8.

04 Quantum Physics Lecture IV

Last time

Heisenberg uncertainty xp
x

h
as diraction phenomenon
2
Fourier decomposition
(x) =
1

dk

(k)e
ikx

ipx/h
= dp(p)e (4-1)
2h
1
(p) =

(k) (4-2)
h
Today
how to calculate (k)
interpretation of (x) and (k):
probability amplitude & probability density
measurement
Thelarger

(k),or(p),themorethewavefunction(x)resemblestheplanewave,
e
ikx
,thathasdenitemomentump= hk,andthemoretheparticledescribedbythe
wavefunction(x)islikelytobefoundtohavemomentum hk,ifthemomentumofthe
particleismeasured. Conversely,iftheparticlesmomentumisexactlyp=p
0
= hk
0
,
thentheparticleswavefunctionmustbe(x) =e
ik
0
x
,andtheparticleisequallylikely
tobefoundanywhereinspace,x. Tolocalizeaparticleinspace,weneedto
add other Fourier components close to k
0
.
constructive interference
destructive interference
k
0
k k
0
k
0
+ k
FigureI:AdditionofFouriercomponentsclosetok
0
yieldsawavepacketlocalizedinspace.
Massachusetts Institute of Technology IV-1

8.04 Quantum Physics Lecture IV

Toconneawavefunctiontoasmallregionxofspace,oneneedsmanyFourier
components,i.e.,manyplanewavesofdierentmomentumk[k
0
, k
0
+k]. Wewill
prove mathematically that, with suitably dened uncertainties x and k:
follows strictly from the Fourier
1
=
decomposition. Using p= hk
(4-3) xk
2
we then arrive at
h
= Heisenberg uncertainty relation (4-4) xp
2
From this viewpoint, the Heisenberg uncertainty relation follows from the decompo-
sitionofawaveintoplanewavese
ikx
,i.e.,waveswithdenitewavevectork,andfrom
the relation between the wavevector k and the momentum p=hk. The smaller the
regionx,themoreFouriercomponentsp= hkarenecessarytoproducedestructive
interference everywhere outside x.
Corollary: motion of particles. From the motion of particles and plane waves
from Fig. I, it follows that if you change the relative phase of the dierent Fourier
components, the constructive interference will occur somewhere else in space. This
makes sense. We should be able to place a particle at a dierent location in space
while maintaining the momentum distribution. It follows that if the relative phase
between the plane waves changes continuously, the location of constructive interfer-
ence(i.e.,thelocationoftheparticle)willmoveinspace. Intermsofwavemechanics,
the motion of the particle is simply due to a change of phase between the Fourier
components(i.e.,theplanewaves). Then,toreproduceCM,thephaseoftheFourier
components must rotate in time at a frequency that depends on the momentum p.
Corollary: time-energy uncertainty. IfinsteadofFouriertransformingtheposi-

tioncoordinateatxedtime(x, t
0
) (k, t
0
)wexthepositionx=x
0
andstudy
the time variation of the wavefunction (x
0
, t), then we can Fourier decompose the
wavefunction into frequency components.
1

(t) =
2
df()e
it
(4-5)

Convention. Positivefrequency correspondstonegativephaseevolution. Applying

the same mathematical and logical arguments as before, we arrive at:
1
t
2
= time-frequency uncertainty (4-6)
h energy-time Heisenberg un-
Et
2
=
certainty relation (E = h)
(4-7)
Massachusetts Institute of Technology IV-2
|

8.04 Quantum Physics Lecture IV
J
ON

J
Figure II: Wave function vs. time.
Probability amplitude and probability density
For light or other waves, the energy per unit volume (or per unit length) is propor-
tionaltothesquareoftheelectriceld. Sincethenumberofphotonsperunitvolume
is proportional to E
2
, we postulate in analogy:
Probability to nd a particle
between x and x+dx
=|(x)|
2
dx. (4-8)
|(x)|
2
iscalledtheprobabilitydensity(probabilityperunitlength). Thewaveform
N
ON

Figure III: The magnitude squared |(x)|

2
of the wavefunction is the probability density
to nd the particle in a region of space. The probability to nd the particle in the spatial
interval [x, x+dx] is given by |(x)|
2
dx.
(x)isalsocalledtheprobabilityamplitude(moreexactly: probabilitydensityampli-
tude). IncontrasttoEMelds,istrulyacomplexquantity. Therequirementthat
the particle be found somewhere in space leads to the normalization condition:

dx|(x)|
2
= 1. (4-9)

In the homework, you will prove Parsevals theorem:

Proof. If

(k), (p), is the Fourier transform of a wavefunction (x), i.e., if

(x) =
1

dk

(k)e
ikx
=
1

dp(p)e
ipx/h

2h
Massachusetts Institute of Technology IV-3

8.04 Quantum Physics Lecture IV
then,

2
dx|(x)| = dk|(k)| = dp|(p)| .

Itfollowsthatifthewavefunction|(x)|
2
isnormalized,sois|(p)|
2
. Wealready
argued that if (p) is peaked around some value p
0
, the motion of the particle will
be similar to that of a classical particle with momentum p
0
, (plane wave e
ip
0
x/h
).
Taking into account Parsevals theorem, it is reasonable to interpret (p) as the
probabilty amplitude for momentum, i.e.,
Probability to nd a particle momentum
between p and p+dp
=|(p)|
2
dp. (4-10)
Similarly, |

(k)|
2
is the probability density for the wavevector k. Note that x (or
F
BF

F F@F
Figure IV: The probability density in momentum space is given by |(p)|
2
.
p)isnottheuncertaintyofthemeasurementdevice,butassociatedwiththeparticle
itself. If our measurement apparatus can resolve with resolution x
app
x, and
we repeat the experiment with an identically prepared particle many times, we
will observe a histogram.In the limit of a very large number of measurements, the
histogram reproduces the probability density |(x)|
2
or |(p)|
2
.
x
# oI
outcomes
,x
app
,x
x
i
FigureV:Probabilitydensityrecon-
struction in position space.
Figure VI: ...and in momentum
space.
Note. After measuring a particular value x with apparatus uncertainty x
app
, the
particleisnolongerdescribedbytheoriginalwavefunction(x),butbyanewwave-
function

(x)thatisconsistentwiththeoutcomeofthemeasurementresult(collapse
p
# oI
outcomes
,p
p
i
,p
app
Massachusetts Institute of Technology IV-4

8.04 Quantum Physics Lecture IV
of the wavefunction). In particular, if x
app
x, the spread of the new wave-
function

(x) in momentum will be much larger than before, consistent with the
Heisenberg uncertainty ( xx

= x
app
).
h
x p= x
app
p , (4-11)
2
or
h h
= p. (4-12) p
2x
app

2x
If you now choose to measure momentum with resolution p
app
p, the uncer-
tainty in position will again increase and so on.
(x) =
1

dk

(k)e
ikx
=
1

dp(p)e
ipx/h
(4-13)
2

2h
How to determine the momentum distribution |(p)|
2
given
the wavefunction (x) in position?
Theexpansioncoecients(k)aregivenbytheinverseoftheFourierdecomposition:
1

(k) =
2
dx(x)e
ikx

Proof.
1

2
dk(k)e
ikx
=
2
dk dx

(x

)e
ikx

e
ikx

=
1

dx

(x

dke
ik(xx

)
2

Whatisthevalueof

dke
ik(xx

)
? Qualitatively,ifx= x

,theintegrandoscillates

in the complex plane many times a k , so the integral is zero. If x = x

,
the integral is

dk 1 and diverges. So the function I(y) =

dke
iky
looks

something like:
1O
&
1O
1O
1

A
=O

O
FigureVII:Sketchofthefunction
represented by the integral I(y).
Figure VIII: Convolution of I(y)
and a Gaussian function to deter-
mine the area under I(y).
Massachusetts Institute of Technology IV-5

8.04 Quantum Physics Lecture IV

How bad is the divergence? Let us calculate the area under the curve real and
positive.

dyI(y)e
y
2
=

dy

dke
iky
e
y
2

dk

dye
y
2
+iky
(4-14)

To calculate the integral, we note without proof that:

dye
(y)
2
= for any complex , with Re()0. (4-15)

To bring the above integral, Eq. (4-14), into the desired form, we expand the expo-
nent:

ik ik k
2
y
2
+iky= y
2

y+
2

4

2
ik k
2
= y
2

4
(4-16)
2

ik k
2
dyI(y)e
y
2
= dk dye
(y
2
)
4

k
2
= dke

= 2 (4-17)
independent of the value ! Since our probing function e
y
2

0
1, we con-

clude that the area under our function I(y) is nite and equal to 2. We dene a
generalized function (mathematically, a distribution) by
0 for x= 0,
(x) =

(4-18)
for x= 0.
with the property,

dx(x) = 1. (4-19)

This is the Dirac delta function. We can think of it as the limiting case of a
function of nite width (e.g., a Gaussian or square function) that is made narrower
andnarrower,whilekeepingtheareaunderitconstant. Wehave

dke
iky
= 2(y).

Massachusetts Institute of Technology IV-6

8.04 Quantum Physics Lecture IV

0
x
Area1
w
8
@(x)
0
x
Area1
Figure IX: The delta function Figure X: Dirac delta function.
can also be expressed as (x) =
2
x
lim
w0

2
1
w
e

2w
2
.
Properties of the delta function
Whatis

dxf(x)(xx
0
)? Forafunctionf(x)thatissucientlysmooth(regular)

at x=0 and using (xx

0
) = 0 for x=x
0
, we have

x
0
+
dxf(x)(xx
0
) = dxf(x)(xx
0
)
x
0

x
0
+
=f(x
0
) dx(xx
0
)

x
0

=f(x
0
) dx(x) =f(x
0
). (4-20)

Therefore, we have:

dxf(x)(xx
0
) =f(x
0
). (4-21)

Convolutionofafunctionf(x)with(xx
0
)projectsoutthevalueofthefunction
N

N
N

A N

A
BN

@N
Figure XI: Convolving a suciently smooth function with a Dirac delta function projects
out the function value at one point.
Massachusetts Institute of Technology IV-7

8.04 Quantum Physics Lecture IV

N
GN

Figure XII: The -function is also the derivative of the Heavyside step function.
at x
0
. Without proof, we note that (x) =
d
(x). Derivative of the delta function
dx
can be dened. Integration by parts yields
dxf(x)

(xx
0
) =f

(xx
0
). (4-22)
Convolution with

projects out the negative derivative at x

0
.
Massachusetts Institute of Technology IV-8