Learn Ladder Logic

Table of Contents
Legal Notice ........................................................................................................................... 2 Preface ...................................................................................................................................... 3 Chapter 1 Establish a Base ........................................................................................................ 5 Rails & Rungs......................................................................................................................... 6 Understanding the logical flow of rungs .................................................................................. 8 A bit about instructions ..........................................................................................................12 Tags, an address to memory .................................................................................................15 Creating Tag Names ..........................................................................................................15 Tag Data Types .................................................................................................................16 Project Structure....................................................................................................................18 Project Tasks .....................................................................................................................18 Programs ...........................................................................................................................19 Program Routines ..............................................................................................................19 End of Chapter Review ..........................................................................................................20 Putting it all together ..............................................................................................................20 End of chapter review Questions. ..........................................................................................21 Test Answers.........................................................................................................................25

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Learn Ladder Logic Legal Notice All rights reserved. No part of the contents of the book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means without the written permission of the publisher.. This book expresses the authors views and opinions. The infomration contained in this book is provided without any express, statutory, or implied warranties. Neither the author, nor its resellers or distributors will be held liable for any damages caused or alleged to be caused either directly or indirectly by this book.

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Preface

his eBook is for anyone who wants to learn ladder logic. Whether your goal is to trouble-shoot logic, write programs, or simply learn how to make changes to a process, youre on the right track. The best way to accomplish these goals, you the future programmer/technician, must understand the intent and architecture of ladder logic. Identifying the various parts and pieces of a ladder logic project, and how these pieces relate to one another is the forefront to learning the language. Its all but impossible to troubleshoot and write code without first being able to identify the various components and understand the logical flow of the language. Ladder logic is a language, and learning a language can be difficult, learning a language lacking the proper tools is plain torture. This eBook teaches the language, the fundamentals. Material is presented in such a way that the reader is not inundated with technical data, which would be a recipe for disaster. The material in this book is not an attempt to regurgitate datasheets which are readily available. Its a roadmap for successfully mastering ladder logic. Its written by a programmer working in the field, not a technical-writer in a cubicle collecting a paycheck. Publications churned out by corporations have a place, and that is to provide specific information when and where its needed for both technical and legal reasons. If you have unsuccessfully tried to decode ladder logic from material like this, as I have, dont fret its not your fault; the material is dry and not intended to teach the language. Rockwell Software has extensive libraries covering technical material. Datasheets, help files, and programming publications are freely available. Dont misunderstand; technical information is necessary, but necessary when you need it. Its not a good read and probably doesnt belong in a book, certainly not this one. This book is about fundamentals. If you want to learn the structure of a project, learn how to read and write ladder logic, learn how to navigate code, and avoid common pitfalls then this book is for you. If you are looking for specific details pertaining to software or hardware use the supplied help files and check out the knowledge base at www.rockwellsoftware.com . You can also check out www.ladder-logic.com for more specifics. Finally, if youre looking for a quick fifteen minute solution to trouble-shooting and programming ladder logic expect some disappointment in your life. Put simply; that book, online course, or free tutorial doesnt exist. Learning Ladder
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Learn Ladder Logic logic takes time, dedication, effort, and practice. This eBook is an excellent start, so free yourself from distractions and dig in.

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Chapter 1 Establish a Base

his book is about learning ladder logic. If youre reading this book then its assumed that you at least have a basic understanding of Programmable Logic Controllers. If not you should.

A PLC is a computer, or more precisely an industrial computer. PLCs are designed to withstand harsh environments; assembly lines, mines, food processing plants, automotive plants and more. Most PLCs are modular; they can be scaled up or down as needed. Inputs cards, output cards, communication cards, motion control cards all can be added or removed to satisfy most engineering needs. They are designed for a very specific purpose, machine control. The PLC is the brain of any intelligent control system. Just as the integrated circuit chip replaced multiple transistor circuits in electronics, the PLC replaced multiple electromechanical relays in industrial circuits. Automated equipment from the not so distant past was controlled by electromechanical relays, and lots of them. Complex machines contained thousands of relays. Today a single PLC can replace all the logical relays, timers, and other peripheral devices common in the machines of the past. The modern PLC can control machines, collect data, crunch numbers and so much more. All they need is an architect, someone to tell them what to do. Enter you the programmer/technician, master of virtual circuits, more specifically the master of ladder logic, the language of virtual relay circuits. As the story has been told, ladder logic was developed for engineers who were skilled at designing and working with ladder diagrams. Ladder logic was developed as a programming language to mimic ladder diagrams, it emulates industrial electrical circuits. These virtual circuits made up of rails, rungs, and instructions are packaged into routines, programs and tasks. The aim of this eBook is to place each component of the language under the virtual microscope to acquire a better understanding of roles and how the various components relate to one another.

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Rails & Rungs

Ladder logic is similar to a ladder; you know the kind you climb. Im not kidding stick with me here. There are two major components two a ladder, rails and rungs, Ladder logic is structured similarly. A ladder diagram has rails and rungs. The rails represent the opposing polarities of an electrical circuit and the rungs represent wires connected between the two. Lets back up just a little. Its important to point out that most programming languages are textual. That is the code is written out. Compare the following code written in a textual based programming language with the equivalent code created with ladder logic. If Button_Pressed Then Light := 1; Else Light := 0; End_IF; Structured Text is a textual PLC programming language.

The above example is a textual language called Structured Text. Note that the code is written in a structured format. Below is the equivalent statement written using ladder logic. Rails

Rung Contact Coil

Ladder logic is a graphical language as opposed to a textual based language. Rather than writing code in a text editor, rungs are placed between rails, and instructions are placed on the rungs. The rung along with the instructions make the code. Using the same rung example lets explore how the graphical based ladder logic programming software emulates industrial electrical circuits made up of
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Learn Ladder Logic electromechanical components. Ladder logic is intended to be written, read and executed using principles defined by electrical circuits. This can be confusing for people who are used to writing and reading textual based programming languages. Ladder logic was developed for electrical engineers and technicians as a way to write software that emulates electrical circuits. Below is an example of an electrical circuit. The circuit consists of a battery connected to a switch in series with a load. When the switch is closed an electrical path is created allowing current to flow through the circuit. As the current flows, the light is energized, or turned on. When the switch is opened the electrical path is removed and the light turns off.

Below is an example of how the circuit could be created with ladder logic software. The left and right rails represent the opposing polarities of the power source. Think of the left and right rails as the positive and negative terminals of the battery as shown above. The rung represents the wires that connect the components together. This rung behaves just like the electrical circuit described above.

Note the green highlighting of the rails; this indicates that the PLC is in active scan mode. In the first rung, only the rails are highlighted. The Switch contact is not highlighted indicating that the Switch contact is open. The path from one rail to the other is open resulting in the Load coil being off. In the second rung
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Learn Ladder Logic the Switch contact is highlighted in green indicating the Switch is closed. A path to the load coil is created; notice the Load coil is highlighted indicating it is on. Green Highlighting is used to indicate the state of contacts, coils, and rails. Green highlighting on a contact indicates the contact is closed; a path to the right of the contact is present. The absence of highlighting indicates the contact is open; no path to the right of the contact exists. In the case of the coil green highlighting indicates the coil is on while the absence of highlighting indicates the coil is off. Rather than thinking in terms of If Then Else statements ladder logic can be thought of in terms of contacts, coils and wires. Consider a contact as an input and a coil as an output. If the contact is closed an electrical path is created via the rung which energizes the coil. If the contact is open the electrical path is removed and the coil is de-energized. Contacts, or rung inputs, create a logical path that energizes coils, or rung outputs. Key concepts - This is a basic fundamental concept of ladder logic, read it again. If you dont understand this material theres not much point in moving forward. Put simply, the input rung logic creates a path to an output. The output is the action; it can be anything, turning on a light, indexing a counter, Ladder logic is scanned like initiating a database lookup. Inputs always reside left a book is read; from top to in respect to an associated output. It makes sense bottom, left to right. when you think about program flow, which is always from left to right.

Understanding the logical flow of rungs

Similar to climbing-ladders programs consist of more than one rung. Each rung can be thought of as a single logical circuit. Rungs can be related to other rungs or completely independent of one another. Take the following rung examples. Using the logical flow analysis described above, determine the value of the output coils. What conditions must be satisfied in order to turn on the output coils of the following rungs?

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The above rung has an unconditional output. Rungs reside in routines. Routines can be There are no inputs to evaluate in order to scanned or not, its configurable. Just turn the output coil on hence the because rails are highlighted doesnt unconditional part of the rung. As a side note rungs reside in routines which are mean the rung logic is being executed. blocks of code. Routines may or may not be called or executed. Rails are highlighted in green even if the rung logic is not executed. The highlighting of the rails indicates the processor is in active scan mode.

These two rungs demonstrate that a contact can be addressed to an output coil. The second rung is dependent upon the output coil of the first rung. If the first rung is evaluated as false the output of the second rung will also be false. If the output of the first rung is true then the output of the second will also be true.

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The above example is a conditional rung with two input contacts. Both contacts have to be Trouble-shooting tip: Look at the closed in order to create a logical path to the state of the output coil first. Look for output coil. This type of circuit is known as and the green highlighting of the coil. If logic because contact 1 and contact 2 must be the coil is off trace the logic backward closed to turn the output coil on. Looking at the from there. states of the input coils what is the condition of the output coil on or off? Input_1 is on while Input_2 is off resulting in an open circuit leaving the coil Ouput_1 off.

The example above is another conditional rung with two contacts. In this scenario only one contact needs to be closed in order to create a logical path to the output coil. This type of circuit is known as or logic. Either contac1 or contact 2 is required to be closed to turn on the output coil. Notice that this circuit has the same number of inputs and outputs as the previous circuit. The only difference between the rungs is where the inputs have been placed. The placement of contacts and coils determines the logic of the rung. The virtual wire that connects Input_2 to the rung is known as a branch. The inputs of this circuit are in parallel while the inputs of the previous and logic circuit are in series.

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The above rung is a conditional rung with two contacts and two coils. Notice the contacts reside on the right side of the rung, but still left of their respective output coils. If contact 1 is closed, Output_1 coil is on. If contact 2 is closed Output_2 coil is on. This rung has two circuits in parallel. The circuits are independent of one another; therefore the rung has two possible outputs. Recall that the previous rung contained a branch that was described as or logic. Would this rung be described similarly? Not necessarily, because the output coils are not part of or logic in respect to the input contacts. Observe the Output_2 coil; it turns on only when Input_2 is closed, not Input_1 or Input_2. Output_1 behaves similarly with respect to the Input_1 contact. Once again, determining the logic of the rung is all about where contacts and coils are placed. When determining the rung output remember the logical flow is always from left to right or input to output. Incidentally the flow is always from top to bottom as well. That means that Input_1 and Ouput_1 are solved before Input_2 and Output_2.

The above rung looks similar to the previous rung with the exception of the first conditional contact. Adding this contact creates two and logic circuits. The two circuits still act independently in respect to one another. Circuit 1 Input_1 and Input_2 must be closed to turn on Output_1 coil. Circuit 2 Input_1 and Input_3 must be closed in order to turn on Output_2 coil.

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The above rung may be confusing and seem to break the left to right rule at first however it can also be broken down into two logical circuits. Circuit 1 Input_1 must be closed in order to turn on Output_1. Circuit 2 Input_1 and Input_2 must be closed in order to turn on Output_2. Output_1 has no bearing on the output of circuit 2. Again the input is always on the left in respect to the output of the circuit. Complex rungs like the one above can be broken down into individual circuits to decipher the appropriate logical flow to the outputs. As a side note rungs written like this are completely legitimate and completely confusing. There are several ways to write this circuit that would cause less confusion. Can you think of any?

A bit about instructions

Thinking about ladder logic in terms of contacts and coils is an essential part of understanding the language. Contacts and coils are symbols that can be placed on rungs to create logical circuits. These symbols have a name they are called instructions. RSLogix 5000 has numerous symbolic instructions from very simple to very complex. You can even create your own custom instructions called Add On Instructions. Instructions define logical statements. Lets take a look at a basic instruction called the Examine If Closed or XIC instruction. Think of an XIC instruction is a contact; its either open or closed. When the contact is closed a path is created and current is allowed to flow from left to right through the contact. When the contact is open the path is removed removing current flow through the contact. Take a look at the rung below.
XIC Examine If Closed

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When the input contact (XIC instruction) is closed a path is created allowing current to flow to the output coil. In a real electrical circuit the contact might be a mechanical switch/button which is closed with a hand. The action of closing the switch would allow electrons to flow through the circuit resulting in the output, maybe a light, turning on. In an electrical circuit the contact and coil are real devices, something which can be mechanically triggered. In the ladder rung circuit the contact and coil are symbols. So, how does one press a symbol, or turn a virtual coil on? Instructions have arguments called operands. When the above rung is scanned the contact closes to create a path and opens to remove a path. The XIC instruction accomplishes this by checking the value of the argument associated with the instruction. The XIC instruction, similar to the electromechanical contact has two possible states, open or closed. The argument associated with the instruction has two possible states one and zero. The XIC instruction checks the Operand for its value. If the value is one the XIC is closed and a path is created allowing current to flow to the output coil. If the value is zero the XIC is open removing the path of current to the output coil. The coil symbol is called an Output Energize or OTE instruction. The OTE instruction also requires an Operand similar to the XIC instruction. Rather than checking the value of the argument the OTE sets the value of the argument to either a one or zero. If the XIC instruction is one a path is created and the OTE sets the associated argument to one.

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Learn Ladder Logic The table below shows the XIC and OTE instructions displaying both possible states. The XIC instruction has an operand named XIC_Argument and the OTE instruction has an operand named OTE_Argument. Operand Name XIC_Argument Instruction Graphics Value 1 0 Operand Name OTE_Argument Instruction Graphics Value 1 0 Alternate Name On True Set Off False Clear Alternate Name On True Set

Off False Clear

Input instructions check values of associated operands, while output instruction set values of associated operands. Operands can also be called arguments. The most commonly used instructions are bit instructions. Bit instructions have two possible states which can be referred to as one and zero, on and off, set and clear, and true and false. In order to fully understand the language it must be broken down into logical components. An instruction is a graphical symbol that instructs the PLC to do a specific task. In the case of the XIC instruction that task is to check the value of the associated argument. In the case of the OTE instruction that task is to set the value of the associated argument.

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Tags, an address to memory

All programming languages make use of what are known as variables. A variable is simply a memory location, an address. In ladder logic these variables are called Tags. Tags are basically made up of two parts, the tag name and the tag type. RSLogix 5000 software requires users to define tags. Tags are addresses to memory locations. Picture this, somewhere in the deep dark depths of the PLC exists a vast array of empty warehouses. These warehouses are memory banks, one after another, as far as the eye can see. Their sole purpose is to store data. Accessing these memory locations is simple. All you need to do is create a tag. To create a tag you simply give it a name and define the amount of memory the tag will access. The software automatically associates your new tag name to a spot in the warehouse of memory. To access this memory simply use the tags name. Easy. Creating Tag Names Tags are named by you the programmer. Simple enough right? There are a few governing rules that must be followed when naming tags which is covered later. As a general rule tag names should be descriptive. The tag name should have something to do with what tag was created for. For instance, suppose you were writing a program that required a door to be closed in order for a process to start. Your job is to give descriptive names to tags. What would you call them? You could name it after your nephew, girlfriend, boyfriend, or dog. What if you could give it a descriptive name that makes your code more readable? Look at the following examples, which one is more readable rung -1 or rung-2?

Obviously rung-2 makes much more sense, its more readable. If the door is closed then go ahead and start the machine. Rung-1 is the exact same logic as Rung-2 however what is the objective of the rung? Why did the programmer write the rung? The logic does the same thing as Rung-2 but because the tag
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Learn Ladder Logic names are irrelevant to the logic who knows what the rung is supposed to accomplish. Believe it or not programmers do this all the time. Take this scenario for example. Alexander works the night shift at the bubble gum plant. The bubble gum expander machine locks up and wont run. Alexander, being the savvy programming type, opens up the program and adds an XIC instruction. All good, but rather than creating a tag that makes sense he uses his name. To him this made sense, think about it, if anyone needed to see what he had done they could simply search for his name and they would surely be impressed by his witty contribution to the bubble gum expander. In reality Alexander just made the code hard to read. Dont be an Alexander, make your code readable. Tag Data Types A tag is a memory location addressable by a name. In order to create an addressable memory location one has to define the amount of memory that will be used. When a tag is created you the programmer/technician selects how much memory the tag will use. To select how much memory a tag will address simply choose an existing data type. The data type defines the amount of memory the tag will address. The software has several data types which are nothing more than predefined memory sizes. In all the previous rung examples the XIC and OTE instructions used are binary. They have two states, on and off. Another way of saying binary is Boolean. According to Google the definition of Boolean is: a binary variable, having two possible values called true and false. Incidentally a binary instruction will only accept binary arguments (tags).

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Learn Ladder Logic RSlogix 5000 has several native data types which are referred to as Atomic Data Types. The software has numerous instructions that require operands of one or more of the following data types.

Atomic Data Type BOOL SINT INT DINT REAL

Description Binary Data Type Short Signed Integer Signed Integer Double Signed Integer Real Number

Minimum 0 -128 -32,768 -2,147,483,648 +/-1.1754944E-38

Maximum 1 +127 +32,767 +2,147,483,647 +/-3.402823E38

Bits 1 bit 8 bit 16 bit 32 bit 32 bit

As an example the MOV (Move) instruction requires two operands, a source operand and a destination operand. The required data type can be SINT, INT, DINT, or REAL. Unlike the XIC or OTE instructions the MOV instruction can accept multiple data types. In the picture to the right both the Source and Destination arguments are of type DINT. When the instruction is executed the data in the memory location addressed by the tag Source_Argument is copied into the memory location addressed by the tag Destination_Argument. Because the tags were defined as DINT data types 32 bits of data is copied from the source to the destination. Once a tag is created it can be associated with an instruction. Once associated with an instruction the tag then becomes the argument for the instruction. The instruction then has the ability to examine or change the addressed data. No numbered addresses or cryptic codes to remember. Give a tag a unique name and define the amount of memory it will access.

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Project Structure
Now that you have a better understanding of how the code components of the language works lets take a look at an overall project. Specifically where does the code reside and why? What initiates code execution? Code and tags make up programs. A program is nothing more than a set of instructions that execute step by step. RSLogix 5000 has a hierarchy type of organizational method. Code, rungs instructions and such, reside in routines. Routines reside in programs. Programs reside in tasks. Why make it so complicated? To answer that question lets ask more questions. Suppose you write a program. What will initiate your code? What starts the process? Think about it, should it be started in response from a trigger or event? Should it run continuously over and over again as soon as its placed in the PLC? Maybe it would be better to run it periodically, say every second until the end of time. Project Tasks Programs are assigned to tasks. A task is nothing more than a way to schedule programs. Every program needs a mechanism to initiate the execution of logic contained in the program. There are three types of tasks available, the Continuous Task, the Periodic Task and the Event task. Continuous Task The continuous task is initiated when the processor is placed in run mode. Programs assigned to the continuous task will execute from start to finish. Once a program in the task completes it immediately starts again. Periodic Task A periodic task is triggered at a user selectable time. Programs in this task are triggered first when the processor is placed in run mode, then at the selected interval. If the interval is set to 100 milliseconds and the program assigned to the task takes 10 milliseconds to execute the program will not run again until the 100 millisecond time interval has expired. Event Task An event task is triggered from an event. The event is selectable; it can be triggered by an instruction, from an input, consumed tag, or motion operations. In other words there are plenty of selectable triggers to start a
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Learn Ladder Logic program. Once a program has completed its execution it waits for another trigger to start again. Programs Programs are nothing more than a logical group of components. These components are code, variables, and routines. Refereeing to a program is referring to a group of components with the same schedule (task). A single PLC can have multiple programs. Each program can operate independently or in conjunction with one other. Programs are an excellent way to organize projects. Several programmers can work on a project at once. If a project contains multiple programs multiple programmers can work on individual programs without stepping on the toes of others. If a program already exists that controls a process why create a new one? Simply import an existing program into a new project. Placing code in programs makes the code portable. It can be transferred from one process to another with little or no modifications if it was written and grouped correctly. Program Routines Routines serve several purposes they can up a program, make it more readable. They can give sections of code that ability to be conditional. They can be used to pass parameters allowing code to be called again and again crunching different data. This can make code smaller and is covered in later material. Its possible to write an entire program in one routine although not advised. Every program has at least one routine, the main routine. It is executed unconditionally, meaning it is called when the program is triggered. All code in the main routine is scanned when the program is triggered. Any subsequent routines in a program must be called with a Jump To Subroutine (JSR) instruction. Routines can be called conditionally by placing conditions on a JSR instruction. JSR instructions can also pass and receive parameters from routines. Routines are inherent to programs. They are logical elements of a program.

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End of Chapter Review

Ladder logic is a graphical programming language used to create virtual circuits. Ladder logic is the most commonly used programming language for PLC programming. The code part of ladder logic is comprised of rungs, instructions and tags. There are two types of instructions input instructions and output instructions. Input instructions examine data while output instructions change data. Variables or tags are addresses to memory locations. Instructions examine/change data addressed by tags. Tags are nothing more than addresses to a defined block of memory. When a rung is scanned it is done so from top to bottom, left to right never in reverse. A single rung can have multiple circuits or outputs. The output of a rung is dependent on the placement of instructions and branches. PLC projects are made up of at least one program scheduled in one task. The code is made up of various components dispersed in logical routines.

Putting it all together

This chapter serves as a base for learning the language. After completing this chapter, you the reader, should be able to clearly identify basic rung logic. You should also be able to identify the various components that make up code. Code is made of rungs, branches, instructions and tags. The code resides in routines, routines reside in programs, and programs reside in tasks which are all covered in the book. These basic components serve as the base of ladder logic. As you will soon discover there are more complex instructions and tags. Some instructions are dedicated to managing program flow rather than manipulating data. Tags can get more complex with aliasing, arrays, and visibility. The important thing to remember is that regardless of the complexity of the components they all follow the same basic rules.

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End of chapter review Questions.

Each chapter is followed up with a brief set of supplemental questions. The questions are designed to instill key concepts. 1. A modern PLC is capable of running multiple programs. False. True or

2. Highlighting an instruction and pressing the ___ key will bring up a context sensitive help file. a) b) c) d) H F1 F CTL + H

3. Ladder Logic programming, similar to other languages is a textual based language. True or False. 4. Which of the following statements best describes an unconditional rung : a) A rung which has a parallel branch. b) A rung with at least one input instruction. c) A rung that is dependent upon another rung. d) A rung with an output instruction only. 5. The scan flow of a rung always follows what path? a) Left to Right b) Input to Output c) Is dependent upon the placement of the instructions d) Is selectable when the rung is created 6. Output instructions are always ______ of their respective input instructions. a) Complimentary b) Right c) Inherited as well as complimentary d) The inverse 7. Which statement best describes the OTE instruction. a) An OTE instruction is an output instruction that sets or clears data addressed by an associated tag.
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Learn Ladder Logic b) The OTE instruction is an output instruction that sets the data addressed by an associated tag. An OTI instruction is used to clear the data. c) The OTE instruction can be used as either an input or output instruction. It inherits its properties from an associated input instruction. d) An OTE instruction is an output instruction that sets or clears data addressed by an associated tag. Only one OTE instruction is allowed per rung. 8. The XIC instruction is an input instruction that examines the data addressed by an associated tag. True or False 9. Using the following input tag values, find the values of the tags referenced to the OTE instructions. Switch_1 = 1, Switch_2 = 1, Switch_3 = 0

Ouput_1 ___ Output_2___ Output_3___ Ouput_4___ Output_5____ 10. Bit Instructions require arguments. Arguments are placeholders for _____ . a) b) c) d) Tags Rungs Routines Programs

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Learn Ladder Logic 11. a) b) c) d) A tags name is essentially a(n) ______ to a memory location. cypher address communication asset peer connection

12. There are ____ different types of tasks available for scheduling programs. 13. Each program in the PLC must be scheduled in a different task. True or False.

14. Every program has a default main routine which is triggered when the program is run. How are subsequent routines called? a) b) c) d) From the task scheduler With a JSR instruction Automatically after the main routine is called Alphabetical order

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Test Answers
1. True, PLCs can run multiple programs scheduled in a continuous, periodic or event task. 2. b) F1 key. Highlighting an instruction and pressing the F1 key will bring up a context sensitive help file. Use it. 3. False, Ladder Logic is a graphical based programming language, unlike popular PC based programming languages such as Java and C++. 4. d) A rung with an output instruction only. Note the question asked which selection best describes an unconditional rung. An unconditional rung could have several outputs. 5. a) Left to Right. 6. b) Right. Outputs will always be right of their respective inputs. 7. a) An OTE instruction is an output instruction that sets or clears data addressed by an associated tag. 8. True, an XIC or Examine If Closed instruction examines the data of the operand or tag. 9. Output_1 = 1, Output_2 = 1, Output_3 = 1, Output_4 = 1, Output_5 = 0 10. a) Tags 11. b) Address 12. Three available tasks. Continuous, Periodic, and Event. 13. False, multiple programs can be scheduled in each task. 14. b) With a JSR or Jump To Subroutine instruction.

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