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NETWORK Comms Research
If you've ever used the Internet, it's a good bet that you've used the Domain Name System, or DNS, even without realizing it. DNS is a protocol within the set of standards for how computers exchange data on the Internet and on many private networks, known as the TCP/IP protocol suite. Its basic job is to turn a user-friendly domain name like "howstuffworks.com" into an Internet Protocol (IP) address like 70.42.251.42 that computers use to identify each other on the network. It's like your computer's GPS for the Internet. Computers and other network devices on the Internet use an IP address to route your request to the site you're trying to reach. This is similar to dialing a phone number to connect to the person you're trying to call. Thanks to DNS, though, you don't have to keep your own address book of IP addresses. Instead, you just connect through a domain name server, also called a DNS server or name server, which manages a massive database that maps domain names to IP addresses.
USB DONGLE
Many devices smaller than a pack of gum can slip into the Universal Serial Bus (USB) port of a computer. These devices are called USB dongles and add features to the computer or machine that were not built in by the manufacturer. This can include the ability to connect to wireless networks, transfer data from the computer to the dongle, and increase a system's security.
The User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is one of the core members of the Internet protocol suite (the set of network protocols used for the Internet). With UDP, computer applications can send messages, in this case referred to as datagrams, to other hosts on an Internet Protocol (IP) network without prior communications to set up special transmission channels or data paths. The protocol was designed by David P. Reed in 1980 and formally defined in RFC 768. UDP uses a simple transmission model with a minimum of protocol mechanism.[1] It has no handshaking dialogues, and thus exposes any unreliability of the underlying network protocol to the user's program. As this is normally IP over unreliable media, there is no guarantee of delivery, ordering or duplicate protection. UDP provides checksums for data integrity, and port numbers for addressing different functions at the source and destination of the datagram.
UDP is suitable for purposes where error checking and correction is either not necessary or performed in the application, avoiding the overhead of such processing at the network interface level. Time-sensitive applications often use UDP because dropping packets is preferable to waiting for delayed packets, which may not be an option in a real-time system. A number of UDP's attributes make it especially suited for certain applications. It is transaction-oriented, suitable for simple query-response protocols such as the Domain Name System or the Network Time Protocol. It provides datagrams, suitable for modeling other protocols such as in IP tunneling or Remote Procedure Call and the Network File System. It is simple, suitable for bootstrapping or other purposes without a full protocol stack, such as the DHCP and Trivial File Transfer Protocol. It is stateless, suitable for very large numbers of clients, such as in streaming media applications for example IPTV The lack of retransmission delays makes it suitable for real-time applications such as Voice over IP, online games, and many protocols built on top of the Real Time Streaming Protocol. Works well in unidirectional communication, suitable for broadcast information such as in many kinds of service discovery and shared information such as broadcast time or Routing Information Protocol
Frame Relay
Frame Relay is a standardized wide area network technology that specifies the physical and logical link layers of digital telecommunications channels using a packet switching methodology. Originally designed for transport across Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) infrastructure, it may be used today in the context of many other network interfaces. Network providers commonly implement Frame Relay for voice (VoFR) and data as an encapsulation technique, used between local area networks (LANs) over a wide area network (WAN). Each end-user gets a private line (or leased line) to a Frame Relay node. The Frame Relay network handles the transmission over a frequently-changing path transparent to all end-user extensively-used WAN protocols. It is less expensive than leased lines and that is one reason for its popularity. The extreme simplicity of configuring user equipment in a Frame Relay network offers another reason for Frame Relay's popularity.
control character
In computing and telecommunication, a control character or non-printing character is a code point (a number) in a character set, that does not in itself represent a written symbol. It is in-band signaling in the context of character encoding. All entries in the ASCII table below code 32 (technically the C0 control code set) and 127 are of this kind, including BEL (which is intended to cause an audible signal in the receiving terminal), SYN (which is a synchronization signal), and ENQ (a signal that is intended to trigger a response at the receiving end, to see if it is still present). The Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code (EBCDIC) character set contains 65 control codes, including all of the ASCII control codes as well as additional codes which are mostly used to control IBM peripherals. Unicode makes a distinction between Control characters (C0 and C1 control codes) versus Formatting characters (such as the Zero-width non-joiner).
The control characters in ASCII still in common use include: 0 (null, NUL, \0, ^@), originally intended to be an ignored character, but now used by many programming languages to mark the end of a string. 7 (bell, BEL, \a, ^G), which may cause the device receiving it to emit a warning of some kind (usually audible). 8 (backspace, BS, \b, ^H), used either to erase the last character printed or to overprint it. 9 (horizontal tab, HT, \t, ^I), moves the printing position some spaces to the right. 10 (line feed, LF, \n, ^J), used as the end of line marker in most UNIX systems and variants. 11 (vertical tab, VT, \v, ^K), vertical tabulation. 12 (form feed, FF, \f, ^L), to cause a printer to eject paper to the top of the next page, or a video terminal to clear the screen.
13 (carriage return, CR, \r, ^M), used as the end of line marker in Mac OS, OS-9, FLEX (and variants). A carriage return/line feed pair is used by CP/M-80 and its derivatives including DOS and Windows, and by Application Layer protocols such as HTTP. 27 (escape, ESC, \e (GCC only), ^[). 127 (delete, DEL, ^?), originally intended to be an ignored character, but now used in some systems to erase a character. Also used by some Plan9 console programs to send an interrupt note to the current process.
bit stuffing
In data transmission and telecommunication, bit stuffing (also knownuncommonlyas positive justification) is the insertion of non information bits into data. Stuffed bits should not be confused with overhead bits. Bit stuffing is used for various purposes, such as for bringing bit streams that do not necessarily have the same or rationally related bit rates up to a common rate, or to fill buffers or frames. The location of the stuffing bits is communicated to the receiving end of the data link, where these extra bits are removed to return the bit streams to their original bit rates or form. Bit stuffing may be used to synchronize several channels before multiplexing or to rate-match two single channels to each other.