SHR 2323- Sistem Teknologi Pengajaran

Ujian Separuh Semester (20 markah menyumbang 10%)

Baca petikan di bawah dan jawab soalan berikutnya.

Delivery One should not underestimate the importance of delivery. After all, speaking is what makes a speech distinctive from other forms of communication. Audiences believe that nonverbal impressions are more reliable indicators of whether a speaker is being honest (on their assumption that actions are harder to falsify than words). To appreciate more fully the importance of delivery, one should merely think about how often one assesses others on the basis of how they look or behave. This assessment of others is, one hopes, always conditional--we should base a final assessment of others on more substantive matters. Nonetheless, the process of assessment on non-verbal cues is something we all do. Oral communication is also significantly richer than the written language because of delivery. Speakers can use more than words to convey meaning. Think about the following examples from Christina Stuart: I've just lost my job. Really? (horror)

You need to get get a new hair style. Really? (annoyance) Your work is quite good. We'll finish on time. Really? (pleasure)

Really? (disbelief) Really (sarcasm)

I'm not looking forward to meeting him.

One can develop such differences in meaning in writing, but the typical way we develop meaning from the written word is to actually hear the words spoken as we read--the writer expects us to insert the appropriate inflections because the writer knows that we will. One cannot truly understand the meanings of the word "really" in the preceding sentences without hearing them. Developing a repertoire of similar techniques to convey meaning is the reason one talks about delivery. This aspect of delivery is developed more fully in the section on the differences between oral and written communication.

Do not, however, assume that there is a "formula" for effective delivery. The most effective speakers are ones that use their natural gestures and idiosyncrasies to their best advantage. Trying to mimic the delivery of others is self-defeating: audiences will detect the unnaturalness of a borrowed technique and assume that the speaker is not being sincere. Delivery is a highly personal matter: there is no standard form of delivery and everyone should tailor his or her speech to personal strengths and weaknesses. Table 1. Characteristics of the Effective and Ineffective Lecture
Characteristics of the Effective Lecture Educator-student interaction Characteristics of the Ineffective Lecture 100% educator talk, with limited or no interaction One-way communication Few if any questions (educator or student) Student depends on educator for all information No student activities No supporting media Extensive note taking required

Two-way communication Educator-student questions Shared responsibility for active learning

Small group, problem-solving activities Variety of supporting media Limited note taking required (students have copies of lecture notes)

There are, however, some aspects of delivery that are common to all good speakers. One must speak clearly. Words must be carefully enunciated so that the audience can understand what is being said. One can practice using enunciation exercises. One of the greatest errors made by speakers is speaking so fast that they lose the ability to enunciate properly. Varying the rate at which the words are spoken is an effective technique, but, as a rule of thumb, slow is better than fast. Generally, it is good to speed up the rate of speaking toward the end of the speech. By then, the audience will have worked out the quirks in your enunciation and one often seeks to create a rush at the end of the speech. One must speak loudly enough. Again, if the audience cannot hear the speaker, then all is lost. Regulating the volume of one's voice is important. Do not deliver the speech in a monotone. Variations in volume can communicate a great deal of meaning. Think about what a whisper conveys. In contrast, think of a loud shout. Volume and rate of speech are the functional equivalents of italicized or bolded words in a written text.

One must make eye contact. This aspect of delivery is critically important although many speakers fail to make eye contact. In North American culture, not making eye contact is refusing to engage the audience. Other cultures have different attitudes about eye contact and one should be sensitive to these differences. The best way to maintain eye contact is by looking directly at a single member of the audience for two or three seconds (no longer than that, or the person will think that you are staring), and then moving on to look at someone else. Try not to be predictable in your eye movements: moving your eyes in the pattern of an "M" or "W" and then switching over to an "X" pattern is a good way of appearing random in your eye movements. Maintaining eye contact is one way of remembering to engage the audience. The audience will appreciate the fact that you are taking an interest in each of them and you will not forget that you are speaking to individuals and not a monolithic crowd. In casual conversation, eye contact can convey a multitude of messages: by averting one's eyes in a conversation one signals that he or she wishes to continue speaking; looking directly at someone and not speaking is a clear signal that one wishes the other to speak; looking away while someone is talking signals disinterest in the words being immediately spoken. Other aspects of delivery are more flexible, and one needs to think about these aspects in relation to personal style and comfort. The use of space. North Americans tend to be more defensive about space than members of some other cultures, so it is important to remember where you are when you give a speech. Typically, there is a podium for the speaker which separates the speaker from the audience. The purpose of the podium is clear: the speaker's presence is distinctive. A podium also conveys the authority of the speaker. Because a podium separates speaker and audience, speakers are well advised to move to the side or in front of the podium when they wish to make a point of particular importance. The speaker thereby establishes closer intimacy with the audience. Under certain rare circumstances, it might also be appropriate for the speaker to join the audience. Such use of space works well when an audience is scattered around a room. But there is usually too much movement in such an action and the audience will find itself wondering where the speaker will next move rather than listening to his or her words. Standing is always better than sitting. Sitting, implying a more informal mode of discussion, is appropriate for a variety of circumstances. But speech-making is a formal activity. Standing, however, isolates an speaker and contributes to anxiety about public speaking. The section on anxiety suggests ways of coping. Presence. A speaker needs to project authority over the subject matter, not over the audience. In a perfect world, such authority would be determined merely by the integrity of the speaker's argument. We do not, however, live in a perfect world and it is a mistake to delude oneself that only one's ideas matter, particularly when one is speaking to a audience of strangers. Strangers have very little to go on initially in determining whether to pay attention to a speaker.

There are some basic rules of presence, most of which our parents told us about. First, wear your favorite formal clothes. Never wear anything with which you feel less than comfortable, and wear something that suggests care and attention. Do not wear anything that will divert the audience's attention or set you apart further from the audience. Second, always stand up straight. One should not be stiff, but slouching suggests a laziness that could possibly affect the audience's reception of your argument. The podium is not a posture prop; the podium's purpose is symbolic. Third, smile before you say your first word. Even if your subject matter is deadly serious and horrific, a smile will establish a rapport with your audience that can be built upon. Actually, one should think of something amusing as one walks to the podium so that the smile is genuine and not forced. Fourth, disguise your nervousness. Every speaker is nervous. But if your nervousness is apt to manifest itself in shaking hands, then grab hold to the sides of the podium. If you voice quavers, then speak a little more loudly and deeply. The signs of nervousness will go away after the first minute or two as the presentation of your argument takes control of your mind and body. Gestures. The human body is capable of about 700,000 different gestures that can be used to communicate meaning. Some researchers have identified "twenty-three separate and distinct eyebrow positions that communicate different meanings" (McCroskey, 1997, p. 143). Gestures are the single greatest asset of a speaker, but they must be used sparingly and judiciously or else they overwhelm the content of the speech. One ought to take notice of the gestures of people in normal conversation, and correlate those gestures with the words spoken. The hands and arms are perhaps the most obvious signallers of meaning. One should avoid making the same hand gestures over and over again; monotony breeds distraction. The gestures should be unanticipated and unrehearsed, but in synchrony with the meaning of the words spoken. The essential point to remember is that delivery must accentuate naturalness. One must be comfortable in delivering a speech. By and large, we all have integrated our speaking with non-verbal gestures fairly well. Trust your own instincts on delivery and do only what you find consistent with your personality.

Soalan: 1. Meskipun penggunaan teknologi amat penting dalam penyampaian latihan, ketrampilan jurulatih juga memainkan peranan besar dalam menjamin

keberkesanan penyampaian latihan. Bincangkan bagaimanakah peranan jurulatih dan alat bantu mengajarnya saling pengaruh-mempengaruhi. (10 markah) Pada zaman serba moden dan canggih ini, telah banyak peralatan bantu mengajar berasaskan teknologi yang boleh digunakan oleh jurulatih untuk memastikan komunikasi antara jurulatih dan pelatih berkesan dan mencapai misi dan visinya. Isi kandungan latihan akan lebih mudah difahami dan diserap dengan baik dan berkesan oleh pelatih. Dengan penggunaan teknologi, jurulatih boleh mempelbagaikan cara pembelajaran. Kebebasan belajar dan arahan kendiri diterima sebagai matlamat pengajaran masa kini. Cara ini boleh menggalakkan pelatih mencari arah pembelajaran mereka sendiri. Teknologi juga boleh memberikan latihan asas yang lebih saintifik kepada sesi pengajaran. Jurulatih boleh menyediakan rangka kerja bagi merekabentuk keadaan pembelajaran berdasarkan cara manusia belajar. Teknologi menjadikan pengajaran latihan lebih hebat. Jurulatih tidak semestinya perlu berhadapan dengan pelatih. ICT membolehkan komunikasi yang lebih kerap antara jurulatih dan pelatih walaupun di tempat yang berlainan atau jauh. Ini akan lebih memudahkan dan menjimatkan masa jurulatih dan juga pelatih. Teknologi dapat meningkatkan tahap motivasi jurulatih dan juga pelatih. Pelatih akan memberikan lebih perhatian apabila sesi latihan menarik dan tidak membosankan. Secara tidak langsung sesi latihan akan melibatkan pelatih melalui penerbitan tugas. Teknologi juga dapat meningkatkan kawalan persepsi pelatih. Keupayaan unit pengajaran akan menghubungkan pelatih kepada sumber maklumat. Ianya juga membantu pelatih menyelesaikan masalah dalam bentuk visual. Teknologi yang digunakan juga membantu meningkatkan produktiviti jurulatih. Masa yang terluang digunakan untuk menyediakan maklumat yang lebih tepat dan cepat. Membolehkan jurulatih menghasilkan bahan lebih mesra belajar.

Teknologi juga membantu jurulatih menggunakan masa dengan lebih baik dan mengurangkan beban tugas pentadbiran. Kesimpulannya, teknologi adalah salah satu daripada keperluan kemahiran yang perlu ada pada seseorang jurulatih. Teknologi sebagai sumber literasi maklumat dan juga visual adalah saling pengaruh-mempengaruhi bagi seseorang jurulatih untuk menonjolkan ketrampilannya sekaligus memainkan peranan besar dalam menjamin keberkesanan penyampaian latihan.

2. Berdasarkan petikan di atas, ulas kepentingan komunikasi non-verbal dalam penyampaian latihan dan pembangunan. (10 markah) Komunikasi nonverbal adalah proses komunikasi dimana mesej disampaikan tidak menggunakan kata-kata. Contoh komunikasi nonverbal ialah menggunakan gerak isyarat, bahasa tubuh , ekspresi wajah dan hubungan mata, penggunaan objek seperti pakaian, potongan rambut dan sebagainya, simbol-simbol, serta cara bercakap seperti intonasi, penekanan, kualiti suara, gaya emosi dan gaya bercakap. Para ahli di bidang komunikasi non-verbal biasanya menggunakan definisi "tidak menggunakan kata" dengan ketara, dan tidak menyamakan komunikasi nonverbal dengan komunikasi nonlisan. Contohnya, bahasa isyarat dan tulisan tidak dianggap sebagai komunikasi nonverbal kerana menggunakan kata, sedangkan intonasi dan gaya bercakap tergolong sebagai komunikasi nonverbal. Komunikasi nonverbal juga berbeza dengan komunikasi bawah sedar, yang dapat berupa komunikasi verbal ataupun nonverbal. Selain itu, komunikasi nonverbal juga menjadikan apa yang diucapkan oleh jurulatih akan diyakini oleh para pelatih. Ianya menambah atau melengkapi ucapanucapan yang dirasakan belum sempurna oleh seseorang jurulatih. Ini kerana kadangkadang niat atau intent ini dapat difahami kerana beberapa kesan simbolik dari cara berkomunikasi. Banyak perilaku nonverbal yang diatur oleh dorongan-dorongan biologik. Sebaliknya komunikasi verbal diatur oleh peraturan-peraturan dan prinsip-prinsip yang dibuat oleh manusia, seperti sintaks dan tata bahasa. Misalnya, kita boleh secara sedar memutuskan untuk berbicara, tetapi dalam berbicara secara tidak sedar pipi menjadi memerah dan mata berkedip terus-menerus. Banyak komunikasi nonverbal serta simbol-simbolnya yang bermakna universal. Sedangkan komunikasi verbal lebih banyak yang bersifat spesifik bagi kebudayaan tertentu. Dalam komunikasi nonverbal boleh dilakukan beberapa tindakan sekaligus dalam suatu masa tertentu, sementara komunikasi verbal terikat pada urutan waktu. Penggunaan lambang berupa kata sebagai alat komunikasi memerlukan masa untuk sampai pada tahap tertentu. Komunikasi nonverbal lebih dapat memberi kesan emosi dibanding komunikasi verbal.

Oleh itu, komunikasi nonverbal juga adalah elemen yang penting dalam penyampaian latihan dan pembangunan. Ini kerana apa-apa yang terzahir melalui ekspresi wajah ataupun intonasi suara seseorang jurulatih semasa sesi latihan berlangsung menentukan makna dalam komunikasi interpersonal. Ianya juga berfungsi untuk mengekspresikan perasaan dan juga emosi jurulatih yang tidak boleh diutarakan dengan kata-kata. Gabungan kesemua elemen komunikasi sama ada secara verbal ataupun nonverbal bakal menentukan sejauh mana isi kandungan dapat diserap dengan baik dan berkesan oleh para pelatih.

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