RAJALAKSHMI ENGINEERING COLLEGE

Thandalam, Chennai 602 105

CS 2304 - SYSTEM SOFTWARE NOTES ON LESSON UNIT 1 Introduction

Sy tem So!t"are # $achine %rchitecture The Sim&li!ied In tructional Com&uter SIC and SIC'(E Traditional )CISC* $achine + Com&le, In truction Set Com&uter -ISC $achine + -educed In truction Set Com&uter

1.0 Introduction
The u/0ect introduce the de i1n and im&lementation o! y tem o!t"are. So!t"are i et o! in truction or &ro1ram "ritten to carry out certain ta 2 on di1ital com&uter . It i cla i!ied into y tem o!t"are and a&&lication o!t"are. Sy tem o!t"are con i t o! a 3ariety o! &ro1ram that u&&ort the o&eration o! a com&uter. %&&lication o!t"are !ocu e on an a&&lication or &ro/lem to /e ol3ed. Sy tem o!t"are con i t o! a 3ariety o! &ro1ram that u&&ort the o&eration o! a com&uter. E,am&le !or y tem o!t"are are O&eratin1 y tem, com&iler, a em/ler, macro &roce or, loader or lin2er, de/u11er, te,t editor, data/a e mana1ement y tem ) ome o! them* and, o!t"are en1ineerin1 tool . The e o!t"are4 ma2e it &o i/le !or the u er to !ocu on an a&&lication or other &ro/lem to /e ol3ed, "ithout needin1 to 2no" the detail o! ho" the machine "or2 internally.

1.1 Sy tem So!t"are and $achine %rchitecture

One characteri tic in "hich mo t o!t"are i machine de&endency. y tem o!t"are di!!er !rom a&&lication

Sy tem o!t"are u&&ort o&eration and u e o! com&uter. %&&lication o!t"are + olution to a &ro/lem. % em/ler tran late mnemonic in truction into machine code. The in truction !ormat , addre in1 mode etc., are o! direct concern in a em/ler de i1n. Similarly, Com&iler mu t 1enerate machine lan1ua1e code, ta2in1 into account uch hard"are characteri tic a the num/er and ty&e o! re1i ter and the machine in truction a3aila/le. O&eratin1 y tem are directly concerned "ith the mana1ement o! nearly all o! the re ource o! a com&utin1 y tem.

There are a &ect o! y tem o!t"are that do not directly de&end u&on the ty&e o! com&utin1 y tem, 1eneral de i1n and lo1ic o! an a em/ler, 1eneral de i1n and lo1ic o! a com&iler and, code o&timi5ation techni6ue , "hich are inde&endent o! tar1et machine . Li2e"i e, the &roce o! lin2in1 to1ether inde&endently a em/led u/&ro1ram doe not u ually de&end on the com&uter /ein1 u ed.

1.2 The Sim&li!ied In tructional Com&uter )SIC*

Sim&li!ied In tructional Com&uter )SIC* i a hy&othetical com&uter that include the hard"are !eature mo t o!ten !ound on real machine . There are t"o 3er ion o! SIC, they are, tandard model )SIC*, and, e,ten ion 3er ion )SIC'(E* )e,tra e6ui&ment or e,tra e,&en i3e*.

1.2.1 SIC $achine %rchitecture

7e di cu here the SIC machine architecture "ith re &ect to it $emory and -e1i ter , 8ata 9ormat , In truction 9ormat , %ddre in1 $ode , In truction Set, In&ut and Out&ut

$emory
There are 215 /yte in the com&uter memory, that i :2,;6< /yte , It u e Little Endian !ormat to tore the num/er , : con ecuti3e /yte !orm a "ord , each location in memory contain <+/it /yte .

-e1i ter
There are !i3e re1i ter , each 2= /it in len1th. Their mnemonic, num/er and u e are 1i3en in the !ollo"in1 ta/le.

$nemonic % ( L BC S7

Num/er 0 1 2 < C

>e %ccumulator? u ed !or arithmetic o&eration Inde, re1i ter? u ed !or addre in1 Lin2a1e re1i ter? @S>A Bro1ram counter Statu "ord, includin1 CC

8ata 9ormat
Inte1er are tored a 2=+/it /inary num/er , 24 com&lement re&re entation i u ed !or ne1ati3e 3alue , character are tored u in1 their <+/it %SCII code , No !loatin1+ &oint hard"are on the tandard 3er ion o! SIC.

In truction 9ormat
O&code)<* , %ddre )15*

%ll machine in truction on the tandard 3er ion o! SIC ha3e the 2=+/it !ormat a ho"n a/o3e

%ddre in1 $ode

Mode 8irect Inde,ed

Ind !"# on ,D0 ,D1

T"$%e# "dd$e&& !"'!('"# on T% D addre T% D addre E ),*

There are t"o addre in1 mode a3aila/le, "hich are a ho"n in the a/o3e ta/le. Barenthe e are u ed to indicate the content o! a re1i ter or a memory location.

In truction Set
SIC &ro3ide , load and tore in truction )L8%, L8(, ST%, ST(, etc.* . Inte1er arithmetic o&eration F )%88, S>A, $>L, 8IG, etc.*. %ll arithmetic o&eration in3ol3e re1i ter % and a "ord in memory, "ith the re ult /ein1 le!t in the re1i ter. T"o in truction are &ro3ided !or u/routine lin2a1e. CO$B com&are the 3alue in re1i ter % "ith a "ord in memory, thi in truction et a condition code CC to indicate the re ult. There are conditional 0um& in truction F )@LT, @EH, @IT*, the e in truction te t the ettin1 o! CC and 0um& accordin1ly. @S>A 0um& to the u/routine &lacin1 the return addre in re1i ter L, -S>A return /y 0um&in1 to the addre contained in re1i ter L.

In&ut and Out&ut

In&ut and Out&ut are &er!ormed /y tran !errin1 1 /yte at a time to or !rom the ri1htmo t < /it o! re1i ter % )accumulator* . The Te t 8e3ice )T8* in truction te t "hether the addre ed de3ice i ready to end or recei3e a /yte o! data . -ead 8ata )-8*, 7rite 8ata )78* are u ed !or readin1 or "ritin1 the data.

8ata mo3ement and Stora1e 8e!inition

L8%, ST%, L8L, STL, L8(, ST( ) %+ %ccumulator, L Lin2a1e -e1i ter, ( Inde, -e1i ter*) all u e :+/yte "ord. L8CJ, STCJ a ociated "ith character u e 1+/yte. There are no memory+memory mo3e in truction . Stora1e de!inition are 7O-8 + -ES7 + AKTE + -ESA + ONE+7O-8 CONST%NT ONE+7O-8 G%-I%ALE ONE+AKTE CONST%NT ONE+AKTE G%-I%ALE

E,am&le Bro1ram )SIC*

E*"+,'e 1-S +,'e d"#" "nd !."$"!#e$ +o/e+en# o,e$"# on0 L8% 9IGE ST% %LBJ% L8CJ CJ%-L STCJ C1 . %LBJ% 9IGE CJ%-L C1 -ES7 1 7O-8 5 AKTE C4L4 -ESA 1

E*"+,'e 2- A$ #.+e# ! o,e$"# on&0 L8% %LBJ% %88 INCS>A ONE ST% AEET% MM.. MM.. MM.. MM.. 7O-8 1 -ES7 1 =

ONE %LBJ%

AEET% INC-

-ES7 1 -ES7 1

E*"+,'e 3-Loo, n% "nd Inde* n% o,e$"# on0 L8( LE-O F (D0 $OGECJ L8CJ ST-1, ( F LO%8 % 9-O$ ST-1 STCJ ST-2, ( F STO-E % TO ST-2 TI( ELEGEN F %88 1 TO (, TEST @LT $OGECJ . . . ST-1 AKTE C NJELLO 7O-L84 ST-2 -ESA 11 LE-O 7O-8 0 ELEGEN 7O-8 11 E*"+,'e 4- In,(# "nd O(#,(# o,e$"# on0 INLOOB T8 IN8EG @EH INLOOB -8 IN8EG STCJ 8%T% . . O>TLB T8 O>T8EG @EH O>TLB L8CJ 8%T% 78 O>T8EG . . IN8EG AKTE ( N954 O>T8EG AKTE ( N0<4 8%T% -ESA 1 F TEST INB>T 8EGICE F LOOB >NTIL 8EGICE IS -E%8K F -E%8 ONE AKTE INTO % F STO-E % TO 8%T% F TEST O>TB>T 8EGICE F LOOB >NTIL 8EGICE IS -E%8K F LO%8 8%T% INTO % F 7-ITE % TO O>TB>T 8EGICE F INB>T 8EGICE N>$AEF O>TB>T 8EGICE N>$AEF ONE+AKTE G%-I%ALE

E*"+,'e 1 -To #$"n&2e$ #3o .(nd$ed 45#e& o2 d"#" 2$o+ n,(# de/ !e #o +e+o$50 L8( LE-O CLOOB T8 @EH -8 IN8EG CLOOB IN8EG

STCJ -ECO-8, ( TI( A200 @LT CLOOB . . IN8EG AKTE ( N954 -ECO-8 -ESA 200 LE-O 7O-8 0 A200 7O-8 200 E*"+,'e 6 -S(4$o(# ne #o #$"n&2e$ #3o .(nd$ed 45#e& o2 d"#" 2$o+ n,(# de/ !e #o +e+o$50 @S>A -E%8 MMMM. MMMM. -E%8 L8( LE-O CLOOB T8 IN8EG @EH CLOOB -8 IN8EG STCJ -ECO-8, ( TI( A200 F add 1 to inde, com&are 200 )A200* @LT CLOOB -S>A MM.. MM.. IN8EG AKTE ( N954 -ECO-8 -ESA 200 LE-O 7O-8 0 A200 7O-8 200

1.2.2 SIC'(E $achine %rchitecture $emory

$a,imum memory a3aila/le on a SIC'(E y tem i 1 $e1a/yte )220 /yte *

-e1i ter
%dditional A, S, T, and 9 re1i ter are &ro3ided /y SIC'(E, in addition to the re1i ter o! SIC $nemonic Num/er S&ecial u e

A S T 9

: = 5 6

Aa e re1i ter Ieneral "or2in1 re1i ter Ieneral "or2in1 re1i ter 9loatin1+&oint accumulator )=< /it *

9loatin1+&oint data ty&e

There i a =<+/it !loatin1+&oint data ty&e, 9O2)e+102=* 1 11 :6 S e,&onent !raction

In truction 9ormat
The ne" et o! in truction !ormat !ro SIC'(E machine architecture are a !ollo" . 9ormat 1 )1 /yte*F contain only o&eration code ) trai1ht !rom ta/le*. 9ormat 2 )2 /yte *F !ir t ei1ht /it !or o&eration code, ne,t !our !or re1i ter 1 and !ollo"in1 !our !or re1i ter 2. The num/er !or the re1i ter 1o accordin1 to the num/er indicated at the re1i ter ection )ie, re1i ter T i re&laced /y he, 5, 9 i re&laced /y he, 6*. 9ormat : ): /yte *F 9ir t 6 /it contain o&eration code, ne,t 6 /it contain !la1 , la t 12 /it contain di &lacement !or the addre o! the o&erand. O&eration code u e only 6 /it , thu the econd he, di1it "ill /e a!!ected /y the 3alue o! the !ir t t"o !la1 )n and i*. The !la1 , in order, areF n, i, ,, /, &, and e. It !unctionality i e,&lained in the ne,t ection. The la t !la1 e indicate the in truction !ormat )0 !or : and 1 !or =*. 9ormat = )= /yte *F ame a !ormat : "ith an e,tra 2 he, di1it )< /it * !or addre e that re6uire more than 12 /it to /e re&re ented. Fo$+"# 1 -1 45#e0 7 O, Fo$+"# 2 -2 45#e&0 7 o, 4 $1 4 $2

9ormat 1 and 2 are in truction do not re!erence memory at all Fo$+"# 3 -3 45#e&0 6 o, 1 1 1 1 1 1 12 N * 4 , e d &,

Fo$+"# 4 -4 45#e&0 6 o, 1 1 1 1 1 1 20 n * 4 , e "dd$e&&

%ddre in1 mode # 9la1 Ait

9i3e &o i/le addre in1 mode &lu the com/ination are a !ollo" . 8 $e!# ),, /, and & all et to 0*F o&erand addre 1oe a it i . n and i are /oth et to the ame 3alue, either 0 or 1. 7hile in 1eneral that 3alue i 1, i! et to 0 !or !ormat : "e can a ume that the re t o! the !la1 ),, /, &, and e* are u ed a a &art o! the addre o! the o&erand, to ma2e the !ormat com&ati/le to the SIC !ormat Re'"# /e )either / or & e6ual to 1 and the other one to 0*F the addre o! the o&erand hould /e added to the current 3alue tored at the A re1i ter )i! / D 1* or to the 3alue tored at the BC re1i ter )i! & D 1* I++ed "#e )i D 1, n D 0*F The o&erand 3alue i already enclo ed on the in truction )ie. lie on the la t 12'20 /it o! the in truction* addre Ind $e!# )i D 0, n D 1*F The o&erand 3alue &oint to an addre !or the o&erand 3alue. that hold the

Inde*ed ), D 1*F 3alue to /e added to the 3alue tored at the re1i ter , to o/tain real addre o! the o&erand. Thi can /e com/ined "ith any o! the &re3iou mode e,ce&t immediate. The 3ariou !la1 /it u ed in the a/o3e !ormat ha3e the !ollo"in1 meanin1 e + e D 0 mean !ormat :, e D 1 mean !ormat =

<

Ait ,,/,&F > ed to calculate the tar1et addre addre in1 $ode Ait i and nF Say , ho" to u e the tar1et addre

u in1 relati3e, direct, and inde,ed

/ and & + /oth et to 0, di & !ield !rom !ormat : in truction i ta2en to /e the tar1et addre . 9or a !ormat = /it / and & are normally et to 0, 20 /it addre i the tar1et addre , + , i et to 1, ( re1i ter 3alue i added !or tar1et addre calculation iD1, nD0 Immediate addre in1, TAF T% i u ed a the o&erand 3alue, no memory re!erence iD0, nD1 Indirect addre in1, --TA00F The "ord at the T% i !etched. Galue o! T% i ta2en a the addre o! the o&erand 3alue iD0, nD0 or iD1, nD1 Sim&le addre in1, -TA0FT% i ta2en a the addre o! the o&erand 3alue T"o ne" relati3e addre in1 mode are a3aila/le !or u e "ith in truction a em/led u in1 !ormat :. Mode Aa e relati3e Bro1ram+counter relati3e Ind !"# on /D1,&D0 /D0,&D1 T"$%e# "dd$e&& !"'!('"# on T%D)A*E di & )0di & =0C5* T%D)BC*E di & )+20=<di & 20=;*

In truction Set
SIC'(E &ro3ide all o! the in truction that are a3aila/le on the tandard 3er ion. In addition "e ha3e, In truction to load and tore the ne" re1i ter L8A, STA, etc, 9loatin1+&oint arithmetic o&eration , %889, S>A9, $>L9, 8IG9, -e1i ter mo3e in truction F -$O, -e1i ter+to+re1i ter arithmetic o&eration , %88-, S>A-, $>L-, 8IG- and, Su&er3i or call in truction F SGC.

In&ut and Out&ut

There are I'O channel that can /e u ed to &er!orm in&ut and out&ut "hile the CB> i e,ecutin1 other in truction . %llo" o3erla& o! com&utin1 and I'O, re ultin1 in more e!!icient y tem o&eration. The in truction SIO, TIO, and JIO are u ed to tart, te t and halt the o&eration o! I'O channel .

E,am&le Bro1ram )SIC'(E*

E*"+,'e 1 -S +,'e d"#" "nd !."$"!#e$ +o/e+en# o,e$"# on0 L8% P5 ST% %LBJ% L8% PC0 STCJ C1 . . %LBJ% -ES7 1 C1 -ESA 1 E*"+,'e 2-A$ #.+e# ! o,e$"# on&0 L8S INCL8% %LBJ% %88 S,% S>A P1 ST% AEET% MMMM. MMMM.. %LBJ% -ES7 1 AEET% -ES7 1 INC- -ES7 1 E*"+,'e 3-Loo, n% "nd Inde* n% o,e$"# on0 L8T P11 L8( P0 F (D0 L8CJ ST-1, ( F LO%8 % 9-O$ ST-1 STCJ ST-2, ( F STO-E % TO ST-2 TI(T F %88 1 TO (, TEST )T* @LT $OGECJ MMM. MMM. MMM AKTE C NJELLO 7O-L84 -ESA 11

$OGECJ

ST-1 ST-2

E*"+,'e 4 -To #$"n&2e$ #3o .(nd$ed 45#e& o2 d"#" 2$o+ n,(# de/ !e #o +e+o$50 L8T L8( T8 @EH -8 STCJ TI(P200 P0 IN8EG CLOOB IN8EG -ECO-8, ( T

CLOOB

10

@LT CLOOB . . IN8EG AKTE ( N954 -ECO-8 -ESA 200

E*"+,'e 1 -S(4$o(# ne #o #$"n&2e$ #3o .(nd$ed 45#e& o2 d"#" 2$o+ n,(# de/ !e #o +e+o$50 @S>A -E%8 MMM. MMM. -E%8 L8T P200 L8( P0 CLOOB T8 IN8EG @EH CLOOB -8 IN8EG STCJ -ECO-8, ( TI(- T F add 1 to inde, com&are T @LT CLOOB -S>A MM.. MM.. IN8EG AKTE ( N954 -ECO-8 -ESA 200

1.: 8i!!erent %rchitecture

The !ollo"in1 ection introduce the architecture o! CISC and -ISC machine . CISC machine are called traditional machine . In addition to the e "e ha3e recent -ISC machine . 8i!!erent machine /elon1in1 to /oth o! the e architecture are com&ared "ith re &ect to their $emory, -e1i ter , 8ata 9ormat , In truction 9ormat , %ddre in1 $ode , In truction Set, In&ut and Out&ut

1.:.1 CISC machine

Traditional )CISC* $achine , are nothin1 /ut, Com&le, In truction Set Com&uter , ha relati3ely lar1e and com&le, in truction et, di!!erent in truction !ormat , di!!erent len1th , di!!erent addre in1 mode , and im&lementation o! hard"are !or the e com&uter i com&le,. G%( and Intel ,<6 &roce or are e,am&le !or thi ty&e o! architecture.

1.:.1.1 G%( %rchitecture

11

Me+o$5 + The G%( memory con i t o! <+/it /yte . %ll addre e u ed are /yte addre e . T"o con ecuti3e /yte !orm a "ord, 9our /yte !orm a lon1"ord, ei1ht /yte !orm a 6uad"ord, i,teen /yte !orm a octa"ord. %ll G%( &ro1ram o&erate in a 3irtual addre &ace o! 2:2 /yte , One hal! i called y tem &ace, other hal! &roce &ace. Re% &#e$& There are 16 1eneral &ur&o e re1i ter )IB- * , :2 /it each, named a -0 to -15, BC )-15*, SB )-1=*, 9rame Bointer 9B ) -1:*, %r1ument Bointer %B )-12* ,Other a3aila/le !or 1eneral u e. There i a Broce tatu lon1"ord )BSL* !or !la1 . 8"#" Fo$+"#& + Inte1er are tored a /inary num/er in /yte, "ord, lon1"ord, 6uad"ord, octa"ord. 24 com&lement notation i u ed !or torin1 ne1ati3e num/er . Character are tored a <+/it %SCII code . 9our di!!erent !loatin1+&oint data !ormat are al o a3aila/le. In&#$(!# on Fo$+"#& + G%( architecture u e 3aria/le+len1th in truction !ormat o& code 1 or 2 /yte , ma,imum o! 6 o&erand &eci!ier de&endin1 on ty&e o! in truction. Ta/a2 %d3anced $icro&roce or )2nd edition* $cIra"+Jill, 1CC5, 1i3e more in!ormation. Add$e&& n% Mode& + G%( &ro3ide a lar1e num/er o! addre in1 mode . They are -e1i ter mode, re1i ter de!erred mode, autoincrement, autodecrement, /a e relati3e, &ro1ram+counter relati3e, inde,ed, indirect, and immediate. In&#$(!# on Se# In truction are ymmetric "ith re &ect to data ty&e + > e &re!i, ty&e o! o&eration, u!!i, ty&e o! o&erand , a modi!ier num/er o! o&erand . 9or e,am&le, %8872 + add, "ord len1th, 2 o&erand , $>LL: + multi&ly, lon1"ord , : o&erand CGTCL + con3er ion !rom "ord to lon1"ord. G%( al o &ro3ide in truction to load and tore multi&le re1i ter . In,(# "nd O(#,(# + > e I'O de3ice controller . 8e3ice control re1i ter are ma&&ed to e&arate I'O &ace. So!t"are routine and memory mana1ement routine are u ed !or in&ut'out&ut o&eration .

1.:.1.2 Bentium Bro %rchitecture

Introduced /y Intel in 1CC5. Me+o$5 + con i t o! <+/it /yte , all addre e u ed are /yte addre e . T"o con ecuti3e /yte !orm a "ord, !our /yte !orm a dou/le "ord )d"ord*. Gie"ed a collection o! e1ment , and, addre D e1ment num/er E o!! et. There are code, data, tac2 , e,tra e1ment . Re% &#e$& There are :2+/it, ei1ht IB- , namely E%(, EA(, EC(, E8(, ESI, E8I, EAB, ESB. E%(, EA(, EC(, E8( are u ed !or data mani&ulation, other !our are u ed to hold addre e . EIB :2+/it contain &ointer to ne,t in truction to /e e,ecuted. 9L%IS i an :2 + /it !la1 re1i ter. CS, SS, 8S, ES, 9S, IS are the i, 16+/it e1ment re1i ter .

12

8"#" Fo$+"#& + Inte1er are tored a <, 16, or :2 /it /inary num/er , 24 com&lement !or ne1ati3e num/er , AC8 i al o u ed in the !orm o! un&ac2ed AC8, &ac2ed AC8. There are three !loatin1 &oint data !ormat , they are in1le, dou/le, and e,tended+ &reci ion. Character are tored a one &er /yte %SCII code . In&#$(!# on Fo$+"#& In truction u e &re!i,e to &eci!y re&etition count, e1ment re1i ter, !ollo"in1 &re!i, )i! &re ent*, an o&code ) 1 or 2 /yte *, then num/er o! /yte to &eci!y o&erand , addre in1 mode . In truction !ormat 3arie in len1th !rom 1 /yte to 10 /yte or more. O&code i al"ay &re ent in e3ery in truction Add$e&& n% Mode& + % lar1e num/er o! addre in1 mode are a3aila/le. They are immediate mode, re1i ter mode, direct mode, and relati3e mode. > e o! /a e re1i ter, inde, re1i ter "ith di &lacement i al o &o i/le. In&#$(!# on Se# Thi architecture ha a lar1e and com&le, in truction et, a&&ro,imately =00 di!!erent machine in truction . Each in truction may ha3e one, t"o or three o&erand . 9or e,am&le -e1i ter+to+re1i ter, re1i ter+to+memory, memory+to+ memory, trin1 mani&ulation, etcMare the ome the in truction . In,(# "nd O(#,(# + In&ut i !rom an I'O &ort into re1i ter E%(. Out&ut i !rom E%( to an I'O &ort

1.:.2 -ISC $achine

-ISC mean -educed In truction Set Com&uter . The e machine are intended to im&li!y the de i1n o! &roce or . They ha3e Ireater relia/ility, !a ter e,ecution and le e,&en i3e &roce or . %nd al o they ha3e tandard and !i,ed in truction len1th. Num/er o! machine in truction , in truction !ormat , and addre in1 mode relati3ely mall. >ltraSB%-C %rchitecture and Cray T:E %rchitecture are e,am&le o! -ISC machine .

1.:.2.1 >ltraSB%-C %rchitecture

Introduced /y Sun $icro y tem . SB%-C Scala/le Broce or %-Chitecture. SB%-C, Su&erSB%-C, >ltraSB%-C are u&"ard com&ati/le machine and hare the ame /a ic tructure. Me+o$5 + Con i t o! <+/it /yte , all addre e u ed are /yte addre e . T"o con ecuti3e /yte !orm a hal!"ord, !our /yte !orm a "ord , ei1ht /yte !orm a dou/le "ord. > e 3irtual addre &ace o! 26= /yte , di3ided into &a1e . Re% &#e$& + $ore than 100 IB- , "ith 6= /it len1th each called -e1i ter !ile. There are 6= dou/le &reci ion !loatin1+&oint re1i ter , in a &ecial !loatin1+&oint unit )9B>*. In addition to the e, it contain BC, condition code re1i ter , and control re1i ter . 8"#" Fo$+"#& + Inte1er are tored a <, 16, :2 or 6= /it /inary num/er . Si1ned, un i1ned !or inte1er and 24 com&lement !or ne1ati3e num/er . Su&&ort /oth /i1+ endian and little+endian /yte orderin1 . 9loatin1+&oint data !ormat in1le, dou/le and 6uad+&reci ion are a3aila/le. Character are tored a <+/it %SCII 3alue.

1:

In&#$(!# on Fo$+"#& + :2+/it lon1, three /a ic in truction !ormat , !ir t t"o /it identi!y the !ormat. 9ormat 1 u ed !or call in truction. 9ormat 2 u ed !or /ranch in truction . 9ormat : u ed !or load, tore and !or arithmetic o&eration . Add$e&& n% Mode& + Thi architecture u&&ort immediate mode, re1i ter+direct mode,BC+relati3e, -e1i ter indirect "ith di &lacement, and -e1i ter indirect inde,ed. In&#$(!# on Se# It ha !e"er than 100 machine in truction . The only in truction that acce memory are load and tore . %ll other in truction are re1i ter+to+re1i ter o&eration . In truction e,ecution i &i&elined thi re ult in !a ter e,ecution, and hence &eed increa e . In,(# "nd O(#,(# + Communication throu1h I'O de3ice i accom&li hed throu1h memory. % ran1e o! memory location i lo1ically re&laced /y de3ice re1i ter . 7hen a load or tore in truction re!er to thi de3ice re1i ter area o! memory, the corre &ondin1 de3ice i acti3ated. There are no &ecial I'O in truction .

1.:.2.2 Cray T:E %rchitecture

%nnounced /y Cray -e earch Inc., at the end o! 1CC5 and i a ma i3ely &arallel &roce in1 )$BB* y tem, contain a lar1e num/er o! &roce in1 element )BE *, arran1ed in a three+dimen ional net"or2. Each BE con i t o! a 8EC %l&ha EG5 -ISC &roce or, and local memory. Me+o$5 - Each BE in T:E ha it o"n local memory "ith a ca&acity o! !rom 6= me1a/yte to 2 1i1a/yte , con i t o! <+/it /yte , all addre e u ed are /yte addre e . T"o con ecuti3e /yte !orm a "ord, !our /yte !orm a lon1"ord, ei1ht /yte !orm a 6uad"ord. Re% &#e$& There are :2 1eneral &ur&o e re1i ter )IB- *, "ith 6= /it len1th each called -0 throu1h -:1, contain 3alue 5ero al"ay . In addition to the e, it ha :2 !loatin1+&oint re1i ter , 6= /it lon1, and 6=+/it BC, tatu , and control re1i ter . 8"#" Fo$+"#& + Inte1er are tored a lon1 and 6uad"ord /inary num/er . 24 com&lement notation !or ne1ati3e num/er . Su&&ort only little+endian /yte orderin1 . T"o di!!erent !loatin1+&oint data !ormat G%( and IEEE tandard. Character tored a <+/it %SCII 3alue. In&#$(!# on Fo$+"#& + :2+/it lon1, !i3e /a ic in truction !ormat . 9ir t i, /it al"ay identi!y the o&code. Add$e&& n% Mode& + Thi architecture u&&ort , immediate mode, re1i ter+direct mode, BC+relati3e, and -e1i ter indirect "ith di &lacement. In&#$(!# on Se# + Ja a&&ro,imately 1:0 machine in truction . There are no /yte or "ord load and tore in truction . Smith and 7ei QBo"erBC 601 and %l&ha 2106=F % Tale o! T7O -ISC Q Ii3e more in!ormation.

1=

In,(# "nd O(#,(# + Communication throu1h I'O de3ice i accom&li hed throu1h multi&le &ort and I'O channel . Channel are inte1rated into the net"or2 that interconnect the &roce in1 element . %ll channel are acce i/le and controlla/le !rom all BE . RRRRRRRRRRRR

UNIT- 2 % em/ler 8e i1n

% em/ler i y tem o!t"are "hich i u ed to con3ert an a em/ly lan1ua1e &ro1ram to it e6ui3alent o/0ect code. The in&ut to the a em/ler i a ource code "ritten in a em/ly lan1ua1e )u in1 mnemonic * and the out&ut i the o/0ect code. The de i1n o! an a em/ler de&end u&on the machine architecture a the lan1ua1e u ed i mnemonic lan1ua1e. 19 :"& ! A&&e+4'e$ F(n!# on&; The /a ic a em/ler !unction areF Tran latin1 mnemonic lan1ua1e code to it e6ui3alent o/0ect code. % i1nin1 machine addre e to ym/olic la/el .

The de i1n o! a em/ler can /e to &er!orm the !ollo"in1F Scannin1 )to2eni5in1* Bar in1 )3alidatin1 the in truction * Creatin1 the ym/ol ta/le -e ol3in1 the !or"ard re!erence Con3ertin1 into the machine lan1ua1e The de i1n o! a em/ler in other "ord F Con3ert mnemonic o&eration code to their machine lan1ua1e e6ui3alent Con3ert ym/olic o&erand to their e6ui3alent machine addre e 8ecide the &ro&er in truction !ormat Con3ert the data con tant to internal machine re&re entation 7rite the o/0ect &ro1ram and the a em/ly li tin1 So !or the de i1n o! the a em/ler "e need to concentrate on the machine architecture o! the SIC'(E machine. 7e need to identi!y the al1orithm and the 3ariou data tructure to /e u ed. %ccordin1 to the a/o3e re6uired te& !or a em/lin1 the a em/ler al o ha 15

to handle assembler directives, the e do not 1enerate the o/0ect code /ut direct the a em/ler to &er!orm certain o&eration. The e directi3e areF SIC % em/ler 8irecti3eF ST%-TF S&eci!y name # tartin1 addre . EN8F End o! the &ro1ram, &eci!y the !ir t e,ecution in truction. AKTE, 7O-8, -ESA, -ES7 End o! recordF a null char)00* End o! !ileF a 5ero len1th record The a em/ler de i1n can /e doneF Sin1le &a a em/ler $ulti+&a a em/ler S n%'e-,"&& A&&e+4'e$; In thi ca e the "hole &roce o! cannin1, &ar in1, and o/0ect code con3er ion i done in in1le &a . The only &ro/lem "ith thi method i re ol3in1 !or"ard re!erence. Thi i ho"n "ith an e,am&le /elo"F 10 ++ ++ ++ ++ C5 1000 9I-ST STL -ET%81=10::

10::

-ET%8-

-ES7

In the a/o3e e,am&le in line num/er 10 the in truction STL "ill tore the lin2a1e re1i ter "ith the content o! -ET%8-. Aut durin1 the &roce in1 o! thi in truction the 3alue o! thi ym/ol i not 2no"n a it i de!ined at the line num/er C5. Since I in1le+ &a a em/ler the cannin1, &ar in1 and o/0ect code con3er ion ha&&en imultaneou ly. The in truction i !etched? it i canned !or to2en , &ar ed !or ynta, and emantic 3alidity. I! it 3alid then it ha to /e con3erted to it e6ui3alent o/0ect code. 9or thi the o/0ect code i 1enerated !or the o&code STL and the 3alue !or the ym/ol -ET%8- need to /e added, "hich i not a3aila/le. 8ue to thi rea on u ually the de i1n i done in t"o &a e . So a multi+&a a em/ler re ol3e the !or"ard re!erence and then con3ert into the o/0ect code. Jence the &roce o! the multi+&a a em/ler can /e a !ollo" F Pass-1 % i1n addre e to all the tatement Sa3e the addre e a i1ned to all la/el to /e u ed in Pass-2 Ber!orm ome &roce in1 o! a em/ler directi3e uch a -ES7, -ESA to !ind the len1th o! data area !or a i1nin1 the addre 3alue . 8e!ine the ym/ol in the ym/ol ta/le)1enerate the ym/ol ta/le* Pass-2 16

% em/le the in truction )tran latin1 o&eration code and loo2in1 u& addre e *. Ienerate data 3alue de!ined /y AKTE, 7O-8 etc. Ber!orm the &roce in1 o! the a em/ler directi3e not done durin1 pass-1. 7rite the o/0ect &ro1ram and a em/ler li tin1.

A&&e+4'e$ 8e& %n; The mo t im&ortant thin1 "hich need to /e concentrated i the 1eneration o! Sym/ol ta/le and re ol3in1 forward references. Sym/ol Ta/leF Thi i created durin1 &a 1 %ll the la/el o! the in truction are ym/ol Ta/le ha entry !or ym/ol name, addre 3alue. 9or"ard re!erenceF Sym/ol that are de!ined in the later &art o! the &ro1ram are called !or"ard re!erencin1. There "ill not /e any addre 3alue !or uch ym/ol in the ym/ol ta/le in &a 1. E*"+,'e <$o%$"+; The e,am&le &ro1ram con idered here ha a main module, t"o u/routine Bur&o e o! e,am&le &ro1ram + -ead record !rom in&ut de3ice )code 91* + Co&ie them to out&ut de3ice )code 05* + %t the end o! the !ile, "rite EO9 on the out&ut de3ice, then -S>A to the o&eratin1 y tem 8ata tran !er )-8, 78* +% /u!!er i u ed to tore record +Au!!erin1 i nece ary !or di!!erent I'O rate +The end o! each record i mar2ed "ith a null character )00*16 +The end o! the !ile i indicated /y a 5ero+len1th record Su/routine )@S>A, -S>A* +-8-EC, 7--EC +Sa3e lin2 re1i ter !ir t /e!ore ne ted 0um&

1;

The !ir t column ho" the line num/er !or that in truction, econd column ho" the addre e allocated to each in truction. The third column indicate the la/el 1i3en to the tatement, and i !ollo"ed /y the in truction con i tin1 o! o&code and o&erand. The la t column 1i3e the e6ui3alent o/0ect code. The object code later "ill /e loaded into memory !or e,ecution. The im&le o/0ect &ro1ram "e u e contain three ty&e o! record F Jeader record + Col. 1 J + Col. 2S; Bro1ram name + Col. <S1: Startin1 addre o! o/0ect &ro1ram )he,* + Col. 1=S1C Len1th o! o/0ect &ro1ram in /yte )he,* Te,t record + Col. 1 T + Col. 2S; Startin1 addre !or o/0ect code in thi record )he,* + Col. <SC Len1th o! o/0ect code in thi record in /yte )he,* 1<

+ Col. 10S6C O/0ect code, re&re ented in he, )2 col. &er /yte* End record + Col.1 E + Col.2S; %ddre o! !ir t e,ecuta/le in truction in o/0ect &ro1ram )he,* QTU i only !or e&aration only O4=e!# !ode 2o$ #.e e*"+,'e ,$o%$"+;

Some o! the !eature in the &ro1ram de&end on the architecture o! the machine. I! the &ro1ram i !or SIC machine, then "e ha3e only limited in truction !ormat and hence limited addre in1 mode . 7e ha3e only in1le o&erand in truction . The o&erand i al"ay a memory re!erence. %nythin1 to /e !etched !rom memory re6uire more time. Jence the im&ro3ed 3er ion o! SIC'(E machine &ro3ide more in truction !ormat and hence more addre in1 mode . The moment "e chan1e the machine architecture the a3aila/ility o! num/er o! in truction !ormat and the addre in1 mode chan1e . There!ore the de i1n u ually re6uire con iderin1 t"o thin1 F $achine+de&endent !eature and $achine+inde&endent !eature . 39 M"!. ne-8e,enden# Fe"#($e&; In truction !ormat and addre in1 mode Bro1ram

relocation

391 In&#$(!# on 2o$+"#& "nd Add$e&& n% Mode& The in truction !ormat de&end on the memory or1ani5ation and the i5e o! the memory. In SIC machine the memory i /yte addre a/le. 7ord i5e i : /yte . So the i5e o! the memory i 212 /yte . %ccordin1ly it u&&ort only one in truction !ormat. It ha only t"o re1i ter F re1i ter % and Inde, re1i ter. There!ore the addre in1 mode u&&orted /y thi architecture are direct, indirect, and inde,ed. 7herea the memory o! a SIC'(E machine i 220 /yte )1 $A*. Thi u&&ort !our di!!erent ty&e o! in truction ty&e , they areF 1 /yte in truction 2 /yte in truction : /yte in truction = /yte in truction In truction can /eF In truction in3ol3in1 re1i ter to re1i ter In truction "ith one o&erand in memory, the other in %ccumulator )Sin1le o&erand in truction* E,tended in truction !ormat %ddre in1 $ode areF Inde, %ddre in1)SIC*F O&code m, , Indirect %ddre in1F O&code Vm 1C

BC+relati3eF O&code m Aa e relati3eF O&code m Immediate addre in1F O&code Pc

1. Translations for the Instruction involving Register-Register addressing mode: 8($ n% ,"&& 1 the re1i ter can /e entered a &art o! the ym/ol ta/le it el!. The 3alue !or the e re1i ter i their e6ui3alent numeric code . 8($ n% ,"&& 2) the e 3alue are a em/led alon1 "ith the mnemonic o/0ect code. I! re6uired a e&arate ta/le can /e created "ith the re1i ter name and their e6ui3alent numeric 3alue . 2. Tran lation in3ol3in1 -e1i ter+$emory in truction F In SIC'(E machine there are !our in truction !ormat and !i3e addre in1 mode . 9or !ormat and addre in1 mode re!er cha&ter 1. %mon1 the in truction !ormat , !ormat +: and !ormat+= in truction are -e1i ter+ $emory ty&e o! in truction. One o! the o&erand i al"ay in a re1i ter and the other o&erand i in the memory. The addre in1 mode tell u the "ay in "hich the o&erand !rom the memory i to /e !etched. There are t"o "ay F Program-counter relative and Base-relative. Thi addre in1 mode can /e re&re ented /y either u in1 !ormat+: ty&e or !ormat+= ty&e o! in truction !ormat. In !ormat+:, the in truction ha the o&code !ollo"ed /y a 12+/it di &lacement 3alue in the addre !ield. 7here a in !ormat+= the in truction contain the mnemonic code !ollo"ed /y a 20+/it di &lacement 3alue in the addre !ield. 2. Program-Counter Relative: In thi u ually !ormat+: in truction !ormat i u ed. The in truction contain the o&code !ollo"ed /y a 12+/it di &lacement 3alue. The ran1e o! di &lacement 3alue are !rom 0 +20=<. Thi di &lacement ) hould /e mall enou1h to !it in a 12+/it !ield* 3alue i added to the current content o! the &ro1ram counter to 1et the tar1et addre o! the o&erand re6uired /y the in truction. Thi i relati3e "ay o! calculatin1 the addre o! the o&erand relati3e to the &ro1ram counter. Jence the di &lacement o! the o&erand i relati3e to the current &ro1ram counter 3alue. The !ollo"in1 e,am&le ho" ho" the addre i calculatedF

20

3. Base-Relative Addressing ode: in thi mode the /a e re1i ter i u ed to mention the di &lacement 3alue. There!ore the tar1et addre i T% D )/a e* E di &lacement 3alue Thi addre in1 mode i u ed "hen the ran1e o! di &lacement 3alue i not u!!icient. Jence the o&erand i not relati3e to the in truction a in BC+relati3e addre in1 mode. 7hene3er thi mode i u ed it i indicated /y u in1 a directi3e A%SE. The moment the a em/ler encounter thi directi3e the ne,t in truction u e /a e+relati3e addre in1 mode to calculate the tar1et addre o! the o&erand. 7hen NOA%SE directi3e i u ed then it indicate the /a e re1i ter i no more u ed to calculate the tar1et addre o! the o&erand. % em/ler !ir t choo e BC+relati3e, "hen the di &lacement !ield i not enou1h it u e Aa e+relati3e. L8A PLENITJ )instruction* A%SE LENITJ )directive* F NOA%SE 9or e,am&leF 12 1: FF 100 105 FF 160 165 000: L8A A%SE 00:: 00:6 LENITJ A>99EPLENITJ LENITJ -ES7 -ESA A>99E-, T 1 =0C6 ( A<50 5;C00: 6C2028

10=E STCJ 1051 TI(-

In the a/o3e e,am&le the u e o! directi3e A%SE indicate that Aa e+relati3e addre in1 mode i to /e u ed to calculate the tar1et addre . BC+relati3e i no lon1er u ed. The 3alue o! the LENITJ i tored in the /a e re1i ter. I! BC+relati3e i u ed then the tar1et addre calculated i F The L8A in truction load the 3alue o! len1th in the /a e re1i ter "hich 00::. A%SE directi3e e,&licitly tell the a em/ler that it ha the 3alue o! LENITJ. A>99E- i at location )00:6*16 )A* D )00::*16 di & D 00:6 00:: D )000:*16

20

000%

L8%

LENITJ

0:2026

21

FF 1;5

1056

E(IT

ST(

LENITJ

1:=000

Con ider Line 1;5. I! "e u e BC+relati3e 8i & D T% )BC* D 00:: 105C D E98% BC relati3e i no lon1er a&&lica/le, o "e try to u e A%SE relati3e addre in1 mode. !. Immediate Addressing ode

In thi mode no memory re!erence i in3ol3ed. I! immediate mode i u ed the tar1et addre i the o&erand it el!.

I! the ym/ol i re!erred in the in truction a the immediate o&erand then it i immediate "ith BC+relati3e mode a ho"n in the e,am&le /elo"F

". Indirect and PC-relative mode; In thi ty&e o! in truction the ym/ol u ed in the in truction i the addre o! the location "hich contain the addre o! the o&erand. The addre o! thi i !ound u in1 BC+relati3e addre in1 mode. 9or e,am&leF

22

The in truction 0um& the control to the addre location -ET%8- "hich in turn ha the addre o! the o&erand. I! addre o! -ET%8- i 00:0, the tar1et addre i then 000: a calculated a/o3e.

:.2 Bro1ram -elocation

Sometime it i re6uired to load and run e3eral &ro1ram at the ame time. The y tem mu t /e a/le to load the e &ro1ram "here3er there i &lace in the memory. There!ore the e,act tartin1 i not 2no"n until the load time. A4&o'(#e <$o%$"+ In thi the addre i mentioned durin1 a em/lin1 it el!. Thi i called Absolute Assembly. Con ider the in tructionF 55 101A L8% TJ-EE 001028

Thi tatement ay that the re1i ter % i loaded "ith the 3alue tored at location 1028. Su&&o e it i decided to load and e,ecute the &ro1ram at location 2000 in tead o! location 1000. Then at addre 1028 the re6uired 3alue "hich need to /e loaded in the re1i ter % i no more a3aila/le. The addre al o 1et chan1ed relati3e to the di &lacement o! the &ro1ram. Jence "e need to ma2e ome chan1e in the addre &ortion o! the in truction o that "e can load and e,ecute the &ro1ram at location 2000. %&art !rom the in truction "hich "ill under1o a chan1e in their o&erand addre 3alue a the &ro1ram load addre chan1e . There e,i t ome &art in the &ro1ram "hich "ill remain ame re1ardle o! "here the &ro1ram i /ein1 loaded. Since a em/ler "ill not 2no" actual location "here the &ro1ram "ill 1et loaded, it cannot ma2e the nece ary chan1e in the addre e u ed in the &ro1ram. Jo"e3er, the a em/ler identi!ie !or the loader tho e &art o! the &ro1ram "hich need modi!ication. %n o/0ect &ro1ram that ha the in!ormation nece ary to &er!orm thi 2ind o! modi!ication i called the relocata/le &ro1ram. 39291 Con#$o' Se!# on&; % control section i a &art o! the &ro1ram that maintain it identity a!ter a em/ly? each control ection can /e loaded and relocated inde&endently o! the other . 8i!!erent control ection are mo t o!ten u ed !or u/routine or other lo1ical

2:

u/di3i ion . The &ro1rammer can a em/le, load, and mani&ulate each o! the e control ection e&arately. Aecau e o! thi , there hould /e ome mean !or lin2in1 control ection to1ether. 9or e,am&le, in truction in one control ection may re!er to the data or in truction o! other control ection . Since control ection are inde&endently loaded and relocated, the a em/ler i una/le to &roce the e re!erence in the u ual "ay. Such re!erence /et"een di!!erent control ection are called external references. The a em/ler 1enerate the in!ormation a/out each o! the e,ternal re!erence that "ill allo" the loader to &er!orm the re6uired lin2in1. 7hen a &ro1ram i "ritten u in1 multi&le control ection , the /e1innin1 o! each o! the control ection i indicated /y an a em/ler directi3e a em/ler directi3eF CSECT T.e &5n#"* &e!n"+e CSECT e&arate location counter !or each control ection Control ection di!!er !rom &ro1ram /loc2 in that they are handled e&arately /y the a em/ler. Sym/ol that are de!ined in one control ection may not /e u ed directly another control ection? they mu t /e identi!ied a e,ternal re!erence !or the loader to handle. The e,ternal re!erence are indicated /y t"o a em/ler directi3e F E(T8E9 )e,ternal 8e!inition*F It i the tatement in a control ection, name ym/ol that are de!ined in thi ection /ut may /e u ed /y other control ection . Control ection name do not need to /e named in the E(T-E9 a they are automatically con idered a e,ternal ym/ol . E(T-E9 )e,ternal -e!erence*F It name ym/ol that are u ed in thi ection /ut are de!ined in ome other control ection. The order in "hich the e ym/ol are li ted i not i1ni!icant. The a em/ler mu t include &ro&er in!ormation a/out the e,ternal re!erence in the o/0ect &ro1ram that "ill cau e the loader to in ert the &ro&er 3alue "here they are re6uired. H"nd' n% E*#e$n"' Re2e$en!e C"&e 1 15 000: CLOOB E@S>A -8-EC =A100000 The o&erand -8-EC i an e,ternal re!erence. o The a em/ler ha no idea "here -8-EC i o in ert an addre o! 5ero o can only u e e,tended !ormat to &ro3ide enou1h room )that i , relati3e addre in1 !or e,ternal re!erence i in3alid*

2=

 C"&e 2 1C0 C"&e 3

The a em/ler 1enerate in!ormation !or each e,ternal re!erence that "ill allo" the loader to &er!orm the re6uired lin2in1.

002< $%(LEN 000000

7O-8

A>9EN8+A>99E-

There are t"o e,ternal re!erence in the e,&re ion, A>9EN8 and A>99E-. The a em/ler in ert a 3alue o! 5ero &a e in!ormation to the loader %dd to thi data area the addre o! A>9EN8 Su/tract !rom thi data area the addre o! A>99E-

On line 10;, A>9EN8 and A>99E- are de!ined in the ame control ection and the e,&re ion can /e calculated immediately. 10; 1000 $%(LEN EH> A>9EN8+A>99E-

O4=e!# Code 2o$ #.e e*"+,'e ,$o%$"+; The a em/ler mu t al o include in!ormation in the o/0ect &ro1ram that "ill cau e the loader to in ert the &ro&er 3alue "here they are re6uired. The a em/ler maintain t"o ne" record in the o/0ect code and a chan1ed 3er ion o! modi!ication record. 8e!ine record )E(T8E9* Col. 1 8 Col. 2+; Name o! e,ternal ym/ol de!ined in thi control ection Col. <+1: -elati3e addre "ithin thi control ection )he,adecimal* Col.1=+;: -e&eat in!ormation in Col. 2+1: !or other e,ternal ym/ol -e!er record )E(T-E9* Col. 1 Col. 2+; Name o! e,ternal ym/ol re!erred to in thi control ection Col. <+;: Name o! other e,ternal re!erence ym/ol $odi!ication record Col. 1 Col. 2+; Col. <+C Col.11+16 $ Startin1 addre o! the !ield to /e modi!ied )he,adecimal* Len1th o! the !ield to /e modi!ied, in hal!+/yte )he,adecimal* E,ternal ym/ol "ho e 3alue i to /e added to or u/tracted !rom

25

the indicated !ield % de!ine record 1i3e in!ormation a/out the e,ternal ym/ol that are de!ined in thi control ection, i.e., ym/ol named /y E(T8E9. % re!er record li t the ym/ol that are u ed a e,ternal re!erence /y the control ection, i.e., ym/ol named /y E(T-E9. The ne" item in the modi!ication record &eci!y the modi!ication to /e &er!ormedF addin1 or u/tractin1 the 3alue o! ome e,ternal ym/ol. The ym/ol u ed !or modi!ication my /e de!ined either in thi control ection or in another ection. The o/0ect &ro1ram i ho"n /elo". There i a e&arate o/0ect &ro1ram !or each o! the control ection . In the Define ecord and refer record the ym/ol named in E(T8E9 and E(T-E9 are included. In the ca e o! Define! the record al o indicate the relati3e addre e,ternal ym/ol "ithin the control ection. 9or E(T-E9 ym/ol , no addre im&ly named in the efer record. o! each

in!ormation i a3aila/le. The e ym/ol are

H"nd' n% E*,$e&& on& n M('# ,'e Con#$o' Se!# on&; The e,i tence o! multi&le control ection that can /e relocated inde&endently o! one another ma2e the handlin1 o! e,&re ion com&licated. It i re6uired that in an e,&re ion that all the relati3e term /e &aired )!or a/ olute e,&re ion*, or that all e,ce&t one /e &aired )!or relati3e e,&re ion *. 7hen it come in a &ro1ram ha3in1 multi&le control ection then "e ha3e an e,tended re triction thatF Aoth term in each &air o! an e,&re ion mu t /e "ithin the ame control ection o I! t"o term re&re ent relati3e location "ithin the ame control ection , their di!!erence i an a/ olute 3alue )re1ardle o! "here the control ection i located. Le%"'; A>9EN8+A>99E- )/oth are in the ame control ection* o I! the term are located in di!!erent control ection , their di!!erence ha a 3alue that i un&redicta/le. I''e%"'; -8-EC+COBK )/oth are o! di!!erent control ection* it i the di!!erence in the load addre e o! the t"o control ection . Thi 3alue de&end on the "ay run+time tora1e i allocated? it i unli2ely to /e o! any u e. Ho3 #o en2o$!e #. & $e&#$ !# on

26

o 7hen an e,&re ion in3ol3e e,ternal re!erence , the a em/ler cannot determine "hether or not the e,&re ion i le1al. o The a em/ler e3aluate all o! the term it can, com/ine the e to !orm an initial e,&re ion 3alue, and 1enerate $odi!ication record . o The loader chec2 the e,&re ion !or error and !ini he the e3aluation. 391 ASSEM:LER 8ESIGN Jere "e are di cu in1 o The tructure and lo1ic o! one+&a a em/ler. The e a em/ler are u ed "hen it i nece ary or de ira/le to a3oid a econd &a o3er the ource &ro1ram. o Notion o! a multi+&a a em/ler, an e,ten ion o! t"o+&a a em/ler that allo" an a em/ler to handle !or"ard re!erence durin1 ym/ol de!inition. 39191 One-<"&& A&&e+4'e$

The main &ro/lem in de i1nin1 the a em/ler u in1 in1le &a "a to re ol3e !or"ard re!erence . 7e can a3oid to ome e,tent the !or"ard re!erence /yF Eliminatin1 !or"ard re!erence to data item , /y de!inin1 all the tora1e re er3ation tatement at the /e1innin1 o! the &ro1ram rather at the end. >n!ortunately, !or"ard re!erence to la/el on the in truction cannot /e a3oided. )!or"ard 0um&in1* To &ro3ide ome &ro3i ion !or handlin1 !or"ard re!erence /y &rohi/itin1 !or"ard re!erence to data item . There are t"o ty&e o! one+&a a em/ler F One that &roduce o/0ect code directly in memory !or immediate e,ecution )Load+and+1o a em/ler *. The other ty&e &roduce the u ual 2ind o! o/0ect code !or later e,ecution. Lo"d-"nd-Go A&&e+4'e$ Load+and+1o a em/ler 1enerate their o/0ect code in memory !or immediate e,ecution. No o/0ect &ro1ram i "ritten out, no loader i needed. It i u e!ul in a y tem "ith !re6uent &ro1ram de3elo&ment and te tin1 o The e!!iciency o! the a em/ly &roce i an im&ortant con ideration. Bro1ram are re+a em/led nearly e3ery time they are run? e!!iciency o! the a em/ly &roce i an im&ortant con ideration.

2;

Fo$3"$d Re2e$en!e n One-<"&& A&&e+4'e$&; In load+and+Io a em/ler "hen a !or"ard re!erence i encountered F Omit the o&erand addre i! the ym/ol ha not yet /een de!ined Enter thi unde!ined ym/ol into SK$T%A and indicate that it i unde!ined %dd the addre o! thi o&erand addre to a li t o! !or"ard re!erence a ociated "ith the SK$T%A entry 7hen the de!inition !or the ym/ol i encountered, can the re!erence li t and in ert the addre . %t the end o! the &ro1ram, re&ort the error i! there are till SK$T%A entrie indicated unde!ined ym/ol . 9or Load+and+Io a em/ler o Search SK$T%A !or the ym/ol named in the EN8 tatement and 0um& to thi location to /e1in e,ecution i! there i no error

A2#e$ S!"nn n% ' ne 40 o2 #.e ,$o%$"+; 40 2021 J> CLOO<

302012

The tatu i that u&to thi &oint the ym/ol --EC i re!erred once at location 201:, EN89IL at 2019 and 7--EC at location 201C. None o! the e ym/ol are de!ined. The !i1ure ho" that ho" the &endin1 de!inition alon1 "ith their addre e are included in the ym/ol ta/le.

2<

T.e &#"#(& "2#e$ &!"nn n% ' ne 160) 3. !. ."& en!o(n#e$ed #.e de2 n # on o2 R8REC "nd EN8FIL & "& % /en 4e'o3; I2 One-<"&& need& #o %ene$"#e o4=e!# !ode; I! the o&erand contain an unde!ined ym/ol, u e 0 a the addre and "rite the Te,t record to the o/0ect &ro1ram. 9or"ard re!erence are entered into li t a in the load+and+1o a em/ler. 7hen the de!inition o! a ym/ol i encountered, the a em/ler 1enerate another Te,t record "ith the correct o&erand addre o! each entry in the re!erence li t. 7hen loaded, the incorrect addre 0 "ill /e u&dated /y the latter Te,t record containin1 the ym/ol de!inition.

M('# ?<"&& A&&e+4'e$; 9or a t"o &a allo"edF a em/ler, !or"ard re!erence in ym/ol de!inition are not

%LBJ% EH> AET% AET% EH> 8ELT% 8ELT% -ES7 1 o Sym/ol de!inition mu t /e com&leted in &a 1. Brohi/itin1 !or"ard re!erence in ym/ol de!inition i not a eriou incon3enience. o 9or"ard re!erence tend to create di!!iculty !or a &er on readin1 the &ro1ram.

2C

I+,'e+en#"# on I&&(e& 2o$ Mod 2 ed T3o-<"&& A&&e+4'e$; Im&lementation I uue "hen !or"ard re!erencin1 i encountered in "ymbol Defining statements F 9or a !or"ard re!erence in ym/ol de!inition, "e tore in the SK$T%AF o The ym/ol name o The de!inin1 e,&re ion o The num/er o! unde!ined ym/ol in the de!inin1 e,&re ion The unde!ined ym/ol )mar2ed "ith a !la1 O* a ociated "ith a li t o! ym/ol de&end on thi unde!ined ym/ol. 7hen a ym/ol i de!ined, "e can recur i3ely e3aluate the ym/ol e,&re ion de&endin1 on the ne"ly de!ined ym/ol.

Cha&ter : Loader and Lin2er Thi Cha&ter 1i3e youM

Aa ic Loader 9unction $achine+8e&endent Loader 9eature $achine+Inde&endent Loader 9eature Loader 8e i1n O&tion Im&lementation E,am&le

:.0 Introduction
The Source Bro1ram "ritten in a em/ly lan1ua1e or hi1h le3el lan1ua1e "ill /e con3erted to o/0ect &ro1ram, "hich i in the machine lan1ua1e !orm !or e,ecution. Thi con3er ion either !rom a em/ler or !rom com&iler , contain tran lated in truction and data 3alue !rom the ource &ro1ram, or &eci!ie addre e in &rimary memory "here the e item are to /e loaded !or e,ecution. Thi contain the !ollo"in1 three &roce e , and they are, Lo"d n% + "hich allocate memory location and /rin1 the o/0ect &ro1ram into memory !or e,ecution + )Loader* L n@ n%+ "hich com/ine t"o or more e&arate o/0ect &ro1ram and u&&lie the in!ormation needed to allo" re!erence /et"een them + )Lin2er* Re'o!"# on + "hich modi!ie the o/0ect &ro1ram o that it can /e loaded at an addre di!!erent !rom the location ori1inally &eci!ied + )Lin2in1 Loader*

:0

:.1 Aa ic Loader 9unction

% loader i a y tem &ro1ram that &er!orm the loadin1 !unction. It /rin1 o/0ect &ro1ram into memory and tart it e,ecution. The role o! loader i a ho"n in the !i1ure :.1. In !i1ure :.1 tran lator may /e a em/ler'com&lier, "hich 1enerate the o/0ect &ro1ram and later loaded to the memory /y the loader !or e,ecution. In !i1ure :.2 the tran lator i &eci!ically an a em/ler, "hich 1enerate the o/0ect loaded, "hich /ecome in&ut to the loader. The !i1ure :.: ho" the role o! /oth loader and lin2er.

:.: Ty&e o! Loader

The di!!erent ty&e o! loader are, a/ olute loader, /oot tra& loader, relocatin1 loader )relati3e loader*, and, direct lin2in1 loader. The !ollo"in1 ection di cu the !unction and de i1n o! all the e ty&e o! loader .

:.:.1 %/ olute Loader

The o&eration o! a/ olute loader i 3ery im&le. The o/0ect code i loaded to &eci!ied location in the memory. %t the end the loader 0um& to the &eci!ied addre to /e1in e,ecution o! the loaded &ro1ram. The role o! a/ olute loader i a ho"n in the !i1ure :.:.1. The ad3anta1e o! a/ olute loader i im&le and e!!icient. Aut the di ad3anta1e are, the need !or &ro1rammer to &eci!y the actual addre , and, di!!icult to u e u/routine li/rarie .

:1

O4=e!# <$o%$"+

1000 A4&o'(#e Lo"de$ O4=e!# ,$o%$"+ $e"d5 2o$ e*e!(# on 2000

Memory F %($e 39391; T.e Ro'e o2 A4&o'(#e Lo"de$ The al1orithm !or thi ty&e o! loader i 1i3en here. The o/0ect &ro1ram and, the o/0ect &ro1ram loaded into memory /y the a/ olute loader are al o ho"n. Each /yte o! a em/led code i 1i3en u in1 it he,adecimal re&re entation in character !orm. Ea y to read /y human /ein1 . Each /yte o! o/0ect code i tored a a in1le /yte. $o t machine tore o/0ect &ro1ram in a /inary !orm, and "e mu t /e ure that our !ile and de3ice con3ention do not cau e ome o! the &ro1ram /yte to /e inter&reted a control character . :e% n read Jeader record 3eri!y &ro1ram name and len1th read !ir t Te,t record 3. 'e record ty&e i WX NE4 do 4e% n Yi! o/0ect code i in character !orm, con3ert into internal re&re entationZ mo3e o/0ect code to &eci!ied location in memory read ne,t o/0ect &ro1ram record end 0um& to addre &eci!ied in End record end

:.:.2 % Sim&le Aoot tra& Loader

:2

7hen a com&uter i !ir t turned on or re tarted, a &ecial ty&e o! a/ olute loader, called /oot tra& loader i e,ecuted. Thi /oot tra& load the !ir t &ro1ram to /e run /y the com&uter ++ u ually an o&eratin1 y tem . The /oot tra& it el! /e1in at addre 0. It load the OS tartin1 addre 0,<0. No header record or control in!ormation, the o/0ect code i con ecuti3e /yte o! memory. The al1orithm !or the /oot tra& loader i a !ollo" :e% n (D0,<0 )the addre o! the ne,t memory location to /e loaded Loo, % IETC )and con3ert it !rom the %SCII character code to the 3alue o! the he,adecimal di1it* a3e the 3alue in the hi1h+order = /it o! S % IETC com/ine the 3alue to !orm one /yte % )%ES* tore the 3alue )in %* to the addre in re1i ter ( ( (E1 End It u e a u/routine IETC, "hich i IETC % read one character i! %D0,0= then 0um& to 0,<0 i! %W=< then IETC % %+=< )0,:0* i! %W10 then return % %+; return

:.= $achine+8e&endent Loader 9eature

%/ olute loader i im&le and e!!icient, /ut the cheme ha &otential di ad3anta1e One o! the mo t di ad3anta1e i the &ro1rammer ha to &eci!y the actual tartin1 addre , !rom "here the &ro1ram to /e loaded. Thi doe not create di!!iculty, i! one &ro1ram to run, /ut not !or e3eral &ro1ram . 9urther it i di!!icult to u e u/routine li/rarie e!!iciently. Thi need the de i1n and im&lementation o! a more com&le, loader. The loader mu t &ro3ide &ro1ram relocation and lin2in1, a "ell a im&le loadin1 !unction .

:.=.1 -elocation

::

The conce&t o! &ro1ram relocation i , the e,ecution o! the o/0ect &ro1ram u in1 any &art o! the a3aila/le and u!!icient memory. The o/0ect &ro1ram i loaded into memory "here3er there i room !or it. The actual tartin1 addre o! the o/0ect &ro1ram i not 2no"n until load time. -elocation &ro3ide the e!!icient harin1 o! the machine "ith lar1er memory and "hen e3eral inde&endent &ro1ram are to /e run to1ether. It al o u&&ort the u e o! u/routine li/rarie e!!iciently. Loader that allo" !or &ro1ram relocation are called relocatin1 loader or relati3e loader .

:.=.2 $ethod !or &eci!yin1 relocation

> e o! modi!ication record and, u e o! relocation /it, are the method a3aila/le !or &eci!yin1 relocation. In the ca e o! modi!ication record, a modi!ication record $ i u ed in the o/0ect &ro1ram to &eci!y any relocation. In the ca e o! u e o! relocation /it, each in truction i a ociated "ith one relocation /it and, the e relocation /it in a Te,t record i 1athered into /it ma 2 . $odi!ication record are u ed in com&le, machine and i al o called -elocation and Lin2a1e 8irectory )-L8* &eci!ication. The !ormat o! the modi!ication record )$* i a !ollo" . The o/0ect &ro1ram "ith relocation /y $odi!ication record i al o ho"n here. $odi!ication record col 1F $ col 2+;F relocation addre col <+CF len1th )hal!/yte* col 10F !la1 )E'+* col 11+1;F e1ment name JCOBK 000000 0010;; T000000 181;20286C2028=<1010:6M=A1058:929EC0:2010 T0000181:09201601000:092008=A101058:E200:=5=9=6 T0010:5 18A=10A=00A==0;5101000M::200<5;C00:A<50 T00105:18:A29E%1:=000=9000091..5:C00:89200<A<50 T000;00;:A29E9=9000005 $00000;05ECOBK $00001=05ECOBK $00002;05ECOBK E000000

The relocation /it method i u ed !or im&le machine . -elocation /it i 0F no modi!ication i nece ary, and i 1F modi!ication i needed. Thi i &eci!ied in the :=

column 10+12 o! te,t record )T*, the !ormat o! te,t record, alon1 "ith relocation /it i a !ollo" . Te,t record col 1F T col 2+;F tartin1 addre col <+CF len1th )/yte* col 10+12F relocation /it col 1:+;2F o/0ect code T"el3e+/it ma 2 i u ed in each Te,t record )colF10+12 relocation /it *, ince each te,t record contain le than 12 "ord , unu ed "ord are et to 0, and, any 3alue that i to /e modi!ied durin1 relocation mu t coincide "ith one o! the e :+/yte e1ment . 9or a/ olute loader, there are no relocation /it column 10+6C contain o/0ect code. The o/0ect &ro1ram "ith relocation /y /it ma 2 i a ho"n /elo". O/ er3e 99C + mean all ten "ord are to /e modi!ied and, E00 + mean !ir t three record are to /e modi!ied. JCOBK 000000 0010;% T0000001E99C1=00::=<10:C0000:62<00:0:00015M:C000: M T00001E15E000C00:6=<10610<00::=C0000M00000:000000 T0010:C1E99C0=00:00000:0M:010:98<10582<00:0... T00105;0% <001000:6=C000091001000 T0010611C9E00=00:0E010;CM50<0:C8C10;C2C00:6... E000000

:.5 Bro1ram Lin2in1

The Ioal o! &ro1ram lin2in1 i to re ol3e the &ro/lem "ith e,ternal re!erence )E(T-E9* and e,ternal de!inition )E(T8E9* !rom di!!erent control ection . EAT8EF -e*#e$n"' de2 n # on0 + The E(T8E9 tatement in a control ection name ym/ol , called e,ternal ym/ol , that are de!ined in thi )&re ent* control ection and may /e u ed /y other ection . e,F E(T8E9 A>99E-, A>99EN8, LENITJ E(T8E9 LIST%, EN8% EATREF -e*#e$n"' $e2e$en!e0 + The E(T-E9 tatement name in thi )&re ent* control ection and are de!ined el e"here. e,F E(T-E9 -8-EC, 7--EC E(T-E9 LISTA, EN8A, LISTC, EN8C Ho3 #o +,'e+en# EAT8EF "nd EATREF :5 ym/ol u ed

The a em/ler mu t include in!ormation in the o/0ect &ro1ram that "ill cau e the loader to in ert &ro&er 3alue "here they are re6uired in the !orm o! 8e!ine record )8* and, -e!er record)-*. 8e2 ne $e!o$d The !ormat o! the 8e!ine record )8* alon1 "ith e,am&le i a Col. 1 Col. 2+; Col. <+1: Col.1=+;: ho"n here9

8 Name o! e,ternal ym/ol de!ined in thi control ection -elati3e addre "ithin thi control ection )he,adecimal* -e&eat in!ormation in Col. 2+1: !or other e,ternal ym/ol

E*"+,'e $e!o$d& 8 LISTA 000040 EN8A 000014 8 LIST: 000060 EN8: 0000B0 Re2e$ $e!o$d The !ormat o! the -e!er record )-* alon1 "ith e,am&le i a Col. 1 Col. 2+; Col. <+;: ho"n here9

Name o! e,ternal ym/ol re!erred to in thi control ection Name o! other e,ternal re!erence ym/ol

E*"+,'e $e!o$d& R LIST: EN8: LISTC EN8C R LISTA EN8A LISTC EN8C R LISTA EN8A LIST: EN8: Jere are the three &ro1ram named a B-OI%, B-OIA and B-OIC, "hich are e&arately a em/led and each o! "hich con i t o! a in1le control ection. LIST%, EN8% in B-OI%, LISTA, EN8A in B-OIA and LISTC, EN8C in B-OIC are e,ternal de!inition in each o! the control ection . Similarly LISTA, EN8A, LISTC, EN8C in B-OI%, LIST%, EN8%, LISTC, EN8C in B-OIA, and LIST%, EN8%, LISTA, EN8A in B-OIC, are e,ternal re!erence . The e am&le &ro1ram 1i3en here are u ed to illu trate lin2in1 and relocation. The !ollo"in1 !i1ure 1i3e the am&le &ro1ram and their corre &ondin1 o/0ect &ro1ram . O/ er3e the o/0ect &ro1ram , "hich contain 8 and - record alon1 "ith other record . 0000 <ROGA ST%-T 0

:6

0020 002: 002; 00=0 005= 005= 005; 005% 0058 0060

-E91 -E92 -E9: LIST% EN8% -E9= -E95 -E96 -E9; -E9<

E(T8E9 E(T-E9 MMM.. MMM. L8% EL8T L8( . . EH> EH> 7O-8 7O-8 7O-8 7O-8 7O-8 EN8

LIST%, EN8% LISTA, EN8A, LISTC, EN8C LIST% LISTAE= PEN8%+LIST% O O EN8%+LIST%ELISTC 00001= EN8C+LISTC+10 999996 EN8C+LISTCELIST%+1 0000:9 EN8%+LIST%+)EN8A+LISTA* 00001= LISTA+LIST% 9999C0 -E91 0:2018 ;;10000= 05001=

0000

<ROG:

00:6 -E91 00:% -E92 00:8 -E9: 0060 00;0 00;0 00;: 00;6 00;C 00;C LISTA EN8A -E9= -E95 -E96 -E9; -E9<

ST%-T E(T8E9 E(T-E9 MMM.. MMM. EL8% L8T EL8( . . EH> EH> 7O-8 7O-8 7O-8 7O-8 7O-8 EN8

0 LISTA, EN8A LIST%, EN8%, LISTC, EN8C LIST% LISTAE= PEN8%+LIST% O O EN8%+LIST%ELISTC EN8C+LISTC+10 EN8C+LISTCELIST%+1 EN8%+LIST%+)EN8A+LISTA* LISTA+LIST% 000000 999996 999999 999990 000060 0:100000 ;;202; 05100000

0000

<ROGC

ST%-T

:;

001< -E91 001C -E92 0020 -E9: 00:0 00=2 00=2 00=5 00=5 00=A 00=E LISTC EN8C -E9= -E95 -E96 -E9; -E9<

E(T8E9 E(T-E9 MMM.. MMM.. EL8% EL8T EL8( . . EH> EH> 7O-8 7O-8 7O-8 7O-8 7O-8 EN8

LISTC, EN8C LIST%, EN8%, LISTA, EN8A LIST% LISTAE= PEN8%+LIST% O O EN8%+LIST%ELISTC EN8C+LISTC+10 EN8C+LISTCELIST%+1 EN8%+LIST%+)EN8A+LISTA* LISTA+LIST% 0000:0 00000< 000011 000000 000000 0:100000 ;;10000= 05100000

J <ROGA 000000 00006: 8 LISTA 000040 EN8A 000014 R LIST: EN8: LISTC EN8C . . T 000020 0% 0:2018 ;;10000= 05001= . . T 00005= 09 00001= 99996 0000:9 00001= 9999C0 $00002= 05ELISTA $00005= 06ELISTC $00005; 06EEN8C $00005; 06 +LISTC $00005%06EEN8C $00005%06 +LISTC $00005%06EB-OI% $00005806+EN8A $00005806ELISTA $00006006ELISTA $00006006+B-OI% E000020 J <ROG: 000000 0000;9

:<

8 LIST: 000060 EN8: 0000B0 R LISTA EN8A LISTC EN8C . T 0000:6 0A 0:100000 ;;202; 05100000 . T 00000; 09 000000 999996 999999 999990 000060 $0000:; 05ELIST% $0000:E 06EEN8% $0000:E 06 +LIST% $0000;0 06 EEN8% $0000;0 06 +LIST% $0000;0 06 ELISTC $0000;: 06 EEN8C $0000;: 06 +LISTC $0000;: 06 EEN8C $0000;6 06 +LISTC $0000;6 06ELIST% $0000;C 06EEN8% $0000;C 06 +LIST% $0000;C 06EB-OIA $0000;C 06+LIST% E J <ROGC 000000 000051 8 LISTC 000030 EN8C 000042 R LISTA EN8A LIST: EN8: . T 00001< 0C 0:100000 ;;10000= 05100000 . T 0000=2 09 0000:0 00000< 000011 000000 000000 $00001C 05ELIST% $000018 06ELISTA $000021 06EEN8% $000021 06 +LIST% $0000=2 06EEN8% $0000=2 06 +LIST% $0000=2 06EB-OIC $0000=< 06ELIST% $0000=A 06EEN8% $0000=A 006+LIST% $0000=A 06+EN8A $0000=A 06ELISTA $0000=E 06ELISTA $0000=E 06+LIST% E

:C

The !ollo"in1 !i1ure ho" the e three &ro1ram a they mi1ht a&&ear in memory a!ter loadin1 and lin2in1. B-OI% ha /een loaded tartin1 at addre =000, "ith B-OIA and B-OIC immediately !ollo"in1.

9or e,am&le, the 3alue !or -E9= in B-OI% i located at addre =05= )the /e1innin1 addre o! B-OI% &lu 005=, the relati3e addre o! -E9= "ithin B-OI%*. The !ollo"in1 !i1ure ho" the detail o! ho" thi 3alue i com&uted. The initial 3alue !rom the Te,t record T00005=0900001=9999960000:900001=9999C0 i 00001=. To thi i added the addre a i1ned to LISTC, "hich i =112 )the /e1innin1 addre o! B-OIC &lu :0*. The re ult i 00=126. That i -E9= in B-OI% i EN8%+LIST%ELISTCD=05=+=0=0E=112D=126. Similarly the load addre !or ym/ol LIST%F B-OI%E00=0D=0=0, LISTAF B-OIAE0060D=0C: and LISTCF B-OICE00:0D=112 [ee&in1 the e detail "or2 throu1h the detail o! other re!erence and 3alue o! the e re!erence are the ame in each o! the three &ro1ram .

:.6 %l1orithm and 8ata tructure !or a Lin2in1 Loader

The al1orithm !or a lin2in1 loader i con idera/ly more com&licated than the a/ olute loader &ro1ram, "hich i already 1i3en. The conce&t 1i3en in the &ro1ram lin2in1 ection i u ed !or de3elo&in1 the al1orithm !or lin2in1 loader. The modi!ication record are u ed !or relocation o that the lin2in1 and relocation !unction are &er!ormed u in1 the ame mechani m. Lin2in1 Loader u e t"o+&a e lo1ic. EST%A )e,ternal ym/ol ta/le* i the main data tructure !or a lin2in1 loader. <"&& 1F % i1n addre e to all e,ternal ym/ol <"&& 2F Ber!orm the actual loadin1, relocation, and lin2in1 ESTA: + EST%A !or the e,am&le )re!er three &ro1ram B-OI% B-OIA and B-OIC* 1i3en i a ho"n /elo". The EST%A ha !our entrie in it? they are name o! the control ection, the ym/ol a&&earin1 in the control ection, it addre and len1th o! the control ection.

=0

Control ection B-OI%

Sym/ol

%ddre =000

Len1th 6:

LIST% EN8% B-OIA LISTA EN8A B-OIC LISTC EN8C

=0=0 =05= =06: =0C: =08: =0E2 =112 =12= 51 ;9

:.6.1 Bro1ram Lo1ic !or Ba

Ba 1 a i1n addre e to all e,ternal ym/ol . The 3aria/le # 8ata tructure u ed durin1 &a 1 are, B-OI%88- )&ro1ram load addre * !rom OS , CS%88)control ection addre *, CSLTJ )control ection len1th* and EST%A. The &a 1 &roce e the 8e!ine -ecord. The al1orithm !or Ba 1 o! Lin2in1 Loader i 1i3en /elo".

=1

:.6.2 Bro1ram Lo1ic !or Ba

Ba 2 o! lin2in1 loader &er!orm the actual loadin1, relocation, and lin2in1. It u e modi!ication record and loo2u& the ym/ol in EST%A to o/tain it addre . 9inally it u e end record o! a main &ro1ram to o/tain tran !er addre , "hich i a tartin1 addre needed !or the e,ecution o! the &ro1ram. The &a 2 &roce Te,t record and $odi!ication record o! the o/0ect &ro1ram . The al1orithm !or Ba 2 o! Lin2in1 Loader i 1i3en /elo".

=2

:.6.: Im&ro3e E!!iciency, Jo"\

The 6ue tion here i can "e im&ro3e the e!!iciency o! the lin2in1 loader. %l o o/ er3e that, e3en thou1h "e ha3e de!ined -e!er record )-*, "e ha3en4t made u e o! it. The e!!iciency can /e im&ro3ed /y the u e o! local earchin1 in tead o! multi&le earche o! EST%A !or the ame ym/ol. 9or im&lementin1 thi "e a i1n a re!erence num/er to each e,ternal ym/ol in the -e!er record. Then thi re!erence num/er i u ed in $odi!ication record in tead o! e,ternal ym/ol . 01 i a i1ned to control ection name, and other num/er !or e,ternal re!erence ym/ol . The o/0ect &ro1ram !or B-OI%, B-OIA and B-OIC are ho"n /elo", "ith a/o3e modi!ication to -e!er record ) O/ er3e - record *.

=:

ym/ol and %ddre e in B-OI%, B-OIA and B-OIC are a ho"n /elo". The e are the entrie o! EST%A. The main ad3anta1e o! re!erence num/er mechani m i that it a3oid multi&le earche o! EST%A !or the ame ym/ol durin1 the loadin1 o! a control ection

-e! No. 1 2 : = 5

Sym/ol B-OI% LISTA EN8A LISTC EN8C

%ddre =000 =0C: =08: =112 =12=

Ref No. 1 2 3 4

Symbol PROGB LISTA ENDA LIST! END!

Address 4063 4040 40 4 4112 4124

-e! No. 1 2 : = 5

Sym/ol B-OIC LIST% EN8% LISTA EN8A

%ddre =06: =0=0 =05= =0C: =08: ==

UNIT 4 Cha&ter =F $acro Broce or

% #acro re&re ent a commonly u ed 1rou& o! tatement in the ource &ro1rammin1 lan1ua1e. % macro in truction )macro* i a notational con3enience !or the &ro1rammer o It allo" the &ro1rammer to "rite horthand 3er ion o! a &ro1ram )module &ro1rammin1* The macro &roce or re&lace each macro in truction "ith the corre &ondin1 1rou& o! ource lan1ua1e tatement )expanding* o Normally, it &er!orm no analy i o! the te,t it handle . o It doe not concern the meanin1 o! the in3ol3ed tatement durin1 macro e,&an ion. The de i1n o! a macro &roce or 1enerally i mac$ine independent% T"o ne" a em/ler directi3e are u ed in macro de!inition o MACRO; identi!y the /e1innin1 o! a macro de!inition o MEN8; identi!y the end o! a macro de!inition Brototy&e !or the macro o Each &arameter /e1in "ith N#4 name $%C-O &arameter F /ody F $EN8 o AodyF the tatement that "ill /e 1enerated a the e,&an ion o! the macro.

491 :"& ! M"!$o <$o!e&&o$ F(n!# on&; #acro Definition and &xpansion #acro Processor Algorit$ms and Data structures

'.1.1 #acro Definition and &xpansionF The !i1ure ho" the $%C-O e,&an ion. The le!t /loc2 ho" the $%C-O de!inition and the ri1ht /loc2 ho" the e,&anded macro re&lacin1 the $%C-O call "ith it /loc2 o! e,ecuta/le in truction.

=5

$1 i a macro "ith t"o &arameter 81 and 82. The $%C-O tore the content o! re1i ter % in 81 and the content o! re1i ter A in 82. Later $1 i in3o2ed "ith the &arameter 8%T%1 and 8%T%2, Second time "ith 8%T%= and 8%T%:. E3ery call o! $%C-O i e,&ended "ith the e,ecuta/le tatement .

F % 491

The tatement $1 8%T%1, 8%T%2 i a macro in3ocation tatement that 1i3e the name o! the macro in truction /ein1 in3o2ed and the ar1ument )$1 and $2* to /e u ed in e,&andin1. % macro in3ocation i re!erred a a $acro Call or In3ocation. #acro &xpansion( The &ro1ram "ith macro i u&&lied to the macro &roce or. Each macro in3ocation tatement "ill /e e,&anded into the tatement that !orm the /ody o! the macro, "ith the ar1ument !rom the macro in3ocation u/ tituted !or the &arameter in the macro &rototy&e. 8urin1 the e,&an ion, the macro de!inition tatement are deleted ince they are no lon1er needed. The ar1ument and the &arameter are a ociated "ith one another accordin1 to their &o ition . The !ir t ar1ument in the macro matche "ith the !ir t &arameter in the macro &rototy&e and o on. %!ter macro processing the e,&anded !ile can /ecome the in&ut !or the Assembler. The #acro )nvocation tatement i con idered a comment and the tatement 1enerated !rom e,&an ion i treated e,actly a thou1h they had /een "ritten directly /y the &ro1rammer. The di!!erence /et"een #acros and "ubroutines i that the tatement !rom the /ody o! the $acro i e,&anded the num/er o! time the macro in3ocation i encountered, "herea the tatement o! the u/routine a&&ear only once no matter ho" many time the u/routine i called. $acro in truction "ill /e "ritten o that the /ody o! the macro contain no la/el . Bro/lem o! the la/el in the /ody o! macroF

=6

o I! the ame macro i e,&anded multi&le time at di!!erent &lace in the &ro1ram M o There "ill /e duplicate labels, "hich "ill /e treated a error /y the a em/ler. Solution F o 8o not u e la/el in the /ody o! macro. o E,&licitly u e BC+relati3e addre in1 in tead. E,, in -8A>99 and 7-A>99 macro , o @EH OE11 o @LT O+1= It i incon3enient and error+&rone.

The !ollo"in1 &ro1ram ho" the conce&t o! $acro In3ocation and $acro E,&an ion.

=;

F % 492

49192 M"!$o <$o!e&&o$ A'%o$ #.+ "nd 8"#" S#$(!#($e; 8e i1n can /e done a t"o+&a a em/ler. or a one+&a macro. In ca e o! t"o+&a

T"o+&a macro &roce or Kou may de i1n a t"o+&a macro &roce or o Ba 1F Broce all macro de!inition o Ba 2F E,&and all macro in3ocation tatement Jo"e3er, one+&a may /e enou1h o Aecau e all macro "ould ha3e to /e de!ined durin1 the !ir t &a /e!ore any macro in3ocation "ere e,&anded. The de!inition o! a macro mu t a&&ear /e!ore any tatement that in3o2e that macro. $oreo3er, the /ody o! one macro can contain de!inition o! the other macro Con ider the e,am&le o! a $acro de!inin1 another $acro. In the e,am&le /elo", the /ody o! the !ir t $acro )$%C-OS* contain tatement that de!ine -8A>99, 7-A>99 and other macro in truction !or SIC machine. The /ody o! the econd $acro )$%C-O(* de!ine the e ame macro !or SIC'(E machine. % &ro&er in3ocation "ould ma2e the ame &ro1ram to &er!orm macro in3ocation to run on either SIC or SIC'(Emachine. =<

$%C-OS !or SIC machine

F % 493-"0

$%C-O( !or SIC'(E $achine

F % 493-40

% &ro1ram that i to /e run on SIC y tem could in3o2e $%C-OS "herea a &ro1ram to /e run on SIC'(E can in3o2e $%C-O(. Jo"e3er, de!inin1 $%C-OS or $%C-O( doe not de!ine -8A>99 and 7-A>99. The e de!inition are &roce ed only "hen an in3ocation o! $%C-OS or $%C-O( i e,&anded.

=C

One-<"&& M"!$o <$o!e&&o$; % one+&a macro &roce or that alternate /et"een macro definition and macro expansion in a recur i3e "ay i a/le to handle recur i3e macro de!inition. -e triction o The de!inition o! a macro mu t a&&ear in the ource &ro1ram /e!ore any tatement that in3o2e that macro. o Thi re triction doe not create any real incon3enience. The de i1n con idered i !or one+&a a em/ler. The data tructure re6uired areF 8E9T%A )8e!inition Ta/le* o Store the macro de!inition includin1 macro prototype and macro body o Comment line are omitted. o -e!erence to the macro in truction &arameter are con3erted to a &o itional notation !or e!!iciency in u/ titutin1 ar1ument . N%$T%A )Name Ta/le* o Store macro name o Ser3e a an inde, to 8E9T%A Bointer to the /e1innin1 and the end o! the macro de!inition )8E9T%A* %-IT%A )%r1ument Ta/le* o Store the ar1ument accordin1 to their &o ition in the ar1ument li t. o % the macro i e,&anded the ar1ument !rom the %r1ument ta/le are u/ tituted !or the corre &ondin1 &arameter in the macro /ody. o The !i1ure /elo" ho" the di!!erent data tructure de cri/ed and their relation hi&.

50

F % 494

The a/o3e !i1ure ho" the &ortion o! the content o! the ta/le durin1 the &roce in1 o! the &ro1ram in &a1e no. :. In !i1 =.=)a* de!inition o! -8A>99 i tored in 8E9T%A, "ith an entry in N%$T%A ha3in1 the &ointer to the /e1innin1 and the end o! the de!inition. The ar1ument re!erred /y the in truction are denoted /y the their &o itional notation . 9or e,am&le, T8 D(4\14 The a/o3e in truction i to te t the a3aila/ility o! the de3ice "ho e num/er i 1i3en /y the &arameter #IN8EG. In the in truction thi i re&laced /y it &o itional 3alue\ 1. 9i1ure =.=)/* ho" the %-T%A a it "ould a&&ear durin1 e,&an ion o! the -8A>99 tatement a 1i3en /elo"F CLOOB -8A>99 91, A>99E-, LENITJ 9or the in3ocation o! the macro -8A>99, the !ir t &arameter i 91 )in&ut de3ice code*, econd i A>99E- )indicatin1 the addre "here the character read are tored*, and the third i LENITJ )"hich indicate total len1th o! the record to /e read*. 7hen the \n notation i encountered in a line !ro 8E9T%A, a im&le inde,in1 o&eration u&&lie the &ro&er ar1ument !rom %-IT%A. The al1orithm o! the $acro &roce or i 1i3en /elo". Thi ha the &rocedure 8E9INE to ma2e the entry o! macro name in the N%$T%A, #acro Prototype in 8E9T%A. E(B%N8 i called to et u& the ar1ument 3alue in %-IT%A and e,&and a #acro )nvocation tatement. Brocedure IETLINE i called to 1et the ne,t line to /e &roce ed either !rom the 8E9T%A or !rom the !ile it el!. 7hen a macro de!inition i encountered it i entered in the 8E9T%A. The normal a&&roach i to continue enterin1 till $EN8 i encountered. I! there i a &ro1ram ha3in1 a $acro de!ined "ithin another $acro. 7hile de!inin1 in the 8E9T%A the 3ery !ir t $EN8 i ta2en a the end o! the $acro de!inition. Thi doe not com&lete the de!inition a there i another outer $acro "hich com&lete the di!intion o! $acro a a "hole. There!ore the 8E9INE &rocedure 2ee& a counter 3aria/le LEGEL. E3ery time a $acro directi3e i encountered thi counter i incremented /y 1. The moment the innermo t $acro end indicated /y the directi3e $EN8 it tart decrea in1 the 3alue o! the counter 3aria/le /y one. The la t $EN8 hould ma2e the counter 3alue et to 5ero. So "hen LEGEL /ecome 5ero, the $EN8 corre &ond to the ori1inal $%C-O directi3e. $o t macro &roce or allo" thr de!inition o! the commonly u ed in truction to a&&ear in a tandard y tem li/rary, rather than in the ource &ro1ram. Thi ma2e the u e o! macro con3enient? de!inition are retrie3ed !rom the li/rary a they are needed durin1 macro &roce in1.

51

F % 491

52

A'%o$ #.+&

5:

F % 496

49193

Co+,"$ &on o2 M"!$o <$o!e&&o$ 8e& %n *ne-pass algorit$m o E3ery macro mu t /e de!ined /e!ore it i called o One+&a &roce or can alternate /et"een macro de!inition and macro e,&an ion o Ne ted macro de!inition are allo"ed /ut ne ted call are not allo"ed. +wo-pass algorit$m o Ba 1F -eco1ni5e macro de!inition o Ba 2F -eco1ni5e macro call o Ne ted macro de!inition are not allo"ed

5=

491 M"!. ne- nde,enden# M"!$o-<$o!e&&o$ Fe"#($e&9 The de i1n o! macro &roce or doe n4t de&end on the architecture o! the machine. 7e "ill /e tudyin1 ome e,tended !eature !or thi macro &roce or. The e !eature areF Concatenation o! $acro Barameter Ieneration o! uni6ue la/el Conditional $acro E,&an ion [ey"ord $acro Barameter 49291 Con!"#en"# on o2 (n C(e '"4e'&; $o t macro &roce or allo" &arameter to /e concatenated "ith other character trin1 . Su&&o e that a &ro1ram contain a erie o! 3aria/le named /y the ym/ol (%1, (%2, (%:,M, another erie o! 3aria/le named (A1, (A2, (A:,M, etc. I! imilar &roce in1 i to /e &er!ormed on each erie o! la/el , the &ro1rammer mi1ht &ut thi a a macro in truction. The &arameter to uch a macro in truction could &eci!y the erie o! 3aria/le to /e o&erated on )%, A, etc.*. The macro &roce or "ould u e thi &arameter to con truct the ym/ol re6uired in the macro e,&an ion )(%1, (/1, etc.*. Su&&o e that the &arameter to uch a macro in truction i named #I8. The /ody o! the macro de!inition mi1ht contain a tatement li2e L8% (#I81

F % 49B

# i the tartin1 character o! the macro in truction? /ut the end o! the &arameter i not mar2ed. So in the ca e o! #I81, the macro &roce or could deduce the meanin1 that "a intended. I! the macro de!inition contain contain #I8 and #I81 a &arameter , the ituation "ould /e una3oida/ly am/i1uou . $o t o! the macro &roce or deal "ith thi &ro/lem /y &ro3idin1 a &ecial concatenation o&erator. In the SIC macro lan1ua1e, thi o&erator i the character . Thu the tatement L8% (#I81 can /e "ritten a L8% (#I8

55

F % 497

The a/o3e !i1ure ho" a macro de!inition that u e the concatenation o&erator a &re3iou ly de cri/ed. The tatement S>$ % and S>$ AET% ho" the in3ocation tatement and the corre &ondin1 macro e,&an ion. 49292 Gene$"# on o2 Un C(e L"4e'&

% di cu ed it i not &o i/le to u e la/el !or the in truction in the macro de!inition, ince e3ery e,&an ion o! macro "ould include the la/el re&eatedly "hich i not allo"ed /y the a em/ler. Thi in turn !orce u to u e relati3e addre in1 in the 0um& in truction . In tead "e can u e the techni6ue o! 1eneratin1 uni6ue la/el !or e3ery macro in3ocation and e,&an ion. 8urin1 macro e,&an ion each ] "ill /e re&laced "ith ]((, "here ,, i a t"o+character al&hanumeric counter o! the num/er o! macro in truction e,&an ion. 9or e,am&le, (( D %%, %A, %CM Thi allo" 12C6 macro e,&an ion in a in1le &ro1ram.

56

The !ollo"in1 &ro1ram ho" the macro de!inition "ith la/el to the in truction.

The !ollo"in1 !i1ure ho" the macro in3ocation and e,&an ion !ir t time.

I! the macro i in3o2ed econd time the la/el may /e e,&anded a ]%ALOOB ]%AE(IT.

5;

49293 Cond # on"' M"!$o E*,"n& on There are a&&lication o! macro &roce or that are not related to a em/ler or a em/ler &ro1rammin1. Conditional a em/ly de&end on &arameter &ro3ide $%C-O #CON8 MM.. I9 )#CON8 NE N4* &art I ELSE &art II EN8I9 MMM EN8$ Bart I i e,&anded i! condition &art i true, other"i e &art II i e,&anded. Com&are o&erator F NE, EH, LE, IT. #acro-+ime ,ariables( $acro+time 3aria/le )o!ten called a SET Sym/ol* can /e u ed to tore "or2in1 3alue durin1 the macro e,&an ion. %ny ym/ol that /e1in "ith ym/ol # and not a macro in truction &arameter i con idered a macro-time variable. %ll uch 3aria/le are initiali5ed to 5ero.

F % 49D-"0

5<

9i1ure =.5)a* 1i3e the de!inition o! the macro -8A>99 "ith the &arameter #IN8EG, #A>9%8-, #-ECLTJ, #EO-, #$%(LTJ. %ccordin1 to the a/o3e &ro1ram i! #EO- ha any 3alue, then #EO-C[ i et to 1 /y u in1 the directi3e SET, other"i e it retain it de!ault 3alue 0.

F % 49D-40 U&e o2 M"!$o-T +e E"$ "4'e 3 #. EOF 4e n% NOT NULL

F % 49D-!0 U&e o2 M"!$o-T +e !ond # on"' &#"#e+en# 3 #. EOF 4e n% NULL

5C

F % 49D-d0 U&e o2 T +e-/"$ "4'e 3 #. EOF NOT NULL "nd MAALENGTH 4e n% NULL

The a/o3e &ro1ram ho" the e,&an ion o! $acro in3ocation tatement "ith di!!erent 3alue !or the time 3aria/le . In !i1ure =.C)/* the #EO9 3alue i N>LL. 7hen the macro in3ocation i done, I9 tatement i e,ecuted, i! it i true EO-C[ i et to 1, other"i e normal e,ecution o! the other &art o! the &ro1ram i continued. The macro &roce or mu t maintain a ym/ol ta/le that contain the 3alue o! all macro+ time 3aria/le u ed. Entrie in thi ta/le are modi!ied "hen SET tatement are &roce ed. The ta/le i u ed to loo2 u& the current 3alue o! the macro+time 3aria/le "hene3er it i re6uired. 7hen an I9 tatement i encountered durin1 the e,&an ion o! a macro, the &eci!ied Aoolean e,&re ion i e3aluated. I2 #.e /"'(e o2 #. & e*,$e&& on TRUE) The macro &roce or continue to &roce line !rom the 8E9T%A until it encounter the ELSE or EN8I9 tatement. I! an ELSE i !ound, macro &roce or 2i& line in 8E9T%A until the ne,t EN8I9. Once it reache EN8I9, it re ume e,&andin1 the macro in the u ual "ay. I2 #.e /"'(e o2 #.e e*,$e&& on & FALSE) The macro &roce or 2i& ahead in 8E9T%A until it encounter ne,t ELSE or EN8I9 tatement. The macro &roce or then re ume normal macro e,&an ion. The macro-time I9+ELSE+EN8I9 tructure &ro3ide a mechani m !or either 1eneratin1)once* or 2i&&in1 elected tatement in the macro /ody. There i another 60

con truct 7JILE tatement "hich &eci!ie that the !ollo"in1 line until the ne,t EN87 tatement, are to /e 1enerated re&eatedly a lon1 a a &articular condition i true. The te tin1 o! thi condition, and the loo&in1 are done durin1 the macro i under e,&an ion. The e,am&le ho"n /elo" ho" the u a1e o! $acro+Time Loo&in1 tatement. WHILE-EN8W &#$(!#($e 7hen an 7JILE tatement i encountered durin1 the e,&an ion o! a macro, the &eci!ied Aoolean e,&re ion i e3aluated. T->E o The macro &roce or continue to &roce line !rom 8E9T%A until it encounter the ne,t EN87 tatement. o 7hen EN87 i encountered, the macro &roce or return to the &recedin1 7JILE, re+e3aluate the Aoolean e,&re ion, and ta2e action /a ed on the ne" 3alue. 9%LSE o The macro &roce or 2i& ahead in 8E9T%A until it !ind the ne,t EN87 tatement and then re ume normal macro e,&an ion.

61