P

Purified water is required for a wide range of ap-

plications within a facility, including cleanrooms.
Water quality needs can range from laboratory
grade to ultra-pure water, depending on the sensi-
tivity of critical applications. The quantity of water
needed from one point of use (POU) to another
can vary from a few liters per day to several hun-
dred liters per day. Understanding and then meet-
ing these various requirements is a challenge but is
critical in the design of a total water purification
system for a cleanroom facility.
Design process stages
The design process can be broken down into four simple phases: in-
vestigation, approach selection, loop design and finalization.
Phase I: InvestigationA successful design outcome depends on
the designers ability to establish precisely the needs at each POU in
the facility. Although investigating a facilitys water requirements
may appear straightforward, it is essential to have a well-defined
plan.
Understanding a facilitys water quality needs requires knowledge
of various water quality standards and the organizations that pub-
lish them. Determining the correct standards to follow depends on
the regulatory environment in which the facility operates and the
specific applications at each POU.
Organizations such as the American Society for Testing and Ma-
terials (ASTM), College of American Pathologists (CAP), Interna-
tional Organization for Standardization (ISO), National Committee
for Clinical Laboratory Standards (NCCLS), and United States
Pharmacopeia (USP) all publish their own water quality standards.
Typically, industries tend to follow the requirements of their affiliat-
ed organizations. For instance, in the medical diagnostics field, labo-
ratories usually follow CAP or NCCLS standards. USP is written and
followed by the pharmaceutical industry, and ISO standards are fol-
lowed by quality organizations across multiple industries. In
certain areas, such as the pharmaceutical industry and medical diag-
nostics, water quality standards are regulated and require compli-
ance. To eliminate some confusion, we have defined water purifica-
tion specifications that acknowledge regulatory agency standards (see
Figure 1).
After the water quality requirements have been established, the
next step in the process is to determine the facilitys water quantity
requirements and how the water will be accessed. If the facility will
have multiple POUs, then it is important to determine how much
water will be used at each POU. In facilities with glassware washers,
autoclaves or other equipment incorporated in the loop, the neces-
sary flow rates and pressure requirements for this equipment must
be considered when determining the total quantity of water required.
Correctly identifying these needs and locations will make the differ-
ence in successfully designing a water purification system for a clean-
room environment.
Phase II: Approach selectionFor many years, the conventional
approach has been to plumb water throughout a building or facility
in a single-loop configuration with a single make-up system. Often,
the loops can run for thousands of feet. If the loop becomes con-
taminated or the make-up system fails, then the entire facility can be
without water until the problem is resolved. Facilities can be shut
down completely for several days due to water contamination issues.
Using multiple make-up systems (duplex design) to feed a loop
lowers the risk of potential damages from a single make-up system
failure. The duplex system approach adds redundancy to the config-
uration, but is similar to the conventional approach. If the loop be-
Designing a water system
Quality and quantity both matter in the design of water systems
for clean scientific laboratory facilities
BY DALE GORDON, MORGAN NORRI S AND GUY HART
Water purification
Parameter (units) Type I Type II Type III Contaminant
Ions Resistivity M*cm >18.0 >1.0 >0.05
Silica (ppb) <10 <100 <1,000
TOC (ppb) Organics <20 <50 <200
<100 <1,000
Particles >0.2 m (units/mL) Particles <1 NA NA
Bacteria (cfu/mL) Bacteria <1
NA NA Endotoxin (EU/mL) <0.001
Figure 1: Water purification specifications
Reprinted with revisions to format, from the October 2004 edition of CLEANROOMS
Copyright 2004 by PennWell Corporation
comes contaminated, then all POUs are out
of service until the loop can be decontami-
nated completely.
Another approach
is to use several small-
er loops feeding indi-
vidual floors or de-
partments. The added
redundancy reduces
the risk of a total facil-
ity shut down. Having
several smaller loops
allows departments or
individual floors to maintain and control
their systems locally. Water is the most com-
monly used reagent in most facilities, leading
end users to become more involved in the
maintenance of the systems. The localized
loop approach begins to put some control
back in the end users hands.
A hybrid approach uses a small central
system with polishers at each point of use.
The advantage is the ability to plumb a lesser
grade of water in the loop and then raise it to
the desired quality level at the POU. Howev-
er, there is still an inherent risk of loop con-
tamination and downtime, which also can
shut down a facility completely.
When selecting an approach for getting
water to multiple POUs with varying quan-
tity and quality requirements, there are cer-
tain rules that should be followed. For exam-
ple, it is important that the system
continuously circulates water through a fa-
cility. The water must be kept moving con-
tinuously as stagnant water is a source of
bacterial proliferation. Without a properly
designed loop, the water cannot be circulated
endlessly. Therefore, dead-legs (areas where
water sits in the system) must be kept to an
absolute minimum. Failure to do so is invit-
ing bacterial contamination. Lastly, shorter
loops typically result in less contamination.
Once an approach is selected that incorpo-
rates one or more distribution loops, it is
time to select the purification and monitor-
ing equipment within the loop.
Phase III: Loop designThe appropriate
materials of construction for the piping in-
frastructure and assembly are paramount in
contributing to the preservation of the water
quality within the loop. Identifying the most
appropriate material and assembly method
requires an analysis of the end users appli-
cation(s), water quality needs and desired
cleaning and/or sanitization protocol.
Using the proper piping materials will
minimize degradation of the purified water
during distribution. There are a range of ma-
terials to choose from, including PVC, stain-
less steel, polypropylene and PVDF. Charac-
teristics that differentiate the piping
materials include material cost, installation
cost, heat resistance and tendency to leach
organic material into high-purity water.
For the majority of applications found in
the cleanroom environment, polypropylene
serves as an excellent choice for loop piping.
It is a relatively inexpensive piping material
with low installation costs and poses mini-
mal risk of leachable contamination into the
high-purity water. Polypropylene is not a
heat-resistant material and these loops can-
not be heat sanitized.
The presence of biofilm within a piping
system is inevitable and exists to some degree
in all water piping systems. A targeted flow ve-
locity of 3-5 ft/s within the piping system is
viewed as critical for minimizing the adverse
effects of biofilm build-up and bacteria pro-
liferation. This velocity effectively reduces
biofilm because it creates a turbulent flow
pattern within the piping. In turn, turbulent
flow patterns make it difficult for bacteria to
adhere to the piping walls. Flow rates well
below this range create a laminar flow condi-
tion, where water flows with minimal turbu-
lence through the pipe. This makes it easier
for bacteria to adhere to piping walls and con-
tributes to biofilm development.
In selecting the size and performance
characteristics of the required distribution
pump, one must balance the flow rate, pres-
sure drop, pipe diameter of the distri-
bution piping system, and targeted
flow velocity of 3-5 ft/s. To do so re-
quires the following actions:
1. Determine the expected distri-
bution loop length (include fittings,
valves, etc.) along with an accurate as-
sessment of the number and flow rate
requirements at each of the points of
use.
2. Choose an initial pipe diameter
(_, _, 1 1 _, etc) reflecting the length and
point-of-use profile of the distribution loop
as determined above. For smaller loop con-
figurations with minimal points-of-use and
flow requirements, a smaller pipe diameter
may be anticipated. For larger configura-
tions, a larger pipe diameter might be ex-
pected. Keeping flow requirements and tar-
get velocity in balance by increasing or
decreasing the pipe diameter is an optimal
way for reducing pressure losses (see Figure 2).
3. To calculate the required distribution
pump pressure, begin with the minimum
pressure needed at the most remote point of
use. This can be achieved using a back pres-
sure regulating valve at the end of the distri-
bution piping. To this minimum pressure
add the pressure loss through piping equip-
ment and be sure to factor for piping eleva-
tion changes. The ideal total target loop pres-
sure is 55-75 psi (90 psi maximum).
Loop monitoring components and
devices should be incorporated within the
loop design to verify and document
performance. Conductivity or resistivity
monitors should be used to measure ionic
purity levels. Total Organic Carbon (TOC)
monitors are used to measure the levels of
organic carbon compounds present in the
Water purification
Investing in a total pure water solution is essential for
any fully functioning cleanroom. In order to ensure
success, we recommend a service plan that includes
priority access to the service organization, routine
validation and preventative maintenance visits.
3 to 5 ft/sec design target (~1 to 1.5 m/sec)
Nominal
size
1
/2 in. 20 mm (0.79 in.) 0.59 in. 2.6 3.4 4.3
3
/4 in. 25 mm (0.98 in.) 0.77 in. 4.4 5.8 7.3
1 in. 32 mm (1.26 in.) 1.02 in. 7.7 10.2 12.7
1
1
/4 in. 40 mm (1.57 in.) 1.28 in. 12.0 16.0 20.0
1
1
/2 in. 50 mm (1.97 in.) 1.61 in. 20.0 25.0 32.0
Outside
diameter
Inside
diameter
Flow rates (gpm) at velocity:
3 ft/sec 4 ft/sec 5 ft/sec
Figure 2: Velocity through distribution pipe
loop. The best designed make-up systems in-
corporate these monitors. Sanitary sampling
ports or valves provide standard and clean
protocols for collecting purified water sam-
ples to be tested and monitored.
The water produced by the make-up sys-
tem is typically stored in a reservoir or dis-
tribution throughout the loop. Reservoirs are
available in many sizes, configurations and
materials of construction. Common practice
is to use tanks con-
structed of molded
polyethylene because
it produces a very
smooth finish inside
of the reservoir and
minimizes biofilm
growth. Well-de-
signed reservoirs also
have a conical bot-
tom that allows them
to be completely
drained and ensures that the water within
the reservoir is completely turned over. San-
itary overflow devices, vent filters and CO
2
traps may be incorporated to sustain the de-
sired water quality levels within the reservoir
by preventing the ingress of airborne con-
taminants. Properly sizing a reservoir re-
quires selecting one large enough to meet
peak demands during the day, but small
enough that the water is completely turned
over on a daily basis.
Once a loop design has been completed
along with an assessment of high purity
water needs, select a make-up system that
meets the quantity and quality needs
determined in the previous steps. Next, a
water chemistry analysis should be per-
formed on the incoming feed-water. The re-
sults of this analysis and the feed-water re-
quirements of the make-up system will be
used to determine the proper pretreatment
needs.
Phase IV: FinalizationFurther consid-
erations when finalizing the design of the
system include the physical facility, installa-
tion, validation, and/or ongoing mainte-
nance. In evaluating the facility it is impor-
tant to recognize the available space and
access limitations. Commonly overlooked is-
sues include access to the room where the
make-up system will reside, especially stairs
and doors that need to be navigated when
entering the area. As the size of the water pu-
rification system increases, particularly the
size of the reservoir, these issues become
more important. The system designer also
should check with the proper partieseither
the facilities group or building architectto
ensure that the location has the required
electrical, drain and feed-water require-
ments.
If the system requires validation, then the
manufacturer should be consulted. Manu-
facturer validation packages tend to be more
thorough and well designed because of their
in-depth knowledge of the equipment. In
most cases it is also a less expensive method
because the manufacturer already has devel-
oped the necessary protocols.
Support services
Ongoing maintenance and required service
will be needed for many of the components in
the system. The manufacturers service organ-
ization is the best option for this work be-
cause they know the system better than any-
one else and have better access to spare parts
and technical personnel that may be needed
to maintain the system.
Investing in a total pure water solution is
essential for any fully functioning cleanroom.
In order to ensure success, we recommend a
service plan that includes priority access to
the service organization, routine validation
and preventative maintenance visits. This
guarantees that your system produces a high
quality of water to keep the facility working
productively.
Conclusion
The design of a pure water system should be
an initial consideration when building a
cleanroom facility. As essential as overall
sterility, it can often pose contamination, pro-
ductivity and financial risks if not managed
properly. Deploying the four simple phases of
investigation, approach selection, loop design
and finalization establishes a smooth and reli-
able process. III
DALE GORDON is regional business
manager, MORGAN NORRI S is product mar-
keting manager and GUY HART is regional
custom systems specialist in the Lab Water
Division, Millipore Corporation, 290 Concord
Road, Billerica, MA 01821; for more informa-
tion, call 781-533-6927 or e-mail dale_gor-
don@millipore.com.
Water purification
A successful design outcome depends on the
designers ability to establish precisely the needs
at each POU in the facility. Although investigating
a facilitys water requirements may appear
straightforward, it is essential to have a
well-defined plan.
RP1549EN00