CHAPTER 4

BREAKDOWN in SOLID DIELECTRICS

4.1 INTRODUCTION
Solid dielectric mteril! re "!ed in ll #ind! o$ electricl circ"it! nd de%ice! to in!"lte
one c"rrent crr&in' (rt $rom not)er *)en t)e& o(erte t di$$erent %olt'e!. A 'ood
dielectric !)o"ld )%e lo* dielectric lo!!+ )i') mec)nicl !tren't)+ !)o"ld ,e $ree $rom
'!eo"! incl"!ion+ nd moi!t"re+ nd ,e re!i!tnt to t)erml nd c)emicl deteriortion.
Solid dielectric! )%e )i')er ,re#do*n !tren't) com(red to li-"id! nd '!e!.
St"died o$ t)e ,re#do*n o$ !olid dielectric! re o$ e.treme im(ortnce in
in!"ltion !t"die!. W)en ,re#do*n occ"r!+ !olid! 'et (ermnentl& dm'ed *)ile
'!e! $"ll& nd li-"id! (rtl& reco%er t)eir dielectric !tren't) $ter t)e ((lied electric
$ield remo%ed.
T)e mec)ni!m o$ ,re#do*n i! com(le. ()enomenon in t)e c!e o$ !olid!+
nd %rie! de(endin' on t)e time o$ ((liction o$ %olt'e ! !)o*n in /i'. 4. 1. T)e
%rio"! ,re#do*n mec)ni!m! cn ,e cl!!i$ied ! $ollo*!0
Intrin!ic+ Electromec)nicl
Streamer
Thermal
Ero!ion nd Electroc)emicl
Log Time
Bre#do*n
Stren't)
Fig.4.1Variation of breakdown strength with time after application of voltage
1
1 Intrin!ic or ionic ,re#do*n+
,1 electromec)nicl ,re#do*n+
c1 $il"re d"e to treein' nd trc#in'+
d1 t)erml ,re#do*n+
e1 electroc)emicl ,re#do*n+ nd
$1 ,re#do*n d"e to internl di!c)r'e!.
4.2 INTRINSIC BREAKDOWN
W)en %olt'e! re ((lied onl& $or !)ort d"rtion! o$ t)e order o$
8
10 s t)e dielectric
!tren't) o$ !olid dielectric incre!e! %er& r(idl& to n "((er limit clled t)e intrin!ic
electric !tren't). E.(erimentll&+ t)i! )i')e!t dielectric !tren't) cn ,e o,tined onl&
"nder t)e ,e!t e.(erimentl condition! *)en ll e.trneo"! in$l"ence! )%e ,een
i!olted nd t)e %l"e de(end! onl& on t)e !tr"ct"re o$ t)e mteril nd t)e
tem(ert"re. T)e m.im"m electricl !tren't) recorder i! 13 456cm $or (ol&%in&l7
lco)ol t 7189
:
C. T)e m.im"m !tren't) "!"ll& o,tin,le rn'e! $rom 3 456cm.
Intrin!ic ,re#do*n de(end! "(on t)e (re!ence o$ $ree electron! *)ic) re
c(,le o$ mi'rtion t)ro"') t)e lttice o$ t)e dielectric. U!"ll&+ !mll n"m,er o$
cond"ction electron! re (re!ent in !olid dielectric!+ lon' *it) !ome !tr"ct"rl
im(er$ection! nd !mll mo"nt! o$ im("ritie!. T)e im("rit& tom!+ or molec"le! or
,ot) ct ! tr(! $or t)e cond"ction electron! "( to certin rn'e! o$ electric $ield! nd
tem(ert"re!. W)en t)e!e rn'e! re e.ceeded+ dditionl electron! in ddition to
tr((ed electron! re rele!ed+ nd t)e!e electron! (rtici(te in t)e cond"ction
(roce!!. B!ed on t)i! (rinci(le+ t*o t&(e! o$ intrin!ic ,re#do*n mec)ni!m! )%e
,een (ro(o!ed.
i1 Electronic Bre#do*n
Intrin!ic ,re#do*n occ"r! in time o$ t)e order o$ 1:
7;
! nd t)ere$ore i! !!"med to ,e
electronic in nt"re. T)e initil den!it& o$ cond"ction <$ree1 electron! i! l!o !!"med to
,e lr'e+ nd electron7electron colli!ion! occ"r. W)en n electric $ield i! ((lied+
electron! 'in ener'& $rom t)e electric $ield nd cro!! t)e $or,idden ener'& '( $rom t)e
%lence ,nd to t)e cond"ction ,nd. W)en t)i! (roce!! i! re(eted+ more nd more
electron! ,ecome %il,le in t)e cond"ction ,nd+ e%ent"ll& ledin' to ,re#do*n.
ii1 A%lnc)e or Stremer Bre#do*n
T)i! i! !imilr to ,re#do*n in '!e! d"e to c"m"lti%e ioni=tion. Cond"ction electron!
'in !"$$icient ener'& ,o%e certin criticl electric $ield nd c"!e li,ertion o$
electron! $rom t)e lttice tom! ,& colli!ion. Under "ni$orm $ield condition!+ i$ t)e
electrode! re em,edded in t)e !(ecimen+ ,re#do*n *ill occ"r *)en n electron
%lnc)e ,rid'e! t)e electrode '(.
An electron *it)in t)e dielectric+ !trtin' $rom t)e ct)ode *ill dri$t to*rd! t)e node
nd d"rin' t)i! motion 'in! ener'& $rom t)e $ield nd lo!e! it d"rin' colli!ion!. W)en
t)e ener'& 'ined ,& n electron e.ceed! t)e lttice ioni=tion (otentil+ n dditionl
electron *ill ,e li,erted d"e to colli!ion o$ t)e $ir!t electron. T)i! (roce!! re(et! it!el$

re!"ltin' in t)e $ormtion o$ n electron %lnc)e. Bre#do*n *ill occ"r+ *)en t)e
%lnc)e e.ceed! certin criticl !i=e.
In (rctice+ ,re#do*n doe! not occ"r ,& t)e $ormtion o$ !in'le %lnc)e it!el$+ ,"t
occ"r! ! re!"lt o$ mn& %lnc)e! $ormed *it)in t)e dielectric nd e.tendin' !te( ,&
!te( t)ro"') t)e entire t)ic#ne!! o$ t)e mteril.
4.> ELECTRO4ECHANICAL BREAKDOWN
W)en !olid dielectric! re !",?ected to )i') electric $ield!+ $il"re occ"r! d"e to
electro!ttic com(re!!i%e $orce! *)ic) cn e.ceed t)e mec)nicl com(re!!i%e
!tren't). I$ t)e t)ic#ne!! o$ t)e !(ecimen i! d: nd i! com(re!!ed to t)ic#ne!! d "nder
n ((lied %olt'e 5+ t)en t)e electricll& de%elo(ed com(re!!i%e !tre!! i! in e-"ili,ri"m
i$

0
0
d V
!ln
d d
r

1

1
]
<4.11 *)ere @ i! t)e @o"n'A! mod"l"!. /rom E-. <4.11
0
0
d !
V d ln
d
r

1
1

1
1
]
]
<4.21
U!"ll&+ mec)nicl in!t,ilit& occ"r! *)en
0 0
d"d 0.#or d " d$1.#%
S",!tit"tin' t)i! E-.4.2+ t)e )i')e!t ((rent electric !tre!! ,e$ore ,re#do*n+
1

ma&
0 0
V !
' 0.#
d
r

1

1
]
<4.>1
T)e ,o%e e-"tion i! onl& ((ro.imte ! @ de(end! on t)e mec)nicl !tre!!. Al!o
*)en t)e mteril i! !",?ected to )i') !tre!!e! t)e t)eor& o$ el!ticit& doe! not )old
'ood+ nd (l!tic de$ormtion )! to ,e con!idered.
4.4 THER4AL BREAKDOWN
In 'enerl+ t)e ,re#do*n %olt'e o$ !olid dielectric !)o"ld incre!e *it) it! t)ic#ne!!.
B"t t)i! i! tr"e onl& "( to certin t)ic#ne!! ,o%e *)ic) t)e )et 'enerted in t)e
dielectric d"e to t)e $lo* o$ c"rrent determine! t)e cond"ction.
W)en n electric $ield i! ((lied to dielectric+ cond"ction c"rrent )o*e%er !mll it m&
,e+ $lo*! t)ro"') t)e mteril. T)e c"rrent )et! "( t)e !(ecimen nd t)e tem(ert"re
ri!e. T)e )et 'enerted i! trn!$erred to t)e !"rro"ndin' medi"m ,& cond"ction
t)ro"') t)e !olid dielectric nd ,& rdition $rom it! o"ter !"r$ce!. E-"ili,ri"m i!
rec)ed *)en t)e )et "!ed to ri!e t)e tem(ert"re o$ t)e dielectric+ (l"! t)e )et
rdited o"t+ e-"l! t)e )et 'enerted. T)e )et 'enerted "nder d. c. !tre!! E i!
'i%en !
(
d.c.
) ' )"cm <4.41 *)ere

i! t)e d. c. cond"cti%it& o$ t)e !(ecimen.

Under . c. $ield!+ t)e )et 'enerted
(

( r
a.c. 1
' f tan
) )"cm
1.8 10

<4.31 *)ere+ $B $re-"enc& in H=+ lo!! n'le o$ t)e

dielectric mteril+ nd EB rm! %l"e. T)e )et di!!i(ted ( )
r
) i! 'i%en ,&
r v
dT
) * div +, grad T-
dt
+ <4.91 *)ere+ C%B !(eci$ic )et o$ t)e !(ecimen+
T B tem(ert"re o$ t)e !(ecCmen+ K B t)erml cond"cti%it& o$ t)e !(ecimen+ nd
t B time o%er *)ic) t)e )et i! di!!i(ted.
E-"ili,ri"m i! rec)ed *)en t)e )et 'enerted
d.c a.c
+) or ) - ,ecome! e-"l to t)e )et
di!!i(ted <Wr1. In ct"l (rctice t)ere i! l*&! !ome )et t)t i! rdited o"t.
Bre#do*n occ"r! *)en
d.c. a.c.
) or ) e.ceed! Wr. T)e t)erml in!t,ilit& condition i!
!)o*n in /i'. 4.2. Here+ t)e )et lo!t i! !)o*n ,& !tri')t line+ *)ile t)e )et
'enerted t $ield!
1
' and ' i! !)o*n ,& !e(rte c"r%e!. At $ield

' ,re#do*n
occ"r! ,ot) t tem(ert"re!
. /
T and T )et 'enerted i! le!! t)n t)e )et lo!t $or t)e
$ield

' 0 nd )ence t)e ,re#do*n *ill not occ"r.

T)e t)erml ,re#do*n %olt'e! o$ %rio"! mteril! "nder d.c. nd .c. $ield! re
!)o*n in t)e t,le 4.1
.
Table 4.1
4.im"m t)erml ,re#do*n !tre!!
4teril in 456cm
d.c. .c.
4"!co%ite mic 24 D.1;
Het Eenerted
Het Lo!t
Tem(ert"re
Het Eenerted
Or
Het Lo!t
E
1
E
2
T
:
T
A
T
B
/i'.4.2 T)erml in!t,ilit& in !olid dielectric!
4
Roc# !lt >; 1.4
Hi') 'rde (orcelin 7 2.;
H.5. Stetite 7 8.;
F"rt=7(er(endic"lr to .i! 12:: 7
7(rllel to .i! 99 7
C(citor ((er 7 >.474.4
Pol&t)ene 7 >.3
Pol&!t&rene 7 3.:

It cn ,e !een $rom t)i! t,le 4.1 t)t !ince t)e (o*er lo!! "nder .c. $ield! i! )i')er+ t)e
)et 'enertion i! l!o )i')+ nd )ence t)e t)erml ,re#do*n !tre!!e! re lo*er "nder
.c. condition! t)n "nder d.c. condition!.
4.3 BREAKDOWN O/ SOLID DIELECTRICS IN PRACTICE
T)ere re certin t&(e! o$ ,re#do*n *)ic) do not come "nder eit)er intrin!ic
,re#do*n+ ,"t ct"ll& occ"r $ter (rolon'ed o(ertion. T)e!e re+ $or e.m(le+
,re#do*n d"e to trc#in' in *)ic) dr& cond"ctin' trc#! ct ! cond"ctin' (t)! on t)e
in!"ltor !"r$ce! ledin' to 'rd"l ,re#do*n lon' t)e !"r$ce o$ t)e in!"ltor.
Anot)er t&(e o$ ,re#do*n in t)i! cte'or& i! t)e electroc)emicl ,re#do*n c"!ed ,&
c)emicl trn!$ormtion! !"c) ! electrol&!i!+ $ormtion o$ o=one+ etc. In ddition+ $il"re
l!o occ"r! d"e to (rtil di!c)r'e! *)ic) re ,ro"')t ,o"t in t)e ir (oc#et! in!ide
t)e in!"ltion. T)i! t&(e o$ ,re#do*n i! %er& im(ortnt im(re'nted ((er in!"ltion
"!ed in )i') %olt'e c,le! nd c(citor!.

4.3.1 C)emicl nd Electroc)emicl Deteriortion nd Bre#do*n
In t)e (re!ence o$ ir nd ot)er '!e! !ome dielectric mteril! "nder'o c)emicl
c)n'e! *)en !",?ected to contin"o"! !tre!!e!. Some o$ t)e im(ortnt c)emicl
rection! t)t occ"r re0
7O.idtion0 In t)e (re!ence o$ ir or o.&'en+ mteril !"c) ! r",,er nd
(ol&et)&lene "nder'o o.idtion 'i%in' ri!e to !"r$ce crc#!.
7H&drol&!i!0 W)en moi!t"re or *ter %(or i! (re!ent on t)e !"r$ce o$ !olid
dielectric+ )&drol&!i! occ"r! nd t)e mteril lo!e! t)eir electricl nd mec)nicl
(ro(ertie!. Electricl (ro(ertie! o$ mteril! !"c) ! ((er+ cotton t(e+ nd ot)er
cell"lo!e mteril! deteriorte %er& r(idl& d"e to )&drol&!i!. Pl!tic! li#e (ol&et)&lene
"nder'o c)n'e!+ nd t)eir !er%ice li$e con!ider,l& red"ce!.
7C)emicl Action0 E%en in t)e ,!ence o$ electric $ield!+ (ro're!!i%e c)emicl
de'rdtion o$ in!"ltin' mteril! cn occ"r d"e to %riet& o$ (roce!!e! !"c) !
c)emicl in!t,ilit& t )i') tem(ert"re!+ o.idtion nd crc#in' in t)e (re!ence o$ ir
nd o=one+ nd )&drol&!i! d"e to moi!t"re nd )et. Since di$$erent in!"ltin' mteril!
come into contct *it) ec) ot)er in n& (rcticl rection! occ"r ,et*een t)e!e %rio"!
mteril! ledin' to red"ction in electricl nd mec)nicl !tren't)! re!"ltin' in $il"re.
T)e e$$ect! o$ electroc)emicl nd c)emicl deteriortion co"ld ,e minimi=ed ,&
cre$"ll& !t"d&in' nd e.minin' t)e mteril!. Hi') !od content 'l!! in!"ltion
1
!)o"ld ,e %oided in moi!t nd dm( condition!+ ,ec"!e !odi"m+ ,ein' %er& mo,ile+
lec)e! to t)e !"r$ce 'i%in' ri!e to t)e $ormtion o$ !tron' l#li *)ic) *ill c"!e
deteriortion. It *! o,!er%ed t)t t)i! t&(e o$ mteril *ill lo!e it! mec)nicl !tren't)
*it)in 24 )r!+ *)en it i! e.(o!ed to tmo!()ere! )%in' 1::G relti%e )"midit& t D:
:
C.
In ((er in!"ltion+ e%en i$ (rtil di!c)r'e! re (re%ented com(letel&+ ,re#do*n cn
occ"r d"e to c)emicl de'rdtion. T)e c)emicl nd electroc)emicl deteriortion
incre!e! %er& r(idl& *it) tem(ert"re+ nd )ence )i') tem(ert"re! !)o"ld ,e
%oided.
4.3.2 Bre#do*n D"e to Treein' nd Trc#in'
W)en !olid dielectric !",?ected to electricl !tre!!e! $or lon' time $il!+ normll& t*o
#ind! o$ %i!i,le mr#in'! re o,!er%ed on t)e dielectric mteril. T)e& re0
1 t)e (re!ence o$ cond"ctin' (t) cro!! t)e !"r$ce o$ t)e in!"ltion0
,1 mec)ni!m *)ere,& le#'e c"rrent (!!e! t)ro"') t)e cond"ctin' (t) $inll&
ledin' to t)e $ormtion o$ !(r#. In!"ltion deteriortion occ"r! ! re!"lt o$ t)e!e
!(r#!.
T)e !(redin' o$ !(r# c)nnel! d"rin' trc#in'+ in t)e $orm o$ t)e ,rnc)e! o$ tree i!
clled treein'.
Con!ider !&!tem o$ !olid dielectric )%in' cond"ctin' $ilm nd t*o electrode! on it!
!"r$ce. In (rctice+ t)e cond"ctin' $ilm %er& o$ten i! $ormed d"e to moi!t"re. On
((liction o$ %olt'e+ t)e $ilm !trt! cond"ctin'+ re!"ltin' in 'enertion o$ )et+ nd t)e
!"r$ce !trt! ,ecomin' dr&. T)e cond"ctin' $ilm ,ecome! !e(rte d"e to dr&in'+ nd
!o !(r#! re dr*n dm'in' t)e dielectric !"r$ce. Wit) or'nic in!"ltin' mteril!
!"c) ! ((er nd ,#elite+ t)e dielectric cr,oni=e! t t)e re'ion o$ !(r#in'+ nd t)e
cr,oni=ed re'ion! ct ! (ermnent cond"ctin' c)nnel! re!"ltin' in incre!ed !tre!!
o%er t)e re!t o$ t)e re'ion. T)i! i! c"m"lti%e (roce!!+ nd in!"ltion $il"re occ"r!
*)en cr,oni=ed trc#! ,rid'e t)e di!tnce ,et*een t)e electrode!. T)i! ()enomenon+
clled trc#in' i! common ,et*een l&er! o$ ,#elite+ ((er nd !imilr dielectric! ,"ilt
o$ lminte!.
On t)e ot)er )nd treein' occ"r! d"e to t)e ero!ion o$ mteril t t)e ti(! o$ t)e !(r#.
Ero!ion re!"lt! in t)e ro"')enin' o$ t)e !"r$ce!+ nd )ence ,ecome! !o"rce o$ dirt
nd contmintion. T)i! c"!e! incre!ed cond"cti%it& re!"ltin' eit)er in t)e $ormtion
o$ cond"ctin' (t) ,rid'in' t)e electrode! or in mec)nicl $il"re o$ t)e dielectric.
#
W)en dielectric mteril lie! ,et*een t*o electrode! ! !)o*n in /i'. 4.>+ t)ere i!
(o!!i,ilit& $or t*o di$$erent dielectric medi+ t)e ir nd t)e dielectric+ to come !erie!.
T)e %olt'e! cro!! t)e t*o medi re ! !)o*n <51 cro!! t)e ir '(+ nd 52 cro!!
t)e dielectric1. T)e %olt'e 51 cro!! t)e ir '( i! 'i%en !+
1
1
1
1

V.d
V
d d

_
+

,
<4.D1 *)ere 5 i! t)e ((lied %olt'e.
Since
1
mo!t o$ t)e %olt'e ((er! cro!!
1
d + t)e ir '(. S(r#in' *ill occ"r in t)e
ir '( nd c)r'e cc"m"ltion t#e! (lce on t)e !"r$ce o$ t)e in!"ltion.
Sometime! t)e !(r# erode! t)e !"r$ce o$ t)e in!"ltion. A! time (!!e!+ ,re#7do*n
c)nnel! !(red t)ro"') t)e in!"ltion in n irre'"lr HtreeA li#e $!)ion ledin' to t)e
$ormtion o$ cond"ctin' c)nnel!. T)i! #ind o$ c)nnelin' i! clled treein'.
Under .c. %olt'e condition! treein' cn occ"r in $e* min"te or !e%erl )o"r!.
Hence+ cre m"!t ,e t#en to !ee t)t no !erie! ir '(! or ot)er *e#er in!"ltion '(!
re $ormed.
U!"ll&+ trc#in' occ"r! e%en t %er& lo* %olt'e o$ t)e order o$ ,o"t 1:: 5+ *)ere!
treein' re-"ire! )i') %olt'e!. /or te!tin' o$ trc#in'+ lo* nd medi"m %olt'e trc#in'
te!t! re !(eci$ied. T)e!e te!t! re done t lo* %olt'e! ,"t $or time! o$ ,o"t 1:: )r or
more. T)e in!"ltion !)o"ld not $il. Sometime! t)e te!t! re done "!in' 3 to 1: #5
*it) !)orter d"rtion! o$ 4 to 9 )o"r. T)e n"mericl %l"e t)t initite! or c"!e! t)e
$ormtion o$ trc# i! clled Htrc#in' inde.I nd t)i! i! "!ed to -"li$& t)e !"r$ce
(ro(ertie! o$ dielectric mteril!.
Treein' cn ,e (re%ented ,& )%in' clen+ dr&+ nd "ndm'ed !"r$ce! nd clen
en%ironment. T)e mteril! c)o!en !)o"ld ,e re!i!tnt to trc#in'. Sometime!
moi!t"re re(ellnt 're!e! re "!ed. B"t t)i! need! $re-"ent clenin' nd re're!!in'.
Incre!in' cree(in' di!tnce! !)o"ld (re%ent trc#in'+ ,"t in (rctice t)e (re!ence o$
moi!t"re $ilm! de$et t)e ("r(o!e.
1
2
d
1
d
2
5
2
5
1
/i'.4.> Arrn'ement $or !t"d& o$ treein' ()enomen.1 nd 2 re electrode!.
%
U!"ll&+ treein' ()enomen i! o,!er%ed in c(citor! nd c,le!+ nd e.ten!i%e *or# i!
,ein' done to in%e!ti'te t)e rel nt"re nd c"!e! o$ t)i! ()enomenon.
4.3.> Bre#do*n D"e to Internl Di!c)r'e!
Solid in!"ltin' mteril!+ nd to le!!er e.tent li-"id dielectric! contin %oid! or
c%itie! *it)in t)e medi"m or t t)e ,o"ndrie! ,et*een t)e dielectric nd t)e
electrode!. T)e!e %oid! re 'enerll& $illed *it) medi"m o$ lo*er dielectric !tren't)+
nd t)e dielectric con!tnt o$ t)e medi"m in t)e %oid! i! lo*er t)n t)t o$ t)e in!"ltion.
Hence+ t)e electric $ield !tren't) in t)e %oid! i! )i')er t)n t)t cro!! t)e dielectric.
T)ere$ore+ e%en "nder norml *or#in' %olt'e! t)e $ield in t)e %oid! m& e.ceed t)eir
,re#do*n %l"e+ nd ,re#do*n m& occ"r.
Let "! con!ider dielectric ,et*een t*o cond"ctor! ! !)o*n in /i'. 4.4.. I$ *e di%ide
t)e in!"ltion into t)ree (rt!+ n electricl net*or# o$
1 (
* 0 * 0 and * cn ,e $ormed !
!)o*n in /i'. 4.4.,. In t)i!+ C1 re(re!ent! t)e c(citnce o$ t)e %oid or c%it&+ C2 i! t)e
c(citnce o$ t)e dielectric *)ic) i! in !erie! *it) t)e %oid+ nd C> i! t)e c(citnce o$
t)e dielectric
.
.
W)en t)e ((lied %olt'e i! 5+ t)e %olt'e cro!! t)e %oid+ 51 i! 'i%en ,& t)e !me
e-"tion ! <4.D1
1
1
0
1
1
Vd
V
d d

_
+

,
*)ere
1
d and d re t)e t)ic#ne!! o$ t)e %oid nd t)e dielectric+
re!(ecti%el&+ )%in' (ermitti%itie!
0 1 1
and . 2s3all4 d d 0 nd i$ *e !!"me t)t t)e
c%it& i! $illed *it) '!+ t)en
1
1 r

d
V V
d

,
<4.;1 *)ere
r
i! t)e relti%e (ermitti%it& o$ t)e dielectric.
C
1
C
2
C
>
C
1
C
2
C
>
t
<1 <,1
5
1
/i'.4.4 Electricl di!c)r'e in c%it& nd it! e-"i%lent circ"it
8
W)en %olt'e 5 i! ((lied+ 51 rec)e! t)e ,re#do*n !tren't) o$ t)e medi"m in t)e
c%it& <5i1 nd ,re#do*n occ"r!. 5i i! clled t)e Hdi!c)r'e ince(tion %olt'eI. W)en
t)e ((lied %olt'e i! .c.+ ,re#do*n occ"r! on ,ot) t)e )l$ c&cle! nd t)e n"m,er o$
di!c)r'e! *ill de(end on t)e ((lied %olt'e. W)en t)e $ir!t ,re#do*n cro!! t)e
c%it& occ"r! t)e ,re#do*n %olt'e cro!! it ,ecome! =ero. W)en once t)e %olt'e 51
,ecome! =ero+ t)e !(r# 'et! e.tin'"i!)ed nd 'in t)e %olt'e ri!e! till ,re#do*n
occ"r! 'in. T)i! (roce!! re(et! 'in nd 'in+ nd c"rrent ("l!e! *ill ,e
o,tined ,ot) in t)e (o!iti%e nd ne'ti%e )l$ c&cle!.
T)e!e internl di!c)r'e! <l!o clled (rtil di!c)r'e!1 *ill )%e t)e !me e$$ect !
Htreein'I on t)e in!"ltion. W)en t)e ,re#do*n occ"r! in t)e %oid!+ electron! nd
(o!iti%e ion! re $ormed. T)e& *ill )%e !"$$icient ener'& nd *)en t)e& rec) t)e %oid
!"r$ce! t)e& m& ,re# t)e c)emicl ,ond!. Al!o+ in ec) di!c)r'e t)ere *ill ,e
!ome )et di!!i(ted in t)e c%itie!+ nd t)i! *ill cr,oni=e t)e !"r$ce o$ t)e %oid! nd
*ill c"!ed ero!ion! o$ t)e mteril. C)nnel! nd (it! $ormed on t)e c%it& !"r$ce!
incre!e t)e cond"ction. C)emicl de'rdtion m& l!o occ"r ! re!"lt o$ t)e
cti%te di!c)r'e (rod"ct! $ormed d"rin' ,re#do*n.
All t)e!e e$$ect *ill re!"lt in 'rd"l ero!ion o$ t)e mteril nd con!e-"ent
red"ction in t)e t)ic#ne!! o$ in!"ltion ledin' to ,re#do*n. T)e li$e o$ t)e in!"ltion
*it) internl di!c)r'e! de(end! "(on t)e ((lied %olt'e nd t)e n"m,er o$
di!c)r'e!. Bre#do*n ,& t)i! (roce!! m& occ"r in $e* or d&! or m& t#e $e*
&er!.
4.9 BREAKDOWN O/ CO4POSITE INSULATION
A !in'le mteril rrel& con!tit"te! t)e in!"ltion in e-"i(ment. T*o or more in!"ltin'
mteril! re "!ed eit)er d"e to de!i'n con!idertion! or d"e to (rcticl di$$ic"ltie! o$
$,riction.
In certin c!e! t)e ,e)%ior o$ t)e in!"ltion !&!tem cn ,e (redicted ,& t)e
,e)%ior o$ t)e com(onent!. B"t in mo!t c!e!+ t)e !&!tem ! *)ole )! to ,e
con!idered. T)e $ollo*in' con!idertion! determine t)e (er$ormnce o$ t)e !&!tem !
*)ole0
<i1 T)e !tre!! di!tri,"tion t di$$erent (rt! o$ t)e in!"ltion !&!tem i! di!torted
d"e to t)e com(onent dielectric con!tnt nd cond"cti%itie!+
<ii1 t)e ,re#do*n c)rcteri!tic! t t)e !"r$ce re $$ected ,& t)e in!"ltion
,o"ndrie! o$ %rio"! com(onent!+
<iii1 t)e internl or (rtil di!c)r'e (rod"ct! o$ one com(onent in%ri,l& $$ect
t)e ot)er com(onent! in t)e !&!tem+ nd
<i%1 t)e c)emicl 'ein' (rod"ct! o$ one com(onent l!o $$ect t)e
(er$ormnce o$ ot)er com(onent! in t)e !&!tem.
Anot)er im(ortnt con!idertion i! t)e economic li$e o$ t)e !&!temJ t)e criterion ,ein'
t)e "ltimte ,re#do*n o$ t)e !olid in!"ltion. T)e end (oint i! normll& rec)ed ,&
t)ro"') ("nct"re+ t)erml r"n*&+ electroc)emicl ,re#do*n+ or mec)nicl $il"re
ledin' to com(lete electricl ,re#do*n o$ t)e !&!tem. Hence+ te!t! $or !!e!!in' t)e
li$e o$ in!"ltion <'ein'1 re %er& nece!!r&.
A'ein' i! t)e (roce!! ,& *)ic) t)e electricl nd mec)nicl (ro(ertie! o$ in!"ltion
normll& ,ecome! *or!e in condition <deteriorte1 *it) time. A'ein' occ"r! minl& d"e
to o.idtion+ c)emicl de'rdtion+ irrdition+ nd electron nd ion ,om,rdment on t)e
in!"ltion. Trc#in' i! not)er (roce!! ,& *)ic) 'ein' o$ t)e in!"ltion occ"r!.
5
U!"ll& (rtil di!c)r'e te!t! re "!ed in 'ein' !t"die! to e!timte t)e di!c)r'e
m'nit"de!+ di!c)r'e ince(tion+ nd e.tinction %olt'e!. C)n'e o$ lo!! n'le <tn 1
d"rin' electricl !tre!!in' (ro%ide! in$ormtion o$ t)e deteriortion occ"rrin' in in!"ltion
!&!tem!. T)e #no*led'e o$ t)e mec)nicl !tre!!e! in t)e in!"ltion+ controllin' o$ t)e
m,ient condition! !"c) ! tem(ert"re nd )"midit&+ nd !t"d& o$ t)e '!eo"!
(rod"ct! e%ol%ed d"rin' 'ein' (roce!!e! *ill l!o )el( to control t)e ,re#do*n
(roce!! in com(o!ite in!"ltion. /inll&+ !tre!! control in in!"ltion !&!tem! to %oid
)i') electric !tre!! re'ion! i! n im(ortnt $ctor in controllin' t)e $il"re o$ in!"ltion
!&!tem!.
4.D SOLID DIELECTRICS USED IN PRACTICE
Solid in!"ltin' mteril! re "!ed in ll #ind! o$ electricl circ"it! nd de%ice! to
in!"lte one c"rrent crr&in' (rt $rom not)er *)en t)e& o(erte t di$$erent %olt'e!.
A 'ood in!"ltor !)o"ld ,e o$ lo* dielectric lo!!+ )%in' )i') mec)nicl !tren't)+ $ree
$rom '!eo"! incl"!ion! nd moi!t"re+ nd !)o"ld l!o ,e re!i!tnt to t)erml nd
c)emicl deteriortion.
Solid dielectric! %r& *idel& in t)eir ori'in nd (ro(ertie!. T)e& m& ,e nt"rl or'nic
!",!tnce!+ !"c) ! ((er+ clot)+ r",,er+ etc. or inor'nic mteril!+ !"c) ! mic+
'l!! nd cermic! or !&nt)etic mteril! li#e (l!tic!. Some o$ t)e im(ortnt mteril!
nd t)eir (ro(ertie! re di!c"!!ed )ere.
4.D.1 P(er
T)e #ind o$ ((er normll& em(lo&ed $or in!"ltion ("r(o!e! i! !(ecil %riet& #no*n
! ti!!"e ((er or Kr$t ((er. T)e t)ic#ne!! nd den!it& o$ ((er %r& de(endin' on
t)e ((liction. Lo*7den!it& ((er <:.; 'm!6cm
>
1 i! (re$erred in )i') $re-"enc&
c(citor! nd c,le!+ *)ile medi"m den!it& ((er i! "!ed in (o*er c(citor!. Hi')7
den!it& ((er! re (re$er,le in d.c. nd ener'& !tor'e c(citor! nd $or t)e in!"ltion
o$ d.c. mc)ine!.
P(er i! )&'ro!co(ic. T)ere$ore+ it )! to ,e dried nd im(re'nte *it) im(re'nnt!+
!"c) ! minerl oil+ c)lorinted di()en&l nd %e'et,le oil!. T)e relti%e dielectric
con!tnt o$ im(re'nted ((er de(end! "(on t)e (ermitti%it& o$ cell"lo!e o$ *)ic) t)e
((er i! mde+ nd (ermitti%it& o$ t)e im(re'nnt nd t)e den!it& o$ t)e ((er. T,le
4.2 'i%e! t)e dielectric con!tnt! $or di$$erent den!itie! o$ ((er im(re'nted *it)
di$$erent oil!.
T,le 4.2 Dielectric con!tnto$ ((er *it) di$$erent den!itie!
Den!it& <'6cm
>
1
Im(re'nnt :.; 1.: 1.2



Tric)lorodi()en&l t 2:C B 9.1 9.2; 9.>: 9.4:
Tric)lorodi()en&l t 3:C B 3.9 9.: 9.14 9.24
Pentc)lorodi()en&l t 2:C B 3.D 3.D1 3.;; 9.:9
Trn!$ormer oil B 2.2 >.29 >.D2 4.>:

W)en %er& t)in <t)ic#ne!! ;72:
m
1 ((er i! "!ed+ it i! %er& e!!entil to !ee t)t t)e
n"m,er o$ cond"ctin' (rticle! on t)e !"r$ce o$ t)e ((er i! minim"m. T)e
10
con%entionl met)od o$ detectin' cond"ctin' (rticle! i! ,& men! o$ "!in' roller nd
(lce+ t)e cond"ction ,ein' indicted ,& men! o$ )ed ()one!.
4.D.2 /i,er!

/i,er! *)en "!ed $or electricl ("r(o!e! *ill )%e t)e ,ilit& to com,ine !tren't) nd
d"r,ilit& *it) e.treme $itne!! nd d"r,ilit& *it) e.treme $itne!! nd $le.i,ilit&. T)e
$i,er! "!ed re ,ot) nt"rl nd men7mde. T)e& incl"de cotton+ ?"te+ $l.+ *ool+ !il#
<nt"rl $i,er!1+ r&on+ n&lon+ ter&lene+ te$lon nd $i,er'l!!.
T)e (ro(ertie! o$ $i,ro"! mteril! de(end on t)e tem(ert"re nd )"midit&. /i'"re!
4.3 nd 4.9 !)o* t)e %rition o$
r
nd tn o$ %rio"! $i,ro"! mteril! ! $"nction
o$ t)e $re-"enc&. It cn ,e o,!er%ed $rom t)e!e $i'"re! t)t
r
decre!e! *it)
$re-"enc&+ *)ile tn i! )i')er lo*er $re-"encie!. 4o!t o$ t)e (er$ectl&7dried $i,er!
)%e dielectric con!tnt ,et*een > nd ;. T)e (re!ence o$ ionic im("ritie! <e.'.+ !lt1
con!ider,l& red"ce! t)e electricl re!i!tnce o$ t)e $i,er. Arti$icil $i,er!+ !"c) !
ter&lene nd $i,er'l!! ,!or, %er& little *ter nd )ence )%e %er& )i') re!i!tnce.
2: 4: 9: ;: 1:: :
>
4
3
9
D
Dielectric
con!tnt+
r

/i'.4.3 5rition o$ dielectric con!tnt+
r
*it) tem(ert"re $or ((er
1. Tric)lorodi()en&l im(re'nted ((er+ 2. Pentc)lorodi()en&l im(re'nted ((er
1
2
Tem(ert"re C
11
T,le 4.> 'i%e! t)e den!it&+
r
nd tn o$ %rio"! $i,er!.
T,le 4.>
/i,er! Den!it& r tn
5e'et,le $i,er7Nt"rl
Cotton 1.3> 4.47D.> :.12:
/l. 1.3> 4.47D.> :.12:
K"te 1.3> 4.47D.> :.12:
Animl $i,er7Nt"rl
Wool 1.>1 1.32 :.:19
Sil# 1.>: >.4 :.:19
4.4 *it) no ir %oid!
4n7mde /i,er!
R&on 1.32 2.:> :.:>1
Acette 1.>> 2.2 :.:13
N&lon 1.14 2.31 :.:3>
Ter&lene 1.>; 1.8D :.:>:
Te$lon 2.>; 1.872.2 :.::17:.::>
/i,er'l!! 2.>4 37D :.::17:.::23
4.D.> 4ic nd It! Prod"ct!
4ic i! t)e 'eneric nme o$ cl!! o$ cr&!tlline into $o"r min 'ro"(!0
:.4 :.; 1 :
:
1
>
4
3
tn1:
7>

/i'.4.9 5rition o$ tn *it) t)e den!it& o$ ((er
1.Tric)lorodi()en&l im(re'nted ((er+ 2. 4inerl oil im(re'nted ((er >. Dr& ((er
1
2
2
>
:.2 :.9 1.4 1.2
Den!it& <'6cm
>
1

1
<i1 m"!co%ite+
<ii1 ()lo'o(ite+
<iii1 $i,iolite+ nd
<i%1 li(idolite.
T)e l!t t*o 'ro"(! re )rd nd ,rittle nd )ence re "n!"it,le $or electricl in!"ltion
("r(o!e!. 4ic cn ,e !(lit into %er& t)in $lt lmine. It )! 'ot "ni-"e com,intion
o$ electricl (ro(ertie!+ !"c) ! )i') dielectric !tren't)+ lo* dielectric lo!!e!+ re!i!tnce
to )i') tem(ert"re! nd 'ood mec)nicl !tren't). T)e!e )%e mde it (o!!i,le $or in
to ,e "!ed in mn& electricl ((rt"!. 5er& ("re mic i! "!ed $or )i') $re-"enc&
((liction!. S(otted mic i! "!ed $or lo* %olt'e in!"ltion+ !"c) ! $or comm"ttor
!e'ment !e(rtor!+ rmt"re *indin'!+ !*itc)'er nd in electricl )etin' nd coolin'
e-"i(ment!. Dielectric !tren't) <"( to >:C1 %rie! ,o"t D:: L 1::: #56mm+ !"r$ce
re!i!ti%it& <9:G )"midit&1 1:
1:
71:
12
o)m7cm nd %ol"me re!i!ti%it& <con!tnt "( to
2::C1 1:
1>
71:
13
o)m7cm.
4ic i! ,"ilt into !)eet $orm ,& ,ondin' to'et)er *it) !"it,le re!in or %rni!).
De(endin' on t)e t&(e o$ ((liction+ mic cn ,e mi.ed *it) t)e re-"ired t&(e o$
re!in to meet t)e o(ertin' tem(ert"re re-"irement!. 4icnite i! not)er $orm o$ mic
*)ic) i! e.ten!i%el& "!ed $or in!"ltion ("r(o!e!. 4ic !(littin' nd mic (o*der re
"!ed ! $ilter! in in!"ltin' mteril!+ !"c) ! 'l!! nd ()enolic re!in!. T)e "!e o$
mic ! $ilter re!"lt! in im(ro%ed dielectric !tren't)+ red"ce! dielectric lo!! nd
im(ro%ed )et re!i!tnce nd )rdne!! o$ t)e mteril.
4.D.4 El!!
El!! i! t)ermo(l!tic inor'nic mteril com(ri!in' com(le. !&!tem! o$ o.ide!
( )

Si6 . T)e dielectric con!tnt o$ 'l!! %rie! $rom >.D to 1: nd t)e den!it& %rie!
$rom 2.2 to 9 '6cm
>
. At room tem(ert"re+ t)e %ol"me re!i!ti%it& o$ 'l!! %rie! $rom 1:
12
to 1:
2:
o)m cm. T)e dielectric lo!! o$ 'l!! %rie! $rom :.::4 to :.:2: de(endin' on t)e
$re-"enc&. T)e lo!!e! re )i')e!t t lo*e!t $re-"encie!. T)e dielectric !tren't) o$
'l!! %rie! $rom >::: to 3::: #56cm nd decre!e! *it) incre!e! in tem(ert"re+
rec)in' )l$ t)e %l"e t 1::
:
C.
El!! i! "!ed co%er nd $or internl !"((ort! in electric ,"l,!+ electronic %l%e!+
merc"r& rc !*itc)e!+ .7r& e-"i(ment+ c(citor! nd ! in!"ltor! in tele()one!.
4.D.3 Cermic!
Cermic! re inor'nic mteril! (rod"ced ,& con!olidtin' minerl! into monolit)ic
,odie! ,& )i') tem(ert"re )et tretment. Cermic! cn ,e di%ided into t*o 'ro"(!
de(endin' on t)e dielectric con!tnt. Lo* (ermitti%it& cermic! ( ) 1
r
re "!ed !
in!"ltor!+ *)ile t)e )i') (ermitti%it& cermic!
- 1 +
r

re "!ed in c(citor! nd
trn!d"cer!.
T,le! 4.3 'i%e t)e %rio"! dielectric (ro(ertie! o$ !ome cermic! commonl&
"!ed $or electricl ("r(o!e!.
T,le 4.3 Pro(ertie! o$ lo* (ermitti%it& Cermic!
Pro(ert& H.T L.T Lo* lo!! l"min /or!terite
Porcelin Porcelin !tetite

1(
C)emicl 3:G cl& 3:G cl& >4'o+ 83G 24'O
Com(o!ition 23G /eld!(r 23G /eld!(r 4SiO2 SiO
23G /lint 23G /lint H2O
Wter
A,!or(tion : :.3 L 2 : : :
<(.(.m.1
S$e
Tem(ert"re <C1 1::: 8:: 1:3: 19:: 1:3:
Dielectric
Stren't) <#56mm1 23 > ; L 23 19 ; L 12
r 3 L D 3 L D 9 8 9
tn 1:
4
3:71:: 1::72:: 1: 3 >74

4.D.9 Pl!tic!
Pl!tic! re %er& *idel& in!"ltin' mteril! ,ec"!e o$ t)eir e.cellent dielectric
(ro(ertie!. 4n& ne* de%elo(ment! in electricl en'ineerin' nd electronic! *o"ld not
)%e ,een (o!!i,le *it)o"t t)e de%elo(ment o$ (l!tic!. Pl!tic! re mde ,&
com,inin' lr'e n"m,er! o$ !mll molec"le! into $e* ,i' one!. W)en !mll
molec"le! lin# to $orm t)e ,i''er molec"le! o$ t)e (l!tic!+ mn& di$$erent t&(e! o$
!tr"ct"re! re!"lt. 4o!t t)ermo(l!tic re!in! ((ro.imte to !tr"ct"re in *)ic) !e%erl
t)o"!nd tom! re tied to'et)er in one direction. T)e t)ermo!ettin' re!in! on t)e ot)er
)nd+ $orm t)ree7dimen!ionl net*or#. In %ie* o$ t)e lr'e n"m,er o$ (l!tic!
%il,le+ it *ill not ,e (o!!i,le to del *it) ll o$ t)em+ nd onl& mteril *)ic) re
commonl& "!ed $or in!"ltion ("r(o!e! re de!cri,ed.
7Pol&et)&lene i! t)ermo(l!tic mteril *)ic) com,ine! "n"!"l electricl (ro(ertie!+
)i') re!i!tnce to moi!t"re nd c)emicl!+ e!& (roce!!,ilit&+ nd lo* co!t. T)e& )%e
'ot dielectric !tren't)! %r&in' $rom 1D: to 1::: #56cm nd %ol"me re!i!ti%it& 'reter
t)n 1:
19
o)m7cm.
7/l"orocr,on Pl!tic! re t)e ,e!t (l!tic! "!ed $or in!"ltion ,ec"!e o$ t)eir e.cellent
electricl nd mec)nicl (ro(ertie!. T)e& )%e 'ot dielectric !tren't)! %r&in' $rom 1:4
to 312 #56cm nd %ol"me re!i!ti%it& 'reter t)n 1:
19
o)m7cm.
7N&lon i! t)ermo(l!tic *)ic) (o!!e!!e! )i') im(ct+ ten!ile nd $le."rl !tren't)!
o%er *ide rn'e o$ tem(ert"re <: to >::C1 *it) )i') dielectric !tren't) nd 'ood
!"r$ce nd %ol"me re!i!ti%itie! e%en $ter len't)& e.(o!"re to )i') )"midit&+ re!i!tnt to
c)emicl ction+ cn ,e e!il& mo"lded+ e.tr"ded nd mc)ined. It )! 'ot dielectric
!tren't) %r&in' $rom 134 to 2:4 #56cm+ %ol"me re!i!ti%it& 'reter t)n 1:
12
o)m7cm.
7Pol&%in&l c)loride or P.5.C. i! "!ed in %rio"! commercil in %rio"! $orm. It i!
c)emicll& re!i!tnt to !tron' cid! nd l#li! nd i! in!ol",le in *ter+ lco)ol nd
or'nic !ol%ent! li#e ,en=ene. T)e dielectric !tren't)+ %ol"me re!i!ti%it& nd !"r$ce
re!i!ti%it& re relti%el& )i'). T)e "((er tem(ert"re limit o$ o(ertion i! ,o"t 9:C.
7Pol&e!ter! )%e e.cellent dielectric (ro(ertie! nd !"(erior !"r$ce )rdne!! nd re
)i')l& re!i!tnt to mo!t c)emicl!. 4&lor (ol&e!ter $ilm i! ,ein' lr'el& "!ed in
(re$erence to ((er in!"ltion. It )! 'ot dielectric !tren't) o$ 2::: #56cm+ %ol"me
re!i!ti%it& i! ,etter t)n 1:
13
o)m7cm t 1::C.
7Pol&!t&rene )! dielectric !tren't) com(r,le to t)t o$ mic ,o"t 2::7>3: #56cm
nd %ol"me re!i!ti%it& i! ,o"t 1:
18
o)m7cm. T)e& re "!ed in t)e mn"$ct"re o$ lo*
lo!! c(citor!+ *)ic) *ill )%e %er& !t,le c(citnce nd e.tremel& )i') in!"ltion
re!i!tnce.
14
4.D.D R",,er
R",,er i! nt"rl or !&nt)etic %"lcni=,le )i') (ol&mer )%in' )i') el!tic (ro(ertie!.
Electricl (ro(ertie! o$ r",,er de(end on t)e de'ree o$ com(o"ndin' nd %"lcni=in'.
Eenerl im("ritie!+ c)emicl c)n'e! d"e to 'ein'+ moi!t"re content nd %rition! in
tem(ert"re nd $re-"enc& )%e !",!tntil e$$ect! on t)e electricl (ro(ertie! o$
r",,er. T)e& )%e 'ot dielectric !tren't)! %r&in' $rom ;: to >8: #56cm nd
tem(ert"re $rom 9:C to 13:C.
4.D.; E(o.& Re!in!
T)e& re t)ermo !ettin'! t&(e! o$ in!"ltin' mteril!. T)e& (o!!e!! e.cellent dielectric
nd mec)nicl (ro(ertie!. T)e dielectric !tren't) i!D3 #56mm nd %ol"me re!i!ti%it& i!
,o"t1:
1>
o)m7cm. It cn ,e $ormed into n in!"ltor o$ n& de!ired !)(e $or lmo!t
n& t&(e o$ )i') %olt'e ((liction. It i! "!ed $or enc(!"ltion o$ electronic
com(onent!+ 'enertor *indin'! nd trn!$ormer!+ $or ,ondin' o$ %er& di%er! mteril!
!"c) ! (orcelin+ *ood+ metl!+ (l!tic!+ etc. It i! %er& im(ortnt d)e!i%e "!ed $or
!elin' o$ )i') %c""m ?oint!.
F"e!tion!
4.1 W)t do &o" "nder!tnd ,& Mintrin!ic !tren't)A o$ !olid dielectricN Ho* doe!
,re#do*n occ"r d"e to electron! in !olid dielectricN
4.2 W)t i! Mt)erml ,re#do*nA in !olid dielectric!+ nd )o* i! (rcticll& more
!i'ni$icnt t)n ot)er mec)ni!mN
4.> Ho* doe! t)e Minternl di!c)r'eA ()enomenon led to ,re#do*n in !olid
dielectric!N
4.4 Ho* do t)e tem(ert"re nd moi!t"re $$ect t)e ,re#do*n !tren't) o$ !olid
dielectric!N
4.3W)t re t)e (ro(ertie! t)t m#e (l!tic! more !"it,le ! in!"ltin' mteril!N
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