Classical Mechanics - Module 5

1. A Lagrangian for a particular system can be written as

L =
m
2
(a x
2
+ 2b x y + c y
2
)
K
2
(ax
2
+ 2bxy + cy
2
)
where a, b, and c are arbitrary constants, but subject to the condition that
b
2
4ac 6= 0.
(a) What are the equations of motion?
(b) Examine the case a = 0 = c. What physical system does this repre-
sent?
(c) Examine the case b = 0 and a = c. What physical system does this
represent?
(d) Based on your answers to (b) and (c), determine the physical system
represented by the Lagrangian given above.
2. Consider a particle of mass m moving in a plane and subject to an inverse
square attractive force.
(a) Obtain the equations of motion.
(b) Is the angular momentum about the origin conserved?
(c) Obtain expressions for the generalized forces in cartesian coordinates.
Recall that the generalized forces are dened by
Q
j
=
X
i
F
i
x
i
q
j
.
3. Consider a Lagrangian function of the form L(q
i
, q
i
, q
i
, t). Here the La-
grangian contains a time derivative of the generalized coordinates that
is higher than the rst. When working with such Lagrangians, the term
generalized mechanics is used.
(a) Consider a system with one degree of freedom. By applying the
methods of the calculus of variations, and assuming that Hamiltons
principle holds with respect to variations which keep both q and
q xed at the end points, show that the corresponding Lagrange
equation is
d
2
dt
2

L
q

d
dt

L
q

+
L
q
= 0.
Such equations of motion have interesting applications in chaos the-
ory.
1
(b) Apply this result to the Lagrangian
L =
m
2
q q
k
2
q
2
.
Do you recognize the equations of motion?
4. A bead of mass m slides under gravity along a smooth wire bent in the
shape of a parabola x
2
= az in the vertical (x, z) plane.
(a) What kind (holonomic, nonholonomic, scleronomic, rheonomic) of
constraint acts on m?
(b) Set up Lagranges equation of motion for x with the constraint em-
bedded.
(c) Set up Lagranges equations of motion for both x and z with the
constraint adjoined and a Lagrangian multiplier introduced.
(d) Show that the same equation of motion for x results from either of
the methods used in part (b) or part (c).
(e) Express in terms of x and x.
(f) What are the x and z components of the force of constraint in terms
of x and x?
5. Show that the two Lagrangians
L(q, q; t) and L
0
(q, q; t) = L(q, q; t) +
dF(q, t)
dt
where F(q, t) is an arbitrary function of the generalized coordinates q(t),
yield the same Euler-Lagrange equations. Hence, two Lagrangians which
dier only by an exact time derivative are said to be equivalent.
2
Classical Nechanics - Nouule S
Talking Points anu Solutions

}on Spaluing
0ctobei S, 2uu9

1. The configuiation has effectively 2 uegiees of fieeuom.

a. 0ne cooiuinate, labeleu x, ueteimines the position of the uisk centei
of mass ielative to the top of the plane; x also ueteimines the angulai
position of the uisk ielative to its staiting position. The seconu
cooiuinate, !, pioviues the angulai position of the penuulum with
iespect to giavity.
b. The equations of constiaint coiiesponu to: linking the angulai
position of the uisk to its lineai position; keeping the uisk centei of
mass (c.o.m.) on the x-axis (offset by a constant, R); anu keeping the
penuulum bob a uistance l away fiom the centei of the uisk.
Nathematically these aie wiitten:
!
y = z = 0;
!
R" # x = 0;

!
!
" =
!
r
m
#
!
r
M
= l.
c. 0ne final simplification is neeueu: assume the penuulum bob is a
point mass, anu the penuulum cable is mass-less. Now we can finu the
Lagiangian, anu the associateu equations of motion.

!
!(x,") = T #U;
Foi the uisk we have:
!
T
disk
=
1
2
m x
2
+
1
2
Iw
2
;
!
I
disk
=
1
2
MR
2
;
!
w =
1
R
"x
"t
=
1
R
x ;
!
U
disk
= Mgh = Mg(h
o
" x sin(#)) . Foi the penuulum we have:
!
T
pendulum
=
1
2
mv
2
;
!
v = l

" + x
m
;
!
T
pendulum
=
1
2
m(l

" + x
m
)
2
;
!
U
pendulum
= mgh
p
= mg(h
o
+ R" l cos(#) " x sin($)). Putting all of this
togethei we get

!
!(x,") =
1
2
m(l
2

"
2
+ x
2
+ 2l

" x ) +
3
4
M x
2
+1+ (M + m)gx sin# + mgl cos" .
Then we use Lagiange equations to get the equations of motion:

!
"!
"x
#
d
dt
"!
" x
= 0 $g(M + m)sin% #(m+
3
2
M) x # ml

& = 0 anu

!
"!
"#
$
d
dt
"!
"

#
= 0 %mgl sin# + ml x + ml
2

# = 0. We then check these
ielations foi the limiting cases of
!
m = 0 "gMsin# $
3
2
M x = 0 which is
the equation foi the uisk iolling uown the plane, anu
!
" = 0, x = 0 #mgl sin$ + ml
2

$ = 0 which is the equation foi a penuulum
connecteu to a stationaiy mount.
2. In this pioblem we apply Lagiange's equation foi x anu y.
a.
i.

!
"!
"y
#
d
dt
"!
" y
= 0 $Kbx + Kcy + mb x + mc y = 0
ii.

!
"!
"x
#
d
dt
"!
" x
= 0 $Kax + Kby + am x + bm y = 0
b. We get two simple haimonic oscillatois.
c. Again, we get two simple haimonic oscillatois.
u. It is a single mass coupleu to two spiings
e.
S. Theie aie two possible cases: Foice centei in plane, anu foice centei offset:
The two cases aie veiy uiffeient: foi the fiist case the co-planai foice
incieases to the oiigin, while in the seconu case the co-planai foice incieases
anu then uecieases as one gets closest to the oiigin. Let us consiuei the
simplei anu moie familiai case of motion in the plane. The haiuei case may
be suiteu to use of Lagiange Nultplieis.
a. With centei of foice locateu in the plane anu at the oiigin, the foice
equation in cylinuiical cooiuinates is

!
!
F = "
k
r
2

r = "#U = "
$
$r
(U). Then
the potential is
!
U = "
k
r
. The velocity in cylinuiical cooiuinates is

!
!
v = r r + r

"

" + z z but we have a constiaint that z is constant. Then

!
!(r,", r ,

" ) =
1
2
m(
"
v
"
v ) + k r =
1
2
m( r
2
+ r
2

"
2
) + k r . Now use Lagiange's
equations to get equations of motion:
i.

!
"!
"r
#
d
dt
"!
" r
= 0 $mr

%
2
# k r
2
# m r = 0
ii.

!
"!
"#
$
d
dt
"!
"

#
= 0 % mr
2

# = 0 &mr
2

# = Const
b. Yes the angulai momentum is conseiveu, as

!
!
L =
!
r "
!
p = mr(r

# ) = mr
2

# = Const
c.
The geneializeu foices aie alieauy containeu in the equations of
motion, i.e.

!
"!
"#
= Q
#
= 0
anu

!
"!
"r
= Q
r
= mr

#
2
$
k
r
2 . The foimula pioviueu
woulu be useful in ueiiving these cylinuiical cooiuinate foices hau we
solveu this pioblem using Caitesian cooiuinates, oi vice veisa. Foi
example, heie we finu the foice in the x-uiiection:
!
Q
x
= F
r
"r
"x
#
$
%
&
'
( =
k
r
2
#
$
%
&
'
(
"r
"x
#
$
%
&
'
( = )
k
x
2
+ y
2
#
$
%
&
'
(
" x
2
+ y
2
"x
#
$
%
%
&
'
(
(
= )
kx
x
2
+ y
2
( )
3
2


4. Foi this pioblem, you ieally neeu to uelve into the ueiivation of Lagiange's
equations. Noie specifically, we neeu to ie-ueiive a new set of Lagiange's
equations.
a. Finu a function L which satisfies
!
dJ
d"
=
dL( q , q ,q, t)
d"
dt
t
1
t
2
#
= 0 wheie q
takes on values that minimize
!
dJ
d"
=
#L
# q
# q
#"
+
#L
# q
# q
#"
+
#L
#q
#q
#"
dt
t
1
t
2
$
= 0,
i.e. q is the path that minimizes the action integial;
!
q(", t) = q(t) +"#(t), wheie " evaluates to u at the enus of the integial,
anu is given complete fieeuom to vaiy along the path of q. We can
then ie-wiite the integial as
!
dJ
d"
=
#L
# q
$ +
#L
# q
$ +
#L
#q
$
%
&
'
(
)
*
dt
t
1
t
2
+
= 0. We
then integiate by paits on the fiist two teims to get:
!
dJ
d"
=
#L
# q
$
%
&
'
(
)
*
t
1
t
2
+ $
#
#t
#L
# q
dt
t
1
t
2
,
+
#L
# q
$
%
&
'
(
)
*
t
1
t
2
+ $
#
#t
#L
# q
dt
t
1
t
2
,
+
#L
#q
$dt
t
1
t
2
,
= 0
wheie the thiiu teim evaluates to u since we uefineu " to be zeio at
the bounuaiies. Bowevei, the fiist teim, which evaluates the u"ut at
the bounuaiy, may not necessaiily be u. To solve this pioblem, uefine
" in such a way that this teim, but not u"ut, evaluates to u; make
!
"(t) # $(t)
2
, wheie # is now alloweu to vaiy along the path, anu
evaluates to u at the bounuaiy. Then
!
" = 2# # , anu the bounuaiy teim
vanishes iegaiuless of the ueiivative of oui ianuom function. We now
have
!
dJ
d"
=
#L
#q
$ %
#
#t
#L
# q
$ % $
#
#t
#L
# q
&
'
(
)
*
+
dt
t
1
t
2
,
; Integiate by paits on the
thiiu teim, anu one finus
!
dJ
d"
=
#L
#q
$
#
#t
#L
# q
+
#
2
#t
2
#L
# q
%
&
'
(
)
*
+dt
t
1
t
2
,
= 0. Since "
is an aibitiaiy function, the equation in paienthesis must be u; oui
new Lagiange equation is then
!
"L
"q
#
"
"t
"L
" q
+
"
2
"t
2
"L
" q
which is what we
uesiieu.
b. Taking ueiivatives we finu:
!
m
2
q + kq = 0, the simple haimonic
oscillatoi!
S. What we have heie is a 2 uimensional pioblem that can be ieuuceu to one
uimension by the constiaint equation pioviueu, ie.
!
g(x, z) = x
2
" az = 0.
a. This constiaint is Bolonomic in the sense that it constiains one
vaiiable in teims of anothei vaiiable. It is also Scleionomic, which
means the constiaint is inuepenuent of time (a thiiu vaiiable, implicit
to the pioblem uesciiption).
b. By embeuuing the constiaint, we aie to uiiectly eliminate one vaiiable
in the Lagiangian in teims of the othei vaiiable by substituting the
constiaint equation:
!
z =
x
2
a
; z =
dz
dt
=
2x x
a
; the two-vaiiable lagiangian
is

!
!(x, z) =
1
2
m( x
2
+ z
2
) " mgz anu the Lagiangian in x is

!
!(x, z) =
1
2
m( x
2
+
2
a
x x
2
) "
mg
a
x
2
which then leaus to the equation of
motion

!
"!
"x
#
"
"t
"!
" x
= #
2mg
a
x # m x = 0 which says that
!
x = "
2g
a
x , which
is once again the equation foi the haimonic oscillatoi. We can
inteipiet this to mean that the paiticle will oscillate in the x uiiection
accoiuing to sin(wt).
c. This time we won't uiiectly substitute the constiaint equation into the
Lagiangian, but insteau use a Lagiange multipliei. Foi any system
with moie than one geneializeu cooiuinate anu constiaints ielating
the cooiuinates, we can use this methou to get the equations of
motion. In this paiticulai case, we have 2 cooiuinates, 1 constiaint;
this leaus to a pioblem of solving S equations foi S unknowns. The
thiee equations aie:
i.

!
"!
"x
#
"
"t
"!
" x
+
"g(x, z)
"x
$(t) = 0 =>
!
0 " m x + 2x#(t) = 0
ii.

!
"!
"z
#
"
"t
"!
" z
+
"g(x, z)
"z
$(t) = 0 =>
!
"mg " m z " a#(t) = 0
iii.
!
g(x, z) = x
2
" az = 0
u. Note that
!
z = g; theiefoie $ is simply -2g, anu equation i. iesults in oui
pievious iesult foi haimonic motion in x.
e. Solving i. anu ii. foi $ (without substituting
!
z = g), we get
!
" = #
2g
a
x # x #
4x
a
2
(x x + x
2
) =
4x
a
2
(x x + x
2
) . The fiist two teims sum to
u as they iepiesent the equation of motion in x.
f. Fiom pg. 278 of Tayloi's Nechanics,
!
F
x
= "
#g
#x
=
8x
2
a
2
(x x + x
2
) anu
!
F
z
= "
#g
#z
=
4x
a
(x x + x
2
) .
6. Apply the Lagiange equations anu see if the F teim is eliminateu. Note that
paitial uiffeientiation is a lineai opeiatoi.
!
" # L
"q
$
d
dt
" # L
" q
= 0 =
"L
"q
$
d
dt
"L
" q
+
"
"q
$
d
dt
"
" q
%
&
'
(
)
*
dF(q, t)
dt
in which the
Lagiangian equation foi L is alieauy u. Fiist,
!
dF =
"F
"q
dq +
"F
"t
dt #
dF
dt
=
"F
"q
dq
dt
+
"F
"t
leaving us to show that
!
"
"q
#
"
"t
"
" q
$
%
&
'
(
)
dF(q, t)
dt
=
"
"q
#
"
"t
"
" q
$
%
&
'
(
)
"F
"q
dq
dt
+
"F
"t
$
%
&
'
(
)
= 0 . 0ne methou is
!
"
"q
#
"
"t
"
" q
$
%
&
'
(
)
dF
dt
=
d
dt
"F
"q
#
"
" q
"F
"t
$
%
&
'
(
)
$
%
&
'
(
)
=
d
dt
"F
"q
#
"

F
" q
$
%
&
'
(
)
wheie
!
"

F
" q
=
"
"F
"t
#
$
%
&
'
(
"
"q
"t
#
$
%
&
'
(
=
"F
"q
, anu hence the exact time ueiivative of F uoesn't
affect the equations of motion.