendadak atau kekuatan besar apakah [itu] perlu untuk suatu alat penyekat/bahan isolasi atau suatu kondektur/ dirigen $amu dapat menemukan lebih banyak tentang dapur busur cahaya di (dalam) 5lmu kimia steelmaking e#source& "lat penyekat/bahan isolasi [5tu] mengambil banyak energi untuk memanaskan yang metal di dalam suatu tungku perapian& "dalah penting bahwa sama sedikit/kecil untuk ini seperti yang mungkin disia#siakan& <leh karena itu tungku perapian sungguh dibatasi& pabrik kembali >atu bata bahwa garis [adalah] tungku perapian dirancang untuk:men!adi pengantar panas lemah/miskin0

,elaksanaan ke seberang suatu padat ,artikel nsur/butir di (dalam) batu bata terikat[an] bersama#sama& Energi ditrans)er ke seberang batu bata oleh getaran dari partikel nsur/butir& ,artikel nsur/butir pada [atas] di dalam permukaan sedang bergetar dengan penuh semangat sebab permukaan ini men!adi sangat panas& +ereka membuat tetangga mereka bergetar dan( secepatnya( partikel nsur/butir pada [atas] bagian luar dari batu bata akan [!adi] bergetar dengan penuh semangat !uga& >agaimanapun( tingkat di mana energi melintas batu bata lambat& ,asti( adalah lebih lambat dibanding [itu] !ika batu bata dibuat dari metal& >atang#>atang rel dan kepemimpinan >atang#>atang rel adalah yang baik kondektur/ dirigen dan demikian adalah karbon& $arbon( men!adi keras kepala( kaleng digunakan di temperatur [yang] tinggi di (dalam) tungku perapian& yang baik $ondektur/ dirigen adalah berman)aat di (dalam) situasi [di mana/!ika] kita harus tinggal tenang # sesuatu (yang) [oleh/dengan] pelaksanaan panas pergi& %ebagai contoh; untuk stop perapian suatu tungku perapian peledakan [yang] men!adi terlalu panas mendingin ba!a di (dalam) alat penggulung dan adonan/cetakan/!amur suatu penggilingan tuangan berlan!ut >atang#>atang rel dan karbon adalah yang baik kondektur/ dirigen seperti (itu) sebab elktron mereka bebas untuk pindah:gerakkan& [%eperti/$etika] satu sisi suatu papan mendapat/kan panas( elktron mempercepat dan pindah:gerakkan melalui/sampai kisi#kisi( memukul ke dalam ion dan pembuatan [mereka/nya] bergetar& Elektron bebas membawa energi ke seberang blok banyak lebih cepat dari getaran di (dalam) suatu alat penyekat/bahan isolasi 0

Chemistry & Environmental Dictionary

Thermal Conductivity - Transition Metals

Temperature
the thermal state of matter !ith reference to its a"ility to transfer heat to other matter0 Temperature is distinguished from heat in that heat is the energy that is transferred "et!een matter "y radiation, conduction and/or convection0 The three most common scales for measuring temperature are centigrade, Fahrenheit and 3elvin0

Thermal Conductivity
see 4onduction

Third Ionization Potential

To "e defined

Time Weighted Average TWA!

An e$posure limit "ased on an 5 hour !or1day and a 67 hour !or1 !ee10

Transactinides
all elements that follo! the Actinides0 As !ith all elements larger than uranium ,8., these elements can only "e produced in nuclear reactors or particle accelerators0 %hile some of these elements of the transactinides are commonly lumped !ith metals, not enough information is availa"le for this site to positively conclude !hether elements **9 and **5 should "e included !ith the metals or nonmetals0 Indeed it may "e completely in appropriate to lump these elements !ith either the metals or nonmetals0 &nly time !ill tell !hat the scientific community !ill ultimately decide0

Transition Metals
This series include all elements in the su"-series (anthanides and Actinides of the inner-transition elements and at least part of the su"series Transactinides, !hich are the elements follo!ing the Actinides series0 In general these elements are 1no!n for their hardness, high density, high melting point and "oiling point and heat conduction although there are e$ceptions0 These elements all have a d electron as the differentiating electron in their electron configuration0 In other !ords, their outer most electrons are al!ays in the d or"ital0 'ron Fe!, for instance, has an electron configuration as follows;

7s. .s. .p< =s. =p< +s. =d<

:ote that the 6 / or"ital actually filled "efore -d0 The -d acts as the outer most or"ital and is the one involved in reactions0 These metals frequently have more than one o$idation state0 &ur sample Iron has t!o o$idation states ;# and ;-0 These may "e represented as Iron II and Iron III or the ferrous ion ,;#. and ferric ion ,;-.0 Ferrous and ferric are (atin terms0 The sym"ols for iron II and iron III are Fe II and Fe III as one might e$pect0 2any of these elements are electropositive enough to replace hydrogen ,<. from acid solutions0 They also form comple$ ions and coordinate covalent compounds ,in !hich one element dominates "oth electrons.0 The ions of transition elements tend to "e colored, ma1ing them easy detect in quantitative analysis0 The copper,4u. ion, for instance is aquamarine and co"alt ,4o. is "lue0