Bung (Electrical) 3 Oct 05 18:55 The high and low refers to the burden of the relay.

High impedance protection is voltae based - it uses the voltage output of the CT, so usually requires CTs with a known knee-point voltage that is high enough to meet certain criteria. Low impedance lust uses the current output directly, so the burden of the relays is as low as possible. Saturation effects are dealt with differently in each scheme, and are really what separate the philosophies. Most of the major relay manufacturers have good descriptions in the tech literature on their websites. Bung Life is non-linear... RalphChristie (Electrical) Agree with Bung. High impedance systems - voltage operated Low impedance systems (bias or unbias) - current operated Main disadvantage of circulating current protection using low impedance relays is through fault instability due to CT saturation. Main disadvantage of high-impedance protection is the need for dedicated CTs. The trend in modern relays today is to go with low impedance schemes.

4 Oct 05 1:49

http://www.docstoc.com/docs/830824/A-Comparison-Between-High-Impedance-and-LowImpedance-Restricted-Earth-Fault-Transformer-Protection

Percentage Impedance (Z%)

The impedance of a transformer is marked on most nameplates - but what is it and what does the Z% figure mean? Definition The percentage impedance of a transformer is the volt drop on full load due to the winding resistance and leakage reactance expressed as a percentage of the rated voltage. It is also the percentage of the normal terminal voltage required to circulate full-load current under short circuit conditions Measuring Impedance The impedance is measured by means of a short circuit test. With one winding shorted, a voltage at the rated frequency is applied to the other winding sufficient to circulate full load current - see below:

The percentage impedance can then be calculated as follows:

Z% = Impedance Voltage x 100 Rated Voltage

Changing the Impedance Value The most economical arrangement of core and windings leads to a 'natural' value of impedance determined by the leakage flux. The leakage flux is a function of winding ampere turns and the area and length of the leakage flux path. These can be varied at the design stage by changing the volts per turn and the geometric relationship of the windings. The Effect of Higher and Lower Impedances The impedance of a transformer has a major effect on system fault levels. It determines the maximum value of current that will flow under fault conditions. It is easy to calculate the maximum current that a transformer can deliver under symmetrical fault conditions. By way of example, consider a 2 MVA transformer with an impedance of 5%. The maximum fault level available on the secondary side is: 2 MVA x 100/5 = 40 MVA and from this figure the equivalent primary and secondary fault currents can be calculated. A transformer with a lower impedance will lead to a higher fault level (and vice versa) The figure calculated above is a maximum. In practice, the actual fault level will be reduced by the source impedance, the impedance of cables and overhead lines between the transformer and the fault, and the fault impedance itself. As well as fault level considerations, the impedance value also: determines the volt drop that occurs under load - known as 'regulation' affects load sharing when two or more transformers operate in parallel Sequence Impedance (Z1 Z2 Z0) The calculation above deals with a balanced 3-phase fault. Non-symmetrical faults (phase-earth, phase-phase etc) lead to more complex calculations requiring the application symmetrical component theory. This in turn involves the use of positive, negative and zero sequence impedances (Z1, Z2 and Z0 respectively). As with all passive plant, the positive and negative sequence impedances (Z 1 and Z2) of a transformer are identical. However, the zero sequence impedance is dependent upon the path available for the flow of zero sequence current and the balancing ampere turns available within the transformer. Generally, zero sequence current requires a delta winding, or a star connection with the star point earthed. Any

impedance in the connection between the star point and earth increases the overall zero sequence impedance. This has the effect of reducing the zero sequence current and is a feature that is frequently put to practical use in a distribution network to control the magnitude of current that will flow under earth fault conditions.