Developing Information System Solutions:

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Todays Managers Responsibilities Regarding Information Systems

Development of New Information Systems Enhancement of Existing Information Systems Coordination with Information System Specialists Managers develop information systems for todays business problems. They are responsible for developing new systems or enhancing the performance of existing systems for their organizations. They coordinate the development efforts of information system specialists for developing or tuning the information systems.

The System Development Life Cycle Key Point:

Cyclic Process Steps 1) Investigation 2) Analysis 3) Design 4) Implementation 5) Maintenance When the systems approach to problem solving, is applied for development of information system solutions to business problems, it is called information systems development or application development. Information systems are developed based on the information requirements of an organization by analyzing the need of information of different users. A systematic, multi-step cyclic process for the development of an information system solution is called system development life cycle (SDLC). System Development Life Cycle includes the steps of 1) Investigation 2) Analysis 3) Design 4) Implementation and 5) Maintenance. These steps are highly related and interdependent with each other. Therefore several developmental activities can occur at the same time..

I-Investigation (System Investigation)

Key Point:

Determine the Problem or Opportunity Exists Information Systems Planning Conduct Feasibility Studies for Feasible (Practical) Solutions Cost/Benefit Analysis The Feasibility of a System

First and the most important step of system investigation, is to determine whether a business problem or opportunity exists. Business problem is defined in problem statement (problem definition). An opportunity statement reveals that the system performance can be improved by availing it. Information System Planning helps to generate, screen and select potential information systems for development. Ideally there are many information system solutions that can be developed for business problems or opportunities. However in reality there are limited resources and we have to propose a solution within the range of those limited resources. A Feasibility Studies is a preliminary study to investigate the information needs of prospective users and determine the resource requirements, cost, benefits and practical implementation of proposed information system. The findings of this study are presented in a written report which includes the specifications and developmental plan of the proposed system. This report is presented to the management for approval. If it gets approved, analysis step would be started otherwise further work would not be done and the project is closed. Feasibility studies include cost/benefit analysis. There are tangible and intangible costs and benefits. Tangible costs are the cost that can be quantified e-g cost of hardware, software, salaries etc. Intangible costs include the costs that cannot be quantify in advance e-g cost of errors, behavioral change etc. Tangible benefits are the benefits that can be calculated in advance e-g decrease in manpower. Intangible benefits are hard to estimate e-g increase in customer service.

The Feasibility of a System Key Point:

The Most Desirable Solution Organizational Feasibility Economic Feasibility Technical Feasibility Operational Feasibility Feasibility Studies evaluates alternative systems and proposes the most desirable (practical) system for development. Feasibility of a proposed system can be evaluated in terms of four categories. Organizational feasibility determines that how close the objectives of an organization can be achieved by the new proposed system. Economic feasibility shows economic sustainability of the development and maintenance of new proposed system. It compares cost and benefits and determines whether a system would be economically feasible or not. Technical feasibility reveals whether the required hardware, software, network resources can be acquired by the organization or not. If yes than how much time is required to acquire them. Operational feasibility determines where the people resource of an information system is capable and willing to operate (run) the information system.

II-Systems Analysis:
Key Point:

Study of Organization and End User Information Needs Organizational Analysis Analysis of Present System (Existing System) Functional Requirements Analysis Systems Analysis is concerned with deep study of information needs of an organization and end users that produce functional requirements that serve as basis for the design of a new system.

Organizational Analysis

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Organizational Structure Business Nature People and Management Structure of Organization We must know a lot about the organization for which we are going to develop or enhance a system. For this purpose a detail study of the organization is a must, so that we may understand the organization, its working mechanism, its internal structure etc. Organizational Analysis studies the nature of business an organization have. It is important to know the nature of business before we design the new proposed system. People and management structure study is also included in organizational analysis, so that we are able to visualize the management hierarchy of people resources for an organization. Analysis of the Present System Key Point:

Study of Current Resources, Procedures, Products and Activities Information Flow of Existing System Prior to the design of new system we have to study the existing system for its current resources, procedures, information products and activities. This is important because when we would design new system, we have thorough details of business processes of the system. Analysis of Present System also includes the study of information flow of existing system. How data is converted into information? What is input? What processes are applied on input to convert it into information? What is the output? All these questions are to be answered in Present System Analysis.

Functional Requirements Analysis Key Point:

Specific Information Needs End User Information Requirements What should be done? Not how to do it? Functional Requirements are end user information requirements with out the technical details. It specifies that what should be done? Not, how to do it? It includes the specific information needs of the organization but it does not include the practical details of procedures needed. 10

III-Systems Design
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Detailed Plan How information needs will be satisfied? Design Activities for System Specifications Satisfying Functional Requirements Systems Design consists of detailed plan for building a system. It specifies that how the system will accomplish the objective of meeting information needs of users. Systems Design includes the design activities that produce system specifications satisfying the functional requirements.

User Interface, Data and Process Design Key Point:

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User Interface Design Data Design Process Design An interface is the mechanism with the help of which an object interacts (negotiates) with another object. User Interface Design activity focuses on designing the interactions between end users and the computer systems. User interface design is often a prototyping process, where prototypes of user interface are designed and modified with feedback from end users. User interface design produces the detailed specifications for information products. Data is any facts and figures that an organization wants to keep for information extraction. Data Design activity includes the design of database and files structures to be used by the information system. Data design often

produces a data dictionary. Data dictionary includes data about data (also called meta data). A data dictionary consists of 1) The attributes or properties of entities (objects) 2) The relationships between these entities 3) The integrity rules Process Design activity focuses on the design of software resources, that is, the programs and procedures needed by the proposed system. It includes the specifications of software that is to be purchased as packages and the software to be developed.

System Specifications Key Point:

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Details of Hardware, Software, People Resources Procedures of Conversion of Data into Information System Specification is the product of design step of SDLC. System specifications include the details of hardware, software and people resources required by the new proposed system. It also includes the processes, procedures and operations that are responsible for conversion of data resources into information products. IV-Implementation and Maintenance Key Point:

System Implementation System Maintenance

System Implementation:
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First Running of New System in the Actual Environment Acquiring Hardware, System Software and Software Packages Application Software Development and Testing Documentation Development Training End Users Conversion of Current System into New or Improved System System Implementation is concerned with the first actual running (execution) of new or improved system in the actual environment. It also includes related activities of implementation. For a system we purchase hardware, system software and software packages. For example we may purchase computers, printers, operating system, office automation software packages etc for our new or improved system. Application software is developed and tested, so that it may be installed and work properly. For example we may develop a database for recording business activities. Documentation is the written record of all the steps taken for development of new or enhanced system. It records all the steps of development. Documentation is necessary for changing or redesigning the system in future. Training the end user is an important part of system implementation activity. End users are educated and trained for the new system. Processes and procedures, of new system, are performed in the training sessions.

System Maintenance:
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Monitoring, Evaluating and Modification for Improvements Post-Implementation Review Error and Bugs are Removed Necessary Adjustment for Change in the Environment System Maintenance involves the monitoring, evaluating and modifying of a system to make necessary or desirable improvements. A post-implementation review ensures that the newly implemented system meets the functional requirements. While running the new system, errors and bugs may occur in the system. These errors are to be corrected and bugs are debugged. This is necessary for the smooth functionality of the new system. During the smooth running of the system, change in the environment might demand a related change in the system. So, we have to adjust our system for such demanding changes. For example, a change in the tax rate might induce us to reflect such change in our business dealings.

Objectives Of TPS:
Because of the importance of transaction processing, organizations expect their TPSs to accomplish a number of specific objectives including: Process data generated by and about transactions. Maintain a high degree of accuracy and integrity. Avoid processing fraudulent transactions. Produce timely user responses and reports. Increase labor efficiency. Help improve customer service and/or loyalty.

Depending on the specific nature and goals of the organization, any of these objectives might be more important than others. By meeting these objectives, TPSs can support corporate goals such as reducing costs; increasing productivity, quality, and customer satisfaction; and running more efficient and effective operations. For example, overnight delivery companies such as FedEx expect their TPSs to increase customer service. These systems can locate a client's package at any timefrom initial pickup to final delivery. This improved customer information allows companies to produce timely information and be more responsive to customer needs and queries.

Data processing activities:

The process of manipulation data to achieve the required objectives and results is called data processing. The software is used to process data. The software converts data into meaningful information. A series of actions or operations are performed on data to get the required output or result. Activities in Data Processing Different activities involved in data processing are as follows:
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Data capturing Data manipulation Managing output results

1. 1.

Data Capturing

The process of recording the data in some form is called data capturing. Data is captured before it can be processed. Data may be recorded on source documents. Data can also be given directly to the computer through input devices.

2. Data Manipulation
The process of applying different operations on data is called data manipulation. The following operations can be performed on data:
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Classifying: A process of organizing data into classes or group data is called classifying. For example, the data in a college can be classified in two groups. The data of students may be in one group and of teachers may be in second group. Calculation: A process of applying arithmetic operations on data is called calculation. The common calculations are addition, subtraction, multiplication and division etc. Sorting: The process of arranging data in a logical sequence is called sorting. The data can be sorted numerically or alphabetically. Summarizing: The process of reducing a large amount of data in a more concise and usable form is called summarizing. For example, people deposit money in banks daily. The data of bank can be summarizing to show the total money deposited in a particular month instead of showing all deposits.

3. Managing Output Result

The following activities can be performed on data after the data has been captured and manipulated:
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Storage: The process of retaining data for future use is called data storage. Different storage medium are used to store the data such as hard disks and tapes etc. Retrieval: The process of accessing or fetching the stored data is called data retrieval. The data can be retrieved as and when required. The retrieved data can be displayed in different forms such as reports, graphs and charts etc. Communication: The process of transferring data from one location to another is called data communication. The data may be transferred to different locations for further processing. For example, the result can be sent to the students via email. Reproduction: The process of copying or duplicating data is called reproduction of data. Data can be reproduced if different users need data at different locations