THE ROLE OF COMMUNICATION IN DEVELOPMENT: Lessons Learned from a Critique of t e Dominant! De"enden#$!

and A%ternati&e Paradi'ms

by: Arvind Singhal Parichart Sthapitanonda
Communication can be an instrument oj power, a revolutionary weapon, a commercial product, or a means of education: It can serve the cmla nf either liberation or of o"(iressinu! of cither the growth of the Individual personality or of drilling human beings into uniformity (Mac ridc el! al!, "#$%&!

urin' t e "ast four de#ades! t e fie%d of #ommuni#ation and de&e%o"ment as )een "eriodi#a%%$ re&ie*ed! ana%$sed! and e&a%uated )$ s# o%ars +for e,am"%e! Lerner - .# ramm! /0123 .# ramm and Lerner! /0123 Ro'ers! /012(403 Horni5! /0443 6umar! /044(403 .te&enson! /0443 Me%5ote! /00/3 .er&aes! /00/3 .in' a% and Domato)! /007 and ot ers89 T ree ma:or "aradi'ms a&e emer'ed in t e "ast four de#ades of s# o%ars i" on t e ro%e of #ommuni#ation in de&e%o"ment9 T e dominant "aradi'm! t e de"enden#$ "aradi'm and t e a%ternati&e "aradi'm9 T e "resent arti#%e tra#es t e istori#a% emer'en#e of ea# of t ese "aradi'ms and #om"ares and #ontrasts t e ro%e a##orded to #ommuni#ation in ea# of t ese mode%s of de&e%o"ment9 T e ma:or %essons %earned in t e "ast four de#ades a)out t e ro%e of #ommuni#ation in nationa% de&e%o"ment ar# summarised9
; Self'determination is an important characteristic of development! (eople)s participation in their own empowerment is critical to foster a sense of dignity and self'reliance! Small and short'term projects may ivor* better than long'tertn and big projects! Also projects that begin small and then e+pand carefully have better chances of success! <

The Rise of the Dominant' (aradigm

The dominant paradigm of development, often referred to as the modernisation paradigm, involved in Western industrialised countries

after =or%d =ar II +Me%5ote! /00/3 Ro'ers /0123 .er&aes! /00/89 In t is "ers"e#ti&e! de&e%o"ment *as &ie*ed as a t$"e of so#ia% # an'e in * i# no* ideas *ere to )e introdu#ed into a so#i9i% s$stem in order to "rodu#e i' er "er #a"ita in#omes and i' er %e&e%s of %i&in' t rou' more modern "rodu#tion met ods and im"ro&ed so#ia% or'anisation +Ro'ers and .&ennin'! /02089 A num)er of istori#a% fa#tors %ed to t e emer'en#$ of t e modernisation "ers"e#ti&e: Industrialisation and economic growth in the =estern nations +Ro'ers! /0123 .in' a% and Ro'ers! /0403 Me%5ote! /00/89 After )e#omin' industria%ised! t e U. and =estern Euro"ean nations e,"erien#ed ra"id e#onomi# 'ro*t ! ur)anisation! and te# no%o'i#a% ad&an#ement +Ro'ers! /01289 .# o%ars in t ese nations "er#ei&ed e#onomi# 'ro*t as de&e%o"ment and sa* industria%isation as a "at *a$ to de&e%o"ment +6umar! /044(408> Transfer of modern te# no%o'$ from =estern nations to de&e%o"in' #ountries *as &ie*ed as )ein' im"ortant to de&e%o"ment +Ro'ers! /01289 ,he success of the Marshall (lan in -urope after .orld .ar II +.in' a% and Ro'ers! /04089 T e Mars a%% P%an *as desi'ned to )ui%d "ost =or%d =ar H Euro"e9 =it finan#ia% and materia% su""ort from t e Mars a%% P%an! main%$ "ro&ided )$ t e United .tates! =estern Euro"ean #ountries re#onstru#ted t eir e#onomies! and attained i' e#onomi# 'ro*t durin' t e "ost *ar "eriod9 T is %ed t e United .tates and t e United Nations to )e%ie&e t at su# s"e#ta#u%ar out#omes #ou%d a%so )e a# ie&ed in de&e%o"in' #ountries! if adequate de&e%o"ment aid *as "ro&ided9 ,he emergence of the newly'independcni nations! Durm'?t @>"e-t>>=Ar%;: >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> 9 =ar f% "eriod! man$ #ountries in Asia! Afri#a :+nd Latin Ameri#a 'ained inde"enden#e from #o%onia% ru%e9 T ese ne* TiationsBCTn 'enera%! &ie*ed t e #entra%ised s$stem of 'o&ernment! #arefu% e#onomi# "%annin'! and de&e%o"ment )ureau#ra#ies of =estern nations as an effe#ti&e mode% of de&e%o"ment +.o! /00D89 ,he spread of communist political ideology! After =or%d =ar II! t e U..R e,tended its #ommunist ideo%o'$ to Eastern Euro"ean #ountries! C ina! Cu)a and Nort 6orea9 T e United .tates 'o&ernment! a demo#rati#(#a"ita%ist su"er"o*er! )e#ame "reo##u"ied *it t e idea of "rote#tin' t e rest of t e *or%d from t e e,"ansion of #ommunism +.o! /00D89 U. "o%iti#ians and "o%i#$ma5ers "ro&ided en#oura'ement to U. so#ia% s#ientists to stud$ so#ia% "ro)%ems in de&e%o"in' nations in order to "romote an a'enda of e#onomi# de&e%o"ment as *e%% as to esta)%is t e "redominan#e of demo#rati# ideo%o'$ +C irot! /04/3 6umar! /044(4089 ,he liberal/capitalistic thin*ing in the .est! T e modernisation "ers"e#ti&e *as stron'%$ inf%uen#ed )$ Dar*inian e&o%utionar$ t eor$! fun#tiona%ist t eor$! and Ma, =e)erCs t eories of so#ia% and e#onomi# # an'e9 E&o%utionar$ t eor$ a##ounted for E e state of e#onomi# 'ro*t in ea# so#iet$ +Rosto*! /02D3 Comte! /02;8! noted t at e&o%utionar$ t eorists &ie*ed uman so#iet$ as mo&in' from

"rimiti&e to ad&an#es sta'es in a unidire#tiona%! irre&ersi)%e and e&o%utionar$ "ro#ess9 At t e fina% sta'e! ea# so#iet$ *ou%d en:o$ "ro'ress! umanit$ and #i&i%iFation9 Fun#tiona%ist t eor$ a##ounted for tinG s$stemati# &aria)%es under%$in' traditiona% and ad&an#ed snrie%ies +Parsons! fHM89 Parsons a""roa# to fun#tiona%ist t eor$ &ie*ed uman snar%$ !is n )io%o'i#a% or'anisation t ai #onsisted of different ins%i%ti%ions9 In order to maintain omeostati# equi%i)rium! if one institution e,"erien#ed # an'e! t e rest of t e so#iet$ must a%so e,"erien#e # an'e9 T e Itri#5%e>do*nI a""roa# to de&e%o"ment *as deri&ed from t is "ers"e#ti&e9 =e)erCs t eories of so#ia% and e#onomi# # an'e em" asised t at e#onomi# de&e%o"ment o##urred t rou' industria%isation! im"orted #a"ita% intensi&e te# no%o'$! and #entra%ised "%annin' +Mo*%ana and =i%son! /00D89 T e %o#a% e%ites "%a$ed an im"ortant ro%e in t is "ro#ess9 ,he outgrowth of 0uantifiable research in social sciences! Most =estern s# o%ars in t e /0JDs and /02Ds em"%o$ed a "ositi&ism(em"iri#a% a""roa# to stud$ so#ia% "ro)%ems in de&e%o"in' #ountries9 T e$ )e%ie&ed t at de&e%o"ment *as a uni&ersa%! neutra%! and measura)%e "ro#ess9 Kased tin t is " i%oso" $! development %essons from one nation *ere ta5en to )e 'enera%isa)%e for ot er na%ions9 Measurements of de&e%o"ment *as de"endent on su# quantifia)%e! numeri#a% indi#es as Aross Nationa% Produ#t +ANP8 and "er #a"ita in#ome +Ro'ers! /01289 In sum! modernisation s# o%ars identified so#ieties as )ein' traditiona% or modern +.er&aes! /00/89 Traditiona% so#ieties *ere in a 'enera% state of underde&e%o"ment and "o&ert$! * i# modern so#ieties *ere industra%ised! materia%isti# and demo#rati# +.te&enson! /04489 T e urn>dire#tiona%! "ro'ressi&e! and irre&ersi)%e nature of de&e%o"ment "ro#ess im"%ied t at t e mo&ement of a> traditiona% so#iet$ to a more ad&an#ed sta'e e%"ed to narro* t e 'a" )et*een t e modern and traditiona% so#ieties +.er&nes! /00/89 Modern so#ieties #ou%d assist traditiona% so#ieties to de&e%o" )$ transferrin' t eir te# no%o'$ and so#io>"o%iti#a% s$stems9 A##ordin' to t e dominant "aradi'm! t e aim of de&e%o"ment *as to )e#ome %i5e a =estern>t$"e so#iet$ *it demo#rati# e%e#tions! uni&ersa% suffra'e and "o"u%ar re"resentation3 free mar5ets! indi&idua%ism! freedom of s"ee# and "%ura%ism3 institutiona%ised #om"etition )et*een "arties and interests3 and order%$! "ea#efu%! so#ia%%$ inte'rated! fair and %e'itimate "arti#i"ation +M#Luni%! /00;89 E&er$ de&e%o"in' nation *as as"ire to t ese # ara#teristi#s of a Ide&e%o"edI so#iet$9 In t e dominant "aradi'm! )arriers to de&e%o"ment *ere not :ust e,terna% to t e so#iet$! )ut a%so interna% to it9 E,"%anations for t e #auses of underde&e%o"ment in#%uded traditiona% *a$s of t in5in'! i%%itera#$ and outdated so#ia% norms +Ro'ers! /0123 .er&aes! /00/89 In

order to mo&e su# so#ieties from a traditiona% to a modern sta'e! traditiona% indi&idua%s ad to )e modernised +M#C%e%%and! /0J/3 Ha'en! /02M89

,he role of communication in the dominant paradigm

Ear%$ s# o%ars "er#ei&ed t e ro%e of #ommuni#ation in de&e%o"ment from a "ositi&ist(em"iri#a% &ie*"oint +Mo*%and and =i%son! /00D3 .er&aes! /00/89 T e$ "er#ei&ed t e #ommuni#ation "ro#ess as o##urrin' in a %inear! #ause>effe#t>oriented mode%9 Ro'ers +/0428! ar'ued t at t e unidire#tiona% information t eor$ mode% "ro"osed )$ . annon and =ea&er in /0;0 %ed #ommuni#ation s# o%ars in t is Imis'uidedI dire#tion! Danie% Lerner! =i%)ur .# ramm and E&erett M Ro'ers *ere t e most inf%uentia% "ro"onents of t e modernisation "ers"e#ti&e amon' #ommuni#ation s# o%ars9 LernerCs +/0J48! inf%uentia% )oo5! ,he (assing of the ,raditional Society, e%"ed to esta)%is a #ommuni#ation "ers"e#ti&e in de&e%o"ment9 Lerner ar'ued t at so#ia% # an'e from a traditiona% to modern so#iet$ *as ine&ita)%e and unidire#tiona%9 He "osited t at traditiona% indi&idua%s must "ossess &erste en! Iem"at i# understandin'I! * i# e%"s t em identif$ *it t e ImodernI man9 He identified mass media e,"osure! ur)anisation! %itera#$! i' er "er #a"ita in#ome and "o%iti#a% "arti#i"ation as t e main &aria)%es a##ountin' for de&e%o"ment9 He ar'ue t at t e mass media ad a ma'i# mu%ti"%$in' "o*er sin#e t e$ *ere )ot t e so#ia%isin' a'ent and t e inde, of so#ia% # an'e9 T e mass media s$stem! a##ordin' to Lerner! reinfor#ed a a##e%erated so#ia% # an'e )$ disseminatin' ne* ideas and attitudes re%ated to de&e%o"ment9 E&erett M Ro'ers +/02M8! on t e ot er and! *as more #on#erned a)out so#ia% # an'e t at o##urred * en ne* ideas +#ommon%$ referred to as inno&ations8 *ere ado"ted in a so#ia% s$stem9 His inf%uentia% )oo59 1iffusion of Innovations, ar'ued t e im"ortan#e of t e t*o>ste" f%o* of #ommuni#ation in de&e%o"ment: From t e mass media to o"inion %eaders +%o#a% inf%uentia% in a #ommunit$8! and t en t rou' t e o"inion %eadersC inter"ersona% # anne%s to t e "u)%i#> Mass media! a##ordin' to Ro'ers! ad a ro%e in s"readin' informati&e and "ersuasi&e messa'es from t e de&e%o"ment a'en#$ to t e "u)%i#! * i%e inter"ersona% # anne%s inf%uen#ed t e "u)%i# to ado"t or re:e#t t e ne* de&e%o"ment "ra#ti#es9 Unfortunate%$! t e t*o>ste" f%o* mode% a%so eaded de&e%o"ment s# o%ars to em)ra#e t e notion of #entra%ised> "%annin'! and fostered a to">do*n and ierar# i#a% a""roa# to #ommuni#ation! =i%)ur .# ramm +/02;8! in is inf%uentia% )oo5 Mass Media and 2ational 1evelopment, em" asised t e ro%e of mass media as an a'ent for so#ia% # an'e in de&e%o"in' #ountries9 .o#ia% # an'e *as &ie*ed main%$ as a to">do*n and uni>dire#tiona% "ro#ess9 .# ramm "osited t at so#ia% # an'e o##urred as a resu%t of a''re'ate # an'es in

indi&idua%s9 In order to en#oura'e de&e%o"ment! nationa% 'o&ernments needed to uti%ise #ommuni#ation to moti&ate "eo"%e to # an'e9 .# rammCs ideas %ed to an o&er>o"timisti# &ie* of UH> ro%e of mass #ommuni#ation in de&e%o"ment In sum! #ommuni#ation s# o%ars fo%%o*in' + e dominant "9irndi'm )e%ie&ed main%$ in a one>*a$ f%o* of information and a to">do*n a""roa# to de&e%o"ment9 Mass Media *ere #onsidered as Ima'i# mu%ti"%iersI i9e9! ma:or &e i#%es for disseminatin' information to a di&erse "u)%i# *it in a s ort "eriod of time9 T e dominant "aradi'm fitted *e%% *it t e ma:or trends in t e /0JDs and /02Ds3 +/8 de&e%o"in' #ountries durin' t is time en:o$ed 'enerous fundin' from t e internationa% and non>'o&ernmenta% aid a'en#ies3 +M8 t e %eaders of de&e%o"in' #ountries *e%#ome t e modernisation "ers"e#ti&e sin#e t e$ sa* e#onomi# de&e%o"ment as t eir to" "riorit$3 +78 t rou' #entra%ised "%annin'! %eaders in de&e%o"in' #ountries #ou%d )e assured t at t e "u)%i# *as under t eir #ontro%3 and +;8 t e e,"ansion of mass media e%"ed nationa% 'o&ernments to s"read de&e%o"ment information and "o%iti#a% "ro"a'anda to t e "u)%i#9

Criticisms of the dominant paradigm

Resear# on #ommuni#ation and de&e%o"ment under t e dominant "aradi'm #ame under se&ere #riti#ism9 Ma:or #riti#isms #entered around +/8 its et no#entri# nature3 +M8 "%a#in' interna% )%ame for underde&e%o"ment3 +78 t e ne'ati&e #onsequen#es of Imodernit$I3 +;8 t e fai%ure of t e to">do*n! one>*a$ and I)i'I "ro:e#t a""roa# 3 and +J8 inattention to messa'e #ontent +Me%5ote! /00/3 Mo*%ana and =i%son! /00D3 Ro'ers! /0123 .in' a% and Ro'ers! /0403 .er&aes! /00/89 T e modernisation "ers"e#ti&e as )een #riti#ised for its et no#entri# nature! Mo*%ana and =i%son +/00D8 des#ri)ed t e modernisation "ers"e#ti&e as an attem"t )$ =estern nations to s"read t eir %i)era% and #a"i%a%ist ideo%o'$ to de&e%o"in' #ountries9 For e,am"%e! ear%$ s# o%ars %in5ed t e #on#e"t of modernisation to =esternisation! definin' "o%iti#a% "arti#i"ation +nn as"o#t of demo#rati# ideo%o'$8 as an indi#ator of modornisa%um! Ro'ers +/;128 noted t at man$ e#onomists )e%ie&ed t at t eir de&e%o"ment t eories ad uni&ersa% &a%idit$9 T ese s# o%ars did not adequate%$ rea%ise t at t e %ess de&e%o"ed #ountries as different #onte,ts and e,"erien#es t an t e so>#a%%ed Ide&e%o"edI nations +.in' n% and Ro'ers! /04089 T e modernisation a""roa# )%amed t e interna% fa#tors of de&e%o"in' #ountries su# as so#ia% norms! &a%ues and re%i'ion as inderan#e to de&e%o"ment +Me%5o%o! /00/3 Ro'ers! /0123 . i' n% and Ro'ers! /04089 T is &ie*"oint *as #riti#ised for i'norin' su# e,terna% fa#tors t at o)stru#t de&e%o"ment as t e e#onomi# de"enden#$ of t e de&e%o"in' #ountries on t e mu%tinationa% #or"orations and internationa% aid "ro'rammes +.in' a% and Ro'ers! /04089 Durin' t e /01Ds! man$ de&e%o"ed and de&e%o"in' #ountries t at

attem"ted to modernise fa#ed "ro)%ems #aused )$ ra"id industria%isation9 En&ironmenta% "o%%ution! o&er"o"u%ation! #ro*din' in )i' #ities! unem"%o$ment! and t e *idenin' 'a" )et*een t e ri# and "oor *ere some of t em +Me%5ote! /00/3 Ro'ers! /01289 .# o%ars )e'an to question * at t e aim of de&e%o"ment s ou%d )e: E#onomi# de&e%o"ment for a fe*! or a )etter qua%it$ of %ife for t e "oor "eo"%e +Ro'ers! /0128! Unsu##essfu% de&e%o"ment "ro:e#ts in de&e%o"in' #ountries a%so ref%e#ted t e fai%ure of t e dominant "aradi'm9 Ki'! %on'>term "ro:e#ts! and t e to">do*n a""roa# often did not *or5 *e%% in de&e%o"in' #ountries +Rota and .ood! /00;89 In addition! #entra%ised "%annin' "ro:e#ts! usua%%$ desi'ned )$ e#onomists and )an5ers! did not fit *e%% *it nationa% needs! and *ere fai%ures>Communi#ation s# o%ars * o uti%ised t e modernisation "ers"e#ti&e tended to i'nore or "a$ %itt%e attention to t e #ontents of t e mass media +Me%5ote! /00/89 E,"osure to t e mass media *as mis#onstrued as an indi#ator of de&e%o"ment9 No* t ere is a 'ro*in' rea%isation t at t e qua%itati&e #ontent of t e mass media +i9e9! its "ro>so#ia%(anti>so#ia% nature8 is &er$ im"ortant +Ao%din'! /01;3 Mod$! /00/3 .in' a% and Ro'ers! /04089 T ere is a 'ro*in' em" asis on t e #arefu% desi'n of media messa'es )ased on a s$stemati# need assessment of t e tar'et audien#es! and a%so a #a%% to #reate "arti#i"ator$ messa'es in #o%%a)oration *it t e tar'et )enefi#iaries9

,he 3ise of the 1ependency (aradigm

T e de"enden#$ "aradi'm e&o%&ed in t e de&e%o"in' #ountries in t e /02Ds as an antit esis to t e modernisation "ers"e#ti&e +.er&aes! /00/89 De"enden#$ *as &ie*ed as It e #onditionin' situation in * i# t e e#onomies of one 'rou" of #ountries are #onditioned )$ t e de&e%o"ment and e,"ansion of ot ersI +.er&aes! /04089 T e de"enden#$ "ers"e#ti&e &ie*ed de&e%o"ment from a de&e%o"in' #ountr$Cs &ie*"oint +.o! /00D8! definin' it as Ise%f>re%ian#e! non> a%i'nment and t e )ui%din' of a Ne* =or%d E#onomi# and Information OrderI +6umar! /044(4089 T e "ro"onents of de"enden#$ t eor$ &ie*ed t e "ro#ess of de&e%o"ment under t e modernisation "ers"e#ti&e as a I#ontinuationI of t e o%d #o%onia% t$"e9 T us! t e$ #a%%ed for de&e%o"in' #ountries to ra%%$ on t eir o*n "ro#esses of de&e%o"ment! * i%e maintainin' e#onomi# de&e%o"ment as t eir 'oa% +.er&aes! /04089 .o +/00D8 noted t at t e de"enden#$ s# oo% first a""eared in Latin Ameri#a in t e ear%$ /02Ds as a res"onse to t e fai%ed "ro'rammes of t e UN E#onomi# Communi#ation for Latin Ameri#a +ECLA89 T e de"enden#$ "ers"e#ti&e t en 'ained momentum in t e United .tates as a res"onse to t e de#%ine of t e modernisation "ers"e#ti&e +.er&aes! /0408 #redited t e U.>)ased Pau% Karan +/0J18 as foundin' t e

de"enden#$ "ers"e#ti&e3 e *as t e first to "osit t at de&e%o"ment and underde&e%o"ment *ere i' %$ interre%ated9 T e de"enden#$ "aradi'm deri&ed its t eoreti#a% tradition from Neo>Mar,ism and stru#tura%ism9 Neo>Mar,ists ad&an#ed t e de"enden#$ "aradi'm! fo#usin' on t e developing conn tries' indi#tments of im"eria%ism in t e de&e%o"ment "ro#ess +.o! /00D89 In addition! Neo>Mar,ists en#oura'ed t e "ro"onents of t e de"enden#$ "aradi'm to more #%ose%$ %oo5 at t e so#ia%ist de&e%o"ment of C ina and Cu)a +.o! /00D89 .tru#tura%ism referred to t e de'ree to * i# t e *or%d s$stemCs infrastru#ture im"eded or "romoted de&e%o"ment in de&e%o"in' #ountries +Mo*%ana9 and =i%son! /00D89 Ad&o#ates of t e de"enden#$ "aradi'm are &er$ di&erse and in#%ude so#ia% s#ientists from man$ dis#i"%ines! #ountries! ideo%o'ies and "o%iti#a% #ommitments +.o! /00D89 Ad&o#ates of t e de"enden#$ "aradi'm "er#ei&e t e state of de"enden#$ as an e,terna% #ondition t at o)stru#ts t e nationa% de&e%o"ment o):e#ti&es of t e de&e%o"in' #ountries9 T e$ assert t at t e state of de"enden#$ is a resu%t of t e f%o* of e#onomi# sur"%us from de&e%o"in' #ountries to t e de&e%o"ed =estern #ountries9 T e$ a%so em" asised t at de"enden#$ is in#om"ati)%e *it de&e%o"ment +K%omstrom and Hettne! /04;89 T e "res#ri"tion: Ea# de&e%o"in' #ountr$ s ou%d disasso#iate itse%f from t e *or%d mar5et t at is #ontro%%ed )$ de&e%o"ed nations! and see5 to a# ie&e se%f>re%ian#e +.er&aes! /04089

,he role of communication in the dependency perspective

T*o main s# oo%s of t ou' t e,ist a)out t%ie ro%e of #ommuni#ation in de&e%o"ment from t e de"enden#$ "ers"e#ti&e: T e #u%tura%ist and t e "o%iti#a% e#onom$ &ie*"oint +.er&aes! /00/89 T e ma:or interest of t ese s# o%ars is to in&esti'ate t e issue of equa%it$ and identif$ t e fa#tors t at #reate t e inequa%it$! es"e#ia%%$ in terms of #ommuni#ation! )et*een t e industria%ised nations and t e de&e%o"in' #ountries9 Communi#ation s# o%ars %i5e Tunsta%%! +/0118 and Varis! +/04J8 identif$ t emse%&es as t e #u%tura%%sts3 t e$ see5 to inter"ret #u%ture! #ommuni#ation and ideo%o'$9 T eir *or5 do#uments t e im)a%an#e in information f%o* in a '%o)a% "ers"e#ti&e9 Ho*e&er! t eir resear# is most%$ # ara#terised )$ quantitati&e and o):e#ti&e met odo%o'ies! s o*in' o* mu# information is e,# an'ed in t e *or%d! re"ortin' t e un)a%an#ed f%o* of information )et*een t e Nort and t e .out ! and e,"%ainin' * $! for instan#e! Inlra-rpgionnI, :ind intrn>iiationa% #ommuni#ation is %imited in de&e%o"in' #ountries9 On t e ot er and! #ommuni#ation s# o%ars usin' a "o%iti#a% e#onom$ a""roa# ! su# as .# i%%er! +/020(4/8 %oo5 at t e "o%iti#a% and e#onomi# a##ounts in * i# #ommuni#ation and #u%ture e,ist amon' ot er fa#tors of domination9 .# i%%er! +/04/8 ar'ued t at t e e,istin' '%o)a% #ommuni#ation order ref%e#ts an im)a%an#e of '%o)a%

"o*er t at needs to )e #orre#ted9 T e *or5 of su# #ommuni#ation s# o%ars indi#ated t at t e de&e%o"in' #ountries de"end on t e de&e%o"ed nations for )ot e#onomi# and media in"uts9 Ko$d>Karrett! +/04M8 for e,am"%e! ar'ued t at t%ie United .tates! as t e %eader in te%e&ision and radio )road#astin' in t e /01Ds! )e#ame t e mode% for t e rest of t e *or%dCs "ro'ramme standards9 Varis! +/04J8 #ontent ana%$sis re"orted t at most of t e *or%dCs te%e&ision "ro'rammin' f%o*ed in a one>*a$ dire#tion from =estern nations to t e rest of t e *or%d9 .tandard &a%ues disseminated to non>=estern nations! t e diffusin' of o##u"ationa% ideo%o'ies! and t e e,"ort of media "rodu#ts! are &ie*ed as *a$s in * i# t e =estern media dominate t e mar5ets in de&e%o"in' #ountries +.er&aes! /04089 A##ordin' to t e de"enden#$ "aradi'm! in order to attain an ad&an#ed %e&e% of de&e%o"ment! de&e%o"in' #ountries must se"arate t emse%&es from =estern #ountries9 T e$ s ou%d )e a*are of t e =estern &a%ues t at #ome *it t e =estern #on#e"t of de&e%o"ment9 At t e internationa% %e&e% in su# forums as UNE.CO! ITU et#9! re"resentati&es from de&e%o"in' #ountries attem"ted to # a%%en'e =estern #ountries )$ as5in' for a more )a%an#ed f%o* of information in and out of t eir )orders +Ma#Kride et9 aN9! /04D89 T e$ a%so as5ed for a Ne* =or%d Information and Communi#ation Order +N=ICO8! a%on' *it t e Ne* =or%d E#onomi# Order +N=EO8! to in#rease t eir s are of information "rodu#ts and to en an#e e#onomi# equa%it$ )et*een t e de&e%o"ed and de&e%o"in' nations9 T e "remises )e ind t e #a%% for a N=ICO *as t at de&e%o"in' #ountries #ou%d de&e%o" on t eir o*n if t e$ *ere inde"endent! and if =estern #ountries did not dominate t eir "o%iti#a%! e#onomi#! and so#io>#u%tura% ideo%o'$ and &a%ues9

Criticisms of the dependency paradigm

T e de"enden#$ "ers"e#ti&e! offered as an a%ternati&e to t e modernisation "ers"e#ti&e! *as #riti#ised for its o&er#on#entration on e,terna% fa#tors t at #ause underde&e%o"ment! and for o&er%oo5in' a nationCs interna% #auses of de&e%o"ment +.er&aes! /04089 De"enden#$ t eorists fai%ed to adequate%$ address a num)er of de&e%o"ment "ro)%ems t at o##ur at t e nationa% and %o#a% %e&e%s! in#%udin' inequa%it$ )et*een so#ia% #%asses! #orru"tion amon' e%ites of t e de&e%o"in' #ountries! and t e fai%ure of de&e%o"ment "ro:e#ts "%anned and underta5en )$ t e nationa% 'o&ernments t emse%&es9 Most *or5 "rodu#ed )$ "ro"onents of t e de"enden#$ "ers"e#ti&e is on%$ #riti#a% of! or a # a%%en'e to! t e modernisation "ers"e#ti&e9 .er&aes! +/0408 ar'ued t at t e "rimar$ differen#e )et*een t e de"enden#$ "ers"e#ti&e and t e modernisation "ers"e#ti&e is minima% * en it #omes to t e #ontent of de&e%o"ment9 Kot "ers"e#ti&es are #on#erned *it e#onomi# de&e%o"ment as t eir to" "riorit$ and use

t e same quantitati&e met ods a""roa# de&e%o"ment and underde&e%o"ment9

to ana%$sin' t e issues of

The Rise of the Alternative (aradigm

T e a%ternati&e "aradi'm! a%so #a%%ed t e "%ura%ist "ers"e#ti&e! or Imu%ti"%i#it$>in>one>*or%dI "ers"e#ti&e! emer'ed in t e mid>/01Ds as an a%ternati&e to t e dominant "aradi'm +Hede)ro! /04M3 Me%5ote! /00/3 Ro'ers! /0123 .er&aes! /04089 T e fo%%o*in' ma:or istori#a% e&ents %ed to t e emer'en#e of t e a%ternati&e "ers"e#ti&e: +/8 t e #i&i% ri' ts! "ea#e! en&ironmenta% and feminist mo&ements in t e industria%ised #ountries! +M8 t e %i)era%isin' mo&ements in t e #ommunist #ountries! and +78 t e nationa% %i)era%isin' mo&ements in t e de&e%o"in' #ountr$9 T ese istori#a% e&ents! a%t ou' o##urrin' in different #ountries *it differin' "o%iti#a% ideo%o'ies! s ared #ommon #on#erns! es"e#ia%%$ freedom and equa%it$ amon' t e "u)%i# +Te ranian! /00D89 In addition! t e 'ro*t of t e umanisti#( inter"reti&e and #u%tura% a""roa# to so#ia% s#ien#es! and t e %essons %earned from ear%ier de&e%o"ment "ro:e#ts en#oura'ed s# o%ars to re#onsider t e ro%e of #ommuni#ation in de&e%o"ment9 De&e%o"ment! in t is a%ternati&e "ers"e#ti&e! *as more 'enera%%$ defined as Ia *ide%$ "arti#i"ator$ "ro#ess of so#ia% # an'e in a so#iet$! intended to )rin' a)out )ot so#ia% and materia% ad&an#ement +in#%udin' 'reater equa%it$! freedom and ot er &a%ued qun%ities8 for t e ma:orit$ of t e "eo"%e t rou' t eir 'ainin' 'reater #ontro% o&er t eir en&ironmentI +Ro'ers! /01289 In t is and ot er su# definitions! t e term Ide&e%o"mentI tends to )e )roader in s#o"e! %ess dire#ted in its 'oa%s! and sma%%er in its "ro'ramme siFe! * en #om"ared to t e da$s of t e dominant "aradi'm9 T e a%ternati&e "ers"e#ti&e tends to )e more umanisti#! normati&e +.er&a#s! /00/8 and "%ura%isti# +.in' a% and Ro'ers! /04089 Its s#o"e is %ess e#onomi#>de&#%o"ment>oriented and more so#i:i%>ori#>n%ed3 it re:e#ts t e #on#e"t of t o uni&ersa%it$ of t e de&e%o"ment #on#e"t and e#onomi#>)ased "ers"e#ti&es9 Ad&o#ates )e%ie&e t at t e #on#e"t of de&e%o"ment #annot )e 'enera%ised or uni&ersa%ised9 Ea# so#iet$! re'ion! or 'rou" s ou%d identif$ its o*n "at *a$ to de&e%o"ment +Me%5ore! /00/3 .in' 9i% and Ro'ers! /04089 Nations s ou%d ret in5 t eir needs! 'oa%s and measures of de&e%o"ment9 De&e%o"men% "ro:e#ts s ou%d )e desi'ned in t e form of sma%% mana'ea)%e "ro:e#ts * i# suit "o"u%ar needs9 Instead of definin' in#reased ANP +Aross Nationa% Produ#t8 as t e uni&ersa% 'oa% of de&e%o"ment! in t e e#onomi# sense! t e ne* "aradi'm ou' t to im"ro&e t e qua%it$ of "eo"%eCs %ife as t e "rimar$ 'oa% of de&e%o"ment +Ro'ers! /01289 T e a%ternati&e "ers"e#ti&e ana%$ses t e "ro)%ems of de&e%o"ment at different %e&e%s! in#%udin' internationa%! nationa% and %o#a% %e&e%s9 For e,am"%e! at t e internationa% %e&e%! "ro"onents a##e"t t at it is

im"ossi)%e for a #ountr$ to )e #om"%ete%$ autonomous and tota%%$ se%f>re%iant * i%e "ursuin' its o*n de&e%o"ment +6umar! /044(403 .er&aes! /00/89 Li5e a '%o)a% &i%%a'e! e&er$ #ountr$ is Iinterde"endentI on one anot er +.er&aes! /04089 At t e nationa% %e&e%! t ere is no uni&ersa% mode% for su##essfu% de&e%o"ment +6umar! /044(403 .in' a% and Ro'ers! /04089 Nationa% de&e%o"ment! a##ordin' to t e a%ternati&e "ers"e#ti&e! s ou%d )e mu%tidimensiona% and )ased on a dia%e#ti# "ro#ess t at is suited to t e needs of t e "u)%i# +6umar! /044(403 .er&aes! /00/89 It is t e res"onsi)i%it$ of ea# #ountr$ or re'ion to define its o*n de&e%o"ment 'oa%s and t e strate'ies t rou' * i# it *i%% "ursue t ose 'oa%s9 At t e %o#a% %e&e%! de&e%o"ment s ou%d )rin' a)out Iqua%it$I! Iequa%it$I and I)a%an#eI in t e s$stem9 A%t ou' t e a%ternati&e "aradi'mCs a""roa# to de&e%o"ment is di&erse! t e fo%%o*in' "rin#i"%es are #ommon: De&e%o"ment s ou%d )e Ineed>oriented9I De&e%o"ment "ro:e#ts s ou%d )e )ased on t e materia% and non>materia% needs of t e ma:orit$ of t e "o"u%ation +Hede)ro! /04M3 6umar! /044(403 Ro'ers! /0123 .er&aes! /044(0/89 De&e%o"ment s ou%d )e endo'enous9 De&e%o"ment "ro:e#ts s ou%d stem from t e eart of t e so#iet$! and e,"ress t e #reati&it$ and equa%it$ of its "eo"%e +.er&aes! /00/89
Development should promote popular participation at all levels.

De&e%o"ment "ro:e#t s ou%d )e #ondu#ted )$ t e "eo"%e for t e "eo"%e +Hamieson! /00/3 Ro'ers! /0123 .er&aes! /00/89 De&e%o"ment s ou%d "romote t e so#iet$Cs se%f>re%ian#e or di'nit$ +Aa%tun'! /04D3 Ro'ers! /0123 .er&aes! /00/89 Ea# so#iet$ t at #ondu#ts de&e%o"ment "ro:e#ts s ou%d re%$ on its o*n stren't s and De&e%o"ment s ou%d "romote equa% a##ess9 De&e%o"ment "ro:e#ts s ou%d "romote equa% a##ess to de&e%o"ment and natura% resour#es! and )e sensiti&e to %o#a% e#o%o'i#a% s$stem +.er&aes! /00/89 Lo#a% #u%ture! &a%ues and norms s ou%d adequate%$ )e #onsidered in t e "ro#ess of de&e%o"ment9 Cu%tures! &a%ues and norms "ro&ide t e #onte,t for de&e%o"ment +=an' and Dissana$a5e! /04;89 T e idea% de&e%o"ment "ro'ramme s ou%d inte'rate )ot traditiona% and modern s$stems +Ro'ers! /01289
resources.

The rote of communication in the alternative paradigm

T e ro%e of #ommuni#ation in de&e%o"ment de"ends on t e *a$ t e term Ide&e%o"mentI is defined +.in' a% and Ro'ers! /0.089 .in#e nationa% ANP and ot er quantitati&e measures of e#onomi# 'ro*t are not t e to" "riorit$ of de&e%o"ment in t e a%ternati&e "aradi'm! it re:e#ts t e dominant &ie* of #ommuni#ation! in#%udin' to">do*n! one> *a$ and #entra%ised a""roa# es9 T e a%ternati&e "ers"e#ti&e instead uses #ommuni#ation in different *a$s9 T is ne* a""roa# fa&ours

mu%ti"%i#it$! sma%iness of s#a%e! %o#a%it$! deinstitutiona%isation! inter# an'e of sender>re#ei&er ro%es! oriFonta%%$ of #ommuni#ation at a%% %e&e%s of so#iet$ and intera#tion +M#Luai%! /04789 En t e a%ternati&e a""roa# ! * i# is a%so sometimes 5no*n as Ide&e%o"ment su""ort #ommuni#ationI! I#ommunit$ de&e%o"ment!I or Ianot er de&e%o"ment!I t e main em" asis is "%a#ed on t*o>*a$ intera#ti&e and "arti#i"ator$ #ommuni#ation +Ha#o)son! /04089 At t e nationa% %e&e%! t e 'o&ernment mo&es from )ein' initiator of de&e%o"ment "ro'rammes to )e t e Ifa#i%itatorI or I#o>fa#i%itatorI! ans*erin' %o#a%%$ initiated requests! feedin' %o#a% 'rou"s *it information! and disseminatin' inno&ations t at ser&e t e needs of t e "u)%i# +Ro'er! /00J89 At t e %o#a% %e&e%! t e #on#e"t of Ise%f>de&e%o"mentI is "romoted +Ro'ers! /01289 T e "u)%i# is Iem"o*eredI )$ )ein' en#oura'ed to 'et in&o%&ed in de&e%o"ment "ro'rammes! t in5 a)out t eir ri' ts and duties! to s are ideas a)out "ro)%ems in t e %o#a% #ommunit$! and a)out *a$s to so%&e t em +Me%5ote! /00/89 T e "u)%i# is made to fee% t at t e$ )e%on' to t e de&e%o"ment "ro'rammes! and are t us moti&ated to &o%untari%$ :oin t em and maintain t em9 T e ro%e of #ommuni#ation resear# and t e ro%e of media in t e a%ternati&e "aradi'm as a%so # an'ed9 In terms of #ommuni#ation resear# ! t e a%ternati&e "ers"e#ti&e tends to fo#us on "ro)%em>so%&in' and on qua%itati&e resear# met ods9 In terms of media! a##ordin' to t e a%ternati&e "ers"e#ti&e )ot mass media and fo%5 media need to )e used to'et er to satisf$ "eo"%eCs #ommuni#ation needs9 In 'enera%! t e mass media and t e fo%5 media "%a$ a fa#i%itator ro%e3 t e$ "ro&ide information a)out de&e%o"ment and #ir#u%ate information amon' di&erse #u%tura% 'rou"s +Me%5ote! /00/3 Ro'ers! /01289 In t is *a$! t e "u)%i# as a # an#e to ra"id%$ o)tain information! and are "roud of t eir #u%tura% erita'e9 In sum! t e ro%e of #ommuni#ation in t e a%ternati&e "aradi'm seems to )e more di&erse t an it is in t e t*o "re&ious%$ dis#ussed "aradi'ms9 T e ro%e of #ommuni#ation in t is "ers"e#ti&e is at t e %e&e% of inter"ersona%! mass and fo%5 # anne%s! #ommuni#ation e%"s Iem"o*erC t e "u)%i# to t in5! to de#ide and to im"%ement its de&e%o"ment "ro'rammes9 In addition! #ommuni#ation e%"s "romote equit$ amon' t e "u)%i#! t e de#entra%isation of t e de&e%o"ment "ro'rammes! and t e inte'ration of o%d and ne* ideas of de&e%o"ment9 Furt ermore! t e #ommuni#ation "ro#ess is t*o>*a$9

its ad&o#a#$ of "arti#i"ation are #%ear%$ o)ser&a)%e9 T is "ers"e#ti&e "romotes a %i)era% a""roa# to de&e%o"ment and a%so )e%ie&es in t e #on#e"t of indi&idua%ism9 Ma:or questions * i# remain to )e ans*ered in#%ude: To * at e,tent does t e "u)%i# in de&e%o"in' #ountries understand and inter"ret t e #on#e"t of "o"u%ar "arti#i"ationG And do t e$ s are t e same "er#e"tions *it t e =estern #on#e"t of "o"u%ar "arti#i"ationG

4essons 4earned from Criti0uing the ,hree 1evelopment Paradigm

.e&era% %essons #an )e deri&ed from our #ritique of #ommuni#ation and de&e%o"ment in t e t ree "aradi'ms: Dominant! de"enden#$ and a%ternati&e9 T ese in#%ude: /9 T e de&e%o"ment issue is #om"%e,9 T e issue of de&e%o"ment and #ommuni#ation is #om"%e, +Ro'ers! /04089 De&e%o"ment o##urs in t e "o%iti#a%! e#onomi#! so#ia%! #u%tura% and istori#a% en&ironment! * i# ma5es t e de&e%o"ment "ro)%ems and needs in one #ountr$ different from t ose in ot ers9 Un%i5e ot er fie%ds of #ommuni#ation! * i# see5 to understand t e nature of uman #ommuni#ation or #ommuni#ation effe#ts! de&e%o"ment #ommuni#ation uses #ommuni#ation in a more "ra#ti#a% *a$: It attem"ts to use #ommuni#ation to mani"u%ate t e Iso>#a%%edI so#ia% # an'e9 M9 T ere is no rea% meanin' of t e *ord Ide&e%o"mentI9 T ese t ree "aradi'ms > dominant! de"enden#$ and a%ternati&e are attem"ts )$ s# o%ars to identif$ t e "ro)%ems of de&e%o"ment and to su''est so%utions9 Ea# "aradi'm re"resents a different a""roa# to understandin' t e ro%e of #ommuni#ation in de&e%o"ment9 Ho*e&er! ea# "aradi'm as its stren't s and %imitations9 T e dominant "aradi'm! for e,am"%e! *as #riti#ised for its et no#entri# nature3 its to">do*n! one>*a$ a""roa# 3 and its unre%ia)%e definition of de&e%o"ment +.er&aes! /00/89 T e de"enden#$ "aradi'm *as #riti#ised for its i'noran#e of #auses of underde&e%o"ment from t e nationa% and %o#a% %e&e%s! su# as t e #orru"tion amon' e%ites +.er&aes! /00/89 T e a%ternati&e "aradi'm *as questioned for its Iuto"ian ideo%o'$I +.er&aes! /00/89 79 Peo"%e are t e rea% #ause of t e *or%d de&e%o"mentCs "ro)%em9 One of t e most diffi#u%t t in's to understand is t e uman mind9 In different eras and "%a#es! "eo"%e a&e inter"reted t e term Ide&e%o"mentI different%$9 = at *as on#e #a%%ed de&e%o"ment in C ina! India! or E'$"t is no* an artifa#t of an o%d #i&i%iFation! Con#e"ts of de&e%o"ment # an'e a%% t e time9 One of t e main inf%uen#es on t e uman "er#e"tion a)out de&e%o"ment is I"o*erI9 T ose * o o%d "o*er identif$ t emse%&es *it t eir "ossessions3 to t em! t at is de&e%o"ment9 T e$ t in5 t at t e$ are de&e%o"ed and see5 to en#oura'e or for#e ot ers to do %i5e*ise9 In addition9

Criticism of the alternative paradigm

T e a%ternati&e "aradi'm as )een #riti#ised for its Iuto"ian ideo%o'$I +.er&aes! /00/89 T e #on#e"t of t e a%ternati&e "ers"e#ti&e seems to )e of %itt%e re%e&an#e to "o%i#$ ma5ers and t e "%anners9 It seems to )e "%ura%isti# in t e *a$ it a""roa# es! defines and im"%ements de&e%o"ment "ro:e#ts9 Ho*e&er! its =estern ori'ins in

t e$ a%so see5 to e%iminate ot er "er#e"tions of Ide&e%o"mentI9 =estern attem"ts in t e "ost =or%d =ar II "eriod su""ort t is ar'ument9 Fo%%o*in' =or%d =ar I I ! =estern #ountries sou' % to s"read t eir #on#e"t of de&e%o"ment to de&e%o"in' #ountries9 T e$ en#oura'ed de&e%o"in' nations to pursue development a%on' %%nO %ines of =estern ideas! and tr$in' to sttP" t e inf%uen#e of t e romrminis% #am" * i# a%so #%aimed t at it *anted to re#onstru#t t e de&astated Eastern Euro"ean #ountries after I e *ar9 ;9 Communi#ation is a ne#essar$ )ut not a suffi#ient #ondition for de&e%o"ment9 T e ro%e of #ommuni#ation in de&e%o"ment #an )e at t e %e&e% of inter"ersona%! mass and fo%5 # anne%s9 Communi#ation "%a$s a ro%e in de&e%o"ment * en "eo"%e )e'in to t in5 a)out so#ia% # an'e! e,# an'e idea of de&e%o"ment *it ot ers3 and disseminate de&e%o"ment strate'ies to ot er "eo"%e &ia a&ai%a)%e communication # anne%s9 If t ere is no #ommuni#ation! t e idea of de&e%o"ment #an not 'ro* )e$ond its "oint of ori'in9 T e dominant "aradi'm em" asised t e ro%e of mass #ommuni#ation in t is "ro#ess! * i%e t e a%ternati&e "aradi'm "%a#ed t e ro%e of #ommuni#ation at t o intra(inter"ersona% # anne%9 Ho*e&er! )$ t e same9> to5en! #ommuni#ation #an de#rease t e "otentia% for de&e%o"ment9 Communi#ation #an #onfuse t e "u)%i# a)out t e )est *a$s to "ursue de&e%o"ment9 = i%e #ommuni#ation is im"ortant for de&e%o"ment! *e s ou%d re#o'nise t at not e&er$ de&e%o"ment "ro)%em is #ommuni#ation re%ated9 Communi#ation #an so%&e on%$ t ose "ro)%em t at need #ommuni#ation in"uts +=ind a i! .i'nitFer and O%son! /00M89 J9 T ere is no uni&ersa% *a$ to so%&e t e "ro)%em of de&e%o"ment or underde&e%o"ment9 T e fai%ure of t e =estern #ountries to so%&e t e de&e%o"ment "ro)%em in de&e%o"in' #ountries )$ transferrin' t eir de&e%o"ment mode% s o*s t at t ere is no one *a$ to so%&e de&e%o"ment "ro)%ems9 Lo#a% "ro)%ems often need fo#a% so%utions9 29 Neit er de"endent or inde"endent strate'ies are t e *a$ to so%&e t e "ro)%ems of de&e%o"ment9 T e #riti#isms of t e dominant and t e de"endent "aradi'ms indi#ate t at ea# nation must see5 its o*n "at to de&e%o"ment! eit er )$ de"endin' on assistan#e from ot er nations! or )$ )ein' inde"endent9 T e ad&an#ement of #ommuni#ation te# no%o'$ %ias %ed to '%o)a% interde"enden#e9 M#Lu anCs I'%o)a% &i%%a'eI is ere %o sta$9

+Pa"a! Au*a% and .in' a%! /00J89 T e$ s ou%d )e #on#erned a)out so#ia% de&e%o"ment in terms of "eo"%eCs qua%it$ of %ife! es"e#ia%%$ of t e so#io>e#onomi#a%%$ disad&anta'ed9 One of t e main "ro)%ems t ai "%aques de&e%o"in' #ountries is Hint =estern #ountries and internationa% or'anisations see5 to moti&ate t em around t e #on#e"t of de&e%o"ment and su''est different *a$s to "ursue de&e%o"ment9 T e 'eneration of t ree "aradi'ms in a fe* de#ades su""orts t is "oint9 De&e%o"in' #ountries need to find t eir o*n *a$ to de&e%o"ment! )$ usin' LernerCs +/0J48 #on#e"t of em"at $ in some* at different *a$: Understandin' t e "ro)%ems of ot ers )efore so%&in' t em9 .e%f>determination is an im"ortant # ara#teristi# of de&e%o"ment9 Peo"%eCs "arti#i"ation in t eir o*n em"o*erment is #riti#a% to foster a sense of di'nit$ and se%f>re%ian#e9 .ma%% and s ort>term "ro:e#ts ma$ *or5 )etter t an %on'>term and )i' "ro:e#ts9 A%so "ro:e#ts t at )e'in sma%% and t en e,"and #arefu%%$ a&e )etter # an#es of su##ess9 T e Arameen +Rura%8 Kan5 in Kan'%ades ! * i# as em"o*ered o&er t*o mi%%ion "oor fami%ies! is a #ase in "oint +Au*a% and .in' a%! /00/3 Pa"a! Au*a% and .in' a%! /00J89 A#tion>)ased resear# "ro:e#t +%i5e Arameen Kan58 tend to )e more #ontro%%a)%e! measura)%e and more sustaina)%e9 As *e #om"%ete four de#ades of s# o%ars i" on #ommuni#ation and de&e%o"ment! t e 5e$ de&e%o"ment question sti%% remains %ar'e: De&e%o"ment for * om and *it * at "ur"oseG T e dominant! de"enden#$! and a%ternati&e "aradi'ms a&e "ro&ided some ans*ers to t is question! and in doin' so raised man$ ot er questions9 =i%% a%% t e questions e&er )e ans*eredG

3eferences
Auwal, M. A. and Singhal, A. (1992). The Diffusion of Grameen Bank in Bangladesh. Knowledge. 1 (1) ! "#2$. Baran, %. (19&"). The Political Economy of Growth. 'ew (ork) Mon*hl+ ,e-iew %ress. Bloms**om. M. and .e**ne, $. (19$ ). De-elo/men* Theor+ in Transi*ion) The De/enden0+ De1a*e and Be+ond # Third 2orld ,es/onses. 3ondon! 4ed. Bo+d#Barrelf, 5. (19$26, 78uMural De/enden0+ and *he Mass Media7. 9n M Gure-i*0n, T. Benne**, :. 8urran and :. 2o**a0oM (eds.), Culture, Society and the Media. 3ondon! Melhuen. 8fiiro*, D. (1;$1). <8hanging =ashions 9n 9he S*ud+ of *he So0ial 8auses of >0onomi0 and %oli*i0al 8hange7. ?n :. Shor* (ed.), The State o! Sociology, 2&9#2;2. Be-erl+ .ills! Sage. 8om*e, A. (19@ ). <The %rogress of 8i-iliAa*ion *hrough Three S*ales7. 9n A. >lAioni and >. >*Alonl (eds.), Social Changs, 1 #19. 'ew (ork! Basi0 Books. Gal*ung. :. (99@B). The Truo Worlds ! transnational Pers"ecti#e. 'ew (ork! =ree %ress. Golding, %. (19" ). 7Media ,ole 9n 'a*ional De-elo/men*! 8ri*iCue of Theore*i0al 5r*hodoD+E. $ournal %f Communication, 2 (;) ! ;&#&;. .agen, >. =. (19@2). %n fne Theory of Social Change, 8hi0ago! Dorse+. .ede1ro, G. (19$2). Communication and Social Change in &e#elo"ing 'ations ! Critical (iew. Ames! 9owa Fni-ersi*+ %ress. .ornlk, ,. 8. (19$$). &e#elo"ment Communication )nlormation, !griculture, and 'utrition in )he Third World. 'ew (ofk! 3ongman.

Conclusions
From our #ritique of t e t ree "aradi'ms of de&e%o"ment! *e 'at er t at t e de&e%o"ment of e&er$ "erson! 'rou"! or nation is unique9 T us! it is "ossi)%e for %ess de&e%o"ed #ountries to "%ot t eir o*n unique "at s to de&e%o"ment9 T ose * o a&e C"o*erC to mani"u%ate #ommuni#ation to rea# de&e%o"ment 'oa%s s ou%d use it ethically

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,ole of 8ommuni0a*ion in De-elo/men*! 3essons 3earned from a 8ri*iCue of *he Dominan*, De/enden0+, and Al*erna*i-e %aradigms. Singhal, Ar-ind S*ha/i*anonda, %ari0har* :ournal of De-elo/men* 8ommuni0a*ion) :une 199@, Gol. ", 9ssue 1, /1B#2&, 1@/ Ar*i0le E85MMF'98AT95' ## ,esear0h E25,3D 2ar, 19;9#19 & E>85'5M98 de-elo/men* EDe/enden0+ Theor+ D>G>35%9'G 0oun*ries De-elo/men* 8ommuni0a*ions Marshall %lan B12$#;$@; 3:ASMM221@" 8ommuni0a*ion H Mass Media 8om/le*e

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