Lesson 16, 17 and 18: Sound Waves

Contents: Superposition and Interference of Sound Waves Standing Waves Sound Waves Superposition of Harmonic Waves What happens when two waves collide? They ADD together! We say the waves are superposed. For example when two sets o! waves pass through one another the wave crests !rom one set rein!orce the wave crests !rom the other set to !orm supercrests when they meet. "n other hand when a wave crest meets a wave trough the resultant is that they cancel one another out.

Constructive Interference #rest $ crest % supercrest Trough $ trough % supertrough Destructive Interference #rest $ trough % &ero Principle of superposition The total displacement at a point = the sum of individual displacements at that point.

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#onsider two harmonic waves A and B meeting at x = . They have same amplitudes their angular !re(uency is di!!erent. The displacement versus time !or each is shown )elow* Wave A

Wave +

#om)ined wave

CONS !"C #$% #N %!&%!%NC% Super position of waves experiment

'%S !"C #$% #N %!&%!%NC%

,tudents use two power supplies a signal generator an ampli!ier-spea.er and a #/" to simulate the superposition o! two waves. The principle o! superposition is discovered and applied to a theoretical situation when the waves have slightly di!!erent !re(uencies and would produce )eats. 0redictions are made a)out the )eat !re(uency and the !re(uency o! the note produced )y the waves. This is chec.ed with the e(uipment. +eat !re(uency % f'1f2

Cathode ra! oscilloscope" # po$er supplies #%&# ' AC" ( signal generators" Amplifier $ith spea)er 2

A )eat is heard when the two set o! sound waves arrive in phase at the ear. ,o according to principle o! superposition the waves rein!orce one another when they arrive in phase so maximum intensity is heard. +ecause the two !re(uencies are di!!erent a little later the waves arrive out o! phase so they cancel one another out and the sound !ades. A little later again and the two sets o! waves are )ac. in phase hence another )eat3 and so it continues. Standin( waves Standing $ave pattern is descri)ed as a vi)rational pattern created within a medium when the vi)rational !re(uency o! a source causes re!lected waves !rom one end o! the medium to inter!ere with incident waves !rom the source. The result o! the inter!erence is that speci!ic points along the medium appear to )e standing still while other points vi)rated 4

)ac. and !orth. ,uch patterns are only created within the medium at speci!ic !re(uencies o! vi)ration. These !re(uencies are .nown as harmonic !re(uencies or merely harmonics. The term harmonic has a precise meaning 1 that o! an integer 5whole num)er6 multiple o! the fundamental fre*uenc! o! a vi)rating o)7ect. At any !re(uency other than a harmonic !re(uency the inter!erence o! re!lected and incident waves results in a distur)ance o! the medium which is irregular and non1repeating. ,tanding waves occur in vi)rating strings and in air columns. The lowest !re(uency produced )y any particular instrument is .nown as the fundamental fre*uenc!. The !undamental !re(uency is also called the !irst harmonic o! the instrument.

The speed o! standing wave is same !or all the all 8armonics o! a single string. 8ow ever the !re(uency and wavelength changes. Wavelength o! the standing wave % 2 x length o! the string % wavelength o! 'st harmonic 8armonic num)er harmonic num)er n = &+n Fre(uency o! a standing wave % harmonic num)er x !re(uency o! 'st harmonic fn = n f& &actors t)at affect t)e fundamenta* fre+uenc, -f. of a vi/ratin( strin( f is proportional to '-length ,alving the length dou-les the fre*uenc! f is proportional to Tension 9

Tension increased four times dou-les the fre*uenc! f is proportional to'- mass.of .the.string . per.unit.length ,eav! string vi-rates at lo$er fre*uenc!

Sound Waves ,ound is de!ined as a range of compression%$ave fre*uencies to $hich the human ear is sensitive. :n!rasonic )elow ,onic 2; 8& 2; 8& < 2; ;;; 8& 58uman ear cannot detect6 5Audi)le ,ound6 58uman ear cannot detect6

=ltrasonic a)ove 2; ;;; 8& Nature of Sound waves

,ound is produced )y vi)rating o)7ects such as the s.in o! a drum a string o! a guitar the air column o! the trumpet. ,ound waves need a material to travel through. ,ound waves can travel through solids li(uids and gases. ,ound waves are longitudinal waves

In longitudinal $aves the oscillations ta)es place in the direction of $ave travel. The !ollowing diagram shows how the )ac.ward and !orward movement o! a one1end !ixed slin.y spring produces a longitudinal wave.

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The diagram )elow shows how the sound produced )y a spea.er is transmitted to the )rain.

&re+uenc, and 0itc) Di!!erent !re(uency sound di!!erent to the ear. 8igh !re(uencies are heard as note said to )e as high pitch. ?ow !re(uencies are heard as notes to )e low pitch. im/er and Overtone When same note is played on di!!erent musical instruments the sound (uality or tim)er is di!!erent. This is )ecause o! overtones which are wea.er !re(uencies added to the !undamental !re(uency. The term overtone is used to re!er to any resonant fre*uenc! a)ove the !undamental !re(uency 1 an overtone may or may not )e a harmonic. 8armonic is an overtone with a !re(uency that o! an integer 5whole num)er6 multiple o! the fundamental fre*uenc!.

Speed of Sound The speed o! sound varies considera)ly depending on the material through which the waves are traveling. ,peed sound in air ,peed o! sound in water ,peed o! sound in concrete 44; m-s '9;; m-s >;;; m-s 5dry air at ;o#6 5at ;o#6

,peed o! sound does not depend on the pressure The speed o! sound increases with temperature

,peed o! sound can )e calculate using the !ollowing !ormula ,peed % !re(uency x wavelength v % f

1easurin( speed of sound usin( ec)o met)od Achoes5 re!lection o! sound6 can )e used to ma.e estimate o! speed o! sound in air. A students stands ';; m !rom high wall and clap hands together at such a rate that each clap coincides with the echo o! the one )e!ore. The time !or ' clap can )e calculated as )elow and then speed o! sound can )e !ound.

Time !or ' clap 5t6 % total time-total num)er o! claps B

,peed o! sound is % distance traveled )y sound % 2d Time !or ' clap t 1easurin( t)e speed of sound usin( dou/*e /eam osci**oscope #onnect two microphones to a dou)le1)eam oscilloscope. ,et up a signal generator and loudspea.er to give sound waves o! !re(uency ' .8&. 5Their wavelength is thus a)out ;.4 m.6 0lace one microphone close to the loudspea.er and o)serve its trace. 0lace the second microphone !urther !rom the loudspea.er in the same straight line. ")serve its trace. Cove it )ac. and !orth noting the changing phase di!!erence )etween the two traces as you move through the sound waves.

Ceasure the wavelength 5with a ruler6 )y !inding how !ar the microphone is moved )etween ad7acent positions where the signals are in phase. #alculate the speed o! sound. Dote that i! you donEt have two microphones you can lin. the signal generator and loudspea.er to one input. Then !ind two consecutive positions o! the microphone which are in antiphase with the signal. Antiphase is easy to see when the traces are superimposed on the screen. :! you donEt have a dou)le )eam oscilloscope wait until a lesson on standing waves and then use a single )eam one. 2mp*itude, Loudness and #ntensit, Amplitude is the maximum distance a loudspea)er cone moves -ac)$ards or for$ards from its rest position. :! the amplitude o! the loudspea.er cone increases the intensity o! the sound increases so the sound )ecomes louder.

Intensit! of the sound $ave is a measure of the $ave energ! passing ever! second through each s*uire meter at right angles to its path. The sound intensity 5outward6 is inversely proportional to the s(uare o! the distance !rom the point source.

:ntensity % Anergy Time x Area =nit o! intensity is W-m2

% 0ower Area

This faintest sound $hich a human ear can detect is )no$n as the threshold of hearing. The !aintest sound which the typical human ear can detect has an intensity o! 'G';1'2 W-m2. )e 'eci/e* sca*e ,ince the range o! intensities which the human ear can detect is so large the scale which is !re(uently used )y physicists to measure intensity is a scale )ased on multiples o! ';. This type o! scale is sometimes re!erred to as a logarithmic scale. The scale !or measuring intensity is the deci-el scale.
# of Time Greater Than TOH 100 101 102 10$ 10) 10, 10 /-, Intensity Level 0 dB 10 dB 20 dB $0 dB )0 dB ,0 dB /, dB

Source Threshold of Hearing (TOH) Rustling Lea es Whis!er "ormal #on ersation Bus% &treet Traffi' *a'uum #leaner Large Or'hestra

Intensity 1*10-12 W/m2 1*10-11 W/m2 1*10-10 W/m2 1*10-$ W/m2 1*10-( W/m2 1*10-+ W/m2 $-.*10-. W/m2

Wal0man at 1a2imum Le el 3ront Ro4s of Ro'0 #on'ert Threshold of 5ain 1ilitar% 6et Ta0eoff 7nstant 5erforation of 8ardrum

1*10-2 W/m2 1*10-1 W/m2 1*101 W/m2 1*102 W/m2 1*10+ W/m2

1010 1011 101. 101+ 101$

100 dB 110 dB 1.0 dB 1+0 dB 1$0 dB

!efraction of Sound

:! the air a)ove the earth is warmer than that at the sur!ace sound will )e )ent )ac. downward toward the sur!ace )y refraction.

,ound propagates in all directions !rom a point source. Dormally only that which is initially directed toward the listener can )e heard )ut re!raction can )end sound downward. Dormally only the direct sound is received. +ut re!raction can add some additional sound e!!ectively ampli!ying the sound.

Distance tra!!ic and trains o!ten sound much closer and louder at night )ecause o! re!raction o! sound waves.

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'iffraction of Sound Diffraction. the -ending of $aves around small/ o-stacles and the spreading out of $aves -e!ond small/ openings. G small compared to the wavelength

,ound can )e heard around corners and around )arriers involves )oth di!!raction and re!lection o! sound. Di!!raction in such cases helps the sound to I)end aroundI the o)stacles. The !act that di!!raction is more pronounced with longer wavelengths implies that you can hear low !re(uencies around o)stacles )etter than high !re(uencies as illustrated )y the example o! a marching -and on the street. Jou may also perceive di!!raction to have a dual nature since the same phenomenon which causes waves to )end around o)stacles causes them to spread out past small openings.

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The long wavelength sounds o! the )ass drum will diffract around the corner more e!!iciently than the more directional short wavelength sounds o! the higher pitched instruments. !ef*ection of Sound and !ever/eration 8ard sur!ace such as walls will re!lect sound waves. When you hear an echo you are hearing a re!lected sound a short time a!ter the original sound. :n echo1sounding e(uipment !itted to some )oats sound pulses are re!lected !rom the sea )ed and echo time is used to measure depth o! water under the )oat. During 0ever-eration" the echo time is ver! short and echoes overlap and sound seems to -e prolonged !ef*ection from Concave Surface Any concave sur!ace will tend to !ocus the sound waves which re!lect !rom it. This is generally undesira)le in auditorium acoustics )ecause it produces a Ihot spotI and ta.es sound energy away !rom surrounding areas. Aven dispersion o! sound is desira)le in auditorium design and a sur!ace which spreads sound is pre!era)le to one which !ocuses it.

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2ctivities t)at can /e done in t)e c*ass '. ,peed o! sound using #/". 2. +eat using 2 signal generators and 2 spea.ers close to each other 4. :nter!erence o! 8armonic waves using a #/" 9. #alculate the speed o! standing waves produced in one1end closed tu)e using a signal generator.

0ractice Kuestion
Core '. What type o! wave motion is sound? 2. What is the di!!erence )etween transverse waves and longitudinal waves? 4. Why is it possi)le to hear round corners?

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9. What happens to the speed o! sound in air when 5i6 air pressure rises 5i6 temperature rises? >. What are standing waves? @. What happens to the pitch o! a note when the !re(uency is raised? B. What is the di!!erence )etween overtones and harmonics? F. What are the !actors a!!ecting the !undamental !re(uency o! a vi)rating string? H. What is a tim)er in sound? ';. Live the !re(uency ranges o! 5i6 in!rasonic 5ii6 sonic and 5iii6 ultrasonic ''. De!ine the !ollowing terms 5i6 :ntensity 5ii6 Amplitude '2. What is the threshold o! hearing? '4. Axplain what deci)el scale is? '9. With the help o! 4 s.etches explain the 'st 2nd and 4rd overtones o! a vi)rating string. '>. What is re!lection o! sound? '@. What is di!!raction o! sound? '>. Axplain what rever)eration is. 'B. With the help o! simple s.etches explain the meaning o! constructive inter!erence and destructive inter!erence. Structured 3uestions 'F. A student stands >; m away !rom a tall wall and claps 2 )loc. o! wood >; times in a way so that sound coincides with the echoes. 8is !riend measures the time !or >; claps and !inds it to )e '>s. a. #alculate the time ta.en !or ' clap. ). What is the total distance traveled )y the sound? 8ow do you .now that? c. #alculate the speed o! sound in the air. '9

'H. A sound source has an intensity o! 1*10-+ W/m2 at 1m from the sound sour'es- Find the intensity o! the sound at a distance o! 4m. 2;. A !undamental !re(uency o! sound produced )y a vi)rating string o! a piano is 2@'.@4 8&. #alculate the !re(uency o! the 5i6 2nd harmonic 5ii6 4rd harmonic and 5iii6 9th harmonic. #ircle around the note name in the diagram )elow !or each answer.

2'. A student connects a spea.er to signal generator. 8e increases the !re(uency o! the sound produced on the signal generator .eeping the spea.er over one1end1opened pipe and hears a loud sound at a !re(uency o! 99; 8&. a6 Why he hears a loud sound at a particular !re(uency not any other lower !re(uency? )6 What do you call this !re(uency o! the standing waves produced in the tu)e? c6 What is the wavelength o! the standing wave i! the length o! the pipe is ;.';m? d6 #alculate the speed o! standing wave produced in the pipe. 22. "ne loudspea.er emits a note o! !re(uency 2;; 8&. A second loudspea.er emits an e(ually loud note o! !re(uency 2;> 8&. 5i6 What would you hear when you stand near the loudspea.ers? 5ii6 What happens i! the !re(uency o! the second loudspea.er is lowered to 2;2 8& and then 2;; 8&?

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5iii6 #alculate the )eat !re(uency when the !re(uency o! the second spea.er is 2;> 8&.

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