Professional Documents
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2012 11 Aircraft-General-Knowledge1
2012 11 Aircraft-General-Knowledge1
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
1. 2.
3. 4.
5.
6. 7. 8. 9.
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
21% OXYGEN
Knowledge of the atmosphere is important to pilots and aircraft designers because it is the medium we fly in and the air we breathe!
It is what the aircraft engine uses for combustion and what keeps us airborne
78% NITROGEN
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
PRACTICE QUESTION!
If the air temperature at 12000 feet is -7 C what is the deviation from ISA?
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
FOUR FORCES
LIFT generated by airflow over the wings and acting perpendicular to wing
More detail....
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
DYNAMIC PRESSURE Caused by movement through the air As the speed in increases so does the dynamic pressure
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
If static pressure falls, dynamic pressure must increase to maintain the constant
If you get two pieces of paper and blow between them they will get sucked together as the static pressure reduces with increased dynamic pressure
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
FLAT PLATE Great in one direction but always some, if not a lot of stagnant airflow which creates drag
BALL
Too much separated flow at the rear of the object
AEROFOIL
Not perfect but close!
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
Relative Airflow
Higher pressure beneath the wing
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
Leading Edge
Maximum thickness
Chord line
Trailing Edge
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
Aerofoils are designed so that the pressure distribution leads to a lifting force
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
The angle between the relative airflow and the chord line of the wing is the ANGLE OF ATTACK
As the angle of attack changes so will the pressure distribution you saw in the previous diagram
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
Lift = Cl p V2 S
Coefficient of Lift
Includes many things but one important one is angle of attack of the wing Speed Combination of wind speed and forward speed AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
Air Density
Velocity Wing Surface Area
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
This rises to a maximum (CLMAX) just before the aircraft reaches the critical angle of attack
Most cambered aerofoils will begin producing lift at a negative angle of attack (about -4)
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
PRACTICE QUESTION!
Air over the top surface of the wing is at a greater or lower pressure than the surrounding air?
Lower pressure
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
TOTAL DRAG
PARASITE DRAG
INDUCED DRAG
Form drag
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
As speed increases more air molecules are hitting the surface and so more air molecules can be slowed down by drag
It is made up of 3 elements:
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
Clean surfaces Less rivets on surface Thin aerofoil sections Flight at low angles of attack Smaller surface areas
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
Just like a swimmer the way in which the airflow separates from the surface will cause drag The more eddies that are caused, the more drag is produced
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
Drag due to junctions of surfaces giving off eddies which disrupts airflow over surfaces behind
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
Induced drag is caused by the generation of lift As speed increases, induced drag decreases
This is because the wing works harder at slower speeds to produce lift
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
The higher pressure below the wing is trying to get to the lower pressure above the wing to equalise the pressure total At the wing tips, the easiest way for this to happen is for the airflow to be up and over the wing tips
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
The downward pressure on the wing causes drag as does the vortices which are created behind the wing
The flow along the wing and up over the wing tips is called spanwise flow
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
Reduced by washout (wing twist) so that most lift is created by the wing root
Reduced by tip tanks, winglets, wing fences etc to stop the spanwise flow leaving at the wingtip
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
PARASITE DRAG
TOTAL DRAG
INDUCED DRAG
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
PRACTICE QUESTION!
Decreases
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
Wing loading is a function of weight and the wing area of the aircraft
Wing Loading =
Blade back
Blade face
Direction of flight
Blade angle
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
Chord line
This would lead to the different sections of the blade producing different amounts of lift
Like a wing, the blade is twisted so that a constant angle of attack is maintained
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
Ie. The propeller accelerates air rearwards, so the propeller (and the attached aircraft) move forwards
Otherwise known as
Noddy does propellers!
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
THRUST
Propellers are efficient only at one speed this is why variable speed propellers are used on aircraft with a larger speed range Relative airflow
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
STALLING
Stalling of the wing occurs above the critical angle of attack
This can occur at high or low speeds it has nothing to do with speed (although stalling speeds may be used for references purposes)
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
STALLING : AIRFLOW
During Normal flight angles, the airflow separates towards the rear of the wing
At the critical angle the separation point is much further forwards the aerofoil is now struggling to produce lift in the turbulent airflow over it
As the aircraft stalls there is little or no laminar flow over the wing surface
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
As the angle of attack is increased, the centre of pressure moves forwards (the lift is having to pick up more of the wing)
At the stall the centre of pressure moves rapidly rearwards causing a pitch down in most aircraft
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
STALLING : RECOGNITION
APPROACHING A STALL May get all or some of the following signs:
Sloppy controls Less airflow over the surfaces makes them harder to move and they are moving less air molecules so have less effect Yaw becoming more obvious Slipstream effect still occurring but less rudder authority to correct either through slower speed or because of turbulent airflow
Stall warner
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
STALLING : RECOGNITION
THE STALL
At the stall the following usually happens: Aircraft pitches nose down Designed to do so as centre of pressure moves rearwards angle of attack automatically reduces Heavy Buffet May be felt with large amount of turbulent airflow reaching the tailplane
Stall warning Will continue to sound until angle of attack is reduced below the stalling angle (usually about 16 for a light aircraft)
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
STALLING : RECOVERY
Recovered!
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
In this example the left aircraft is lighter and would stall at 40 kts, the right aircraft is heavier and would stall at 50 kts The angle is the same
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
The more weight, the harder the wing has to work to produce the lift
A higher angle of attack is needed and this brings the aircraft closer to the critical angle For example, a 60 has 2g and the aircrafts effective weight is doubled
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
This delays the separation of the airflow from the wing surfaces
This means that the stall is delayed in terms of speed (still the same angle!)
Wing drop in the stall is more likely due to uneven amounts of stalling on the wings
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
Can make the wing stall at a higher angle of attack and at a lower speed
The effect depends upon the amount of flap selected and the type of flap being used
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
This is preferable because it means that ailerons are effective much longer
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
STALLING : SPINNING
Spinning occurs when one wing stalls more than the other and is uncorrected autorotation follows
If the aircraft is not stalled it cant spin and so this is why so much emphasis is placed on stall recognition in the PPL syllabus!
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
PRACTICE QUESTION!
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
AIRCRAFT STABILITY
Stability is the natural tendency of an aircraft to return to its original state after it has been disturbed
An aircraft that is too stable may be impossible to control because it needs such large control inputs
An aircraft with too little stability is very difficult to handle and may be uncontrollable
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
Again, to be on the positive side is better but too much positivity is also bad!
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
Provided by the tailplane If a gust makes the aircraft pitch up, the tailplane is presented at a greater angle of attack to the airflow
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
Increased longitudinal stability can be gained by: Forward Centre of Gravity (bigger moment makes a bigger restoring force) Longitudinal dihedral (difference between wing angle and tailplane angle)
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
If a gust makes the aircraft roll left the dihedral of the wing makes the downgoing wing have a greater angle of attack
This increases the lift on the downgoing wing and will induce a roll back to the right
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
Provided by the vertical stabilser If a gust yaws the aircraft to the left the vertical stabiliser is presented at an angle to the airflow which induces a yaw to the right
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
PRACTICE QUESTION!
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
AIRFRAMES: STRUCTURE
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
AIRFRAMES: FUSELAGE
FUSELAGE Forms main body of airframe to which all other components are fixed Most training aircraft have a semi-monocoque construction (framework covered by a skin)
Stresses on airframe are shared between the formers, bulkheads and stringers and also with the aluminium skin
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
AIRFRAMES: WINGS
WINGS Used to generate lift required for flight and usually also carry fuel tanks
Internal structure made up of ribs and stringers. A main spar runs along the length of the wing
High wing aircraft also generally have a strut to give the wing more strength
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
AIRFRAMES: EMPENNAGE
EMPENNAGE / TAIL PLANE Many different designs used (as below, allflying tailplane, T-tail etc)
Internal structure as per the wings Carries the rudder, elevators and trim tabs
Horizontal stabiliser also produces a component of lift downwards to balance the aircrafts lifting ability
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
FLAPS Used to delay the stall and allow the aircraft to fly slower with a lower attitude
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
The trim tab moves in the opposite direction to the control surface to provide an opposing force which maintains the main surface in place
Anti-balance tabs make sure that stick loads increase as deflection increases stops pilot damaging them!
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
AIRFRAMES: FLAPS
Flaps increase the camber of the wing and help the aircraft produce more lift
The later stages of flap stick into the airflow so much they cause extra drag
Fowler flaps are used so that larger angles of flap can be used but so that the airflow does not separate from the upper surface
Flaps give a LOWER stalling angle of attack when related to a clean aerofoil (seems backwards but trust me!)
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
AIRFRAMES: SLATS
Used to re-energise the boundary layer and to delay separation of the airflow on the wing upper surface
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
STEERING RODS Use of rudder pedal moves steering rods left and right
TORQUE LINK Some suspension, keeps wheel straight and keeps wheel attached to aircraft!
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
When the aircraft becomes airborne, the oleo extends to its maximum and rudder pedal movement no longer makes the wheel move left and right
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
AIRFRAMES: TYRES
Aircraft tyres made up of many different layers
There is no legal requirement for tyre tread depth on aircraft tyres If a tyre has no tread it will take longer to stop and be less secure in wet conditions Creep marks show if a tyre has moved from its initial fit position If the creep marks arent touching the valve and tube will be being stressed and could fail
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
RUDDER PEDALS
BRAKE LINE
This then pushes hydraulic fluid (pink/orange colour) Hydraulic fluid squeezes the brake pads against the brake disc Friction from the disc slows the tyre
BRAKE DISC
BRAKE PADS
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
CONTROL LOCKS Can be internal or external Prevent control surface being damaged by high winds
PITOT COVERS
Prevent pitot tubes becoming blocked by ice / insects etc
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
WHEEL CHOCKS Used on slopes or when the pilot does not trust the parking brake of the aircraft
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
ENSURE all control locks, covers, tie downs and chocks are removed before attempting to taxy or fly!
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
PRACTICE QUESTION!
What does an aircraft creep mark look like and what is it for?
Painted mark on tyre / wheel to show whether the tyre has moved in relation to its original fitted position
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
SPARK PLUG To ignite mixture (most aircraft have 2) FINS Increase surface area to aid cooling
CYLINDER Houses the moving parts
INLET & OUTLET VALVES Control incoming fuel/air mixture and exiting exhaust
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
The 4-stroke cycle consists of 4 strokes of the piston travelling in the cylinder. The four strokes are:
Intake
Compression
Power Exhaust
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
If an engine has 4 cylinders, each cylinder will be on a different stroke at any one time this leads to smoother running
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
The modified Otto Cycle has a high degree of valve overlap when both valves are open at the same time
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
DETONATION Occurs when ignition of the mixture occurs after the main spark and burn Caused by spontaneous combustion of unburnt mixture
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
PRACTICE QUESTION!
How many times does each valve open during one cycle of the Otto cycle
Twice
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
PRACTICE QUESTION!
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
ENGINES: COOLING
Most aircraft engines are air-cooled it is simpler, cheaper, and easier to maintain
Cowlings and baffles are designed to direct flow of air around to engine to cool it from the outside
Some components have fins which increase the surface area and assist with cooling
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
ENGINES: COOLING
Some aircraft have Cylinder Head Temperature (CHT) gauges to monitor engine heat build up
These aircraft often also have cowl flaps which can direct extra air across the engine for cooling
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
ENGINES: LUBRICATION
Engine components require oil-based lubrication for a number of reasons:
To prevent friction between moving surfaces To cool hot sections of the engine more efficiently than air To carry contaminants in the system away to a safe area to prevent damage
To provide a seal to certain components (such as the piston and the cylinder wall)
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
ENGINES: LUBRICATION
Oil for engines must have a high flash point so that it does not catch fire easily Oil must be chemically stable It must be viscous enough to flow easily at all operating temperatures but not so liquid it doesnt coat the surfaces
Lubrication systems will have an oil filter to trap any particles being carried out of the engine in this way the oil cleans the engine
Always check amount and type of oil is sufficient and correct before flight!
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
ENGINES: LUBRICATION
Most light aircraft have wet sump oil systems
There is a sump where oil returns to by gravity
In a dry sump system scavenge pumps are used to collect oil An oil cooler ensures that the oil does not get too hot
Oil pressure relief valve will vent oil overboard in the case where the pressure would damage the engine
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
ENGINES: LUBRICATION
OIL TEMPERATURE GAUGE Measures temperature of oil after the oil cooler and before it enters hot section of engine
OIL PRESSURE GAUGE Measures pressure of oil after oil pump and before it enters hot section of engine
a.) oil pressure relief valve inoperative b.) excess oil in system
HIGH OIL TEMPERATURE a.) oil quantity is insufficient b.) prolonged operation at high power settings c.) oil filter is blocked and oil is bypassing the cooler
FLUCTUATING GAUGE
PRACTICE QUESTION!
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
Once the key is released, the starter warning light should go out
If it does not engine must be shut down immediately to avoid damage to the starter motor and to the engine
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
The RAPID collapse of the magnetic field provides the first sparks needed to start the engine
After start the sparks are provided by the engine and the impulse coupling retracts
The impulse coupling can be powered by the battery or by handswinging the propeller
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
When the key is released it springs back to the both position so that both magnetos are in use
The right magneto powers one spark plug in each cylinder And the left does the other spark plug in each cylinder! If one magneto fails, all cylinders still get a spark
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
x x
x x
Ensures that magnetos are providing even sparks and that engine is capable of sustaining with only one working
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
Rough running engine during power check Spark plugs are fouled up. Instructor will show you how to clear or inform engineering
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
PRACTICE QUESTION!
When a magneto is switched off is the primary circuit switch open or closed and is it earthed or not earthed?
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
CARBURETTORS: BASICS
The carburettor is where the fuel and air is mixed prior to entering the cylinders Butterfly valve controls amount of air to the engine (controlled by throttle in cockpit)
Air inlet to carburettor Mixture should be between 1:8 (rich) or 1:20 (lean) to ensure smooth running of engine
Mixture Needle controls amount of fuel that will be added (controlled by mixture knob in cockpit)
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
Idle jet experiences enough pressure differential and feeds small amount of fuel in downstream of butterfly Idle air bleed
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
This would cause the engine to lag and maybe a weak cut
Accelerator pump is activated when throttle gets to full power and spurts extra fuel into the carburettor
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
The mixture knob / lever can be used to select the best mixture
In cruise, lean the mixture to obtain the best fuel/air ratio and best fuel economy
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
In this way there is no fuel in the lines and if a magneto has failed and is still live, the engine will not start if someone turns the propeller
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
CARBURETTORS: ICE
CARBURETTOR ICE can form in temperatures up to +30C
As air passes through the VENTURI, it is forced to speed up and this causes the temperature to decrease
If the air is moist then ICE will form and may block airflow into the engine This causes ENGINE ROUGH RUNNING and even ENGINE STOPPAGE
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
CARBURETTORS: ICE
This is more likely at LOW POWER SETTINGS where the gap between the THROTTLE BUTTERFLY and the outer wall of the carburettor is smaller
Carburettor icing is ALWAYS likely when the temperature is below +30C and the aircraft is within 200nm of any sea surface
CARBURETTORS: ICE
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
CARBURETTORS: ICE
ALWAYS use CARB HEAT selected to ON / HOT when using throttle settings below the GREEN ARC on the RPM gauge
Check for CARB ICE every 10-15 minutes by selecting CARB HEAT to ON / HOT for at least 30 seconds
The RPM should drop due to the hotter air entering the engine and the engine should run smoothly If the RPM does not fall, or RISES when carb heat is on, or the engine runs rough then you have carburettor ice!
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
CARBURETTORS: ICE
What do you do if you have carburettor icing?
Natural instinct when engine runs rough is to put the carb heat back into the off / cold position
DO NOT DO THIS!
LEAVE the carb heat selector in the ON / HOT position until the engine has been cleared of ice Then do checks more regularly!
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
PRACTICE QUESTION!
In what flight condition is carburettor ice most common climb, descent or cruise?
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
FUEL INJECTION
Not all aircraft have carburettors they use fuel injection instead
DISADVANTAGES
Hot starts are more difficult, small fuel lines are easier to block, surplus fuel may be vented overboard
ADVANTAGES
No fuel ice, no carburettor ice, better control of fuel/air ratio, easier maintenance, instant acceleration, increase efficiency of engine
X
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
Aviation Gasoline (AVGAS) 100LL is used in the UK (100 is the octane level, LL is low lead)
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
FUEL: INSPECTION
Before flight all drain points on the aircraft should be inspected for fuel contamination Check colour is correct (dont check avgas is blue by holding up tester to a blue sky! Check no bits in the strainer (metal, dirt, paint etc)
Check no water is in the strainer (it will sink to the bottom because it is heavier)
Check smell (however be aware that only a small amount of fuel will cause water to smell)
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
FUEL: SYSTEM
Fuel quantity indicators
Fuel vent
Fuel caps (one vented)
Contaminant screen
Fuel tank
To engine
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
FUEL: SYSTEM
FUEL TANKS
Usually in wings Can be separate or cross-fed with each other Screens fitted to prevent contaminants entering the fuel lines Drain points below allow fuel samples to be taken
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
FUEL: SYSTEM
FUEL GAUGES Most light aircraft have electrical gauges Never rely upon the gauges! Legally only have to be accurate when empty
FUEL VENTING One filler cap is vented to allow air into tank Fuel tank is vented to allow fuel to escape Required to keep constant pressure inside fuel tank
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
FUEL: SYSTEM
TANK SELECTOR
To select individual tanks (in Cessna 152/172 the fuel is crossfed from both tanks at the same time)
FUEL STRAINER
Allows fuel sample to be taken from lowest point in system PRIMER
Allows neat fuel to be fed direct into cylinders for starting (use during flight would cause a rich cut)
In low winged aircraft a fuel pump will be required for starting to begin flow of fuel. High wings rely on gravity.
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
PRACTICE QUESTION!
As the aircraft climbs the air density increases/decreases and so the fuel/air mixture becomes weaker/richer
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
FIRES
All fires associated with aircraft can be dangerous always know how to extinguish each type of fire that could occur
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
FIRES: EXTINGUISHERS
WATER extinguishers used for:
Wood
Paper
Cloth
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
FIRES: EXTINGUISHERS
FOAM extinguishers used for: Wood
Paper
Cloth
Flammable Liquids
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
FIRES: EXTINGUISHERS
CARBON DIOXIDE extinguishers used for:
Flammable Liquids
Electrical Fire
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
FIRES: EXTINGUISHERS
DRY POWDER extinguishers used for:
Flammable Liquids
Flammable Gases
Electrical Fires
Wheel Fires
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
FIRES: EXTINGUISHERS
BCF HALON extinguishers used for:
BCF Halon is now illegal in the UK except in an aviation setting With all extinguishers ALWAYS ventilate well after usage to ensure you dont run out of oxygen!!
Anything!
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
PRACTICE QUESTION!
Dry powder
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
1.
2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
Electrical System
Vacuum System Pitot Static System Altimeter Vertical Speed Indicator Airspeed Indicator
7.
8. 9. 10. 11. 12.
Gyroscopes - basics
Attitude Indicator Directional Indicator Turn Co-ordinator Magnetic Compass Airworthiness Requirements
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
Current is provided from an alternator when the engine is running and from a battery when the engine is not running We will run through each element in turn...
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
The alternator produces alternating current which is rectified to direct current by the use of diodes
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
Distribution board which allows current supply to various elements of the system
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
Fuses should only ever be replaced once before seeking engineering assistance to investigate
Circuit breakers should only ever be reset once before seeking engineering assistance to investigate
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
Immediately shut down engine the battery is trying to run the alternator and this will cause damage Low voltage light illuminates
Load shed to reduce load on system sometimes, however, during taxying on a hot day is not a problem.
Filtered air sucked through filter, via suction gauge and then through instruments
Vacuum relief valve operates in event of over-vacuum situation
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
Failure of this valve means gyros will spin too fast and suffer damage
Land as soon as possible
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
Altimeter
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
PITOT TUBE
Usually beneath a wing. In free-stream airflow. Often heated to avoid the entrance being blocked by ice
STATIC VENT
Usually on side of fuselage. Out of airflow. Some aircraft have 2 to average out reading and reduce errors
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
INSTRUMENTS: ALTIMETER
The force exerted by the molecules in the air on a unit of surface area is ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE The nearer the earths surface, the more air molecules are pressing down from above Atmospheric pressure, therefore, INCREASES with a DECREASE in altitude An aircraft at 3000 feet is experiencing less atmospheric pressure than one at 1000 feet.
The rule of thumb: For every 30 feet gained in altitude the pressure drops by 1mb (h/p)
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
INSTRUMENTS: ALTIMETER
Displays vertical displacement from the pressure datum set Uses Static Pressure only Basically a barometer with a scale in feet
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
INSTRUMENTS: ALTIMETER
Indicates 10,000s of feet
INSTRUMENTS: ALTIMETER
As aircraft climbs, atmospheric pressure drops and capsule expands
This is because the pressure inside the case is less than the pressure inside the capsule and so allows the expansion to occur
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
Rapid pressure changes will be displayed with a slight lag while capsule expands / contracts
POSITION ERROR
Caused by poor siting of the static port (reduced in aircraft with two static ports)
BLOCKAGES OF THE STATIC PORT Caused by ice / insects / sticky tape over the static port
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
If the static vent is blocked, the altimeter will continue to read the altitude indicated when the blockage occurred
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
Altimeters would be easy if the pressure changes in the atmosphere happened like this
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
This situation is more likely and so it is VITAL that the altimeter is set correctly to the required setting
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
1013 hp
QFE Gives height above the airfield QNH Gives altitude above mean sea level (amsl) Standard Gives flight level above 1013.2hp pressure level
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
AIRCRAFT CLIMBS New lower pressure is fed immediately into capsule Lower pressure into case is fed in with a slight delay
Difference in time forces capsule to contract which shows on the dial as a rate of climb and vice versa
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
POSITION ERROR
Caused by poor siting of the static port (reduced in aircraft with two static ports) BLOCKAGES If static vent or line becomes blocked, the instrument will sense no pressure differential and so will always indicate zero
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
Uses input from Pitot tube (total pressure) Uses input from Static Vent (static pressure)
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
VSO
Stall speed in landing configuration
GREEN ARC
Normal operating speed range
YELLOW ARC
VFE
Maximum flap extension speed
Because the diaphragm has to push against the air inside the case, the 2 static pressures cancel each other out
A series of linkages then transfer this information onto the face of the instrument
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
This can be worked out using the CRP 1/5 or on some airspeed indicators
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
No input of pitot pressure so ASI will read zero (or reduce to zero)
Climb
pressure trapped in case will be higher than it should be difference in pressures is less than it should be ASI under-reads Descent
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
The opposite!
INSTRUMENTS: CHECKS
It is VERY important to check the pitot static system instruments prior to flight: ALTIMETER
Glass should be clear & unbroken Zero the altimeter Add on 10 mb / hp Altimeter should increase by 280 feet Subtract 10mb/hp from original setting Altimeter should decrease by 280 feet
INSTRUMENTS: CHECKS
AIRSPEED INDICATOR
Glass should be clear & unbroken Should be reading zero During take-off roll, ensure that indication is being seen
Also ensure on the walk-round that you have checked: 1. Static port is clear and unobstructed
Directions are always expressed as a 3-digit grouping to avoid confusion (030, 300, 330 etc
north, south, east and west also used but now not terms such as north north west AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL etc
The poles of a magnet are either north seeking or south seeking more usually known as north and south poles
A bar magnet which is allowed to float free will automatically align itself with the earths magnetic field
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
The inaccuracies are know and are displayed in the aircraft on a DEVIATION card
Compass Heading +/- Deviation = Magnetic Heading +/- Variation = True Heading or CDMVT or or cadburys dairy milk is very tasty true virgins make dull companions
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
The compass will indicate poorly and is generally useless in latitudes above 60 north or south
To counter this, compasses are pivoted slightly off-centre but this causes other errors:
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
In northern hemisphere, centre of gravity is arranged so that it is placed south of the pivot point
Weight This reduces errors due to dip but causes errors during turns or during accelerations / decelerations
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
Steady speed
Aircraft accelerates
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
Steady speed
Aircraft accelerates
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
The force acts on the compass pivot and accelerates it towards the centre of the turn
The compass is left behind due to inertia
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
The aircraft will move around the gyroscope while the gyroscope remains effectively stationary
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
PRECESSION
When a force is applied to the gyroscope the effect is displaced by 90 in the direction of rotation
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
Used in place of compass because more steady to read and not subject to errors of the compass
Known as Direction Indicator (DI), Directional Gyro (DG) or Heading Indicator (HI)
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
The aircraft turns around the gyro and the gyro stays in the same place
Most DIs in light aircraft are spun by the suction / vacuum system
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
MECHANICAL DRIFT
Friction in the workings of the instrument which will cause it to drift off the set heading APPARENT DRIFT
DI is adjusted to oppose apparent drift at a particular latitude, large distances from this latitude will cause inaccuracies until adjusted
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
The gyro remains effectively aligned to the north star This is initially the same as for magnetic north on earth
As the earth turns, the two points diverge from each other
This is even seen if the aircraft is on the ground and stationary The DI will need to be manually realigned about every 15 minutes
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
Glass is clear and unbroken Align DI to compass (with engine running) Check suction is in the green
During taxy check:
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
Roll markers
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
Some AIs can be caged during aerobatics to prevent damage as the instrument tries to keep up!
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
The pendulous nature of the gyro will cause an indication of pitch during a rapid change of speed
TOPPLE
All gyros can topple if their limits of movement are exceeded. Some time will be needed to allow the gyro to then realign itself
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
Glass is clear and unbroken Mini aircraft is aligned to the horizon lines
During taxy check: When aircraft turns, the AI shows no movement (it shouldnt show yaw)
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
If the aircraft yaws, the gyro stretches a spring which causes precession until the forces match The instrument then indicates a rate 1 turn (3 / second)
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
SKIDDING TURN Aircraft in right turn, but trying to skid right (into the turn)
SLIPPING TURN Aircraft in right turn, but trying to slip left (out of turn) Needs more right rudder applied
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
TOPPLE If limits are exceeded gyro will realign itself with time
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
Glass is clear and unbroken Mini Aircraft wings level No bubbles in balance indicator Red failure flag disappears on master switch on
During taxy check: Aircraft turns right ball skids left, right wing down Aircraft turns left ball skids right, left wing down
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
Considered invalid if aircraft is modified, repaired or maintained in a manner other than that approved The original must be carried in the aircraft at all times
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
Older aircraft may have supplements issued by the CAA to write down certain performance aspects of the aircraft
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
AIRWORTHINESS: PLACARDS
Placards may also be placed in the aircraft
Placards are usually stricter than the information in the flight manual and MUST be adhered to
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
A licenced pilot can carry out certain maintenance under the ANO privileges including: Replacement tyres shock absorber changes replacement of split pins fabric / upholstery repairs replacement of seat belts replacement of bulbs replacement of spark plugs replacement of batteries replacement of comms equipment
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
AIRWORTHINESS: DOCUMENTS
Unless the take-off and landing are to be at the same location, all documents need to be carried on each flight
Propeller and engine logbooks are also required to be kept at the location of the aircraft engineering base
The Light Aircraft Maintenance Schedule (LAMS) is the usual maintenance procedure which looks at the aircraft every 3 months and will cover all maintenance items each year
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL