Archaeology in China
Fig. 14. The bronze layout of the mausoleum yard, length 94 cm, unearthed in the tomb of the prince of the Zhongshan State, the Hebei
Province. After the Institute of Archaeology at the CASS, 1984.
are very important periods in Chinese history. During
that time, cities and states appeared; Chinese charac-
ters and a large number of documents had already
emerged; the Bronze Age civilization reached its
III. ANCIENT BRONZES: AN INTRODUCTION
China has a very rich store of cultural relics, of which
the bronzes are the most splendid. Like cities and
Chinese characters, bronzes are also an essential part
of Chinese civilization, especially the ritual vessels.
Ritual bronzes play a very important role in politics
in ancient China. They are not only symbols of
wealth and status, but also of political power. The fact
that one owns ritual bronzes means a lot of things,
such as owning ores and advanced techniques, con-
trolling transportation and casting industry, appropri-
ating labour on a large scale, and even having power
over military forces. Therefore the bronze ritual vessel
71
peak, and the Iron Age began. The culture and civil-
ization of the Xia, Shang, and Zhou laid a solid
foundation for the development of culture from the
Qin Dynasty to the present day.
is a key to understanding Chinese bronze civilization,
and further, the whole ancient history of China. Be-
sides, these bronzes can also be considered as great
works of art (for bronzes as works of art, see Li 1995,
110ff.; see also Li & Allan 1995, 409ff.).
I have already mentioned that the collecting and
studying of bronzes can be traced to the Western Han
Dynasty (206 BC–24 AD). Many books on bronzes
appeared as far back as the Northern Song Dynasty
(960–1127). Until the 1950s, tens of thousands of
various bronzes had been found, though the majority
not through archaeological excavation. Since the
72 Acta Archaeologica
1950s, along with the development of archaeological
fieldwork, precious bronzes have been discovered in
different parts of China. In the meantime, due to the
employment of archaeological methods, the study of
bronzes has reached a new level. In the following, I
am going to introduce Chinese bronzes in four ways.
They are: the origin and development; classifications
and functions; decorations and inscriptions; and tech-
niques of bronze making.
1. THE ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT
When did bronze appear in China? The answer can
be found in two sources. Firstly, from historical docu-
ments. According to an old book entitled Lost History
of the State of Yue (Yue Jue Shu), bronze first appeared
in the Xia Dynasty. There is a story in this book. In
the 5th century BC, the Prince of Chu wanted to
make a valuable iron sword, and his minister told him
the story of the development of weapons and im-
plements since ancient times. The series is: stone,
bronze and iron. It is interesting that this observation
coincides with modern archaeology. Other docu-
ments also show that the bronze first appeared in the
Xia. For example, Records of the Historian (Shi Ji) rec-
ords that nine bronze Dings, a kind of ritual vessel,
were made in the early Xia. The Book of Mo Zi (Mo
Zi) records that the king of the Xia ordered people to
procure copper ore from mountains to make bronze
Dings (Li 1995, 10ff.).
But according to archaeological discoveries, the
earliest material evidence of copper and bronze ar-
ticles can even be traced to the Late Neolithic Age.
For example, a piece of copper cast in a single mould
was found on a site dating to 6700 years ago. Many
copper and bronze articles were discovered in the Yel-
low River valley, dating to about 4000 years ago.
Most of these are tools and ornaments, some are
forged, while others are cast in moulds. Among them
there are two significant articles, one is a fragment
of the bottom of a large container, containing seven
percent tin. Another is a bronze bell cast in a mould,
dating to 2100 BC. Besides bronze articles, some pot-
tery moulds and wastes of ore were found, dating to
around the same time (Li 1995, 10ff.). These discover-
ies all prove that 4000 years ago China was able to
make large and complicated bronze objects. From
then on, the development of bronzes mainly undergo-
es five stages (for the important discoveries and the
development of bronzes, see Li 1995; also Shaughnes-
sy & Loewe 1999).
(1) The first stage occurs during the Xia Dynasty.
The unearthed bronzes of the Xia concentrate on the
Erlitou site, in the Henan province. This site may, as
mentioned, be the ruin of the capital of the Xia. A
number of bronzes, including tools, weapons, orna-
ments and containers, are found in tombs. The most
common containers are two kinds of goblet named
Jue and Jia. They have flat bottoms and three long
and narrow legs. Ornaments include some discs and
pendants inlaid with turquoise. Tools include knives,
awls, and fishing hooks, while the weapons include
dagger-axes, battle-axes etc.
(2) The second stage is that of the Shang Dynasty.
The early Shang bronzes are mainly found at the
early capital Zhengzhou and the nearby areas. Most
bronzes are found in storage pits. There is a group of
bronze vessels in each pit, including some huge ves-
sels, such as the rectangular Ding, which is more than
one meter high. Besides, many bronzes are found in
the areas far away from the capital. One of the most
important discoveries is a collection of 63 bronzes.
They were unearthed in a tomb at the bank of the
Yangzi River, which belonged to the southern terri-
tory of the early Shang. During this period, cooking
vessels, food containers, wine vessels, and water ves-
sels had already appeared.
In the late Shang, the development of bronzes
reaches its first peak. The typical bronzes of this
period come from the Yin Ruin. On this site, a large
number of bronzes are from tombs of the royal, the
noble and the common people, and also from sacri-
fice pits. Other findings cover a large area of China,
even some remote border areas. For example, in the
western province Shaanxi, many bronzes are found
in pits; many bronzes are also unearthed along both
banks of the Yellow River in the Shanxi province.
They are suspected to be the relics of some small
states of the Shang period. The most exciting findings
in recent years are in South China (for the discoveries
and characteristics of bronzes from the South, see Ba-
gley 1987). This proves that the bronze culture of the
Yangzi River Valley is as developed as that of the
Yellow River Valley during the Shang period. For ex-
 Archaeology in China
ample, along the Xiang River (the Hunan province),
many beautiful bronze vessels are unearthed in
riverbeds or on hilltops. The interesting thing is that,
in most cases, each time only a single bronze is un-
earthed. Another example, in the Jiangxi province,
there is a large tomb where several hundred bronzes
of different periods of the Shang Dynasty were found.
In the Sichuan province we found two pits full of
amazing and mysterious bronzes. For instance, a
large bronze statue is 2.61 meters high. There are a
lot of human masks and statues of human heads with
different characteristics, some of these covered by
golden masks. The largest mask is 64.5 cm high and
138 cm wide. We also find several bronze trees with
bronze branches, flowers, fruits, birds, bells and other
ornaments. The largest tree is four meters high. Until
now there have been no satisfactory explanations of
these new finds in South China. Why were so many
beautiful bronzes buried along the Xiang River? Who
is buried in the large tomb? What are the functions
of the bronze statues, masks, trees and other strange
things? As the ancient people left us such a rich store
of treasures, they also left these mysteries and riddles
to us (for the Shang bronzes, see Bagley 1987).
(3) The third stage is Western Zhou. Many import-
ant finds are concentrated in the Shaanxi province,
which is the original area of the Zhou people (Fig.
15). Until now, no royal tomb has been found, there-
fore we can assume the majority of the Western Zhou
bronzes must be castings for ministers and high of-
ficials of the royal court. Bronzes are also found in
some remote areas, for example, many bronzes are
found in the tombs in the lower reaches of the Yangzi
River, and also in the pits in the Liaoning and Sichu-
an provinces (for the Western Zhou bronzes, see
Rawson 1990).
(4) The fourth stage is Eastern Zhou, the second
peak of the development. At that time, many small
states became stronger in political, economic and other
aspects. As a result, each state has its own bronze cast-
ing industry. A large number of bronzes come from
tombs of princes or marquises and other nobles. Many
bronzes are also found in the ruins of the capitals (for
the Eastern Zhou bronzes, see So 1995).
(5) The last stage takes place in the Qin and Han
Dynasties. In the Xia, Shang and Zhou, generally
speaking, the features of the bronzes developed into
73
two groupings, the North and the South. Moreover,
in a particular area or a particular state, the bronzes
have their own characteristics. But in the Qin, along
with the establishment of the first empire, these differ-
ences are gradually dissolved. In the Qin and Han,
the workmanship of many vessels reaches a very high
level. The lamps, mirrors, chariots, and horses from
the tombs of princes can probably best demonstrate
this. For instance, we found two chariots in the tomb
passage of the mausoleum of the first Emperor of the
Qin. Each chariot has four horses and one person,
and one chariot is 3.17 meters long and one meter
high. It is the largest in size and the most complicated
in structure of any bronzes so far found in China (for
the Qin and Han bronzes, see Wang & Chang 1982;
also Li 1985).
2. CLASSIFICATIONS AND
FUNCTIONS
Chinese bronzes can be divided into seven main cate-
gories according to their functions. They are ritual
vessels, musical instruments, weapons, tools, chariots
and harnesses, weights and measures, and miscel-
laneous articles (see Li 1995, 16ff.). Among these, the
ritual vessel is the most important. I will just focus on
this group.
What is a ritual vessel? Ritual vessels are cooking
vessels, food containers, wine vessels and water ves-
sels, and they are used in complex ancient ceremon-
ies. Many ritual practices and the particular ritual
vessels being used therein are recorded in documents.
Usually the vessels were exhibited in temples and an-
cestral halls, and used at feasts or ceremonial ab-
lutions. Most ritual vessels have been unearthed from
tombs. Some vessels were used by owners during their
lifetimes for ritual sacrifice or during feasts, others
were made only as burial objects. The burial cer-
emony of the royal and noble families was quite os-
tentatious and extravagant. In some Shang tombs, we
even found food containers with meat and wine ves-
sels with wine. Besides tombs, the storage pit is an-
other repository for ritual vessels. In some urgent situ-
ations, people used to bury their bronzes at a certain
spot before fleeing. Often a pit contains a whole
group of bronzes that were cast by a family over sev-
eral generations. Ritual vessels are also found on hill-
74
Fig. 15. Drawings of the three layers of bronze vessels in the pit,
Western Zhou, Fufeng, the Shaanxi Province. After Rawson, 1993.
tops and in riverbeds. Archaeologists guess that these
bronzes may have been used to make offerings to
mountains and rivers.
Among the cooking vessels, the Ding is one of the
most important types for cooking meat. It may be
three-legged and round, or four-legged and rectangu-
lar, usually with two ears, and may or may not have lid
(Fig. 16-1.2). The size of the Ding varies from very small
to extremely large. For example, the smallest Ding is
only 10 cm high, but the largest one from the Yin Ruin
is 133 cm high, 110 cm long, and weighs 875 kg. An
Ox Ding and a Deer Ding excavated from a large tomb
Acta Archaeologica
in the Yin Ruin are actually large enough to cook an
entire ox or deer. Often, a series of Dings of different
sizes denote the rank of the owner, depending on how
many pieces there are in the set. For example, the king
can use 12 Ding, the prince uses nine, the marquis and
other nobles only use seven or less.
Li is another kind of cooking vessel characterized
by its pouchlike hollow legs (Fig. 16-7). Yan is a
steamer, its upper part is like that of a Ding and its
lower part is like a Li (Fig. 16-4). Many Yans are very
large, for example, a Yan unearthed in a large tomb
in Jiangxi Province is 1.14 meter high.
Food containers have many types. The most com-
mon one is the Gui. The majority of Gui are round,
while a few are rectangular. Some Guis’ have lids and
two or four ears, others have none. Usually under the
belly there is a circular base, some also have a block
beneath the base (Fig. 16-3.5). Like the Dings, a series
of Guis of varying size and number can denote the
rank of the owner. Another type of food container is
the Dou. It is round in shape, with a wide, and deep
or shallow belly. There is a high handle and a circular
base beneath the belly (Fig. 16-6).
Some ancient Chinese books record the drinking
customs of the Shang people. And archaeologists have
also found various kinds of bronze wine vessels. The
simplest set of wine goblets in the Shang consists of a
Jue, a Jia, and a Gu. Jue has a spout at the front like
a beak, a tail at the back, two pillars on the spout,
and three legs below the round belly (Fig. 17-7). The
largest Jue is 67 cm high and quite heavy. Therefore,
it could not have been used in daily life. The Jia is
similar to the Jue, but without spout and tail (Fig. 17-
10). The Gu has a simple shape, a wide mouth and
circular base, and a long and slender body (Fig. 17-
4). Another interesting drinking vessel is the Gong, its
whole body is cast into the shape of an animal in a
standing position (Fig. 17-6).
Among the wine containers, the Zun, You, pot, and
the square Yi are common. The Zun is normally
round or square in shape, with a wide mouth and a
circular base (Fig. 17-2). The You generally has loop
handles and is dumpy or long and slender (Fig. 17-3).
Some Yous are cast into the shape of animals, such as
owls (Fig. 17-5) or tigers (Fig. 17-9). Usually, Zun and
You are used together. The pot may be round or
square, with a big belly. It may have one loop handle
 Archaeology in China 75

Fig. 16. Bronze cooking vessels and food containers. 1. Round Ding (Eastern Zhou, height 31 cm), 2. Rectangular Ding (Shang, height 38.5
cm), 3. Gui (Western Zhou, height 35.7 cm), 4. Yan (Shang), 5. Gui (Eastern Zhou, height 24.1 cm), 6. Dou (Eastern Zhou, height 32 cm), 7.
Li. 1.5.6. After Archaeology 372, Beijing; 2.7. After Li 1995; 3.4. After Rawson 1993.

or two ears on the side of the body (Fig. 17-1). The
square Yi is quite interesting. The vessels were cast in
the form of the roof of ancient buildings (Fig. 17-8).
As for water vessels, the plate and the Yi are com-
mon, and they are used together (Fig. 18-1.2). During
the ceremonial ablution, people pour the water from
the Yi and wash their hands. The water flows into the
plate. The large water vessel is a Jian, with two or four
ears (Fig. 18-3). Its large basin has three purposes, as
a bathtub, as a mirror when filled with water, and as
a container for ice.
Now I would like to say a few words about musical
instruments. I will only introduce two kinds. One is
the Nao, with its mouth facing upward. It has a long
shaft set on a wooden base (Fig. 18-5). The Nao could
be used singly or in a set. The largest Nao is 89 cm
high. Another is the chime (Fig. 18-4). A chime of
bells unearthed from the tomb of a marquis consisted
of 65 different bells. Even today they can still produce
a good tune.
All in all, bronzes which have the same function
could be different in both types and shapes even in
the same area and during the same period. And the
type and shape of the bronzes could be changing with
the time as well. For example, the Ding appeared in
every period but with different shape, while some
other type of bronzes only appeared in one period
but were replaced by new ones later.
3. DECORATIONS AND
INSCRIPTIONS
The decorations used on the various bronzes came
into existence long before the bronzes themselves ap-
76 Acta Archaeologica

Fig. 17. Bronze wine vessels. 1. Pot (Wester Zhou), 2. Zun (Shang, height 74.2 cm), 3. You (Shang), 4. Gu (Shang, height 28.5 cm), 5. Owl You
(Shang, height 24 cm), 6. Gong (Shang, height 31.4 cm), 7. Jue (Shang), 8. Square Yi (Western Zhou, height 40.7 cm), 9. Tiger You (Shang,
height 35 cm), 10. Jia (Shang, 65.7 cm). 1.8. After Rawson, 1993; 2. After Cultural Relics 509, Beijing; 3.4.7.10. After Acta Archaeology Sinica,
1981, Beijing; 5. After Li 1995; 6.9. After Archaeology 366, Beijing.
 Archaeology in China 77

Fig. 18. Bronze water vessels and musical instruments. 1. Plate (Western Zhou, diameter 47.3 cm), 2. Yi (Western Zhou), 3. Jian (Eastern
Zhou), 4. Chime (Western Zhou), 5. Nao (Western Zhou, height 51.4 cm). 1.4. After Rawson 1993; 2.3. After Li 1995; 5. After Archaeology
361, Beijing.

peared. Many motifs are directly derived from Neo-
lithic pottery and jade. Generally speaking, these mo-
tifs can be divided into four categories.
The first is that of mystic animals, which are the
main themes on the bronzes of the Shang Dynasty.
The Shang people were known to be believers in
spirits, and the Shang kings used mystic and terrifying
rituals to awe and control people. Moreover, these
mystic animals could also be the medium between
human beings and heaven. Therefore, the mystical
and awesome bronzes reflect the primitive styles of
worship practiced in those days.
Among the mystic motifs, the most important is the
ogre mask. Usually an ogre mask is a combination of
various parts of dragons, tigers, oxen, sheep, deer,
birds and even human beings. Some ogre masks have
a body, feet, claws and a tail, and some only have a
head (Fig. 19-2, Fig. 20-2.10). Other mystic animals
found are the dragon and the phoenix, which we are
more familiar with. The dragon has two horns, a long
body and strong claws (Fig. 19-3.4). There are many
other different types of dragon. The typical one is the
single-footed Kui dragon (Fig. 19-2, Fig. 20-1). The
other is composed of many small dragons intertwin-
ing with each other (Fig. 20-6). The Phoenix has a
long tail and a comb, and characteristically looks like
a peacock (Fig. 20-4).
The second kind consists of real creatures, includ-
ing tigers, sheep, oxen, horses, elephants, birds, fishes,
tortoises, snakes, frogs, silkworms and cicadas, etc.
78 Acta Archaeologica

Fig. 19. Decorations. 1. Bird motif, geometric design, nipple design, ogre mask (Ding, Shang, height 20.8 cm), 2. Ogre mask, Kui dragon,
cloud and thunder design (Ding, Shang, height 24 cm), 3. Dragon, fish motifs (Plate, Shang), 4. Dragon, tiger, ogre musk motifs (Zun, Shang,
height 50.5 cm), 5. Meandering design, wave design (Yu, Eastern Zhou, height 38 cm). 1.2.4.5. After Archaeology 366, 372; 3. After Acta
Archaeology Sinica, 1981, Beijing.
 Archaeology in China 79

Fig. 20. Decorations. 1. Kui dragon, 2. Ogre mask, 3. Cloud design, 4. Phoenix motif, 5. Bird and ogre mask, 6. Intertwining dragons, 7.
Meandering design, 8. Tiger-devouring-human motif, 9. Spiral design, 10. Ogre mask.

(Fig. 19-1.3.4, Fig. 20-5.8). In most cases, these motifs
are secondary to the ogre mask and the phoenix.
Usually fishes and tortoises appear on water vessels.
Cicadas were very popular and lasted for quite a long
period. In most cases, they appeared on handles of
the bronzes. Usually, tigers, birds, oxen’s heads, and
sheep’s heads appeared as sculptures, decorating lids
or shoulders of the bronzes (for the meaning of mystic
and real creatures, see Rawson 1987, 26ff.; see also
Li & Allan 1995, 409ff.).
The third category is that of simple patterns, such as,
the cloud and thunder design, the nipple design, the tile
design, the wave design, the meandering design, the
banana leaf design, the spiral design and other geo-
metric patterns (Fig. 19-1.5, Fig. 20-3.7.9). Among
these, the cloud and thunder motif is often used as a
background on delicate bronzes. Usually, the patterns
are simpler on the early bronzes, later, they are more
complicated, becoming the dominant motif.
The last motifs can be called genre-painting de-
signs, which emerged in the Eastern Zhou. The artists
use fine lines to create elaborate designs, vividly de-
picting scenes from real life, such as the hunting, ban-
quets, archery, battles on boats, attacking cities, or
scenes of picking mulberry leaves (Fig. 21).
Incidentally, many bronzes are also cast in the
shape of animals, such as the ox, pig, sheep, elephant,
owl, rabbit, tiger, rhinoceros, and bird.
Moreover, the decorations have different styles in
different periods. For example, the decorations in the
Xia and early Shang are simple, but in the later
Shang, they become more elaborate, and have three
layers. Mythic animals, especially the ogre mask, is
the main theme in this period (Fig. 22). In the West-
ern Zhou, first the phoenix and the bird, then simple
patterns are the main motifs. Till the Eastern Zhou,
geometric patterns and vivid designs of daily life re-
placed animals. In the Qin and Han Dynasties, the
bronzes tend to be plain. On many bronzes there is
no decoration at all. Therefore in a sense, the decor-
ation can be regarded as a ‘‘language’’, which will
help us not only to ‘‘read’’ the bronzes themselves
but also the cultural connotations embodied in the
bronzes.
80 Acta Archaeologica
Fig. 21. Genre-painting design, engraved on a bronze pot, Eastern
Zhou. On the left of the top there is a scene depicting archery,
while on the right is that of picking mulberry leaves. In the middle
on the left there is a banquet scene in two layers, and the right side
shows the hunting scene. On the left in the last part there is the
scene of attacking a city, and the right side is that of fighting on
the boat. After Li 1995.
Actually, there is also a real language on the
bronzes: the inscriptions. Just like the bronze motifs,
the earliest palaeographic material is on the pottery
of antiquity, from about 6000 years ago. Evidence re-
veals that the inscriptions on the bronzes date back
to the early period of the Shang Dynasty. The early
inscriptions are pictographic characters.
Why did the ancient people cast inscriptions on the
bronzes? A bronze is solid and long-lasting, therefore
it can record historical events in texts. In the majority
of cases, the characters are cast. Usually, they are
sunk into the surface, while occasionally they appear
as relief. Only in a few instances are characters en-
graved with sharp tools.
Generally the bronze inscriptions of the Shang
period are plain, mainly recording the family and first
names of the owner of the vessel, and the form of
address of the ancestor to whom the sacrificial vessel
is dedicated. In the late Shang and the Western Zhou,
inscriptions become longer, and the contents include
rewards and appointments received by the owner
from the king, battle achievements, treaties, oaths, in-
structions, and admonitions for future generations
(Fig. 23).
The bronze inscriptions are invaluable because
they not only serve as important data in studying Chi-
nese bronzes, but also in studying Chinese history (Li
1995, 81ff.; see also Shaughnessy 1991). Some
bronzes bear inscriptions consisting of about 500
characters. In the Shang and Zhou dynasties, the
longest article contained in the Venerated Documents
(Shang Shu) is of only 1000 characters, while others
are of no more than 500. Where amount of infor-
mation is concerned, the bronze inscriptions are com-
parable to the celebrated historical works.
But not only this. Many a time, inscriptions on the
unearthed bronzes confirm the historical documents.
The inscriptions can verify the authenticity of stories
narrated in ancient books, and even furnish details to
some historical events. For example, according to the
Venerated Documents (Shang Shu) and the Lost Records of
the Zhou (Yi Zhou Shu), on one particular day in the
lunar calendar, the king of the Zhou led his army out
to attack the capital of the Shang. He takes the oath
to confront the Shang army in a decisive battle. The
Shang army is, however, badly defeated, so the Shang
king burns himself that very same night, bringing
about the end of the Shang. In 1976, a bronze Gui of
the Zhou was found, with this historical event, includ-
ing the exact date of the battle, recorded in the in-
scriptions. In a sense, bronze inscriptions are buried
evidences of ancient history.
Occasionally, inscriptions even record historical
events which are not mentioned in any documents. For
example, there is a small state called Zhongshan during
the Eastern Zhou, but the information about it is too
fragmentary to form a complete picture of its history.
In 1974, a group of bronzes was found in the tomb of
the Prince of Zhongshan, including one Ding and two
 Archaeology in China
Fig. 22. Square Lei, Wine container, Later Shang, height 53 cm.
From the top to bottom, the decorations are bird, Kui dragon and
sheep head, bird, ogre mask with body, ogre mask without body,
bird. The background design is cloud and thunder motif. After The
bronzes housed in the Shanghai Museum, Shanghai, 1964.
pots. The inscriptions on these three bronzes describe
in detail the genealogy of the Zhongshan and some
other major historical events. Another interesting ex-
ample is that of four bronzes found in 1975. The in-
scriptions describe several long-lasting dealings be-
tween two nobles. One of the dealings is about ex-
changing and trading land. Before this find, it was
widely believed that during the Western Zhou land
could not be transferred. The inscriptions indicate that,
81
Fig. 23. Inscriptions, cast on a bronze plate, Western Zhou. The
first part of the inscriptions has recorded the achivements made by
seven kings and the important events which happened in the early
Western Zhou. The second part has recorded the history of six
generations of the owner’s family. After the Institute of Archaeology
at the CASS, 1984.
at that time, not only trading of land existed, but also
that land was already valued in terms of currency.
4. TECHNIQUES OF BRONZE
MAKING
The technique of casting with sectional pottery
moulds is fully developed in the Xia, Shang and
Zhou. Large or complicated objects are made by sep-
arate moulds. The minor parts of an object are cast
beforehand and then placed in a bigger mould for the
main body, and vice versa. Usually, at least four
moulds are needed, but more for complicated vessels.
For example, a ram Zun of the Shang period required
27 moulds. Sometimes, one object can be cast in two
different metals. We have found bronze battle-axes
with iron blades of the Shang, and also bronze swords
reinforced with iron rods in the center of the Eastern
Zhou.
82 Acta Archaeologica
In the Eastern Zhou, a more advanced lost wax
method was adopted. The most famous example of
such bronzes is a set of Zun and plate from the tomb
of marquis Zhen. The amazingly high degree of per-
fection of these bronzes indicates that the lost wax
technique must have undergone a long period of de-
velopment.
The technique of inlaying was also developed quite
early in the Xia. Turquoise is the first stone used
specifically for this purpose, then jade and shell.
Usually, these materials are inlaid into the ogre
masks. Later, gold, silver, and copper are inlaid into
the scenes of daily life, animals or other patterns.
In the Eastern Zhou, people started to use certain
chemicals to give the surface of bronze weapons a
rustproof coating. Even though they have been buried
for more than 20 centuries, some can still cut through
a stack of paper.
In the Han, bronzes become less important. At that
time lacquer wares develop quickly, the lighter and
beautiful lacquer wares replacing the heavy bronze
vessels in daily life. Especially at the end of the Han,
with the rising prestige of iron tools and vessels,
bronzes fall into decline. Thus, in China, the studies
of ancient bronzes end with the Han Dynasty.
5. SUMMARY
(1) The origin and development
The late Neolithic Age: bronze appeared
The Xia Dynasty (21st–16th century BC): ritual ves-
sels appeared
The Shang Dynasty (16th–11th century BC): the first
peak
The Western Zhou (11th–770 BC): stable develop-
ment
The Eastern Zhou (770–221 BC): the second peak
The Qin and Han Dynasties (221 BC–220 AD): less
important
(2) Classifications and functions
A. ritual vessels
cooking vessels: Ding, Li, Yan, etc.
food containers: Gui, Dou, etc.
wine goblets: Jue, Jia, Gu, Gong, etc.
wine containers: Zun, You, pot, square Yi, etc.
water vessels: plate, Yi, Jian, etc.
B. musical instruments
Nao, chime, etc.
(3) Decorations and inscriptions
A. decorations
mystic animals: ogre mask, dragon, phoenix, etc.
real creatures: tiger, sheep, ox, horse, elephant,
bird, fish, tortoise, snake, frog, ciada, etc.
simple patterns: nipple design, cloud and thunder
design, tile design, meandering design,
wave design, geometric patterns, etc.
genre-paintings: hunting, banquet, archery,
battle, picking mulberry leaves, etc.
B. inscriptions
(4) Techniques of bronzes making
casting with pottery moulds
lost wax method
techniques of inlaying