TERRESTRIAL MICROWAVE COMMUNICATION SYSTEM DESIGN

DESCRIPTION OF THE MICROWAVE BEAM:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. The microwave beam behaves like a light beam and it tends to follow a straight line and azimuth. The changes on temperature, pressure and relative humidity tends to refract the microwave beam. So it will follow on a slightly curved path. The radio horizon exists. It is diffracted when grazing over an obstacle. A small shadow area created when some of the energy is redirected. The beam can be reflected from relatively smooth terrain and water surfaces. The criterion of smoothness depends on the wavelength of the signal. At 6 to 8GHz frequency band, rain attenuation is not a problem. But for frequencies 11GHz and above, rain attenuation is very serious. The amount of attenuation depends upon the rate of rainfall, the size of the drops and length of exposure. Atmospheric absorption due to oxygen and water vapor also exists and its magnitude is a function of frequency and path length.

Things to consider in designing terrestrial microwave communication system: Site Considerations Sources of Path Data Path Profile Interferences and Restrictions Routes and Sites to be Avoided Effects of Fading Diversity Methods to apply Reliability Objectives Equipments I. SITE CONSIDERATION:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. A full description of each site by geographical coordinates, political subdivision, access roads and physical objects. Any unusual weather conditions to be expected in the area including wind velocity, temperature and relative humidity. A description of the physical characteristics of the site, indicating the amount of leveling required, removal of rocks, trees or other structure. Relationship of the site to any airports. The mean sea level elevation of the site and the path. If possible the nearest location where commercial power is available. The accessibility of the site for maintenance purposes.

II.

SOURCES OF PATH DATA:

1. Maps Aeronautical charts Topographic maps Political maps Aerial Photography Often useful in rough terrain to show more the details of the path. Google Map/Satellite Pictures

2.

III. PATH PROFILE:

After the tentative antenna sites have been selected and the relative elevation of the terrain and between the sites has been determined, a path profile can now be prepared.

1.

CURVATURE & EQUIVALENT EARTH RADIUS

The relative curvature of the earth and the microwave beam is an important factor when plotting a profile chart. The beam is normally bent downward a slight amount by atmospheric refraction. Incorporating both earths curvature and signal bending will result to an equivalent earth radius, K.

The Equivalent Radius Factor (K): Defines the degree and direction of bending of the microwave beam. Any change in the amount of beam bending caused by atmospheric conditions can be expressed as a change in K.

K = (1 0.04665 e
K= K=1 K = 4/3 K = 2/3

0.005577 Ne -1

: flat earth, curvature of the earth is zero and the beam follows the curvature of the earth : reference : super refraction, K is greater than 1 (Cases where a hot body of land occurs next to a relatively cool body of water.) : subrefraction, K is less than 1 (There is a cold land next to relatively warm sea.)

The Effective Earth radius (Re) Is equivalent to the true earth radius multiplied by the K factor. Re = R x K where: R = true earth radius (6,370 km)

Representation of the Relative Curvature and the Microwave beam: A. Curved Earth Straight Line Beam Approach A representation of a curved earth with effective radius KR and a straight line microwave beam.
D maximum radio range

h d1 D d2

h - the change in the vertical dist. from reference line d1 the dist. from a point to one end of the path d2 the dist. from the same point to the other end of the path

h in meters, D in km h in feet, D in miles If K = 4/3 , If K = 4/3 , If K = 2/3 , h= 0 If K = , h in meters, D in km h in feet, D in miles h in feet, D in miles D1 =

h in meters, d in km h in feet, d in miles If K = 4/3 , If K = 4/3 , If K = , maximum radio range h in meters, d in km h in feet, d in miles

B. Flat Earth Curved Beam Approach A representation of a flat earth with a microwave beam having a curvature of KR.

2.

Drawing SCALES: Horizontal scale: Vertical scale : 1 mile : 1 inch 2 miles : 1 inch 1 inch : 100 ft, 200ft, 500ft or 1,000ft

Note : The selection of the scale will depend on the path length and elevations the site and path.

3.

FRESNEL ZONE - Are a series of concentric ellipsoids that surround the path of the microwave beam from the transmitter to the receiver. - The first Fresnel Zone is the surface containing every point for which the sum of the distances from that point to the two ends of the path is exactly wavelength longer than the direct path. Fresnel Zone Radius (Fn) - Are the radii of the concentric circles corresponding to the cross section of a particular Fresnel Zone. Fresnel Zone concept: - If a reflected signal is bounced within an odd-numbered Fresnel Zone, it would arrive at the receiver in phase addition with the direct signal. The signal field at the receiver is thus at a maximum value.
o If a reflected signal is bounced within an even-numbered Fresnel Zone, it would arrive at the receiver in phase opposition with the direct signal. The signal field at the receiver is seen to be minimum in value. o Since the cross-section of the Fresnel zones at any point along the path is a series of concentric circles, so it is important to note that clearance requirements is applied to both sides, above and below the path.

F1

F2

First Fresnel Zone Radius (F1) Nth Fresnel Zone Radius (Fn) (meters)

d1 = dist. from one end of the path to the reflection pt.; in miles or km d2 = D d1 (feet) D = path length; in miles or km F = operating freq.; in GHz

Fresnel Zone Clearance (Fc) It takes into account the unusual conditions that occur in the atmosphere.

In order to ensure free space propagation, it is essential that all potential obstructions along a path must be removed from the beam centerline by at least 0.6F1.

4.

ANTENNA HEIGHT ANALYSIS The sum of the calculated earth curvature and the calculated Fresnel zone clearance are added together with the elevation of the top of the obstruction. The microwave beam, plotted as a straight line must clear from this points. In the antenna height analysis, K = 2/3 path profile must be considered. Antenna heights must be determined so that a straight line between the antenna locations clears all the marked points. The actual antenna heights can be determined by converting the measured height of the point intersecting the path and vertical lines between the two sites. REFLECTION POINT CALCULATION / TEST The reflected signal can also affects the direct signal. It can cause a delay distortion of the received signal at the other end of the system. So if possible, reflected signal must be blocked by utilizing any physical obstructions located within the path. In reflection point test, it must be shown from the three path profile ( K=, 2/3, 4/3) that the reflected signal can be bloc ked by any obstructions located along the path. If blocking of reflected signal is not satisfied then changes in antenna height must take place in order to reposition/shift the reflection point that would then possibly blocked the reflected signal. If blocking is unattainable then diversity technique will be implemented on the system. where: H1 & H2 height of the antenna from mean sea level (MSL) d1 & d2 dist. from one end to the reflection pt and to the other end of the path - reflection point coefficient

5.

Reflection Point Formula for different values of K; K= Flat Earth d1 = D , = K = 2/3 Subrefraction - d1 = - d2 Super refraction = -

K = 4/3

IV. INTERFERENCE AND RESTRICTIONS One very important in microwave systems is the avoidance of interference. Types of Interference in Microwave Communication: 1. INTRA SYSTEM INTERFERENCE Interference coming with in the system. Classifications of Intra-system Interference: 1. Overreach 2. Adjacent Section 3. Spur or Junction Interference Things needed to do; a. Overreach Interference
A longer overreach path as compared to the direct C-D path. Antenna discrimination against the overreach path. Earth blocking in the overreach path for at least 1,000ft. An improve signal to interference ratio (S/I) Low front to back ratio & highly directive antenna system Implements High-to-Low frequency bands for Tx and Rx mode

b. Spur & Adjacent Interference

2.

EXTERNAL INTERFERENCE
Unfiltered RADAR typically radiates at 60dBm (1kW) for second and third harmonics. To prevent microwave receivers from harmonics interference, it is recommended to find for substantial earth blocking. For the unblocked situation, it is recommended to have an excess of 10 miles apart between the RADAR and microwave receivers. Antenna discrimination be at least 30dB. Paralleling and intersecting microwave systems also contributes interference. Avoidance of interference must improve the ff; 1. parallel system distance 2. receiver sensitivity 3. antenna discrimination 4. receiver selectivity The acceptable angle is 90 to intersect another microwave path.

V.

ROUTES & SITES TO BE AVOIDED There are several situations which should be avoided in selecting and establishing a microwave path. 1. OVER WATER & LOW FLAT TERRAIN
If cant be avoided, the HIGH LOW technique must be implemented to redirect the reflection point over rough terrain. Another alternative is by SPACE DIVERSITY technique. An additional receiving antenna is placed on top of the previous antenna.

2. SITES NEAR HIGH POWER RADARS

Harmonics of RADAR signals might interfere with the microwave signal.

3. CROSSING OTHER SYSTEM ROUTES

Crossing other routes of similar frequency at small angles or near the repeater stations.

4. LINE- OF- SIGHT OBSTRUCTION

All type of obstructions which is near the LOS may cause interference to the signal.

VI. FADING
The microwave energy is not a single line, but a wave front extending for a considerable distance about the center line. Since the index of refraction under normal atmospheric condition is lower at the top of the wave front and higher at the bottom, and since velocity is inversely proportional to the index of refraction, the wave front travel fester on the upper portion than on the lower. So this will tend for the signal to bend downward. Refraction occurs. Fading due to ground reflection is not only confined to water and perfectly smooth, flat surfaces such as dry lakes. Growing crops such as corn can also produce serious fading.

The multi path fading is also related to the well-known RAYLEIGH fading. Multipath fading tends to be greater on long path than on short path and it is a function on path length, frequency, climate, and terrain conditions. Hot and humid coastal areas typically have a high incidence of multipath fading. Flat terrain along a path tends to increase the probability of fading, while irregular or hilly terrain tends to reduce.

VII. DIVERSITY TECHNIQUE AND CONSIDERATIONS:

Diversity technique when properly applied can reduce the effects of multipath fading on line-of-sight systems. For systems requiring only one working RF channel, as typical of most industrial systems, the most commonly used basic protection methods are:

1. FREQUENCY DIVERSITY
A diversity arrangement providing full and simple equipment redundancy. Its advantage is that it establishes two complete end-to-end paths, so that full testing can be done without interrupting services. Its disadvantage is that it doubles the amount of spectrum required. Protection switching must be in order to maintain service continuity. A typical objective is to restore service within 30 msec to minimize noticeable effects in the message traffics or no circuit disconnection detected. For long haul operation (TD 3), the radio system uses 12 voice channels: 10 main channels and 2 backup channels for protection (often called as 2 x 10 systems). This type of system is difficult to implement. Short haul operation uses one-for-one protection switching because it is simpler to implement but it only requires large amount of bandwidth. So it is ideal for non-congested environment.

2. VERTICAL SPACE DIVERSITY

Deep fading only occurs when secondary ray arrives exactly out-of-phase with respect to a primary ray, it is unlikely that two paths of different lengths experience fading simultaneously. Using different path lengths provides protection against multi path fading.

3. HYBRID DIVERSITY
A special combination of frequency and space diversity technique.

COMPUTATION FOR SPACE DIVERSITY SPACING:

Steps in computing for the space diversity clearance: 1. Establish the antenna heights needed to meet the required path clearance criteria. 2. Let ht1 = the height of the transmitting antenna (site A) above a plane tangent to the earth at the point of reflection. The h t2 = the height of the transmitting antenna (site B) above the plane tangent to the point of reflection. 3. For K = , the tentative spacing can be calculated by the formula:

h2 = 2.2 x 10 D FGHz ht
Where: h2 is the diversity spacing at the h2 end, in feet ht - height of the transmitting antenna (in feet) at the h1 end and above the plane tangent to the earth at the point of reflection, F - operating frequency, in GHz D - path length, in miles

4.

In most cases, the final spacing will be that calculated in step 3, but to ensure that it does not result in spacing which would give more than one-half wavelength path difference at K = 4/3, the following calculation should be made;

h2 = 1.3 x 10 D FGHz ht
5. The desired vertical spacing at the h2 end will be the smaller of the two calculated value of h2.

VIII. PROPAGATION RELIABILITY:

The diversity technique when properly applied can reduce the effect of multi path fading on the line-of-sight. It is expected that implementing diversity technique can improve the performance of the system. The parameter availability is designated by symbol A which is also equal to 1-U. Reliability is commonly expressed in percentage. By providing adequate path clearance to essentially eliminate outages due to earth blocking and providing fade margins of 40dB or more, it is recommended that system reliability is 99.99% and if diversity is implemented, the system reliability should be improve to 99.9999%.

Reliability % 95 99 99.9 99.99 99.999 99.9999 NON-DIVERSITY ANNUAL OUTAGE:

Outage Time % 5 1 0.1 0.01 0.001 0.0001

Outage Time per Year 438 hrs 88 hrs 8.8 hrs 53 min 5.3 min 32 sec Month 36 hrs 7 hrs 43 min 4.3 min 26 sec 2.6 sec Day 1.2 hrs 14.4 min 1.44 min 8.6 sec 0.86 sec 0.086 sec

Let Undp be the non-diversity annual outage probability for a given path. r is defined by Barnett as: r = Actual fade probability Rayleigh fade probability Rayleigh fade probability = 10
-F/10

where:

D - path length, in miles f - frequency, in GHz a = 4 : for very smooth terrain, including over water = 1 : for average terrain with roughness = : for mountainous = 1/8: mountainous and very dry and temperate area

 For worst month: 3 -5 1.5 rm = aD x 10 (f/4) Over one year: ryr = b x rm Undp = ryr x 10 F/10 = b x rm x 10 3 1.5 -6 -F/10 = 1.25 abD f x 10 x 10
The product of the terrain and climate factors ab ranges from a maximum of 4 x1/2 = 2, for very smooth and hot paths, to a minimum of x 1/8 = 0.031 for mountainous and very rough paths. This ranges from 64 to 1 in terms of worst conditions. Normal or averages paths has a value of 0.25 for ab.
-F/10

FREQUENCY DIVERSITY IMPROVEMENT FACTOR The following formula are all experimental; Ifd (4) = (f )x 10 , for 4 GHz carrier f F/10 Ifd (6) = (f)x10 , for 6 GHz carrier f F/10 Ifd (7-8) = 1/8(f)x10 , for 7-8GHz carrier f F/10 Ifd (11-12) = 1/12(f)x10 , for 11-12 carrier f Udiv = Undp / Ifd
F/10

SPACE DIVERSITY IMPROVEMENT FACTOR: Isd = 7.0 fs x 10 x 10

2 -5 F/10

Udiv = Undp / Isd

IX. EQUIPMENTS: 1. TOWERS

Where : f - frequency, in GHz s - vertical spacing between the center of the two antenna, in feet D - path length, in miles F - fade margin associated with the second antenna, in dB

Tower and tower problem have a significant effects on many microwave path engineering choices. A 30 mile path on relatively flat terrain could call for a tower on the order of 250 feet at each end. If there were hills or trees in the middle, this could go up to 300 to 350 feet in order to achieve desired clearance. The two generic types of tower are GUYED and SELF-SUPPORTING. The cost of the tower goes up as the height increases. There are several things queried in connection with towers; the soil conditioning, wind loading, and the local building codes, and restriction in the area. The standard minimum wind loading of a tower is based on 20 lbs/sq. ft.

P = KV

20 lbs/sq.ft 30 lbs/sq.ft 40 lbs/sq.ft

71 mph 86 mph 100 mph

where : P is the pressure in pounds per square inch K is the wind conversion factor, 0.004 is the recommended value of the EIA V is the actual wind velocity, in miles per hour

The load of a tower depends on the sizes, shapes location and relative positions of all antennas, reflectors and other paraphernalias.

Height of tower In meter 10 (33 ft.) 30 (100 ft.) 60 (200 ft.) 90 (300 ft.) 2. WAVEGUIDE

Wind speed in km/hr minimum 112 131 145 153 maximum 176 206 227 244

Matching the waveguide and transmission line is important in order to reduce the effect echo distortion noise. Its loss characteristic is also needed in computing for the over-all losses of the system. In a 2GHz bands, a coaxial cable are often used with air dielectric type with a typical size of 7/8 inch and attenuation of 2 dB/100 ft. flexibility is sometimes enjoyed during installation. But for longer transmission line, higher loses and poorer VSWR are experience if using coax., so waveguide-type are recommended. In all types of waveguide systems, it is desirable to keep the number of bends, twist and flexible sections be minimize. And during installation, extra care should be observed since slight misalignment, bends and introduction of unwanted materials into the guides could create severe discontinuities.

TYPES OF WAVEGUIDES: A. Rectangular Waveguide Rigid rectangular waveguide is the most commonly used, with oxygen free high conductivity (OFHC) as the recommended materials. 4GHz band 6GHz band WR 229, approximate attenuation of 0.85 dB/ft WR 137, approximate attenuation of 2.0 dB/ft

7-8 GHz band 11 GHz band 12-13GHz band B. Circular Waveguide

WR 159, approximate attenuation of 1.4 dB/ft WR 112, approximate attenuation of 2.7 dB/ft WR 90, approximate attenuation of 3.5 dB/ft WR 75, approximate attenuation of 4.5 dB/ft

Circular waveguide has the lowest loss of all types of waveguide and it can also support two orthogonal polarizations within the single guide. It is also capable of carrying more than one frequency band in the same guide. For example, WC 281 circular guide is normally used with horn reflector antennas to provide two polarizations at 4GHz and two polarizations at 6GHz. It is practical for straight run installation.

C.

Elliptical Waveguide
Semi-flexible elliptical waveguides major advantage is that can installed in a single continuous run without no intermediate flanges. But introduction of small deformation can result to impedance mismatch to produce severe echo distortion.

4GHz band 6GHz band 7-8GHz band 11GHz band 12-13GHz band 3. ANTENNA SYSTEMS

EW 37, attenuation is 0.85dB/100ft EW 59, attenuation is 1.75dB/100ft EW 71, attenuation is 2.5dB/100ft EW 107, attenuation is 3.7dB/100ft EW 122, attenuation is 4.5dB/100ft

Highly directional antennas are used with point-to-point microwave systems. By focusing the radio energy into a narrow beam, microwave signal can be directed toward the receiving antenna. Gain, antenna beam-width, side-lobes magnitude, radiation patterns and polarization discrimination are the characteristics which are of great importance in communication systems. The gain of an antenna is expressed in dBi or dB relative to the gain of an isotropic antenna, which theoretically an omnidirectional and with a gain of 1.0 or 0dB. Antenna gain is given by;

G = 10 log10 ( 4Ae ) 2
where: G A e - gain over isotropic, in dB - area of antenna aperture - antenna efficiency - wavelength at operating frequency,

TYPES OF DIRECT RADIATING ANTENNA 1. Parabolic Antenna

This type of antenna consists of a parabolic dish, illuminated by a feed horn at its focus. The simplest form is with single plane polarized feed, which can either be vertical (V) or horizontal (H). Other have dual polarized feed (DP) with separate of V & H connections and it has a very complex feed horn. DPs usually have less gain than the single polarized. Off beam discrimination is reasonably good, but front-to-back ratios is on the order of 45 to 50dB maximum which is not adequate for back-to-back transmission (or reception) of the same frequency in both direction. The gain efficiencies of most commercially available parabolic antenna are in the order of 55 to 65%. With 55% efficiency, the gain of a parabolic antenna is given by: The side lobes and front-to-back ratio are caused by imperfect illumination of the parabola and phase errors introduced by the feed and irregularities in the reflecting surfaces.

G = 7.5 + 20log10B + 20log10f

where: G - antenna gain over isotropic, in dB f - frequency, in GHz B - parabolic diameter, in feet

AG = 17.8 + 20log10f(GHz) + 20log10D(m)

where: G - antenna gain over isotropic, in dB f - frequency, in GHz B - parabolic diameter, in meters

The half-power beamwidth of a parabolic antenna is given approximately by; = 70/Bf

where: - half-power beamwidth, in degrees f - frequency, in GHz B - parabola diameter, in feet

2.

Shrouded Antenna
This is similar to a common parabolic types, except that they includes a cylindrical shield which helps to improve the front-to-back ratio and wide angle radiation discrimination. It exhibits a high performance antenna in terms F/B ratio. They are available either single or double polarized. It is bulkier, heavier and more expensive than the ordinary antenna. However, it can provide a F/B ratio of 65dB, which sufficient enough to operate at back-to-back transmission.

3.

Cross-Band Parabolic Antenna

These are parabolic antenna with feeds designed to permit operation in two widely separated bands (for example 6GHz and 11GHz band). Because of the very complex and critical feed assemblies, this antenna has a typical less gain, poorer VSWR than a single band antenna. To minimize the effect of losses, a filter is installed after the each feed-horn in order to filter out the unnecessary signals.

Typical Antenna Sizes & Gains: Diameter In feet 4 6 8 10 12 15 4. RADOMES

2GHz 25.5 29.0 31.5 33.5 -

4GHz 35.0 37.3 39.3 40.8 42.6

Gain Relative to Isotropics 6GHz 7GHz 8GHz 35.2 35.9 37.0 38.7 39.4 40.6 41.1 41.9 43.1 43.0 43.9 45.2 44.6 45.5 46.7 46.0 46.9 48.7

11GHz 40.3 43.8 46.0 47.7 -

13GHz 41.3 44.8 47.3 48.5 -

Parabolic and shrouded antenna usually includes integral radomes. It also introduces loses to signals and the amount may vary from less than 0.5 dB for typical unheated radome to 2.0 dB for heated radome. Radomes also can be expected to degrade the VSWR of an antenna system. This become very significant in situations where very low VSWRs are needed to control echo distortion. In some case, radomes also create high reflective spikes at a particular frequency only.

MICROWAVE PATH DATA CALCULATION SHEET Frequency: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 Path length Path Attenuation/Loss Waveguide Length Waveguide Loss Connector Loss Hybrid Loss Radome Loss Total Fixed Loss, Total Losses, Antenna Height, ft Antenna Diameter, ft Antenna Gain, dB Total Gain, in dB Net Path Loss, in dB Transmitter Power, in dBm Median Received Power, in dBm Practical Threshold, in dBm Fade Margin, in dB Reliability Profile Number Site Latitude Longitude Site Elevation Tower height Tower Type Azimuth from True North miles dB ft dB dB dB dB dB dB ft ft