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1138(075)
81.432.1-7

( 14J 18.2-391 04.03.04)
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ISBN 966-7890-65-1
Hc caactcx s et ac a an. tmy necane cn
nax cc x ay, sema, ex cc nmn, xa nmac
nsaex, acanm, nc cc yn m. Amne naex
ee nxt cynnxyctcx m tcm nan x s act, a s
yact yxt eay, m c cnxc symm cncn naxex
ant em macn cc saane nxt y cnen a-
yamnmy ynyna. Haa aca xnxc cm ccemy sanat x
cemact saxt camc , cnxmna a sanex ee
maeay a mynax an cc aasy ecy.
Psana a cyen ayten a cyn sem mn, naan
act mn, neeaan.
81.432.1-7
ISBN 966-7890-65-1 Bannn Hna a, 2004
O Cmn H. H., centa O. A., 2004
C o n t e n t s
INTRODUCTION.....................................................................................4
Chapter 1. Generalities oI Sty listics.........................................................5
Chapter 2. Functional Styles...................................................................17
Chapter 3. Stylistic Lexicology...............................................................23
Chapter 4. Morphological Stylistics.......................................................30
Chapter 5. Phonetic and Graphic Expressive Mean sand Stylistic
Devices................................................................................34
Chapter 6. Stylistic Semasiology. Lexico-semantic Stylistic Devices.
Figures oI Substitution..........................................................46
Chapter 7. Stylistic Semasiology. Figures oI Combination......................63
Chapter 8. Stylistic Syntax. Syntactic Stylistic Devices.........................73
Plans oI Seminars....................................................................................85
Practical Assignments Ior Seminars........................................................90
Practical Assignments Ior Independent Work........................................143
Approximate Scheme oI Overall Stylistic Analysis oI a Fiction Text.......174
Excerpts Ior Overall Stylistic Analysis...................................................176
Fiction Extracts Ior a Comparative Analysis oI English and Ukrainian
Means oI Stylistic Expression in Belles-lettres.......................................194
Final tests...............................................................................................209
EXAMINATION QUESTIONS...........................................................215
BASIC LITERATURE.........................................................................217
SUPPLEMENTARY LITERATURE....................................................217
QUOTED LITERATURE.....................................................................227
3
INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER
1
"Practical Stylistics oI English" is an attempt to supply the student oI
English stylistics with a practical appendix to the lecture and seminar course
oI stylistic studies. The purpose oI this book is to aid the teaching process by
which a student becomes aware oI the richness and variety oI English stylis-
tic means oI communication. The book is intended to acquaint students with
the concepts oI Iunctional styles, stylistic semasiology, phonetic, lexical, mor-
phological and syntactic expressive means and stylistic devices. We hope
that students will Iind practical help towards success at the end oI the exam-
ination course and will be able to stylistically identiIy, classiIy and describe
the elements oI language used in speech.
Taking into account the particularities oI teaching intended teachers and
translators, we have provided illustrations to theoretical statements in three
languages: English, Ukrainian and Russian. Some sections oI exercises oIIer
training in comparative practical work which aims at establishing stylistic par-
allels between English and Ukrainian.
The book is in 8 parts. It includes 8 theoretical chapters, plans oI semi-
nars and independent work, practical assignments Ior seminars, practical as-
signments Ior independent work, excerpts Ior overall stylistic analysis, Iiction
extracts Ior a comparative analysis oI English and Ukrainian means oI stylis-
tic expression in belles-lettres, Iinal tests in two variants, and examination
questions. Practical assignments, Iiction extracts Ior a comparative analysis
and Iinal tests were prepared by E. A. Yasinetskaya. The rest oI the book
was written by L. P. YeIimoI.
This book does not try to cover everything. The authors lay stress on the
practical aspect oI stylistic studies. II the students, guided careIully by their
teacher, can grasp the concepts and approaches outlined in these pages, they
will establish Ior themselves the strong Ioundations upon which Iurther courses
oI advanced study can be built.
The principle oI amalgamation oI stylistic devices into great classes, such
as "Iigures oI substitution" or "Iigures oI combination", introduced in the the-
oretical chapters was borrowed Irom the book A. H., B-
O. H., Hu H. H., Tu 3. B. C
ee i. - K. Biu u, 1991. Some oI our state-
ments were expanded by insertions borrowed Irom the book English Lan-
guage 2.0. An Introduction to Basics. Manchester. Clifton Press, 1999-
2002. These insertions are marked in the text by the symbol `
4
Generalities Of Stylistics
The notion of stvlistics. Stylistics is a branch oI linguistics which deals
with expressive resources and Iunctional styles oI a language.
Tvpes of stvlistics. linguo-stvlistics is a science oI Iunctional styles and
expressive potential oI a language. Communicative (decoding) stvlistics de-
scribes expressive peculiarities oI certain messages (texts). Coding stvlistics
(literarv stvlistics) deals with individual styles oI authors. Contrastive stvlis-
tics investigates stylistic systems oI two or more languages in comparison.
Connection of stvlistics with other branches of linguistics. Stvlistics
and phonetics. Phonetics studies sounds, articulation, rhythmics and intona-
tion. Stylistics concentrates on expressive sound combinations, intonational
and rhythmic patterns. Stvlistics and lexicologv. Lexicology describes words,
their origin, development, semantic and structural Ieatures. Stylistics also deals
with words, but only those which are expressive in language or in speech.
Stvlistics and grammar. Grammar describes regularities oI building words,
word-combinations, sentences and texts. Stylistics restricts itselI to those gram-
mar regularities, which make language units expressive.
This connection gave birth to such interdisciplinary sciences as sh-listic
semasiologv (the science oI stylistic devises or tropes), stvlistic lexicologv
(the science oI expressive layers oI vocabulary, such as vulgarisms, jargon-
isms, archaisms, neologisms etc. ), stvlistic phonetics (the science oI ex-
pressive sound organization patterns), grammatical stvlistics (the science oI
expressive morphological and syntactic language units).
The notion of functional stvle. One and the same thought may be
worded in more than one way. This diversity is predetermined by coexist-
ence oI separate language subsystems, elements oI which stand in relations
oI interstyle synonymy. Compare: / am afraid lest John should have lost
his wav in the forest (bookish) 1 fear Johns got lost in the wood
(conversational). Such language subsystems are called "Iunctional styles".
Functional style units are capable oI transmitting some additional inIorma-
tion about the speaker and the objective reality in which communication
takes place, namely the cultural and educational level oI the speaker, his
inner state oI mind, intentions, emotions and Ieelings, etc. The most tradi-
tionally accepted Iunctional styles are the style oI oIIicial and business com-
5
munication, the style oI scientiIic prose, the newspaper style, the publicistic
style, the belletristic style, the conversational style.
The style a writer or speaker adopts depends partly on his own person-
ality but very largely on what he has to say and what his purposes are. It,
Iollows that style and subject matter should match each other appropriately.
For example, a scientiIic report will obviously be much more Iormal and ob-
jective in style than a poem which is trying to convey an intensely personal
and moving experience. Just how important it is to choose an appropriate
style can be seen by examining the Iollowing three sentences, which all say
the same thing but in diIIerent ways:
Johns dear parent is going to his heavenlv home (bookish).
Johns father is dving (literarv colloquial).
Johns old fellas on his wav out (informal colloquial).
Though these sentences say the same thing, the style is very diIIerent in
each. The Iirst sentence is unduly sentimental and rather pompous. It has a
Ialsely religious ring to it because, in striving to be digniIied, it is overstated.
The second one is plain and simple because it is Iormed oI simple neutral
words and does not try to disguise the unpleasant Iact oI death by using a
gentler expression like passing awav. Its simplicity gives it a sincerity and a
dignity which are lacking in the Iirst sentence, and, according to how it was
said, it would be capable oI conveying immeasurable grieI in a way which is
not possible with the other two. The third sentence is ludicrously insensitive,
the use oI slang suggesting the speaker's lack oI respect or concern Ior
John's Iather.
~ style
One very important Ieature oI good style is that it must be entirely appro-
priate Ior the task it is perIorming.
This means that the author must take into account |even iI unconscious-
ly !| audience, Iorm, and Iunction.
Style might be good, yet hardly noticeable - because it is concentrated
on eIIective communication. This is sometimes known as 'transparent'
good style.
The Iollowing extract is Irom The H!h"#y $o%e.
When approaching a roundabout, watch out Ior traIIic already
on it. Take special care to look out Ior cyclists or motorcyclists
ahead or to the side. Give way to traIIic on your right unless road
markings indicate otherwise but keep moving iI the way is clear.
This is writing which makes its points as simply and as clearly as possi-
ble. The vocabulary is that oI everyday liIe, and in manner it is speaking
to a general reader without trying to make an impression or draw atten-
tion to itselI in any way.
This writing is entirely Iree oI literary eIIects or decoration.
In most writing however, 'good style' is normally associated with verbal
inventiveness and clever manipulation oI the elements oI literary lan-
guage.
The extract Irom ladimir Nabokov's Iamous novel &olt# illustrates
this point:
Lolita, light oI my liIe, Iire oI my loins. My sin, my soul. Lo-lee-
ta: the tip oI the tongue taking a trip oI three steps down the
palate to tap, at three, on the teeth. Lo. Lee. a.
This is writing which is deliberately setting out to be impressive. It relies
very heavily on decoration and ornament.
In this extract Nabokov uses lots oI alliteration - the repetition oI the M'
and 4' sounds, metaphor- 'light' and 'Iire' -andonomatopoeia- "trip',
'tap' - as well as such Iancy wordplay as the orthographic and semantic
parallels between 'liIe' and 'Iire'.
Good style in speech and writing - like that in clothes or other matters
involving taste - can go in and out oI Iashion.
'tyle in context. Style, in any kind oI speech or writing, is extremely
important to the overall Iunction oI communication. In most cases, a
consistency oI Ieatures produces what we understand as a pleasing style.
That is, the style is appropriate to the context in which it occurs.
A discordant style is produced by the inclusion oI some Ieature which
does not Iit with the stylistic context oI the piece. In other words, the
Ieature is out oI place.
An example oI this might be Iound in a personal letter which is signed
'Yours IaithIully' or an aristocratic character in a novel speaking street
slang Ior no good stylistic reason.
The notion of norm. Norm may be deIined as a set oI language rules
which are considered to be most standard and correct in a certain epoch and
in a certain society. It is next to impossible to work out universal language
norms because each Iunctional style has its own regularities. The sentence
6 7
/ aint got no news from nobodv" should be treated as non-grammatical
Irom the point oI view oI literary grammar though it is in Iull accordance with
special colloquial English grammar rules.
The notion of form. Form is a term which reIers to the recognizable
shape oI a text or a speech act. This shape may be either physical or ab-
stract. It is physical in writing and abstract in spoken communication. Written
Iorms are novels, stories, articles, poems, letters, posters, menus, etc. Spoken
Iorms are conversations, T and radio commentaries, announcements, ser-
mons, jokes and anecdotes, etc. The term "Iorm" is used in linguistics and in
literary criticism as a technical term. It is used when considering the shape
the construction, or the type oI speech or writing. An awareness oI Iorm can
help to produce more eIIicient communication.
The notion of text. Text literally means "a piece oI writing". Charles
Dickens' novel "Bleak ouse" is a text. A letter Irom a Iriend is a text. A
caption to a picture is a text. A painting by Picasso can also be conditionally
called a text. The term "text" is most used in linguistics and literary studies,
where it was originally used as a synonym Ior "book", but it could just as
easily be a poem, a letter, or a diary. This term is now in general use in other
branches oI the humanities such as cultural studies and Iilm studies, where its
meaning becomes "the thing being studied". In these other Iields it could
also be a video Iilm, an advertisement, a painting, or a music score. Even a
bus ticket may be called "a text". The term "text" is used so as to concen-
trate attention on the object being studied, rather than its author.
The notion of context. Tvpes of context. A linguistic context is the
encirclement oI a language unit by other language units in speech. Such encir-
clement makes the meaning oI the unit clear and unambiguous. It is especially
important in case with polysemantic words. Microcontext is the context oI a
single utterance (sentence). Macrocontext is the context oI a paragraph in a
text. Megacontext is the context oI a book chapter, a story or the whole book.
An extralingual (situational) context is Iormed by extralingual con-
ditions in which communication takes place. Besides making the meaning oI
words well-deIined, a situational context allows the speaker to economize on
speech eIIorts and to avoid situationally redundant language signs. The com-
mands oI a surgeon in an operating room, such as "scalpel", "pincers" o(
"tampon", are understood by his assistants correctly and without any addi-
tional explanations about what kind oI tampon is needed.
Extralingual context can be physical or abstract and can signiIicantly
aIIect the communication. A conversation between lovers can be aIIected by
surroundings in terms oI music, location, and the presence oI others. Such
surroundings Iorm a phvsical context. A dialogue between colleagues can be
aIIected by the nature oI their relationship. That is, one may be oI higher status
than the other. Such nature Iorms an abstract context. istorical accounts are
more easily understood when evoked in the context oI their own time. Such
context is called temporal or chronological. There would be a psychologi-
cally advantageous context within which to tell one's spouse about that dent-
ed bumper on the new car. Such context may be called psvchological.
No linguistic unit exists in a vacuum and this is why dictionaries have
only a limited Iunction in conveying meaning devoid oI context. Words do
not have an absolute meaning. Shades oI meaning emerge with variation in
context. For example, iI we say that "Peter the First was a great mon-
arch", we are using great as an adjective to imply stately qualities and a
large-scale impression oI a historical Iigure. On the other hand, iI we say
"We had a great time at the partv last night", the word great takes on a
diIIerent meaning. The implication is that we enjoyed ourselves, and we
wish to convey this in a rather exaggerated way. We are conIident that our
listener will understand. II we express our Ieelings to a sexual partner using
the word love, that word means something quite diIIerent to the love we
express to a two-year-old child. The context is diIIerent, and it aIIects the
meaning oI the word love.
In a detailed linguistic sense, a unit oI meaning which we reIer to as a
morpheme can only be seen as such in context. For example, within the
context oI the word elephant, the Iragment ant cannot be classed as a
morpheme. This is because it is an integral part oI that larger morpheme,
elephant. owever, considered on its own as a word, ant (the insect) is a
morpheme. ere it is in a diIIerent context: Ants are industrious. Similarly,
used as a preIix in a word such as antacid, it is a bound morpheme mean-
ing against or opposite.
~ )onte*t
In poetry we Iind that context is crucial to meaning and its eIIect. II we
take Robert Browining's use oI disyllabic rhyme as used in 'The Pied
Piper oI amelin', we Iind the Iollowing sequence:
You hope because you're old and obese
To Iind in the Iurry civic robe ease.
+
9
In this context the word 'obese' promotes a humorous and lighthearted
eIIect. owever, iI our doctor warned us that we were overweight 1 obese j
and stood a great risk oI heart attack, it would not be such a laughingl
matter.
II it is at all helpIul, the idea oI context can be illustrated by use oI an
analogy with colour.
,
A Ilash oI crimson on a white background looks very vivid, and it can|
even make the white look slightly pink.
owever, crimson on a black background loses its radiance and almost
disappears.
The notion of speech. Speech and writing are two diIIerent systems.
They are closely related, but not the same. Speech is normally a continuous!
stream oI sound. It is not broken up into separate parts like writing. People do
not speak in sentences or paragraphs, they make up the content oI what they
are saying quite spontaneously, without any planning or long deliberation.!
Conversations are oIten accompanied by other sign systems which aid un-
derstanding. These might be physical gestures, Iacial expressions, even bodily
posture. Meaning in speech is also commonly conveyed by tone and other
non-verbal means such as irony. Speech quite commonly includes Ialse starts,|
repetition, hesitation, "Iillers" with no lexical or grammatical meaning, such as
"um" and "er", and even nonsense words which replace terms which can
not be recalled, such as "mingy" and "doodah".
Speech may oIten be quite inexplicit - because the participants in a con-
versation can rely on the context Ior understanding. Speech can not be revised
or edited in the same way as writing. Most people unconsciously or deliberately
employ a wide range oI speech varieties or Iunctional styles in their everyday
conversation. Linguists regard speech as primary and writing as secondary.
Language changes take place Iar more rapidly in speech than in writing.
The notion of writing. Writing is the use oI visual symbols which act as
a code Ior communication between individuals or groups. Writing is a lan-
guage variety and should be regarded as entirely separate Irom speech. The
code oI written language consists oI letter-Iorms (the alphabet) used to Iorm
a visual approximation oI spoken words. The spelling oI most words in En-
glish is now Iixed. The relationship between spelling and pronunciation is
consistent in Russian and Ukrainian but not consistent in English. Words are
Iormed in accordance with the conventions oI spelling, then combined ac-
cording to the rules oI syntax to Iorm meaningIul statements.
Mistakes in spelling and grammar might be tolerated in casual writing,
uch as personal correspondence, but they are generally Irowned on in all tvpes
0I public and Iormal writing. Writing cannot include any non-verbal
Jestures or the communication Ieatures which accompany spoken language
such as Iacial expression, physical gestures, or tone oI voice. The written
word has to rely on choice oI vocabulary, punctuation and printed emphasis
(italics, capital letters) to produce such eIIects.
The notion of expressive means. Expressive means oI a language are
those phonetic, lexical, morphological and syntactic units and Iorms which
make speech emphatic. Expressive means introduce connotational (stylistic,
non-denotative) meanings into utterances. Phonetic expressive means in-
clude pitch, melody, stresses, pauses, whispering, singing, and other ways oI
using human voice. Morphological expressive means are emotionally co-
loured suIIixes oI diminutive nature: -v (-ie), -let (sonnv, auntie., girlie,
streamlet). The range oI emotional suIIixes is much wider in synthetic lan-
guages than in English. Compare the Iollowing:
Suffix
Ukrainian language
words
Russian language
words
- OK
, ,
- UK

- , -
-
-
-

- r
-
-
-

lexical expressive means belong words, possessing connotations,

such as epithets, poetic and archaic words, slangy words, vulgarisms, and
interjections. A chain oI expressive synonymic words always contains at least
one neutral synonym. For example, the neutral word monev has the Iollowing
stylistically coloured equivalents: ackers (slang), clv (fargon), cole (far-
8on), gelt (fargon), moo (amer. slang), moolah (amer. slang), mopus
(slang), oof (slang), pelf (bookish), rhino (conversat. ), spondulicks (amer.
sla
ng), cash (conversat. ), boot (slang), brads (conversat. ), chuck (amer.
slan
g), lettuce (slang), lollv (slang), ante (slang), bread (slang), dumps
Conversat. ), beens (slang), blunt (slang), crap (slang), dough (conver-
10 II
sat.), etc. A chain oI expressive synonyms used in a single utterance creates
the eIIect oI climax (gradation): "3 , , ,
, um, , r, e" (P. B).
svntactic expressive means belong emphatic syntactic constructions.
Such constructions stand in opposition to their neutral equivalents. The neu-
tral sentence "John went awav " may be replaced by the Iollowing expres-
sive variants: "Awav went John" (stylistic inversion), "John did go awav"
(use oI the emphatic verb "to do"), "John went awav, he did" (emphatic
conIirmation pattern), "It was John who went awav" ("It is he who does it"
pattern). Compare: J m (neutral) B o m'
(exclamatory) K oe ? (rhetorical). A number oI
Russian and Ukrainian expressive syntactic structures have no identical equiv-
alents in English. It concerns impersonal sentences, denoting natural phe-
nomena and physical conditions oI living beings (T. B. H
. U- e), inIinitival sentences (Bi ' H i
r' K m?), generalized-
personal statements (U u, ru. C u,
e u).
The notion of stvlistic devices. Stylistic devices (tropes, Iigures oI speech)
unlike expressive means are not language phenomena. They are Iormed in
speech and most oI them do not exist out oI context. According to principles
oI their Iormation, stylistic devices are grouped into phonetic, lexico-semantic
and syntactic types. Basically, all stylistic devices are the result oI revaluation
oI neutral words, word-combinations and syntactic structures. Revaluation
makes language units obtain connotations and stylistic value. A stylistic de-
vice is the subject matter oI stylistic semasiology.
,!-(es o, s.ee)h
Figures oI speech or rhetorical devices are present in all cultures. It
seems that it is in the very nature oI linguistic discourse Ior speakers to
act creatively. Indeed, it is that creativity in language use which ultimate-
ly divides language use in humans and animals.
A child begins to be creative by using various Iigures oI speech at the
very beginning oI the acquisition process. Words such as 'bang', 'smack',
'moo', and 'baa' are all onomatopoeic Iigures oI speech common to a
child's early vocabulary.
It is useIul to contemplate a continuum oI which the two opposites are
literal and non-literal in terms oI linguistic expression. We could envisage a
statement oI Iact towards one extreme and a metaphor towards the other.
The statement oI Iact might be Ths s # "oo%en %oo(.
An example oI a metaphor might be The s-nshne o, yo-( s/le.
These two utterances comprise Iive words each, yet the metaphor says
much more than the Iactual statement. Not only does it say more but it
speaks oI vast and abstract elements such as love, the sun, gesture,
happiness, human warmth, pleasure and possibly more.
Figures oI speech are oIten used to express abstract emotional or philo-
sophical concepts. The Iigure oI speech attaches the abstract concept to
a material object and thus is instrumental in creating powerIul and dy-
namic communication.
Original Iigures oI speech are valued in both speech and in writing. We
respect the ability to generate these. Politicians Ior instance oIten use
Iigures oI speech, and are variously successIul with this practice.
Churchill's image oI 'the iron curtain' has stayed with us Ior over IiIty
years, although the phenomenon it described no longer exists.'The cold
war' superseded it, during which it was the threat oI someone 'pressing
the button' which was on everyone's mind.
The 'rhetorical question' is a Iigure oI speech Iavoured by politician
and lay person alike. It is a powerIul device because, although it has
the appearance oI being a question, it oIten acts as a Iorm oI persua-
sion or criticism.
'Is our country in danger oI becoming a hot-bed oI sleaze' we might
hear a politician ask.'Are we going to stand by and let these atrocities
continue' Listening to our car radio we might mentally Irame an answer
to this kind oI question or at least we might be drawn into contemplat-
ing the issue.
At a more domestic level we might be asked 'What time do you call
this' or 'ow many times have I told you ...' These are questions
which actively discourage any answer. They are a Iorm oI rebuke which
is an established ritual. As competent language users, we know them
and participate in the ritual by not answering, or responding to the
'real' (unstated) criticism.
Another Iigure oI speech which spans the social spectrum is the cliche.
These are oIten derided, and the word itselI has become a pejorative
term. owever, the cliche is very much 'alive and kicking', especially in
12 13
the context oI Iootball.'Over the moon' about a result and 'gutted' to
hear the news, are just two such Iigures oI speech heard almost daily
over the popular media.
The cliche proves its Iunction by its proliIic use. Perhaps it is its over-
use, or its application in inappropriate contexts which may cause distaste.
Figures oI speech are also known as images. This indicates their Iunc-
tion well. The outcome oI using them is that the listener or the reader
receives a multi-dimensional communication. Lewis Carroll coined the
term 'portmanteau' Ior words which are packed with layers oI meaning.
Although Carroll's usage is slightly diIIerent Irom that oI Iigures oI speech,
it does illustrate that we have a strong drive as language users to convey
meaning colourIully and economically.
The notion of image. Image is a certain picture oI the objective world,
a verbal subjective description oI this or another person, event, occurrence,
sight made by the speaker with the help oI the whole set oI expressive means
and stylistic devices. Images are created to produce an immediate impression
1
to human sight, hearing, sense oI touch or taste.
When you look in a mirror, you see an image. You see a likeness oI
yourselI. When you use a camera and take a picture oI your girlIriend Masha
in a Ilowered hat, the photograph you develop is an image oI Masha. II you
look at this photograph twenty years later, you will see an image oI what
Masha used to be like. You might ask a renowned painter to paint your por-i
trait in oils. The picture he paints is an image oI you. It may not be exactly like
you. e may paint your nose bent round a bit the wrong way, or he may not
capture the attractiveness and mystery oI your green eyes. e may give you
a Iigure oI a kolobok, though you have always thought oI yourselI as slim and
lithe. e has painted you as he sees you. e has put on to canvas his image
oI you. Perhaps he has tried to convey in his picture not only your physical
likeness but also something oI your inner character: how greedy or scandal-
ous you are, Ior example. The same with words. Instead oI painting you in
oils, someone may preIer to paint you in words. II you really are greedy,
untidy and have no table manners at all, you may one day Iind, at your table in
the exclusive restaurant where you oIten dine, written on a small white card,
the terse message: YOURE A PIG. It will be your image, created by a met-,
aphor. You are not a pig, oI course, even though your table manners arel
dreadIul. What the writer means is that you eat like a pig. You are like a pig in,
this one respect. And your verbal image created on the card will possibly help
you to understand it.
Image is the matter oI stylistic analysis.
stylst) #n#lyss
Stylistic analysis is a normal part oI literary studies. It is practised as a
part oI understanding the possible meanings in a text. it is also
generally assumed that the process oI analysis will reveal the
good qualities oI the writing.
Take Ior example the opening lines oI Shakespeare's Richard III.
Now is the winter oI our discontent Made
glorious summer by this sun oI York
A stylistic analysis might reveal the Iollowing points:
- the play is written in poetic blank verse
- that is unrhymed, iambic pentameters
- the stresses Iall as Iollows
- Now is the winter oI our discontent
- |notice that the stress Ialls on vowel sounds|
- the Iirst line is built on a metaphor
- the condition oI England is described in terms oI the season 'winter'
- the term 'our' is a Iorm oI the royal 'we'
- the seasonal metaphor is extended into the second line ...
- ... where better conditions become 'summer'
- the metaphor is extended even Iurther by the term 'sun'
- it is the sun which appears, 'causing' the summer
- but 'sun' is here also a pun - on the term 'son'...
- ... which reIers to the son oI the ing
- 'York' is a metonymic reIerence to the Duke oI York
In a complete analysis, the signiIicance oI these stylistic details would be
related to the events oI the play itselI, and to Shakespeare's presentation
oI them.
In some Iorms oI stylistic analysis, the numerical recurrence oI certain
stylistic Ieatures is used to make judgements about the nature and the
quality oI the writing.
owever, it is important to recognise that the concept oI style is much
broader than just the 'good style' oI literary prose.
For instance, even casual communication such as a manner oI speaking
or a personal letter might have an individual style.
14 15
owever, to give a detailed account oI this style requires the same de-
gree oI linguistic analysis as literary texts.
Stylistic analysis oI a non-literary text Ior instance means studying in
detail the Ieatures oI a passage Irom such genres as:
0nst(-)ton notes Ior programming your video-recorder
0n,o(/#ton a history text book
1e(s-#son an advertisement or a holiday brochure
The method oI analysis can be seen as looking at the text in great detail,
observing what the parts are, and saying what Iunction they perIorm in
the context oI the passage.
It is rather like taking a car-engine to pieces, looking at each component
in detail, then observing its Iunction as the whole engine starts working.
These are Ieatures which are likely to occur in # text whose Iunction is
to instruct:
/.e(#t2e o(
)o//#n%
'remove the outer covering'
%(e)t #%%(ess 'check voltage system beIore you install the unit'
n-/3e(e% .onts |because sequencing is important in carrying out a
procedure|
te)hn)#l te(/s o(
4#(!on
'piston', 'carburettor', 'spark plug'
%#!(#/ "th
)#ll5o-t l#3els
|an extra level oI communication to aid
understanding|
Features are dealt with in three stages, as Iollows:
%ent,y 6 %es)(3e 6 e*.l#n
The Ieatures chosen Irom any text will be those which characterise the
piece as to its Iunction. They will be used by the analyst to prove the
initial statement which is made about the linguistic nature oI the text as #
whole.
This method purports to be Iairly scientiIic. A hypothesis is stated and
then proved. It is # useIul discipline which encourages logical thought
and can be transIerred to many other areas oI academic study.
This is one reason why the discipline oI stylistic analysis is so useIul: it
can be applied to a variety oI subjects.
16
CHAPTER 2
Functinal Styles
Functional styles are classiIied into bookish and colloquial. The group oI
bookish styles embraces the style oI oIIicial documents, the style oI scientiIic
prose, the newspaper style, the publicistic style and the belletristic style. The
croup oI colloquial styles includes the literary colloquial style, the inIormal
colloquial style and substandard speech style.
The speaker resorts to a certain Iunctional style due to such extralingual
Iactors: the character of the situation in which communication takes place
(oIIicial, ceremonial, inIormal, private or other) the relations between the
communicants (Iormal, oIIicial, Iriendly, hostile, spontaneous) the aim of
communication (transIerence oI speciIic inIormation, emotional attitudes,
establishment oI business contacts, etc. ) oral or written communication.
The style of official documents. This style aims at establishing, developing
and controlling business relations between individuals and organizations.
Being devoid oI expressiveness, it is Iully impersonal, rational and pragmatic.
Its special language Iorms are rather peculiar. The graphical level oI this
style is distinguished by speciIic rules oI making inscriptions, using capital
letters and abbreviations. The lexical level is characterized by domination oI
bookish, borrowed, archaic and obsolescent words, proIessional terms and
cliches, such as "aviso" (), "interest-free" (i),
"fidefussor" (), "flagrante delicto" (
), "status quo" (m r),
"", "", " ", "r
ue ...", " i ...", "u
...", "i ". The morphological features oI
the style are such: the usage oI obsolescent mood Iorms (Subjunctive I and the
Suppositional), wide use oI non-Iinite Iorms oI the verb, impersonal, antic-
ipatory and indeIinite pronouns. The svntactic level is distinguished by long
an
d super-long sentences oI all structural types, always two-member and
non-elliptical, complicated by complexes oI secondary predication, detach-
me
nts, parenthetic insertions and passive constructions.
The style of scientific prose. This style serves as an instrument Ior
Promoting scientiIic ideas and exchanging scientiIic inIormation among peo-
p
e
- It is as bookish and Iormal as the style oI oIIicial documents, that is why
17
both styles have much in common. To graphical peculiarities oI the style oI
scientiIic prose belong number- or letter-indexed paragraphing, a developed
system oI headlines, titles and subtitles, Iootnotes, pictures, tables, schemes
and Iormulae. H great part oI the vocabularv is constituted by special terms
oI international origin. The sphere oI computer technologies alone enlarges
the word-stock oI diIIerent language vocabularies by thousands oI new terms,
such as "modem", "monitor", "interface", "hard disk", "floppv disk",
"scanner", "CD-m drive", "driver", "fragmentation", "formatting",
"software", "hardware", etc. Most oI such terms are borrowed Irom English
into other languages with preservation oI their original Iorm and sound- 1 ing
(, , , , , e,
). The rest are translated by way oI loan-translation
(r , e ) and in other ways (software
-mi ei, hardware - i JB). Adopted
Ioreign terms submit to the grammar rules oI the Russian and Ukrainian lan-
guages while Iorming their derivatives and compounds (i,
, ). The scientiIic vocabulary also
abounds in set-phrases and cliches which introduce speciIic Ilavour oI book-
ishness and scientiIic character into the text (We proceed from assumption
that ... , One can observe that... , As a matter of fact, ... , As is generallv
accepted, ... ,).
One oI the most noticeable morphological features oI the scientiIic
prose style is the use oI the personal pronoun "we" in the meaning oI '7".
The scientiIic "we" is called "the plural of modestv". Svntax does not
diIIer much Irom that oI the style oI oIIicial documents. ,
The newspaper stvle. The basic communicative Iunction oI this style is
to inIorm people about all kinds oI events and occurrences which may be oI
some interest to them. Newspaper materials may be classiIied into three
groups: brieI news reviews, inIormational articles and advertisements. The
vocabularv oI the newspaper style consists mostly oI neutral common liter-
ary words, though it also contains many political, social and economic terms
(gross output, per capita production, gross revenue, apartheid, single
European currencv, political summit, commoditv exchange, tactical nu-
clear missile, nuclear nonproliferation treatv). There are lots oI abbrevia-
tions (GDP - gross domestic product, EU - European Union, WTO -
World Trade Organiation, UN - United Nations Organiation, NATO
-North Atlantic Treatv Organiation, I - human immunodeficiencv vi-
rus, AIDS - acquired immune deficiencv svndrome, IMF - International
Monetarv Fund, W. W. W. - World Wide Web). The newspaper vocabular-
ies oI the Russian and Ukrainian languages are overloaded with borrowings
and international words (m, , ,
r, , e, -, ,
), that is why the abundance oI Ioreign suIIixes (-, -,
-, -, etc. ) is a conspicuous morphological fpaturp oI the Russian
and Ukrainian newspaper style. One oI unattractive Ieatures oI the newspa-
per style is the overabundance oI cliches. A cliche is a hackneyed phrase or
expression. The phrase may once have been Iresh or striking, but it has be-
come tired through overuse. Cliches usually suggest mental laziness or the
lack oI original thought.
Traditional examples oI cliches are expressions such as t t#7es the
3s)-t, 3#)7 to s8-#(e one and # t#ste o, hs o"n /e%)ne.
Current Iavourites (in the U) include the 3otto/ lne s ..., # "hole
%,,e(ent 3#ll !#/e, l2n! n the (e#l "o(l%, # le2el .l#yn! ,el%,
and /o2n! the !o#l.osts.
Cliches present a temptation, because they oIten seem to be just what is
required to make an eIIect. They %o the t()7. They ht the n#l on
the he#%. They are 4-st "h#t the %o)to( o(%e(e%. |See what I mean|
ere is a stunning compilation, taken Irom a provincial newspaper. The
example is genuine, but the n#/es h#2e 3een )h#n!e% to .(ote)t the
nno)ent. |That's a deliberate example!|
9y the( 2e(y n#t-(e cabarets tend to be # 3t o, # ht #n%
/ss aIIair. And Manchester's own 'Downtown Cabaret' is
#/.le .(oo, oI that. :hen t "#s !oo% t "#s 2e(y !oo%,
#n% "hen t "#s 3#% t "#s awIul. olding ths )-(#te;s e!!
together was John Beswick acting as compere and keeping the
hotchpotch oI sketches and songs (-nnn! #lon! s/oothly.
And his proIessionalism shone th(o-!h as he kept his h#n%
on the tlle( and stee(e% the sho"n th(o-!h a diIIicult audi-
ence with hs o"n 3(#n% oI witticism. Local playwright Alan
Olivers had previously "o(7e% l7e # T(o4#n and managed to
/#(sh#l the t#lents oI # 3e2y o, Manchester's (sn! st#(s.
Svntax oI the newspaper style as well as syntax oI any other bookish
s
vle
is a diversity oI all structural types oI sentences (simple, complex, com-
1! 19
pound and mixed) with a developed system oI clauses connected with each
other by all types oI syntactic connections. The coating oI bookishness is creat-
ed by multicomponent attributive noun groups, participial, inIinitive and gerundi-
al word-combinations and syntactic constructions oI secondary predication.
Advertising newspaper materials (ads) may be classified and non-clas-
sified. ClassiIied ads are arranged topicwise in certain rubrics: "Births",
"Deaths", "Marriages", "Sale", "Purchase", "nte", "exm",
"Cmy", "cy", "amcna", etc. Non-classiIied ads integrate all top-
ics. Ads are arranged according to stereotyped rules oI economizing on space.
Due to this all non-inIormative speech segments are omitted intentionally, e.
g.: Births. On November 1, at St. Bartholomews ospital, to Barbara and
John Culhane a son. 3. Ai r. H.
H. 7. T. 345-44-65.
Graphicallv, the newspaper style is notable Ior the system oI head-
lines. The headlines have Iormed themselves into a speciIic genre. They com-
bine three Iunctions: gripping readers' attention, providing inIormation and
evaluating the contents oI the article. To perIorm these Iunctions newspaper
headlines must be sensational, expressive and inIormative. Sentences in head-
lines tend to be short, one-member or elliptical, aIIirmative, negative, inter-
rogative and exclamatory.
The publicistic stvle. This style Ialls into the Iollowing variants: the oratory
style (speeches, lectures and reports), the style oI radio and T programs, the
style oI essays and journalistic articles. The most essential Ieature oI the oratorv
stvle is the direct contact oI the speaker with the audience. To establish and
maintain this contact, the speaker continuously resorts to various language
means of address. ladies and gentlemen, honourable guests, dear colleagues,
dear friends, etc. Public speeches, radio and T commentaries are crammed
with svntactic stvlistic devises oI repetitions (direct, synonymic, anaphoric,
epiphoric, Iraming, linking), polysyndeton, and parallelisms. These devices aim at
making inIormation persuasive. Journalistic articles and essays deal with
political, social, economic, moral, ethical, philosophical, religious, educational,
cultural and popular-scientiIic problems. The choice oI language means depends
on the subject described. ScientiIic articles and essays contain more neutral
words and constructions and less expressive means than articles and essays on
humanitarian problems.
The belletristic stvle. This style attracts linguists most oI all because th
authors oI books use the whole gamma oI expressive means and stylist!
devises while creating their images. The Iunction oI this style is cognitive
esthetic. The belletristic style embraces prose, drama and poetry. The lan-
uae of emotive prose is extremely diverse. Most oI the books contain the
authors' speech and the speech oI protagonists. The authors' speech embod-
es all stylistic embellishments which the system oI language tolerates. The
speech oI protagonists is just the reIlection oI people's natural communica-
tion which they carry out by means oI the colloquial style. The language of
drama is also a stylization oI the colloquial style when colloquial speech is not
only an instrument Ior rendering inIormation but an eIIective tool Ior the
description oI personages. The most distinctive Ieature oI the language of
poetrv is its elevation. The imagery oI poems and verses is proIound, implicit
and very touching. It is created by elevated words (highly literary, poetic,
barbaric, obsolete or obsolescent), Iresh and original tropes, inversions, repe-
titions and parallel constructions. The pragmatic eIIect oI poetic works may
be enhanced by perIected rhymes, metres, rhymes and stanzas.
The colloquial stvles. These styles comply with the regularities and
norms oI oral communication. The vocabulary oI the literarv colloquial
stvle comprises neutral, bookish and literary words, though exotic words and
colloquialisms are no exception. It is devoid oI vulgar, slangy and dialectal
lexical units. Reduction oI grammatical Iorms makes the style morphological-
ly distinguished, putting it in line with other colloquial styles. Sentences oI
literary colloquial conversation tend to be short and elliptical, with clauses
connected asyndetically.
The vocabulary oI the informal colloquial stvle is unoIIicial. Besides
neutral words, it contains lots oI words with connotative meanings. Expres-
siveness oI inIormal communication is also enhanced by extensive use oI
stylistic devises. The speaker chooses between the literary or inIormal collo-
quial style taking into account the Iollowing situational conditions: aim oI com-
munication, place oI communication, presence or absence oI strangers, per-
sonal relations, age Iactor, sex Iactor, etc.
One oI the variants oI the inIormal colloquial style is the dialect. Dia-
lects are regional varieties oI speech which relate to a geographical area.
The term dialect used to reIer to deviations Irom Standard English which
were used by groups oI speakers. Political awareness has now given linguists
toe current concept oI a dialect as anv developed speech svstem. Standard
English itselI is thereIore now considered to be a dialect oI English - equal in
st
atus with regional dialects such as Scottish or social dialects, or Black En-
8sh. The concept oI dialect embraces all aspects oI a language Irom gram-
`s" to vocabulary. Nowadays linguists take a descriptive view oI all lan-
21
uage phenomena. They do not promote the notion oI the superiority oI Stan-
lard English. This is not to say that Standard English and Received Pronunci-
ition are considered equal to dialectal Iorms, but certainly attitudes are be-
:oming more liberal.
Writers have Ior centuries attempted to represent dialectal utterances in
their work. Shakespeare oIten gave his yokels such items. Snout the tinker in "A
Midsummer Night's Dream" says "Bv lakin, a parlous fear". The novelist D.
. Lawrence represented the Nottinghamshire dialect in many oI his novels by
interspersing Standard English with utterances such as "Come into th'ut" spoken
by Mellors in "Lady Chatterley's Lover". Some contemporary regional dialect
Iorms are ones which have remained as such aIter being eliminated Irom what
is now Standard English. An example oI this is the Scottish kirtle which was
replaced in Standard English during the Old English
period by skirt.
The lowest level in the hierarchy oI colloquial styles is occupied by sub-
standard or special colloquial English. At the Iirst glance, substandard
English is a chaotic mixture oI non-grammatical or contaminated speech pat-
terns and vulgar words which should be criticized without regret. owever, a
detailed analysis oI these irregularities shows that they are elements oI a
system, which is not deprived oI rationality. For example, the universal gram-
matical Iorm aint is a simpliIied substitute Ior am (is, are) not, was (were)
not, have (has, had) not, shall (will) not. there is (are, was, were) not. "
ain't sharin' no time. 1 ain't takin' nobody with me, neither"
(J. Steinbeck).
"It ain't got no regular name" (E. Caldwell).
"All 1 say ain't no buildings like that on no Florida eys"

(E. emingway). Economical means oI substandard English coexist

with redundant or ple`
onastic Iorms and contaminated syntactic structures: "Then let's us have us
a drink" (T. Capote). "1 think it more better iI you go to her, sir" (S.
Maugham). "1 wants my wiIe. I needs her at home" (W. Faulkner). "Dey
was two white mens 1 heerd about" (W. Styron). "Young Iolks and
womens, they aint cluttered" (W. Faulkner). "1 want you guys should
listen to Doc, here" (J. Steinbeck). "I used to could play the Iiddle" (T.
Capote). Substandard English speech abounds in obscene words marked in
dictic naries by the symbol "taboo", vulgarisms (bloodv buggering hell,
danme
home-wrecking dancing devil), slangy words (busthead inIerior or cheap
whisky, liquor, or wine which results in hangover cabbage money, ban-
knotes, paper money frog-eater a Frenchman a pin-up girl a sexually
attractive young woman, usually a movie celebrity, a model or the like) and
speciIic cliches (dead and gone, good and well, lord and master, far and
awav, this here ...).
Substandard English is used by millions oI people in English speaking
countries. It is a conspicuous indicator oI low language culture and educa-
tional level. Being introduced into books, it becomes a picturesque means oI
protagonists' characterization. Russian and Ukrainian substandard languages
have the same Ieatures. Compare: e, , i.
r, i , , i r 245 , i
i. e i,
i, r ,
u. It is not an easy thing Ior a translator to provide suIIicient equiva-
lence oI translation in case with substandard languages. e must be a great
expert on both the source and target language substandard resources.
The binary division oI Iunctional styles into bookish and colloquial is gener-
ally accepted in the soviet and post-soviet stylistic school. In British stylistic
theories we also meet two general terms which cover the whole set oI partic-
ular Iunctional styles: Standard English and Substandard English. Standard En-
glish embraces all bookish substyles and the literary colloquial style. Substan-
dard English includes the inIormal colloquial style and special colloquial English.
The term Standard English, as viewed by the British scholars, reIers to a
dialect which has acquired the status oI representing the English language.
CHAPTER 3 Stylistic
"e#icl$y
Stylistic lexicology deals with words which make up people's lexicon,
vocabulary or lexis is useIully distinguished Irom grammar in textual analysis,
ne grammar oI any utterance is the underlying structure. The vocabulary is

n
e
immediate content or subject-matter oI a statement. The passage which
Allows contains a normal mixture oI grammatical items and vocabulary items:
23
bananas are cheap and plentiful and can be used in manv interesting
vavs, either as desserts or in main meals. With the grammatical items
removed, the sentence still makes some sense: Bananas cheap plentiful
used manv interesting wavs either desserts main meals. Without the lexical
items however, the grammar words mean nothing as a sequence: are and
can be in as or in.
ocabulary is one level oI stylistic analysis, along with phonology, gra-
phology, grammar and semantics. In analyzing the vocabulary oI a text or a
speech, patterns oI usage would be the subject oI comment. For instance, the
Irequent occurrence oI technical terms in car repair manual, or oI emotive
words in a tabloid newspaper article.
The majority oI English words are neutral. Neutral words do not have
stylistic connotations. Their meanings are purely denotative. They are such
words as table, man, dav, weather, to go, good, first, something, enough.
Besides neutral vocabulary, there are two great stylistically marked layers oI
words in English word-stock: literary vocabulary and colloquial vocabulary.
Literary vocabulary includes bookish words, terms, poetic and archaic words,
barbarisms and neologisms. Colloquial vocabulary embraces conversational
lexis, jargonisms, proIessionalisms, dialectal, slangy and vulgar words.
Neutral words Iorm the lexical backbone oI all Iunctional styles. They are
understood and accepted by all English-speaking people. Being the main source!
oI synonymy and polysemy, neutral words easily produce new meanings and,
stylistic variants. Compare: mouse 1) a small Iurry animal with a long tail 2
mouse a small device that you move in order to do things on a computer!
screen 3) mouse someone who is quiet and preIers not to be noticed.
Bookish words are mainly used in writing and in polished speech. They
Iorm stylistic opposition to their colloquial synonyms. Compare: infant (
ish) child (neutral) fad (colloquial) parent (bookish) father (neutral)
daddv (colloquial).
Terms belong to particular sciences. Consequently, the domain oI their!
usage is the scientiIic Iunctional style. The denotative meanings oI terms are
clearly deIined. A classical term is monosemantic and has no synonyms. Terms
oI general nature are interdisciplinary (approbation, anomalv. ee
tion, definition, monograph, etc. ). Semantically narrow terms belong to I
deIinite branch oI science (math.: differential, vector, hvpotenuse, leg (of
a triangle), equation, logarithm). When used in other styles, terms produce
diIIerent stylistic eIIects. They may sound humoristically or make speed,
"clever" and "scientiIic-like". Academic study has its own terms too. Terrn`
such as palataliation or velariation (phonetics), discourse analvsis (sty-
listics), hegemonv (political philosophy) and obfective correlative (literary
studies) would not be recognizable by an everyday reader, though they might
be understood by someone studying the same subject.
Terms should be used with precision, accuracy, and above all restraint.
Eric Partridge quotes the Iollowing example to illustrate the diIIerence be-
tween a statement in technical and non-technical Iorm: Chlorophvll makes
food bv photosvnthesis Green leaves build up food with the aid of tight.
When terms are used to show oII or impress readers or listeners, they are
likely to create the opposite eIIect. There is not much virtue in using terms
such as aerated beverages instead of fiv drinks. These simply cause
disruptions in tone and create a weak style. ere is an even more
pretentious example oI such weakness: Enfov vour free sample of our
moisturiing cleansing bar (in other words - our soap).
The stylistic Iunction of poetic words is to create poetic images and
make speech elevated. Their nature is archaic. Many oI poetic words have
lost their original charm and become hackneyed conventional symbols due to
their constant repetition in poetry (, , , ,
(), ( ), , e, ,
, e, , , i, i, i,
, ).
It is a well-known Iact that the word-stock oI any language is constantly
changing and renewing. Old words die and new words appear. BeIore disap-
pearing, a word undergoes the stages oI being obsolescent, obsolete and ar-
chaic. The beginning oI the aging process oI a word is marked by decrease in
its usage. Rarely used words are called obsolescent. To English obsolescent
words belong the pronoun though and its Iorms thee, thv and thine, the
verbs with the ending -est though makest) and the ending -th he maketh),
and other historical survivals. Obsolete words have gone completely out oI
usage though they are still recognized by the native speakers (methinks it
seems to me nav no). Archaic words belong to Old English and are not
`cognized nowadays. The main Iunction oI old words is to create a realistic
background to historical works oI literature.
Barbarisms and foreignisms have the same origin. They are bor-
rowings Irom other languages. The greater part oI barbarisms was borrowed
Int
o English Irom French and Latin parvenu - nca protege
-
n
Pexe a propos - ca beau monde - ncm cne de novo
ct
sna alter ego - ye x datum - cneex, manx). Ba-
25
larisms are assimilated borrowings. Being part oI the English word-stock,
hey are Iixed in dictionaries. Foreignisms are non-assimilated borrowings
ccasionally used in speech Ior stylistic reasons. They do not belong to the
Bnglish vocabulary and are not registered by lexicographers. The main Iund
ion oI barbarisms and Ioreignisms is to create a realistic background to the
stories about Ioreign habits, customs, traditions and conditions oI liIe.
Neologisms are newly born words. Most oI them are terms. The layer oI
terminological neologisms has been rapidly growing since the start oI the
technological revolution. The sphere oI the Internet alone gave birth to thou-
sands oI new terms which have become international (network, server, browser,
e-mail, provider, site, Internet Message Access Protocol, vpertext Transfer
Protocol, Microsoft Outlook Express, Internet Explorer, Netscape
Communicator, etc). The Internet is an immense virtual world with its own
language and its people, good or bad. acker means "someone who uses a
computer to connect to other people's computers secretly and oIten illegally in
order to Iind or change inIormation". Spammer means "someone who sends
emails to large numbers oI people on the Internet, especially when these are
not wanted". Recent discoveries in biochemistry, genetic engineering, plasma
physics, microelectronics, oceanography, cosmonautics and other sciences
demanded new words to name new concepts and ideas. The vocabulary oI our
everyday usage is also being enlarged by neologisms. Bancomatf, means "a
European system oI automatic cash-ejecting machines". Bank card means "a
small plastic card that you use Ior making payments or Ior getting,
money Irom the bank".
Common colloquial vocabularv is part oI Standard English word-stock.
It borders both on neutral vocabulary and on special colloquial vocabulary!
Colloquialisms are Iamiliar words and idioms used in inIormal speech and`
writing, but unacceptable in polite conversation or business correspondence|
Compare standard speech sentence "Sir, vou speak clearlv and to the
point" and its colloquial equivalent "Friend, vou talk plain and hit the
right on the head".
There are some speciIic ways oI Iorming colloquial words and gramj
matical Iusions. The most typical oI them are contraction (demo - demon
stration, comp comprehensive school, disco discotheque, pub publiA
house, ad - advertisement), amalgamation oI two words in a single on
(slong so long, cmon come on, gimme - give me, wanna want to,
gonna going to, dont do not, hes he hasis), aIIixation (missv
miss, girlie girl, Scottv Scotchman), compounding, composing and blend
. (legman reporter, hankv-pankv childrens tricks, vellow-bellv
-coward, motel a hotel for people who are travelling bv car).
The most productive way oI building colloquial words in Russian and
Ukrainian is derivation. Lots oI suIIixes and preIixes convert neutral words
into conversational: , , , , u,
, e - r, r, r, r.
Many oI colloquial words are extremely emotional and image-bearing. For
example, the interjections oops, oh, gee, wow, alas are capable oI rendering
dozens oI contextual subjective modal meanings, such as gladness, rapture,
disappointment, resentment, admiration, etc. Not less expressive are Russian
and Ukrainian colloquial words. Compare: , ,
i, , , i. Expressive colloquial words Iorm
long chains oI synonyms: , , , r,
, i, .
Jargonisms are non-standard words used by people oI a certain asocial
group to keep their intercourse secret. There are jargons oI criminals, con-
victs, gamblers, vagabonds, souteneurs, prostitutes, drug addicts and the like.
The use oI jargon conveys the suggestion that the speaker and the listener
enjoy a special "Iraternity" which is closed Ior outsiders, because outsides do
not understand the secret language. ere are some words Irom American
and Russian drug takers' jargon: white stuff cocaine or morphine candv
cocaine snifter a cocaine addict boxed, spaced out, bombed, funked
up or charged up being affected bv drugs candv man drug seller cap
a capsule with a narcotic fab-off an infection of a narcotic pin-shot
an infection of a drug made with a safetv pin and an eve-dropper instead of
a hvpodermic needle mainliner a drug addict who takes his narcotics bv
intravenous infection u -
,
,
. Social contradictions oI
our liIe gave rise to such word combinations as " ",
" ". Eventually, some jargonisms pass into standard
speech. This is the case with the Russian word "" which
Penetrated into Standard Russian Irom prison jargon due to its expressive-
ness and topicality oI meaning.
Eric Partridge, an authority on the subject, identiIies a number oI reasons
r
or the creation and use oI jargon. In his opinion, people resort to jargon to be
eIIerent, startling, or original to display one's membership oI a group to be
27
:retive or to exclude others to enrich the stock oI language to establish a
endly rapport with others to be irreverent or humorous.
Professionalisms are term-like words. They are used and understood
members oI a certain trade or proIession. Their Iunction is to rationalize
oIcssional communication and make it economical. This is achieved due to
broad semantic structure oI proIessional terms, which makes them eco-
mical substitutes Ior lengthy Standard English vocabulary equivalents. Com-
ire: scalpel a small sharp knife used bv a doctor for doing an oper-ion.
round pliers a metal tool with round ends that looks like a rong pair of
scissors, used for holding small obfects or for bending id cutting wire
i (i e)
e ( e), um (e
). The Ioreman in a garage does not need to rite on a
mechanic's worksheet: "Please regulate the device which pro-ides a
constant supplv of petrol to the inlet manifold of the engine". e writes:
"Adfust the carburetor".
Dialecticisms are words used by people oI a certain community living in
certain territory. In US Southern dialect one might say: "Cousin, vall talk
nightv fine" which means "Sir, vou speak English well". In ethnic-immi-
rant dialects the same sentence will sound as "Paisano, vou speek good he
English" or "Landsman, vour English is plentv all right alreadv".
Slang is non-standard vocabulary understood and used by the whole ,
tation. Slang is sometimes described as the language oI sub-cultures or the
anguage oI the streets. Linguistically, slang can be viewed as a sub-dialect. Itj
s hardly used in writing - except Ior stylistic eIIect. People resort to slangj
because it is more IorceIul, vivid and expressive than standard usages. Slangy ,
words are rough, oIten scornIul, estimative and humorous. They are com-,
pletely devoid oI intelligence, moral, virtue, hospitality, sentimentality and other
human values.
Slang preIers short words, especially monosyllables. ulgar or obscene
words may be viewed as part oI slang. The most popular images oI slang are
Iood, money, sex and sexual attraction, people's appearances and characters.
Because it is not standard, Iormal or acceptable under all conditions, slang is
usually considered vulgar, impolite, or boorish. owever, the vast majority oI
slangy words and expressions are neither taboo, vulgar, derogatory, nor oI-)
Iensive in meaning, sound, or image. Picturesque metaphor, metonymy, hy-i
perbole and irony make slangy words spicy. Look how long, diverse and ex-J
prcssive the chain oI slangy synonyms denoting "monev" is: ackers. clv,
2!
0ie~ gelt, moo, moolah, mopus, oof, spondulicks, queer, boot, chuck,
hardstuff, lettuce, lollv, boodle, sea-coal, green goods, hav, shoestring,
ante, bread, ducats, dumps, swag, bean, blunt, crap, dough, haddock,
ochre, rubbish, salad, soap, splosh, sugar, chink, gob, poke, iron, balsam,
fack, loot, pile, wad, dust, tin, brass, fat, rocks, chips, corn, red, sand,
bundle, oil, shells.
Some Iorms oI slang change very rapidly, Ior various reasons.
Teenage slang changes rapidly because people are teenagers Ior a short
period oI time. For example, in the early 1990s the term used to express
enthusiastic approval was 'Ace'. Now this would be considered rather
dated. It has been replaced by 'Sound' which itselI will soon be sup-
planted by whatever the current teenage culture decides is appropriate.
'Smashing!' and 'Super!' the teenage slang oI Enid Blyton stories oI the
1930s and 1940s is now used to parody the period and the attitudes Irom
which they sprang. Intrinsically however, it is no diIIerent Irom today's
terms.
One important Iunction oI teenage slang is to create an identity which is
distinct Irom the general adult world. Teenagers Ior this reason do not
generally approve oI parents or teachers using their slang terms. This
deIeats the object oI what is essentially a group 'code'.
Thus new terms are generated every couple oI years. It is interesting
that the main slang items are adjectives Ior extreme approval or extreme
disapproval.
Idioms. An idiom is a Iixed phrase which is only meaningIul as a whole.
All languages contain idiomatic phrases. Native speakers learn them and re-
member them as a complete item, rather than a collection oI separate words:
a red herring a false trail, raining cats and dogs - raining verv hard,
a
flv
in the ointment spoiling the effect.
Idioms oIten break semantic conventions and grammatical logic - as in
Ill eat mv head (Ill be amaed if...). The object oI the verb "to eat" is
conventionally something edible, but as part oI this idiom it is something deI-
initely inedible. Non-native speakers Iind the idiomatic side oI any language
diIIicult to grasp. Native speakers oI a language acquire idioms Irom a very
ear
ly stage in their linguistic development.
29
The translator should bear in mind the Iact that idioms are generally
ipossible to translate between languages, although some Iamilies oI lan-
ages use idioms based on identical ideas. In French, Ior example, the idi-
natic phrase " vieux" is parallel in its meaning with the English "old
ap", and in Russian the phraseologism " " is parallel with
e English "the lions share".
Idioms very oIten contain metaphors, but not always. For example, ow
vou do is an idiomatic greeting but it is not a metaphor. Idioms are not
ways used or recognized by the whole oI the language community. Sub-
roups oI speakers employ idioms peculiar to themselves. Teenagers, occu-
ational groups, leisure groups, and gender groups all employ idioms or spe-
ial phrases. These will mean something within the context oI the group and
s communication: e was caught leg-before-wicket (sport). She was at er
sisters hen-partv (gender).
CHAPTER 4
%r&'l$ical Stylistics
Morphological stylistics deals with morphological expressive means
stylistic devices. Words oI all parts oI speech have a great stylistic potenti
9en! placed in an unusual syntagmatic environment which changes their
canonized grammatical characteristics and combinability, they acquire stylistic
signiIicance. The central notion oI morphological stylistics is the notion oI,
transposition. Transposition is a divergence between the traditional us-
age of a neutral word and its situational (stvlistic) usage.
Words oI every part oI speech are united by their semantic and gram-
matical properties. General lexico-grammatical meaning oI nouns is substan-
tivity, i. e. the ability to denote objects or abstract notions. Due to the diverse,
nature oI substantivity, nouns are divided into proper, common, concrete, ab-
stract, material and collective. Cases oI transposition emerge, in particular,
when concrete nouns are used according to the rules oI proper nouns usage,
or vice versa. It results in creation oI stylistic devises named antonomasia or
personiIication. For example: The Pacific Ocean has a cruel soul or John
will never be a Shakespeare.
Besides general lexico-grammatical meaning, nouns possess grammati-
cal meanings oI the category oI number and the category oI case. These
meanings may also be used Ior stylistic objectives. According to the category
oI number, nouns are classiIied into countable and uncountable. Each group
has its own regularities oI usage. When these regularities are broken Ior
stylistic reasons, speech becomes expressive. Uncountable singularia tantum
nouns, or countable nouns in the singular, occasionally realizing the meaning
oI more than oneness, evoke picturesque connotations: to hunt tiger to
hunt tigers to keep chick to keep chicks snow snows sand sands
water waters time times
. Normally, the genitive
case Iorm is a Iorm oI animate nouns. When inanimate nouns are used in
this Iorm, their initial meaning oI inanimateness is transposed. In such cases
they render the meanings oI time or distance (miles walk, hours time), part
oI a whole (books page, tables leg), or qualitative characteristics (plans
failure, winters snowdrifts, musics voice).
Stylistic potential oI nouns is signiIicantly reinIorced by transpositions in
the usage oI articles as noun-determiners. Such transpositions occur against
generally accepted normative postulates which run: articles are not used with
names oI persons and animals, some classes oI geographical names, abstract
nouns and names oI material. Uncommon usage oI articles aims at importing
speciIic shades oI meaning into speech. Thus, the indeIinite article combined
with names oI persons may denote one representative oI a Iamily (Marv will
never be a Brown), a person unknown to the communicants (Jack was
robbed bv a Smith), a temporary Ieature oI character (That dav Jane was
different. It was a sillv Jane). Not less expressive are cases when the name
oI a person is used as a common noun preceded by the indeIinite article:
Mike has the makings of a Bvron. Stylistic usage oI the deIinite article takes
place when names oI persons are modiIied by limiting attributes (You are
not the John whom I married), when a proper name denotes the whole
Iamily (The Browns are good people), or when a name oI a person is mod-
iIied by a descriptive attribute denoting a permanent Ieature oI character (I
entered the room. There she was the clever Pollv). Suchlike deviations in
the usage oI articles are possible with other semantic classes oI nouns: geo-
graphical names, abstract and material nouns.
Transposition oI verbs is even more varied than that oI nouns. It is ex-
Plained by a greater number oI grammatical categories the meanings oI which
`ay be transposed. Most expressive are tense Iorms, mood Iorms and voice
31
brms. One oI peculiar Ieatures oI English tense Iorms is their polysemantism.
rhe same Iorm may realize various meanings in speech. Deviation Irom the
general (most Irequently realized) meaning makes verbs stylistically coloured,
"ommonly, the present continuous tense denotes an action which takes place
it the moment oI speaking. But it may also denote a habitual action (John
is .onstantlv grumbling), an action which occupies a long period oI time
(Sam is wooing Marv now), and an action oI the near Iuture (Pete is
starting a new life tomorrow). In such cases the present continuous tense
becomes synonymous with the present or Iuture indeIinite. But there is a
diIIerence. While the sentence "John constantlv grumbles" is a mere
statement, the sentence "John is constantlv grumbling" introduces the
negative connotations oI irritation, condemnation, regret, sadness and
others.
There is a rule that verbs oI sense perception and mental activity are not
used in the continuous tense Iorms. This rule is oIten broken by the speaker|
intentionally or subconsciously. In both cases verbal Iorms convey additional
stylistic meanings oI subjective modality (1 am seeing vou lam not blind
I am understanding vou You need not go into further details I am
feeling vour touch So tender vou are, etc. ).
One oI peculiar verbal transpositions is the change oI temporary planes
oI narration when events oI the past or Iuture are described by present tense|
Iorms. Such transposition brightens the narration, raises its emotional tensionJ
expresses intrigue, makes the continuity oI events visual and graphic: It was
vesterdav and looked this wav. The perpetrator comes to his victim, takem
a long dagger out of his inner pocket and stabs the poor man right into his
bellv without saving a word. The man falls down like a sack, a founA tain
of blood spurting from the wound.
Transposition is not the only way to make verbs expressive. A good many
verbal Iorms are expressive in themselves. The imperative mood Iorms a
not just commands, invitations, requests or prohibitions. They are a perIect|
means oI rendering an abundance oI human emotions. The sentence Just
come to me now may contextually imply love or hate, threat or warning,
promise or desire. A wide range oI subjunctive mood Iorms oIIers a good|
stylistic choice oI synonymous ways to verbalize one and the same idea.
Compare the Iollowing synonymous pairs oI sentences: It is time for me to
go It is time that I went It is necessarv for him to come It is necesA
sarv that he come We must go now not to be late We must go now lesvL
we be late Let it be So be it. The Iirst sentence oI each pair is stylistically|
neutral while the second sentence is either bookish or obsolescent. In manyJ
contexts passive verbal Iorms are more expressive than their active counter-|
arts. Compare: A round table occupied the centre of the room The
centre of the room was occupied bv a round table Thev answered him
nothing
e

was
answered nothing Thev forgave him his rudeness
was forgiven his rudeness.
General lexico-grammatical meaning oI adfectives is that oI qualitative-
ness. Qualitative adjectives are always estimative, that is why they are used
as epithets (picturesque' view, idiotic shoe-laces, crav bicvcle, tremen-
doiis achievements) and can Iorm degrees oI comparison. Relative adjec-
tives normally do not Iorm degrees oI comparison and serve as logical (non-
stylistic) attributes (red colour, Italian car, dead man). owever, they may
be occasionally transposed into qualitative. Such transposition imports origi-
nality and Ireshness in speech: This is the reddest colour Ive ever seen in
mv life "Ferrari" is the most Italian car which vou can meet in this remote
corner of the world Garrv was the deadest men ever present in that
ambitious societv. Expressiveness oI adjectives may be as well enhanced
by non-grammatical transpositions in the Iormation oI the degrees oI
comparison, when well-known rules oI their Iormation are intentionally vio-
lated: Mv bride was becoming beautifidler and beautifuller. You are the
bestest friend Ive ever met.
Expressive devices may be created by transposition oI pronouns. When
objective Iorms oI personal pronouns are used predicatively instead oI nom-
inative Iorms, sentences obtain colloquial marking (// is him. It is her It is
me. It is them. It is us). The meaning oI the pronoun / may be contextually
rendered by the pronouns we, vou, one, he, she and others. The so-called
"scientiIic we" is used in scientiIic prose instead oI / Ior modesty reasons.
The same replacement in a routine conversation creates a humoristic eIIect
(a tipsy man coming home aIter a workday and addressing his wiIe cheerIul-
ly, about himselI: Meet us dear' We have come'). When the pronoun vou is
replaced by the pronoun one, the statement becomes generalized, its inIor-
mation being projected not only to the listeners, but to the speaker himselI:
One should understand, that smoking is reallv harmful' When / is substi-
tuted by he, she, or nouns (the guv, the chap, the fellow, the fool, the girl,
etc), the speaker either tries to analyse his own actions with the eyes oI a
stranger, externally, or he is ironical about himselI. Stylistic eIIects may also
e achieved by the usage oI archaic pronouns: the personal pronoun thou (2
Person singular) and its objective Iorm three, the possessive pronoun thv and
'ts absolute Iorm thine, the reIlexive pronoun thvself. These obsolete pro-
nouns create the atmosphere oI solemnity and elevation, or bring us back to
`cient times.
33

cuch an accord is met at the end oI two parallel lines in verses. Rhyme is a
ound organizer, uniting lines into stanzas. Rhyme is created according to
everal patterns. ertically, there are such rhymes: adjacent (aa, bb), cross
tab ab) and reverse (ab, ba). According to the variants oI stress in the words
hein rhymed, rhymes are classiIied into male (the last syllables oI the rhymed
words are stressed), female (the next syllables to the last are stressed) and
facixli (
tne

lmrc
syllables Irom the end are stressed).
Rhythm is a recurring stress pattern in poetry. It is an even alternation oI
stressed and unstressed syllables. Lines in verses are built with poetic Ieet. A
foot is a combination oI one stressed and one or two unstressed syllables.
The most popular poetic Ieet are trochaic Ioot, iambus, dactyl, amphibrach,
and anapest. A detailed description and bright examples oI the mechanisms
oI versiIication can be Iound in theoretically oriented manuals oI stylistics,
such as /. Arnold. Stvlistics of Modern English. - Moscow, 1990 I. Gal-
perin. Stvlistics. - Moscow, 1977 and others.
Instrumentation is the art oI selecting and combining sounds in order to
make utterances expressive and melodic. Instrumentation unites three basic
stylistic devices: alliteration, assonance and onomatopoeia.
Alliteration is a stylistically motivated repetition oI consonants. The re-
peated sound is oIten met at the beginning oI words: She sells sea shells on
the sea shore. Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled pepper. Alliteration is
oIten used in children's rhymes, because it emphasizes rhythm and makes
memorizing easier:
Baa haa blacksheep
ave vou anv wool?
Yes sir, no sir.
Three bagsfulL
The same eIIect is employed in advertising, so that slogans will stick in
people's minds: Snap, crackle and pophtera.on is used much more in
poetry than in prose. It is also used in proverbs and sayings (u u,
u u u, r), set expressions,
Iootball chants, and advertising jingles.
Assonance is a stylistically motivated repetition oI stressed vowels. The
repeated sounds stand close together to create a euphonious eIIect and rhyme:
ihe rain in Spain falls mainlv on the plain. We love to spoon beneath the
m
i in June. Just like alliteration, assonance makes texts easy to memo-
nz
e. It is also popular in advertising Ior the same reason. Assonance is sel-
35
I
iom met as an independent stylistic device. It is usually combined with alliter- |
ation, rhyming, and other devices:
Br, ui.
Br emi ,
Cr r mu i,
B m .
(A. C. Hu)
Onomatopoeia is a combination oI sounds which imitate natural sounds:
wind wailing, sea murmuring, rustling oI leaves, bursts oI thunder, etc. Words
which represent this Iigure oI speech have aural similarity with the things
they describe: bu rrr, roar - e, bang , I
hiss u, sile u , twitter - , pop
, swish , burble - , I cuckoo
, splash - . Animal calls and sounds oI I insects are
evoked onomatopoeically in all languages. For example, cock-a-doodle-do'
is conventionally the English representation Ior the crowing oI # cock.
Interestingly, the Russians and the French represent this imitation as
and cocorico correspondingly, which is signiIicantly diIIerent Irom
the English variant, although logic tells us that the roster's cry is the same
across the world. It means that onomatopoeia is not an exact reproduction oI |
natural sounds but a subjective phenomenon.
Onomatopoeia is used Ior emphasis or stylistic eIIect. It is extensively
Ieatured in children's rhymes and poetry in general.
Expressiveness oI speech may be also signiIicantly enhanced by such
phonetic means as tone. To the linguist "tone" means the quality oI sound J
produced by the voice in uttering words. In a general sense, tone is the atti-
tude oI the speaker or writer as revealed in the choice oI vocabulary or the j
intonation oI speech. Written or spoken communication might be described as
having a tone which is, Ior instance, ironic, serious, Ilippant, threatening, light-1
hearted, or pessimistic. Attitude expressed in tone may be rendered con-
sciously or unconsciously. It could be said that there is no such thing as a text
or verbal utterance without a tone. In most cases, tone is either taken Ior
granted, or perceived unconsciously.
Basic notions oI graphic expressive means are punctuation, orthogra-
phy or spelling, text segmentation, and type. Punctuation is used in writing to
show the stress, rhythm and tone oI the spoken word. It also aims at clariIy-
36
no the meaning oI sentences. There are such common marks oI punctuation:
the Iull stop |.|, the comma |, J, the colon |: |, the semicolon | |, brackets
)|, dash | - |, hyphen | - |, the exclamation mark | ! |, the oblique stroke |/ |x
the interrogative (question) mark | |, inverted commas (quotation marks) |" "|,
suspension marks |...|, the apostrophe | ' <.
=s)ell#neo-s (e/#(7s on punctuation.
Many aspects oI punctuation are ultimately a matter oI personal preIer-
ence and literary style.
The general tendency in most public writing today is to /n/se the
amount oI punctuation used.
There are also minor diIIerences in practice between the U and the USA.
The suggestions made above are based generally on conventions in the U.
Double punctuation |"What's the matter!"| is rarely used, except in
very inIormal writing such as personal letters or diaries.
The combination oI colon-plus-dash |: | is never necessary. Some
people use this |it's called 'the pointer'| to indicate that a list will Iollow,
but the colon alone should be suIIicient.
The importance oI punctuation can be illustrated by comparing the two
Iollowing letters. In both cases, the text is the same. It's the punctuation
which makes all the diIIerence!
Dear John:
I want a man who knows what love is all about. You are gener-
ous, kind, thoughtIul. People who are not like you admit to being
useless and inIerior. You have ruined me Ior other men. I yearn
Ior you. I have no Ieelings whatsoever when we're apart. I can
be Iorever happy will you let me be yours Gloria
Dear John:
I want a man who knows what love is. All about you are gener-
ous, kind, thoughtIul people, who are not like you. Admit to be-
ing useless and inIerior. You have ruined me. For other men, I
yearn. For you, I have no Ieelings whatsoever. When we're
apart, I can be Iorever happy. Will you let me beYours, Gloria
37
The full stop signals the end oI a declarative sentence. It indicates a
strong pause. It is used most commonly at the end oI a complete sentence.
Besides that, it may be used as an instrument Ior dividing a text or a sentence
into very small segments to underline the dynamic character oI events or to
create a stylistic device oI parceling. There are the Iollowing peculiarities in
the usage oI Iull stops:
>-ll stops are commonly placed aIter abbreviations:
3%. ?o. @ ,,. e. g.
The stop is normally placed inside quotation marks but outside brackets:
A:h#t 4oy "e h#% th#t .#(t)-l#( %#y.A
1(o,ts %e)lne% B%es.te n)(e#se% s#lesC. owever, iI the
quotation is part oI another statement, the Iull stop goes outside the
quote marks:
=(s H!!n3ott#/ "hs.e(e% AThey;(e )o/n!A. II the
parenthesis is a complete sentence, the Iull stop stays inside the
brackets:
The(e "#s #n e#(th8-#7e n Ds#7#. BEnothe( h#% o))-((e% n
To7yo the ye#( .(e2o-sly. ) No Iull stop is required iI a sentence
ends with a question mark or exclamation, or a title or abbreviation
which contains its own punctuati
0s ths 8-eston (e#lly ne)ess#(yF
:h#t # /essG
He s the e%to( o, Which?
'he !#2e he( #%%(ess #s ;The =#no(, :lts.; >-ll stops are
not required aIter titles, headings, or sub-headings:
The T-(n o, the ')(e"
0n%-st(#l 1ol)y He.o(t
0nt(o%-)ton The stop is not necessary Iollowing common titles
which are shortened Iorms oI a word (technically, 'contractions'):
I( |Doctor| =( |Mister|
't |Street| =/e |Madame|
Full stops are not necessary aIter the capital letters used as abbrevia-
tions Ior titles oI organisations and countries:
?ETD North Atlantic Treaty Organisation
99$ British Broadcasting Corporation
J?D United Nations Organisation
J'E United States oI America
They are not used where the initials oI a standard work oI reIerence are
used as an abbreviated title:
DKI OxIord English Dictionary
I?9 Dictionary oI National Biography
1=&E Papers oI the Modern Languages Association
The comma is used to show a slight pause in a sentence. It helps to
clariIy the sense oI statements and to prevent ambiguity. It separates the
items in lists: The box contained a book, some pencils, and a knife. Opin-
ions diIIer on the need Ior the Iinal comma in such examples. II the items are
all oI the same kind, it can usually be omitted. II they are not, it is usually saIer
to retain the comma. The comma also separates two clauses when the Iirst is
not closely associated with the second: She is a famous singer, whilst her
husband remains unknown. It introduces a pause where the eye might oth-
erwise continue and mistake the sense oI what is written: In the vallev be-
low, the villages looked small. It separates a sequence oI adjectives which
qualiIy a noun: e was an arrogant, pompous fellow. owever, when the
adjectives are oI a diIIerent order or type, no comma is necessary: e was a
distinguished foreign visitor. The comma marks the start and Iinish oI a
parenthetical phrase within a sentence: / am quite sure, despite mv reserva-
tions, that hes the best man.
Brackets are used to insert a word or a phrase into a sentence (Most of
the suspects (seven in all) were questioned bv the police). The words
inserted between brackets are usually an explanation or an illustration. The
rules oI the usage oI brackets are such:
Ho-n% 3(#)7ets are used to represent an aside or an extra piece oI
inIormation which is closely related to the main subject oI the
sentence.
- Goodwin argues that Thompson's policies (which he clearly dis-
likes) would only increase the problem.
38 39
'8-#(e 3(#)7ets are used to indicate that something is being added by
the author. This is usually Ior clariIication or comment.
- The reporter added that the woman |Mrs Wood| had suIIered
severe injuries.
- A mother wrote that her son was 'Iritened |sic| to go to school'.
When brackets are used at the end oI a sentence, the Iull stop Ialls
outside the bracket (like this).
Statements inside brackets should be grammatically separate Irom the
sentence. That is, the sentence should be complete, even iI the contents
oI the brackets are removed.
- The republican senator (who was visiting London Ior a minor op
eration) also attended the degree ceremony.
II a quotation contains a mistake in the original you can indicate that the
error is not your own. This is indicated by the use oI square brackets.
- The senior government minister who was recently acquitted oI
kerb-crawling claimed that at long last his 'trails |sic| and tribula
tions' were at an end.
The expressions within brackets should be kept as brieI as possible, so
#s not to interrupt the Ilow oI the sentence.
The use oI brackets should be kept to a minimum. II used too Irequently,
they create a choppy, unsettling eIIect.
The dash is used to indicate a sudden change oI thought, an additional
:omment, or a dramatic qualiIication: Tlmt was the end of the matter - or m
we thought. Dashes can also be used to insert a comment or a list o, things:
Everything - Iurniture, paintings, and books - survived the Iire.
The exclamation mark indicates surprise, gladness, irritation, despair,
indignation, anger, alarm and other Ieelings and emotions: The ship is sink-
ing' Jump in the lifeboat' When the exclamation mark is put at the end oI #
sentence, the nature oI which is not exclamatory, it may express the speak-
er's irony, sorrow, nostalgia and other shades oI modality. Exclamation marks
should be used with restraint. The more Irequently they occur, the weaker
becomes their eIIect.
The interroative mark is used to show that a question has been raised:
Whv is that woman staring at us?
The hyphen is a short dash which connects words or parts oI words. y-
phens Iorm derivatives and compounds: re-enter, co-operate, multistorv, son-
in-law, president-elect. There are some peculiarities in the usage oI hyphens:
r yphens should be used where it is necessary to avoid ambiguity:
t"o5ye#(5ol% )#ts t"o ye#(5ol% )#ts
They should also be used to distinguish terms which are spelled identical
ly, but which have diIIerent meanings:
(e,o(/#ton change Ior the better
(e5,o(/#ton to Iorm again
(e)o2e( to regain control
(e5)o2e( to cover again
(es!n to stand down
(e5s!n to sign again
yphens are used when new terms are Iormed Irom compounds, but
they are dropped when the compound is accepted into common usage.
(This process is usually more rapid in the USA than in Europe.)
3#th5t-3 3oo75shel, )l-35ho-se
3#tht-3 3oo7shel, )l-3ho-se
This phenomenon is currently visible in computer technology, where all
three Iorms oI a term may co-exist:
:o(% .(o)esso(
:o(%5.(o)esso(
:o(%.(o)esso(
Remember that the hyphen is not the same thing as the longer dash. A
distinction between the two is commonly made in the US, but not in the U.
The oblique stroke is used to separate items in a list: oilwater mix,
italicRoman tvpe, KentSurrev boundarv, 200304, etc.
~ The oblique stroke should not be used as a substitute Ior words such
as #n%, .l-s, and o(.
Try to avoid the ethe(Lo( construction and such lazy (and ugly) com-
pounds as M#n ent(e so)#lLse*-#lL%eolo!)#l syste/;.
The oblique stroke might be useIul when taking notes, but it should be
avoided in Iormal writing Ior the sake oI elegance.
Suspension marks are typically used to signiIy emotional pauses oI the
speaker. They reIlect such inner states oI people as uncertainty, conIusion or
nervousness. They also create a stylistic device oI aposiopesis.
40 41
The colon is used to introduce a strong pause within a sentence. It NO
inticipate a list oI things: The car has a number of optional extras, oof. tinted
windows, rear seat belts, and electricallv operated vrs. The colon separates two
clauses which could stand alone as separate cntences, but which are linked by
some relationship in meaning: Mv brotheA ikes oranges. Mv sister hates them.
The colon is used beIore a long q ion or a speech: Speaking at Caesar s funeral.
Anthonv addressed the rowd. "Friends. Romans, count rvmen...". It is also used
beIore a clause vhich explains the previous statement: The school is highlv
regarded. identic standards are high, the staff are pleasant, and the student ov
going there. The colon can provide emphasis or create dramatic eIIect:
r
here can
be onlv one reason for this problem. Johns total incompem
it can precede an illustration: The vase contained beautiful fh oses. tulips,
and daffodils. It can separate the title and the sub-title oI # look or an article:
Magical Realism. Latin-American fiction todav.
The semicolon is halI way between a comma and a colon. It marl lause which
is longer than a comma, but not as long as a colon. Semicolon! re used between
clauses which could stand alone, but which are ci elated and have some logical
connection. They punctuate lists oI things in ontinuous prose writing: Neither of
us spoke we merelv waited / ihat would happen. e usuallv took great care
even so he made a rrors. Four obfects lav on the desk. a large book a spiral-
bounded otepad a glass vase containing flowers. and a silver propelling pern il.
Semicolons help to avoid ambiguity in sentences composed oI phras liIIerent
length and a mixed content: The Chairman welcomed the President, Dr Garvev
the ice-President Mr. Bamcroft and his wife. several delegates from the United
States and members of the public who had ~een invited to attend.
~ Because the semicolon may be used instead oI a Iull stop, some people use
it without discrimination. They connect clause aIter clause with
semicolons where no real link exists between them. This creates
grammatical conIusion and very poor style.
The apostrophe is a raised comma. It is used to show possession (mv wthers
house, anvbodvs guess) and to punctuate contractions (Theres ohodv here.
Wheres Freddv? Dont fence me tin.
2
!apital letters are stylistically used to show the importance oI particular
words. They are always used Ior proper nouns, at the start oI sentences, and Ior
places and events oI a public nature.
?9G Avoid continuous capitals. TEY LOO ERY UNSIGTLY AND
ARE ARD TO READ.
Capitals are used to denote the names oI particular or special things.
days oI the week Wednesday, >(%#y
places K#st En!l#
rivers the (2e( Mersey
buildings the T#te P#lle(y
institutions the $#thol) $h-()h
Iirms 9(tsh Ee(os.#)e
organisations the ?#ton#l T(-st
months oI the year E.(l, 'e.te/3e(
owever, when such terms are used as adjectives or in a general sense, no
capital is required:
the Qn! R#/es 93leL# 33l)#l (e,e(en)e
D*,o(% Jn2e(styL# -n2e(sty e%-)#ton
the .(esent Po2e(n/entL!o2e(n/ents sn)e @STU Capitals are used
when describing intellectual movements or periods oI history:
>(e-%#n 1l#tons/
$#(tes#n the =%%le E!es
the He,o(/#ton The Knl!hten/ent
They are also used in the titles oI books, plays, Iilms, newspapers, magazines,
songs, and works oI art in general. The normal convention is to capitalise the
Iirst word and any nouns or important terms. Smaller words such as 'and', 'oI,
and 'the' are leIt uncapitalised:
E Ve" ,(o/ the 9(%!e
The =#yo( o, $#ste(3(%!e
?o(th 3y ?o(th"est
The =#((#!e o, >!#(o Notice the diIIerence between the same term
used in a general and a particular sense:
The )hl%(en;s Jn)le >(e% s se2enty.
The( -n)le s the ol%est n the ,#/ly.
43
Common nouns begin with capital letters in case oI metaphoric personi-
cation (/:. Music comes into mv house). All the letters oI a
word-combination or a sentence may be capitalized to make these language
mphatic. All language units also become expressive when their ii :tter
are capitalized. The same eIIect can be achieved by the usag
1
italic
type) - a special kind oI type which graphically makes line. mspicuous
and noticeable: aaabbi
Text segmentation means the division oI texts into smaller segments:
aragraphs. chapters, sections and others. Some oI the segments start with
verlines (headings or headline`
A paragraph is a group o( sentences which deal with one topic
xpre completed idea or thought. The sentences in ,
japhs are related to each other to produce an eIIect oI unity. Paragrap
ised to divide a long piece oI writing into separate sections. They give rh
'ariety and pace to
~ The Iollowing example is the deIinition oI a par
The central thought or main controlling idea of a paragraph is -s-#HR
onveyed in what is called a topic sentence. This crucial sentence .
states, summa: -leariy expresses the main theme, is the keystone oI
well-built paragraph. The topic sentence may come anywhere in the
graph, though most logically and in most cases it is the Iirst sentence
immediately tells readers what is coming, and leaves them in no doubt the
overall controlling idea. In a very long paragraph, the initial topic senlen
may even be restated or given a more signiIicant emphasis in its conclusit
The recommended structure oI
Iollows, |it is rather like a mini-
plete essay.|
- The opening topic senter
- A Iuller explanation oI the topic sentence Supporting
sentences which explain its signiIicance
- The discussion oI examples or evidence
- A concluding or link sentence
The start oI a new paragraph is usually signalled by eitiier a doub.
between lines, or by indenting the Iirst line oI the new paragraph.
ery short paragraphs are oIten used in literary writing Ior stylistic eIIect.
One oI the most Iamous examples oI this device comes Irom the Bible
|John 11:351.
When Jesus thereIore saw her weeping, and the Jews also
weeping which came with her, he groaned in the spirit, and was
troubled. And said, Where have ye laid him They said unto
him, Lord, come and see.
Jesus wept.
The longer the paragraph, the more demands it makes on the reader.
The last sentence in a paragraph is oIten used to provide a link to the next.
The Iollowing example |written by E. M. Forster| shows the skilIul use
oI an attention-grabbing Iirst sentence, and a concluding sentence which
whets the reader's appetite to know more about the subject:
John Skelton was an East Anglian: he was a poet, also a clergyman, and
he was extremely strange. Partly strange because the age in which he Ilour-
ished - that oI the early Tudors - is remote Irom us, and diIIicult to interpret.
But he was also a strange creature personally, and whatever you think oI him
when we've Iinished - and you will possibly think badly oI him - you will
agree that we have been in contact with someone unusual.
Cfmpters and sections are major text segments. They may be compared
with Iragments oI mosaic, which Iorm the whole picture when put together.
A heading is the name oI a text or its segment. It tends to disclose the
plot oI narration. It should be garish and catching in order to attract the poten-
tial reader's attraction.
Text segmentation is just one oI the components oI lavout. Layout is the
physical organization oI a text on the page, the screen, or any other medium
oI written communication. It reIers to the visual conventions oI arranging
texts to assist reading and comprehension. Good layout includes eIIective use
oI the Iollowing common Ieatures: page margins, paragraphs, fustifica-
tion, tvpe stvle, italics, capitals, indentation, line spacing, centering, tvpe
s
ke, bold, underlining. There are particular conventions oI layout in each
Iunctional style. Some oI conventions are based purely on the Iunction oI the
text, and some on tradition. The modern trend is towards layout which results
m Iast and easy reading oI the page. Layout complements content in eIIicient
communication. It Iacilitates the reading and the comprehensibility oI the text.
A
readers are aIIected by these conventions, even though they may not be
aw
are oI them.
44 45
CHAPTER 6
Stylistic Se(asil$y "e#ic)
se(antic Stylistic De*ices
>!-(es D, '-3stt-ton
"#$%R&' (" '%B'T#T%T#()
HW1KH9D&K
*yperbole is a deliberate exaeration of a certain +uality of an
ob,ect or phenomenon.
Assined features. yperbole can be expressed by all notional parts oI
speech. The most typical cases oI expression are: by pronouns (all, everv,
evervbodv, evervthing) by numerical nouns (a million, a thousand) 3y
adverbs oI time (ever, never). In Ukrainian the ways oI expression are such:
by pronouns (, , , , (), r, r, r) by
numerical nouns (, , ) by intensiIying adverbs
(r, u, ) by adverbs oI time, place (r,
, m).
yperbole may be the Iinal eIIect oI other stylistic devices: metaphor,
similie, irony. !ommunicative function. yperbole mounts the
expressiveness oI speech. &xamples-
Marv was scared to death.
Sam would eive the world to see Dave again.
I beg a thousand pardons.
Pete knows evervbodv in the town.
Everv single rascal tries to cheat the public here.
It was so noisv inside that vou couldnt hear vourself think.
A ... e
u, ' T ue.
B e, .
T e r .
B . B r
u. B u m .
T r ,
r uu.
=K0D'0'
This fiure of +uantity is opposite in meanin to hyperbole. .eiosis is a
deliberate diminution of a certain +uality of an ob,ect or phenomenon.
Assined features. Meiosis underlines insigniIicance oI such qualities oI
objects and phenomena as their size, volume, distance, time, shape, etc.
The domain oI meiosis is colloquial speech. !ommunicative function.
Meiosis makes speech expressive. &xamples-
There was a drop of water left in the bucket.
it was a cat-sie ponv.
August can do the fob in a second.
Carv and Janes house is one minute from here.
The guv is so disgusting' e is a real microbe.
r ?
3 . B e e,
r , .
47
LITOTES
/itotes is a specific variant of meiosis.
Assigned features. Litotes has a peculiar syntactic structure. It is a
:ombination oI the negative particle "not" and a word with negative meaning
)r a negative preIix. Such a combination makes positive sense: "not bad"
neans "good", "not unkind" means "kind", etc.
Litotes is used in all Iunctional styles oI English.
Communicative functions. Litotes extenuats positive qualities oI objects or
phenomena. It makes statements and judgments sound delicate and diplo-
matic. It also expresses irony.
&xamples-
After the brawl Julia was not dissatisfied with herself
Martin is not without sense of humour.
The decision was not unreasonable.
The venture was not impossible.
Johns behaviour was not disrespectful.
B rme r
r.
B, , .
H , r e mr, r
r e, e u
r , r m.
=KTD?W=W
.etonymy is transference of a name of one ob,ect to another ob,ect.
.etonymic transference of names is based upon the principle of conti0
uity of the t1o ob,ects.
Assigned features. As a rule, metonymy is expressed by nouns, less Ire-
quently - by substantivized numerals. That is why the syntactic Iunctions and
positions oI metonymic words are those oI the subject, object and predicative.
Classification. Metonymy may be lexical and contextual (genuine).
&e*)#l /etony/y is a source oI creating new words or new meanings:
tables leg, teapots nose, a hand (instead oI a worker), the press (instead
oI people writing for newspapers), grave (instead oI death), the cradle
(instead oI infancv), etc. Such metonymic meanings are registered in dictio-
H H
naries. It is obvious that lexical metonymy is devoid oI stylistic inIormation.
$onte*t-#l /etony/y is the result oI unexpected substitution oI one word
Ior another in speech. It is Iresh and expressive:
This pair of whiskers is a convinced scoundrel. Communicative
functions. Stylistic metonymy builds up imagery, points out
this or another Ieature oI the object described, and makes speech eco-
nomical. .ore examples-
The sword is the worst argument in a situation like that.
The other voice shook his head and went awav.
The messenger was followed bv a pair of heavv boots.
The fish swallowed her death and the float went down.
I wish vou had Garvs ears and Jacks eves.
Linda gave her heart to the grocers voung man.
O e r .
, .
B K .
H u .
Ue , u, ,
m?
A e, e,
m, r, .
~ /etony/y
Metonymy can be seen as a speciIic kind oI symbolism by which the
most essential component oI the subject is abstracted to represent it.
This component acts as a single symbol Ior something larger and usually
more complex.
For instance, a crown is the most essential material component oI the
trappings oI royalty, and so it serves well in representing the whole sys-
tem oI monarchy.
Similarly, the stage is a material component oI acting as a proIession. This
too serves to represent symbolically something abstract and dynamic.
The 'cloth' symbolises the religious proIession, and the 'bar' represents
the legal proIession. Both these items are essential material objects and
are used to reIer to the abstract concept oI a proIession.
49
In a statement such as 'Shakespeare depicts monarchs as human' the
name is actually symbolising the total collection oI his works. This Iorm
oI metonymy is useIul as a very graphic kind oI shorthand.
This pragmatic explanation could also apply to the example oI 'Whitehall
announced today ...', although we could ascribe more political and even
ulterior Iunctions to this usage. |Remember, 'Whitehall' represent the
civil service in the U.|
To reIer to Whitehall as having issued a statement is to generalise the
source oI the communication. This may be in the political interest oI the
Establishment. It is a Iorm oI social control to promote an image oI a
corporate mass oI civil servants, rather than suggesting that one person
or even a small hierarchical group makes signiIicant and powerIul
decisions.
Whitehall as a material location stands Ior something abstract, in this
case an institution. This symbolic use depersonalises the source oI the
statement, perhaps thereby giving it more authority.
This political interpretation is merely speculation, but the mechanical anal-
ysis oI metonymy as a symbolic device stands on Iirmer ground.
|Pedants who collect terms enjoy distinguishing metonymy Irom synech-
doche, which is its Iigurative bedIellow.|
SYNECDOCE
This variety oI metonymy is realized in two variants. The Iirst variant is
namin the 1hole ob,ect by mentionin part of it-
Caroline lives with Jack under the same roof (under the same roof -
in the same house).
The second variant oI synecdoche is using the name of the whole ob-
fect to denote a constituent part of this ob,ect-
The hall applauded (the hall the people inside).
.ore examples-
The school went to the oo.
ere comes another beard.
The blue suit bowed and left the room.
Tfie museum spoke of the past.
Its October now. Rummers rose no more.
C, m m mm.
'D @
e .
B , u .
.
H , -
'
~ syne)%o)he
In the expression 'All hands on deck!', the term 'hands' stands Ior 'mar-
iners'.
The term 'hand' has been chosen to represent the whole expression
'able-bodied seaman' |or in PC (politically correct) terms 'sea-person'|
because that is the most important Ieature required Ior work on deck.
In the expression 'United won the match', the term 'United' (in the case
oI Manchester United Football Club) might not appear to be the most
important or essential item to represent the whole.
owever, Manchester has two Iootball teams the other being Manches-
ter City Football Club. A supporter oI MUFC would thereIore be select-
ing the one important linguistic Ieature which distinguished his team Irom
the other Iootball club.
The parts oI the name 'Manchester' and 'Football Club' would be im-
plied by the speaker, and understood by the listener.
1KH01HHE'0'
This variety of metonymy is the replacement of a direct name of a
thin or phenomenon by the description of some +uality of this thin or
phenomenon.
Assigned features. Periphrasis intensiIies a certain Ieature oI the object
described. It stands close to metonymy because it is one more way to
rename objects.
Classification. There are such types oI periphrasis as logical and Iigu-
rative. &o!)#l .e(.h(#ss is based upon one oI the inherent properties oI
the object:
weapons instruments of destruction
love the most pardonable of human weaknesses
K u
51
2345678 0 9:;5<78 =>4 =>;?3 ;: 7@:4>= 234A @7B74:C
D8 6A @7;AEA 9 6A2: =74:C F47GH
,!-(#t2e .e(.h(#ss is based upon metaphor or metonymy:
to marry X to tie the knot FmetaphorHI enthusiast X youn blood FmetonymyHI
money J mot of evil FmetaphorH.
Communicative functions. Besides rendering stylistic inIormation, periphrasis
perIorms a cognitive Iunction: it deepens our knowledge oI the objective
world.
Wore examples-
cotton X 1hite old J 2>KA 97K7;7I
furs X soft old X . LD8A 97K7;7I
la1yer X a entleman of the lon robe X KM456: 3 N:6;>OI
1omen J the better FfairH sex X 8?:G: F@?A8?:P6:H P;:;QI
medical men J people in 1hite o1ns J KM45 3 2>K5R R:K:;:RI
ordinary person X a man in the street J KM456: 9 =3K5S>I
1ife X my better half X N7D 8?:G: @7K7=56:I
policeman J uardian of public order J 7R7?76ASQ @?:=7@7?D483.
oil J black old J E7?6A 97K7;7I
TU5B3K58TC N:23;QC :V ;A@A? =>4E3=<5 P=7O ?:65C 9:=745;5PD
6A 9:R7;>=C > W8KD? @7;?MR58:= 47 ?5687=7O @K7G> P@7P727N
X4:N: > Y=5. ;72;7 @><85.
KJ1HK=0'=
#t is a 1ord or 1ord0combination 1hich is used to replace an unpleasantly
soundin 1ord or 1ord0combination.
Assigned features. Euphemism might be viewed as periphrasis: they have the
same mechanism oI Iormation. Strictly speaking, euphemisms are not stylistic
devices but expressive means oI language: most oI them are registered in
dictionaries.
Classification. Euphemisms may be classiIied according to the spheres oI
their application and grouped the Iollowing way:
@. Hel!o-s e-.he/s/sY devil J the dickensC the deuceC old )ickI $od X
/ordC AlmihtyC *eavenC oodness. Z7?; X K38:=5[C 6AE5P;5[C 6AE5P;:
P5K:C 6AE5P;5[ 43RC 9K5[ 43RC K5R5[ 43RC 43R ;QN5 F@>;QN5HC 43R
;AN67;5C 43R NK5C K5R5[C E7?65[C E7?6: P5K:I ;7[C G7 6A @?7;5 67E>
9B:43=:;5I \7B X ]PA=5<6>[C =PAP5KQ65[C ;=7?ASQ.
^. =o(#l e-.he/s/sY to die to be gone, to expire, to be no .more,
to depart, to decease, to o west, to foin the maforitv, to pass aw
dead d, departed, late a 1hore a woman of a certain tvpe
an obscenity a four-letter word. _7NA?;5 , ,
), @?AP;:=5;5PDC ,
47 . NA?;=5[ , r
7?AR: ;5 e , e, ,
, em 8?:P;5 u
. e r P;:?5[ m e .
@?7P;5;3;85 e u
B7?>K8: e, , , eu , 6
: r, e.
2le%)#l e-.he/s/sY lunatic asylum J mental hospitalC mad
house. idiots mentallv abnormal, low, medium and high-grade mental
cripple invalid insane J person of unsound mind.
\7VA=5ON<`@P5R>:;?5E6: K>8:?6D u ,
r O 43?A6Q , , 6A
;DV87 R=7?>;5 .
4. 1olt)#l e-.he/s/sY starvation 0 undernourishmentI revoltC
revolution 5 Z, poor people less fortunate elements absence of
1aes and salaries delav in pavment profit savings. W;?:[8
VA2?:8 J =5B6:;5 J =8:9:;5 6:
2A9@K:;67
2>46>P;Q - e .
Communicative function. Euphemisms make speech more polite, cultured,
delicate, acceptable in a certain situation.
?ote. Euphemisms have their antipodes which might be called %s.he/s/s.
aisphemisms are conspicuously rouhC rude and impolite 1ords and
word-combinations. The speaker disphemisms to express his n.
alive emotions, such as irritation, spue hate, scorn, mockery, animosity. ere are
some oI them:
to die to kick the buckt
to urinate to pi
a $erman soldier FW. W. ##H krauthead ero
kinkv-hc
to treat someone badlyC unf.

~e someone die finger

72K5EED N7?4:C , ,
b^ 53
, , e
.
=KTE1HDH
Metaphor is the second Iigure oI quality. Metaphor, like metonvmv, is also
the result of transference of the name of one ob,ect to another ob,ect. *o1everC
metaphoric transference is of different nature- it is based upon similarity of the
ob,ects Fnot contiuityH.
Classification. The nature oI metaphor is versatile, and metaphors may be
classiIied according to a number oI principles.
1. According to the pragmatic eIIect produced upon the addressee met
aphors are subdivided into trite (or dead) and genuine (or original). Ie#%
/et#.ho(s are Iixed in dictionaries. They oIten sound banal and hackneyed,
like cliches:
to prick up ones ears the apple of ones eve to burn with desire
seeds of evil a flight of imagination floods of tears

em e e . D(!n#l /et#.ho(s
are not registered in dictionaries. They are created in speech by speakers'
imagination. They sound Iresh and expressive, unexpected and unpredictable:
Some books are to be tasted, others swallowed, and some few to be
chewed and digested.
We all want a little patching and repairing from time to time.
The wind was a torrent of darkness among the gustv trees.
3 , -
.
r e e r ,
B m - r, e. 3 r .
e m e. C. r .
. C , , ,
e e, e H
r, u e . .
r. m.
2. According to the degree oI their stylistic potential metaphors are clas
siIied into nominational. )o!nt2e and /#!n#t2e (or ,!-(#t2eC. ?o/5
4n#ton#&/et#.ho(s do not render any stylistic inIormation. They are intended
to name new objects or phenomena oI the objective world. A nomina-metaphor is
a purely technical device oI nomination, when a new notion imed by means oI the
old vocabulary:
the arm of the chain the foot of the hill, r , . m,
u, , e , e e,
. Nominational metaphor is a source oI lexical homonymy. When an
object obtains a quality which is typical oI another object, cognitive /et#.ho( is
Iormed: One more dav has died.
rttv idea has come to me. The road lead
Jack there. The sight took Johns attention.
The shore was drowning in the fog.
. , r. H
, r . U u, snoev
e. Being a source oI lexical polysemy, cognitive metaphors do not
possess great stylistic value.
The most expressive kind oI metaphor is /#!n#t2e /et#.ho(. Imag-
inative metaphors are occasional and individual. They are bright, image-bearing,
picturesque and poetic:
Patricias eves were pools of still water.
Time was bleeding awav.
If there is enough rain, the land will shout with grass.
O K.
, e, u.
, , .r.
U cm m.
, e .
e , .
. . 3. Metaphors may be also classiIied according to
their structure (or according to complexity oI image created). There are such
metaphors as s/.le (or elementary) and .(olon!e% (or sustained). E s/.le
/et#.ho( consists oI a single word or word-combination expressing indiscrete
notion:
The leaves were falling sorrowfullv.
+4 55
A good book is the best of friends.
The wind was a torrent of darkness.
U .
e e. H . A s-st#ne%
/et#.ho( appears in cases when a word which has been
lsed metaphorically makes other words oI the sentence or paragraph also
ealize their metaphoric meanings:
The average New Yorker is caught in a Machine. e whirls along, he is
div, he is helpless. If he resists, the Machine will mangle him. If he
does not resist, it will dae him first with its glittering reiterations so
that when the mangling comes he is past knowing. u
, u e, m
, e , ,
.
, r ,
. e ,
, - ,
e . 3u ,
e, ,
. I r u u ,
. . In Iact, a sustained metaphor is
a sequence oI simple metaphors, most oI
vhich are cognitive. This chain oI simple metaphors unIolds the meaning oI
he Iirst, initial metaphor.
Communicative functions. Metaphor is one oI the most powerIul means
I creating images. Its main Iunction is aesthetic. Its natural sphere oI usage
s poetry and elevated prose.
Additional features. Canonized metaphors tend to become svmbols. A
symbol is an object which stands Ior something else. It is a reIerence in
ipeech or in writing which is made to stand Ior ideas, Ieehngs, events, or
xmditions. A symbol is usually something tangible or concrete which evokes
omething abstract. The Iollowing are standard symbols in the context oI
English and Ukrainian cultures:
the rose often stands for love, the dove stands for peace, the crosi
stands for Christianitv, the red colour stands for passion, the at spades
stands for death.
+,
/et#.ho(s
It's useIul to see the concept oI metaphor as part oI a scale which runs
Irom the literal to the non-literal use oI language.
A literal statement is one which reIers to the actual material world in
plain terms. For instance 'This table is made oI wood'.
At the other extreme, and in the words oI a popular song, we Imd the
statement:
'The sun is a big yellow duster, polishing the blue, blue sky'
This makes a much bigger demand on our imagination and on our willing-
ness to step outside the rational, literal world.
This metaphor can be analysed as Iollows. The sun is being compared to
a duster. This idea is interesting because dusters are oIten yellow like the
sun. Further, just as the sun appears to move in the sky, removing grey
clouds, a duster moves to polish a surIace and clear it oI dust. In the con-
text oI a pop song, the idea is witty and entertaining in a lighthearted way.
Contrast this more serious metaphor:
Now does he Ieel
is Iilthy murders sticking on his hands
This is Irom Macbeth. The image is extremely vivid as the murderer's
sense oI guilt is conveyed to the audience by combining the abstract guilt
and the material sticky blood.
Metaphor is extremely economic communication. Several layers oI mean-
ing can be conveyed at the same time.
Advertisers make eIIective use oI metaphor and other images because
they have a restricted amount oI space, and this space is very costly. A
phrase such as 'the sunshine breakIast' is more eIIective than a state-
ment which might read: 'ave our cereal Ior your breakIast and you'll
enjoy it. It will give you energy and nutrition because the corn's been
grown in a sunny climate.'
K10THKT
&pithets are such attributes 1hich describe ob,ects expressively.
Assigned features. It is essential to diIIerentiate between lo!)#l #t5
t(3-tes and e.thets .(o.e(. &o!)#l #tt(3-tes are objective and non-
evaluating:
57
a round table, green meadows, next dav, second bov, loud voice, 1 e
, , r , , r ,
, , e m, ,
, e . They have nothing to do with stylistics. K.thets
.(o.e( are subjective and evaluating, mostly metaphorical. These qualities
make epithets expressive:
loud ocean, wild wind, glorious sight, irresistible charm, crav behaviour.
Classification. Epithets may be classiIied on the basis oI their semantic and
structural properties. Semantically, epithets Iall into two groups: epithets
associated with the nouns modiIied and epithets not associated with the nouns
modiIied. Esso)#te% e.thets point out typical Ieatures oI the objects which
they describe. Such typical Ieatures are implied by the meaning oI the nouns
themselves:
if forest, then - dark if
attention, then - careful if
seas, then - saltv if tears, then
- bitter if skv, then blue
e , , r , , r
, , , e , ,
r, e .
Jn#sso)#te% e.thets ascribe such qualities to objects which are not
inherent in them. As a result oI this, metaphors emerge Iresh, unexpected,
original and expressive:
voiceless sands, helpless loneliness, thirstv deserts, blank face, mur derous
weather, e , , r , , r
e, u, , e , ,
e, e . Unassociated epithets may be called
"speech epithets" because they are created right in the process oI
communication.
Esso)#te% e.thets are mostly language epithets. Their use with cer-
tain nouns has become traditional and stable. Thus, they are language-as-aJ
system elements.
As to their structural composition, epithets are divided into s/.le, )o/5
.o-n%, .h(#s#l and )l#-s#l. '/.le e.thets are ordinary adjectives:
magnificent sight, tremendous pressure, overwhelming occupation,
58
u, e , e , e,
, , e , e .
$o/.o-n% e.thets are expressed by compound adjectives:
mischief-making pupil, curlv-headed bov, heart-burning desire,
- , ,
, e , e m.
.h(#s#l e.thets are expressed by word-combinations oI quotation type:
dn-it-vour self command, go-to-devil request, head-to-toe beautv,
- em , u
.
$l#-s#l e.thets are expressed by sentences:
J-don t-want-to-do-it feeling, 1-did-it-mvself statement, "
", " m", " um",
" re". u " ".
E?TD?D=E'0E
This variety of metaphor is based upon the principle of identifica0
tion of human beins 1ith thins 1hich surround them. People may be
identiIied with other people, with animals, with inanimate objects and natural
phenomena.
When the speaker resorts to antonomasia, he creates the so-called "talk-
ing names" which aim at depicting certain traits oI human character: moral
and psychological Ieatures, peculiarities oI behaviour, outlook, etc.:
John is a real Romeo.
The Snake entered the room (instead oI Marv entered the room).
Yesterdav Jack came across Miss Careless again.
Sam is the Napoleon of crime.
I havent seen the Pimple of late.
B , U--Cm'
Kum , .
H e , eu , u
.
H 3, u m ?
B r , e '
H me , m
.
SQ
PERSONIFICATION IRONY
When the speaker ascribes human behaviourC thouhts and actions
to inanimate ob,ectsC he resorts to the stvlistic device of personification.
In the book Alfred found Love which was hiding herself between
the pages.
Lie is a strange creature, and a verv mean one.
The nipht was creeping towards the travelers.
B m m, e,
, m, ,
r ?
3 r u-e, e e
.
H e
e e ,
m. u , e,
, e .
Co u. B
e.
ALLEGORY
"actuallyC alleory is antonomasia. The only difference bet1een
them lies in their usae- the domain of alleory is not a sentence but the
1hole text Fa loically completed narration of facts or eventsH.
There are allegoric tales and Iables, stories and novels. Completely alle-
goric are such Iables by I. rylov as "Elephant and mongrel", "Donkey!
and nightingale", "Monkey and spectacles". Allegoric Iables are not about ,
elephants, dogs and donkeys. They are about people who behave like
these animals:
e Be, , m. C.
B, B .
C m , eu. A BIH
m. f...J "e ,
B". - e .
This fiure of +uality is realiced 1hen the speaker intentionally
breaks the principle of sincerity of speech. Ironically used words acquire
meanings opposite to their primary language meanings:
ironical good means bad, enough means not enough, pleased means
displeased, etc.
Assigned features. Though irony is a contextual stylistic device, there exist
words and word-combinations which convey ironical meaning out oI context:
too clever bv half, a voung hopeful, head cook and bottle washer, to
orate, to oratorie.
ID order to help the addressee decode irony the speaker oIten resorts to
appropriate intonation and gestures.
Communicative function. Irony is generally used to convey a negative meaning
or emotion: irritation, regret, dissatisIaction, disappointment, displeasure, etc.
.ore examples-
What a noble illustration of the tender laws of this.
Favoured countrv' - thev let the paupers go to sleep'
Cutting off chickens heeds' Such a fascinating process to watch.
It must be delightful to find oneself in a foreign countrv without a
pennv in ones pocket.
Thank vou verv much for trumping mv ace'
B , " m " .
Ar, , .
Cr , u .
Bm, ue e.
r. .
~ irony
There are various types oI irony. They have in common the adoption oI
a distance Irom the subject Ior satirical or critical eIIect.
A speaker might take up an opponent's argument and then exaggerate it
to reveal its weaknesses. This is Socratic irony.
Writers or speakers might pretend to hold opinions which are the exact
opposite oI what they truly believe. |The reader or listener must be alert
and skillIul to avoid being drawn into a trap.|
61
Dramatic irony occurs when the audience at a play know something oI
which the characters on stage are ignorant |the lover hidden in the next
room|.
Irony is oIten classed as a Iorm oI humour, along with sarcasm and
satire. These do not necessarily evoke laughter, but rather a wry shrug
or assent to the idea that the received world picture has been disturbed.
PRACTICAL ASSIGNMENT
Ex. I. Pick out figures of substitution, classifv them
and define their stvlistic functions.
1. Christina's love is hungry: it swallows every penny Bert oIIers. 2.
The mpty shell oI the Embassy Irightened Philip. 3. Mary was a large dark
moth, e wings liIted, ready to Ily. 4. One more truck had passed by, Iull oI
mous-aches and beards. 5. Rambos are necessary in ictoria's business. 6.
Dance nusic was bellowing Irom the open door. 7. Dismal and rainy day
emerged Irom the womb oI the night. 8. Some remarkable pictures in the
gallery: a Petrov-odkin, two an Dycks and an Aivazovsky. 9. Stoney smiled
the sweet smile oI an alligator. 10. Edward's Iamily is a couple oI aunts a
thousand years old. 11. It was not unwise to behave like that. 12. The girl gave
Jacob a , Lipsticky smile. 13. Jenny is the size oI a peanut. 14. A spasm oI high-
voltage nervousness ran through Diana. 15. Don't move the tiniest part oI
an inch!
16. Bernard had an overwhelming belieI in the brains and hearts oI his nation.
17. England has two eyes - OxIord and Cambridge. 18. Money burns a hole in
ray pocket. 19. Every Caesar has his Brutus.
Ex. II. Recognie metaphors and classifv them.
I. The moon held a Iinger to her lips and the lake became pale and quiet.
2. Beauty is a Ilower. 3. The sun ray on the wall above Pete slowly kniIes ,
down, cuts across his chest, becomes a coin on the Iloor and vanishes. 4. That,
great kind man had taken Becky under his wing. 5. Spring will come again ,
with her sweet Iresh air creeping in. 6. Carol was already Iamiliar with the
geography oI the house. 7. There, at the very core oI London, in the heart oI
its business, in the midst oI a whirl oI noise stands Newgate. 8. The sight took!
Bobby's attention. 9. Mirabel was a wonderIul cook. 10. The ghost oI a smile J
62
Assined features. Simile should not be conIused with logical compar-
ison which is devoid oI any stylistic meaning. The sentence "John can run
as fast as Jack" contains purely logical conIrontation oI two objects. ere
are some more examples oI logical comparison:
John is older than Sam.
John behaves like his father.
John is not so heavv as Sam.
C, B m, .
u .
I 3 , r. -. !lassification. Simile may
be expressed by means oI the Iollowing structural variants:
1. Conjunctions as or like.
Rosa is as beautiful as a flower. Paula is like a fairv.
2. Adverbial clauses oI comparison (conjunctions as, as if, as though).
Robin looked at Sibil as a mouse might look at a cat.
iola behaves as if she were a child.
3. Adjectives in the comparative degree: Rov behaved worse than a cut-
throat.
4. Adverbial word-combinations containing prepositional attributes:
With the quickness of a cat, Samuel climbed up the tree.
5. Simile may be implied, having no Iormal indications oI comparison:
Odette had a strange resemblance to a captive bird.
Conjunctions oI comparison in the Ukrainian language are the Iollowing:
, , , , , , , , ,
, r., r., etc..
3u-r em, u, m,
m um, , ,
, r
r. , .
O - , - , e - .
e , H m Hm .
B , r u m,
u e m e Br. Bu
eu . Hm um
u .
64
...O -m.
. Communicative function. Simile is one oI the most Irequent and
eIIective means oI making speech expressive. The more unexpected the
conIrontation oI two objects is, the more expressive sounds simile.
s/les
A simile requires less oI an imaginative leap than does a metaphor. A simile
states that A is like B, whereas a metaphor suggests that A actually is B.
The simile is one component oI imagery. This is the process oI evoking
ideas, people, places, Ieelings and various other connections in a vivid
and eIIective way.
Imagery is used in both written and spoken communication in many variet-
ies oI Iorm, Irom advertising to poetry and Irom chatting to speech-making.
Simile, metaphor and symbol are the main types oI imagery, and the
result is that communication acquires a creative and vital quality which
somehow springs Irom the essential act oI comparison.
So, a raindrop can become a crystal, Iear can become an abyss, and
jealousy a monster.
By employing imagery, we interpret the material world and use language
to transmit our vision.
'W?D?W='
The speaker resorts to synonymic nomination oI the same notion due to a
number oI reasons. These reasons become obvious iI we turn to Iunctional
predestination oI synonyms. !ommunicative functions.
@. $o/.oston#l ,-n)ton. II the same word is repeated a number oI
times in a limited Iragment oI speech, the speech becomes clumsy, monoto-
nous and stylistically crippled:
John came into the room. John was excited. John threw himself into the
arm-chair...
The clumsiness is removed by means oI contextual synonyms: John he
the man Sams brother the victim of the situation, etc.
65
B . B e
u.
2. '.e),yn! ,-n)ton. To describe the object in a thorough, proIound
and detailed way, the speaker composes a chain oI synonymic words oI the
same syntactic Iunction:
Oswalds life was fading, fainting, gasping awav, extinguishing slowlv.
Edgar was such a scoundrel, such a blackguard, such a villain, such
a rascal .
A O' He, , -u.
3 , , , , m
, m , .
3. 0ntens,yn! ,-n)ton. A chain oI synonyms is a potent means oI
expressing human Ieelings and emotions. Scores oI subjective modal mean
ings may be rendered with the help oI synonymic repetition: request, invita
tion, gratitude, gladness, impatience, certainty, hatred, irritation, disgust, hor
ror, indignation, Iury, etc. For example:
Could vou leave me now, Rupert. Im exhausted, tired,
wearv of the whole thing'
Kill him, Johnnie' Murder him' Slaughter him like a pig'
B e , e e. H
, .
synony/s
Synonyms are usually reIerred to by linguists as 'near synonyms', be-
cause they argue that no two words mean exactly the same. II they did,
one would probably disappear Irom use.
English is a language which has 'borrowed' Irom many varied sources
during the course oI its history. This has created a wide and heteroge-
neous lexicon. For example, terms which were originally French cur-
rently coexist with their Anglo-saxon equivalents:
petite small
tour tnp
chauIIeur driver
aperitiI drink
promenade Iront (as in sea-Iront)
escritoire desk
m The French term usually carries a prestige value over that oI the English
equivalent, which is oIten seen as basic and even crass. This is because
oI the history oI French dominance over the English as a result oI the
Norman Conquest.
During the period oI French rule aIter 1066, a state oI diglossia existed
throughout the south oI England. Diglossia means that two languages
are used by one society, but applied to two discrete Iunctions. French
was used Ior matters oI church and state, whereas English was used by
the common people Ior personal and Iamily discourse.
The legacy oI this diglossia is that we have a multitude oI synonyms or
near-synonyms at our disposal.
owever, it is usually preIerable to state the same idea in a variety oI
styles, rather than to repeat one deIinitive term Ior one speciIic phe-
nomenon.
In Shakespeare's King Lear, the king conIesses to being a 'Ioolish Iond
old man'. The use oI two near synonyms has a poetic and dramatic
eIIect, as one adjective has the eIIect oI intensiIying the other.
D[W=DHD?
This fiure of contrast is a combination of words which are seman-
ticallv incompatible. As a result, the object under description obtains char-
acteristics contrary to its nature: hot snow, loving hate, horriblv beautiful,
nice blackguard.
esnma c nc n a n ym m cx.
(. Han)
Bsmy cne st na cmctcx.
n c cn ynac .
m xam sanaa cene. Classification. The main structural
pattern oI oxymoron is "adjective noun" (hot snow). The second
productive model is "adverb adjective" (pleasantlv uglv). Predicative
relations are also possible (Sofias beautv is horrible). Besides that,
oxymoron may occasionally be realized through Iree syntactic patterns,
such as up the down staircase.
Communicative function. Oxymoron has great expressive potential. It
is normally used in cases when there is a necessity to point out contradictory
a
nd complicated nature oI the object under description.
fitf
,7
o*y/o(on
The oxymoron is closely related to antithesis and paradox. Both oI these
are Figures oI speech.
An oxymoron is 'a contracted paradox'. That is, the paradox is an ap-
parently contradictory st#te/entZ whereas the contradiction in an oxy-
moron is reduced to just two antithetical terms.
It is the sort oI playIul and oIten witty eIIect used by those who wish to
draw attention to their command oI language.
The device is much-loved by poets, because it enables them to express
complex ideas in a very compressed Iorm:
Where grey-beard mirth and smiling toil retired
The toiling pleasure sickens into pain \D&0VKH
PD&I'=0TH<
1EHEID[
Paradox is a fiure of speech in 1hich a statement appears to be
self0contradictoryC but contains somethin of a truth-
The child is father to the man.
Cowards die manv times before their death.
Paradoxicallv speaking, language studv can be fun. !ommunicative
function. Paradox is used Ior emphasis or stylistic eIIect.
Additional features. Paradox was much-used by the Metaphysical poets
oI the seventeenth century - oI whom John Donne is perhaps the best known.
The Iollowing example is taken Irom one oI his religious sonnets in which he
appears to God to strengthen his belieIs. e packs three paradoxes into the
last Iour lines:
Divorce , untie, or breake that knot againe. Take
to vou, imprison , for I Except vou enthrall
, never shall be free, Nor ever chast, except vou
ravish .
E?T0THK'0'
This fiure of contrast stands close to oxymoron. The ma,or differL
ence bet1een them is structural- oxymoron is realiced throuh a sinle
1ord0combinationC 1hile antithesis is a confrontation of at least t1o sep0
arate phrases semantically opposite. Compare:
"wise foolishness" is an oxymoron
"... the age of wisdom, the age of foolishness" is an antithesis. Assigned
features. Syntactic structures expressing the meaning oI antithesis are quite
various: a simple extended sentence, a composite sentence, a paragraph or
even chain oI paragraphs. The main lexical means oI antithesis Iormation is
antonyms (words opposite in meaning): danger - securitv, fe death,
emptv -occupied, to hurrv - to go slow. owever, the use oI antonyms is not
strictly obligatory. Antithesis may also be Iormed through situational
conIrontation oI two notions expressed by non-antonymous words. For
example:
Isabels salarv was high Isabels work was light.
.ore examples-
It was the season of light, it was the season of darkness.
1 had walked into that reading-room a happv, healthv man. I crawled
out a decrepit wreck.
Gilbert wears fine clothes while I go in rags.
While I am weak from hunger. Denis suffers from overeating.
A u u , , ,
, u m
r , r r
em.
Be e, .
C u . A u um .
$&0=E[ BPHEIET0D?C
This fiure of ine+uality consists in arranin the utterance so that
each subse+uent component of it increases sinificanceC importance or
emotional tension of narration-
There was the boom, then instantlv the shriek and burst.
I am sorrv. I am so verv sorrv, I am so extremelv sorrv.
Br - u - e.
- - - - r.
K - - .
, , .
68 TS
Classification. Gradation which increases emotional tension oI the ut- |
terance may be called e/oton#l. Emotional gradation is created by syn-
onymic words with emotive meanings:
nice - lovelv - beautiful - fair - magnificent surprised - astonished
- astounded - struck - petrified - killed (figurativelv).
H e, , .
H r u ,
e .
C , r .
H r, r . Gradation revealing the quantity
oI objects may be called 8-#ntt#t2eY
There were hundreds of houses, thousands of stairs, innumerablv
kitchens.
O , .
m , , r m .
E?T0$&0=E[
#t consists in arranin the utterance so that each subse+uent com0
ponent of it decreases sinificanceC importance or emotional tension of
narration-
If Johns eves fill with tears, vou mav have no doubt. he has been
eating raw onions.
B - r, r m, r,
e e.
H u ... A
,
. H - r
.
B r , m. Climax and
anticlimax may be combined, like in the anecdote:
Yes, I came face to face with a lion once. To make things worse, I was
alone and weaponless. First, I tried to hvpnotie him looking straight
into his eveballs. But it was useless. e kept on crawling towards me.
Then I thought of plunging mv arm down his throat, grabbing him bv
the tail from the inside and turning him inside out, but it seemed too
dangerous. And he kept on creeping towards me, growling in antici-
pation. I had to think fast. Meanwhile, the situation got more and
more monotonous with everv coming second. And vou know how I
escaped the situation. When I became bored enough with the lions
mule, I fust left him and went to the other cages.
EUGMA
A ceumatic construction consists of at least three constituents. The
basic 1ord of it stands in the same rammatical but different semantic
relations to a couple of ad,acent 1ords. The basic 1ord combined 1ith
the first ad,acent 1ord forms a phraseoloical 1ord0combination. The
same basic 1ord combined 1ith the second ad,acent 1ord forms a free
1ord0combination. For example:
Freddv got out of bed and low spirits. Communicative function.
eugma is used to create a humoristic eIIect which is achieved by means oI
contradiction between the similarity oI the two syntactic structures and their
semantic heterogeneity. .ore examples-
Marv dropped a tear and her handkerchief.
George possessed two false teeth and a kind heart.
Dora plunged into privileged intimacv and into the middle of the room.
Hm , e - m.
1J?
The principle oI semantic incompatibility oI language units realized in
zeugma is also realized in pun. In Iact, pun is a variant of eugma, or vice
versa. The diIIerence is structural: pun is more independent, it does not need
a basic component like zeugma. Pun is just a plav on words.
!lassification.
@. Play on words may be based upon .olyse/y #n% ho/ony/yY
a) isitor, to a little bov.
- Is vour mother engaged?
- Engaged ? She is alreadv married
b) A voung ladv, weeping softlv into her mothers lap.
- Mv husband fust cant bear children'
- e neednt bear children, mv dear. You shouldnt expect too
much of vour husband.
70
71
]. Play on words may be based upon s/l#(ty o, .(on-n)#tonY
John said to Pete at dinner. "Carrv on". But Pete never ate carrion.
,
Bu - , , .
1HE$T0$E& E''0P?=K?T
Pick out fiures of combinationC classify them and define their sty0
listic functions.
@. Isaac's looks were starched, but his white neckerchieI was not. 2. For
a time Jean put on a Red Cross uniIorm and met other ladies similarly dressed
in the armory, where bandages were rolled and reputations unrolled. 3. Ben-
ny reminded James, as he said aIterwards, oI a hungry cat. 4. uddled in her
gray Iur against the soIa cushions, Aurora had a strange resemblance to #
captive owl, 5. I want you all, each and every one oI you all. 6. The rich
arrived in pairs and also in Rolls Royces. 7.1 let a day slip by without seeing
her, then three, a whole week. 8. The yacht was his inheritance, his tradition,
his liIe. 9.1 despise New York's poorest great men, the haughtiest beggars,
the painIul delights, the lowest skyscrapers, the doleIulest pleasures. 10. The
lady had a mane oI yellow hair too long to be called bobbed, but too loose to
be called anything else. 11. When a man is in the country he amuses other
people. When a man is in town he amuses himselI. 12. The trouble happened
because oI this degrading and disgusting document, this blighting bill, this per-
nicious placard, this abominable advertisement. 13. Poor Betty. She must be
as poor as a church mouse. 14. The countryside seemed to Iaint Irom its own
loveliness. 15. Clement was a saint in public and a devil at home. 16. More
solitary than Robinson Crusoe, who had nobody to look at him, I went into the
booking-oIIice. 17. Joe was a mild, good-natured, sweet-tempered, easy-go-
ing, Ioolish dear Iellow. 18. Mr. Witte's method oI paying oII debts would be
a Iorm oI Ieeding a dog with bits oI its own tail. 19. It was the spring oI hope,
it was the winter oI despair, we had everything beIore us, we had nothing
beIore us... on the right and in Iront and behind. 20. "Golden dreams" is #
very sweet story, singularly sweet in Iact, madam, the critics are saying it is
the sweetest thing that Mr. Slush has done.
CHAPTER 8
Stylistic Synta# Syntactic
Stylistic De*ices
'ynt#)t) 'tylst) Ie2)es
SYNTACTIC STYLISTIC DEICES
Transposition of
sentence meaning
Rhetoric questions
and
other
variants
Tautologv
Polvsvndeton
Parallel
constructions
K&&01'0'
An elliptical sentence is such a svntactic structure in 1hich there is
no subfect, or predicate, or both. The main parts oI elliptical sentences are
omitted by the speaker intentionally in cases when they are semantically re-
dundant. For example:
- Where did vou go?
Change of word-
order
Reduction of the
Sentence model
Extension of the
sentence model
Inversion Repetition Ellipsis
Enumeration
Detachment of
sentence
members
Nominative
sentences
Aposiopesis
Asvndeton
Parceling
- To the disco.
72 73
Assined features. Elliptical sentences can not be viewed as stylistic
devices in direct intercourse because they are devoid oI suprasegmental
inIormation. Ellipsis becomes expressive when used in literature as a means
oI imitating real speech. Ellipsis makes speech dynamic, inIormative and
unoIIicial.
!ommunicative functions. Ellipsis saves the speaker Irom needless eI-
Iort, spares his time, reduces redundancy oI speech. Elliptical structures may
also reveal such speakers' emotions as excitement, impatience, delight, etc. As
a stylistic device, ellipsis is an eIIective means oI protagonists' portrayal.
.ore examples-
- ullo' Who are vou?
- The staff.
- Where are the others?
- At the front.
Be , - ,
u e.
C ? - . ?ote. It is essential to
diIIerentiate between elliptical sentences and one-member structures. The
problem is that they may look completely homonymous out oI context. For
example, the isolated sentence "Dark night" can be treated both as one-
member (non-elliptical) or two-member elliptical structure. What is what
becomes clear only in speech. II a text begins with the sequence oI
sentences "Dark night. Strong wind. Loneliness", they #(e obviously one-
member, having neither subject nor predicate. But iI the implied subject and
predicate can be easily and unambiguously restored in context, we deal with
a two-member elliptical sentence. Thus, the sentence "At the front" oI the
above given example is two-member, elliptical, and extended, its subject
thev and its predicate are being implied.
?D=0?ET0VK B?D=0?E&C 'K?TK?$K'
A nominative sentence is a variant of one0member structures- it has
neither sub,ect nor predicate. 0t is called nominative or nominal because its
basic (head) component is a noun or a noun-like element (gerund, numeral).
Classification. There are such structural types oI nominative sentenc-
es as:
1. Jne*ten%e% nominative sentences consisting oI a single element:
Morning. April. Problems.
2. K*ten%e% nominative sentences consisting oI the basic component and
one or more words modiIying it:
Nice morning. Late April. orriblv great problems.
3. =-lt)o/.onent nominative sentences containing two or more basic el-
ements:
Late April and horriblv great problems.
. . C... .
H, r, .
.
Br , , , m
, , u . !ommunicative
functions. A sequence oI nominative sentences makes Ior dynamic
description oI events. Sets oI nominative sentences are used to expressively
depict the time oI the action, the place oI the action, the attendant
circumstances oI the action, the participants oI the action.
E1D'0D1K'0' B9HKEQ50?5THK5?EHHET0VKC
/ike ellipsis, aposiopesis is also realiced throuh incompleteness of
sentence structureC thouh this incompleteness is of different structural
and semantic nature- it appears when the speaker is unwilling to proceed
and breaks oII his narration abruptly:
If vou go on like this...
H, -. A ...
B r, m. B ...
T ? A r...
m, ... Assigned features. The
inIormation implied by aposiopesis is usually clear in communicative
situation. Break-in-the-narrative expresses such modal meanings as threat,
warning, doubt, indecision, excitement, and promise.
?ote. Aposiopesis should not be conIused with unintentional break in
the narrative, when the speaker does not know what to say. Unintentional
break oII is oI no stylistic signiIicance, though it may serve as an indirect
e
vidence oI the speaker's conIusion, his being at a loss.
"5
E'W?IKTD?
#t is deliberate omission of structurally sinificant con,unctions and
connectives-
John couldnt have done such a sillv thing, he is enough clever for that.
Fathers, mothers, uncles, cousins. Cocking tails and pricking
whiskers,...
We had heard planes coining, seen them pass overhead, watched them go
far to the left, heard them bombing... ,
, . H , , m
. B m. m e
. !ommunicative functions. Asyndeton makes speech
dynamic and expressive. Sometimes it implies the speaker's haste, nervousness
and impatience.
1EH$K&0?P
Parcelin is intentional splittin of sentences into smaller parts sep0
arated by full stops-
Oswald hates Rolf. erv much.
Sallv found Dick. Yesterdav. In the pub.
Then the pain began. Slow. Deliberate. Methodical. And professional.
B . H-.
.
I . Hm. . K . K .
K .
3e, e.
O . 3 r
, m. ru,
e r.
Assined features. Parceling is typical oI spontaneous speech, where
the Iunction oI dots is perIormed by pauses. In speech parceling may be non-
stylistic, when it is just the resuit oI the speciIic psychological process oI
Iorming and verbalizing human thoughts.
!ommunicative functions. When used in writing, parceling perIorms
the Iollowing Iunctions:
76
1. It reIlects the atmosphere oI unoIIicial communication and spontane-
ouS character oI speech.
2. It reIlects the speaker's inner state oI mind, his emotions, such as
nervousness, irritation, excitement, conIusion, perplexity, etc.
3. It may serve as a means oI making inIormation more concrete and
more detailed.
HK1KT0T0D?
'tylistic repetition of lanuae units in speech Fseparate 1ordsC 1ord0
combinations or sentencesH is one of the most fre+uent and potent stylis0
tic devices.
Classification. There are such structural types oI repetition as:
1. $onse)-t2e )ont#)t (e.etton oI sentence parts and separate
sentences:
/ am wearv. wearv, wean of the whole thing'
Never take the rifle again. Put it back' put it back' Put it back'
, , .
B u I , , . H
, , '
2. En#.ho(#. The repeated word or word-combination is at the begin
ning oI each consecutive syntactic structure:
ictorv is what we need. ictorv is what we expect.
, e'
T u, - u e u.
T u K. T u. T
u.
^. K..ho(#. The repeated unit is placed at the end oI each consecutive
syntactic structure:
It is natural to be scared in a case like that. You are sure to be petrified
in a case like that. B r' H r' O
mu' C mu' B u.
u.
_. >(#/n!. The initial part oI a language unit is repeated at the end oI
this unit:
Poor Marv. ow much Jack loved her' What will he do now? I wish it
hadnt happened. Poor Marv .
11
Br, rr , '
, ?.. Br'..
B , e. B .
5. &n7n! o( (e%-.l)#ton. The Iinal component oI a syntactic struc
ture is repeated at the beginning oI a sequential syntactic structure:
It was because of that dreadful occurrence. That dreadful occur rence
had changed it all.
C u , u r e
e .
Hm r e. He
. C ' T , .
6. $h#s/-s (reversed parallel construction). In such syntactic struc
tures there is a cross order oI repeated language units:
The fail might have been the infirmarv, the infirmarv might have been
the fail .
Hm m , m.
, , ,
.
H e, u, , eu. !ommunicative functions.
The device oI repetition aims at emphasizing a certain component oI the
utterance. Being repeated, a language unit obtains additional stylistic
inIormation. Consecutive contact repetition is capable oI rendering scores oI
modal meanings and human emotions: certainty, doubt, delight, impatience,
worry, request, invitation, grateIulness, horror, irritation, disgust, hate, Iury,
indignation, and others.
Such varieties oI repetition as anaphora, epiphora, Iraming, linking are
text-Iorming devices or compositional means.
K?J=KHET0D?
0t is a syntactic device oI naming objects so that there appears a chain oI
homogeneous parts oI the sentence:
There were cows, hens, goats, peacocks and sheep in the village.
!ommunicative functions. II a chain oI enumerating words is long, it
creates the eIIect oI great quantity oI objects. II the objects being enumerat- |
ed are heterogeneous, enumeration raises the expressiveness oI speech, makes
it dynamic and inIormative.
78
.ore examples-
There was a great deal of confusion and laughter and noise,, the noise
of orders and counter-orders, of knives and forks, of corks and glass-
stoppers.
The principal production of these towns appears to be soldiers, sail ors,
Jews, chalk, shrimps, officers and dock-vard men. "".
"". "". "". "diiamu". "",
"" - r '
r, m, m, m. . m, - / e m,
r m. u e,
, .
I , e ,
u, u .
TEJTD&DPW
The speaker resorts to the repetition and enumeration oI the type de-
scribed above quite intentionally and consciously. owever, repetition mav
be of unintentionalC involuntary or tautoloical nature.
Classification. Tautological repetition may be caused by the Iollowing
reasons:
1. The speaker's excitement, Iright, scare, petriIication, grieI and other
deep emotions:
Darling, darling Bundle. Oh, darling Bundle. Shes dead I know shes
dead. Oh, mv darling. Bundle darling, darling Bundle. I do love vou so.
Bundle -darling - darling...
2. Slipshod organization oI the utterance, low cultural level oI the speaker:
No one could do the fob more better.
I ain 7 got no cigarettes from nobodv.
The name of mv informant... the name of mv informant... the name
of... the name. The name escapes me.
3. Peculiar physical condition oI the speaker: alcoholic intoxication, drows
iness, unconsciousness, etc.:
"I did... what vou said..." Dun gasped, closing his eves and squeeing
the words out in painful ferks. "It was too late... Give me something.
Doc... Give me something, quick-
79
lv.... Got to hold out... get us down... Shes on autopilot but... got to
get down... Must tell Control... must tell..." is mouth moved silentlv.
With a desperate effort he tried to speak. Then his eves rolled up and
he collapsed.
e... B ...
O ... ... Communicative functions. Generally
speaking, involuntary repetition has little to do with stylistics. It becomes
stylistically signiIicant when used in writing as a characterization device.
1D&W'W?IKTD?
0t is stylistically motivated redundant repetition oI conjunctions or prepo-
sitions:
The dog barked and pulled Jack, and growled, and raged. !ommunicative
functions. Polysyndeton is a means oI rhythmical organization oI the
utterance. Due to this quality it is widely used in poetry. It also makes Ior
underlining the most important part oI inIormation. .ore examples-
e no longer dreamed of storms, nor of women, nor of great occurrenc-
es, nor of great fish, nor fights, nor contests of strength, nor of his wife.
First the front, then the back, then the sides, then the superscription,
then the seal, were obfects of Newmans admiration. B , .
, B e . B e, u ,
B .
3 u - . B me,-Ce,
e.
1EHE&&K& $D?'THJ$T0D?'
Parallelism is a stylistic device of producin t1o or more syntactic
structures accordin to the same syntactic pattern-
Marv cooked dinner, John watched T, Pete plaved tennis.
Assined features. Parallel constructions is a means oI enumerating
Iacts, comparing them or conIronting them. Parallel conIrontation oI Iacts
may result in another stylistic device - antithesis:
Married men have wives, and dont seem to want them. Single fellows have
no wives, and do itch to obtain them. !ommunicative functions. Syntactic
parallelism is polyIunctional. It creates rhythm and is typical oI poetry. It
makes speech persuasive and is a Ieature oI the publicistic and oratory
styles. It underlines important inIormation and is widely used in everyday
speech. .ore examples-
The cock is crowing,
The stream is flowing,
The small birds twitter,
The lake doth glitter.
Our senses perceive no extremes. Too much sound deafens us too much
light dales us too great distance or proximitv hinders our view.
Cu . , e, .
... Bem , , e
, ...
e m. T .
T ,
.
0?VKH'0D?
#nversion is the syntactic phenomenon of intentional chanin 1ord0
order of the initial sentence model.
!lassification. There are two basically diIIerent types oI inversion: gram-
matical and stylistic. P(#//#t)#l n2e(son is devoid oI stylistic inIormation.
It is just a technical means oI Iorming diIIerent types oI questions. 'tylst)
n2e(son is such a change oI word-order which gives logical stress or emo-
tional colouring to the language units placed in an unusual syntactic position.
Stylistic inversion is typical oI the predicate, predicative and all the sec-
ondary parts oI the sentence:
In came Jack, (predicate)
Insolent Connors conduct was. (predicative)
Little chances Bennv had. (direct obfect)
To her familv Martha gives all her time, (indirect obfect).
A horrible death Douglas died, (cognate obfect)
This is a letter congratulatorv, (attribute)
To the disco ilda went, (adverbial modifier)
!0 81
starved heart oI that girl 3. There was no breeze came through the door. 4.
And iI his Ieelings about the war got known, he'd be nicely in the soup.
Arrested, perhaps - got rid oI, somehow. 5. She narrowed her eyes a triIle at
me and said I looked exactly like Linda's boy. Around the mouth. 6. David
had been nearly killed, ingloriously, in a jeep accident. 7. "Shuttleworth, 1-
want to speak to you in - in strictest conIidence - to ask your advice. Yet
-yet it is upon such a serious matter that I hesitate - Iearing...". 8. It was
better that he knew nothing. Better Ior common sense, better Ior him, better
Ior me. 9. e ran away Irom the battle. e was an ordinary human being that
didn't want to kill or be killed, so he ran away Irom the battle. 10. Failure
meant poverty, poverty meant squalor, squalor led to smells and stagnation.
11. Daniel is an unnatural, ungrateIul, unlovable boy. 12. Their anxiety is so
keen, their vigilance is so great, their excited joy grows so intense, that how
can she resist it! 13. The sky was dark and gloomy, the air damp and raw, the
streets wet and sloppy, 14.1 know the world and the world knows me. 15. And
they wore their best and more colourIul clothes. Red shirts and green shirts
and yellow shirts and pink shirts. 16. Through his brain, slowly, siIted the
things they had done together. Walking together. Dancing together. Sitting
silent together, watching people together. 17. Sit down, you dancing, prancing,
shambling, scrambling Iool parrot! Sit down! 18. Badgworthy was in seventh
heaven. A murder! At Chimneys! Inspector Badgworthy in charge oI the
case. Sensational arrest. Promotion Ior the inspector. 19. e, and the Ialling
light and the dying Iire, the time-worn room, the solitude, the wasted liIe, and
gloom, were all in Iellowship. 20. People sang. People cried. People Iought.
People loved. People hated. Others were sad. Others gay. Others with Iriends.
Others lonely. Some died. Some were born. 21. Richard said that he would
work his Iingers to the bone Ior Ada, and Ada said that she would work her
Iingers to the bone Ior Richard. 22. I wake up and I'm alone, and I walk
round the town and I'm alone, and I talk with people and I'm alone and I look
at his Iace when I'm home and I' m dead. 23. "Where mama" - "She home".
24. And Fleur charming in her jade-green wrapper - tucked a corner oI heI
lip behind a tooth, and went back to her room. 25. A dark gentleman... A very
bad manner. In the last degree constrained, reserved, diIIident, troubled. 26. Why
do we need reIreshment, my Iriends Because we are but mortal, because
we are but sinIul, because we are but oI the earth, because we are not oI the
air Can we Ily, my Iriends We can not. 27. ow have I implored anu
begged that man to inquire into Captain's Iamily connections how have I
urged and entreated him to take some decisive step. 28. She says - you kno
her way - she says, "You're the chickenest-hearted, Ieeblest, Iaintest man I
ever see". 29. The one was all the other Iailed to be. Protective, not demand-
in dependable, not weak low-voiced, never strident. 30. Passage aIter pas-
sage did he explore room aIter room did he peep into. 31. June stood in Iront,
Iending oII this idle curiosity - a little bit oI a thing, as somebody said, "all hair
and spirit". 32. Down dropped the breeze, the sails dropped down. 33. Little
by little, bit by bit, and day by day, and year by year the baron got the worst oI
some disputed question. 34. Better to reign in hell than serve in heaven. 35.
There's many a man in this Borough would be glad to have the blood that
runs in my veins. 36. You just come home or I'll ... 37. ave I not had to
wrestle with my lot ave I not suIIered things to be Iorgiven 38. The
heaviest rain, and snow, and hail, and sleet, could boast oI the advantage over
him in only one respect. 39.1 am above the rest oI mankind, in such a case as
that. I can act with philosophy in such a case as that. 40. And so, Irom hour to
hour, we ripe and ripe. And then, Irom hour to hour, we rot and rot.
-lans f Se(inars
'e/n#( ?o 0 'tyle
#n% stylst)s
1. The notion oI stylistics as a branch oI general linguistics. Types oI
stylistics and Iields oI investigation. The connection oI stylistics with other
branches oI linguistics.
2. The main stylistic notions: style, norm, Iorm, text, context, speech,
writing, expressive means, stylistic devices, image.
3. Phonetic, morphological, lexical and syntactic expressive means oI
language.
1. Phonetic, lexical and syntactic stylistic devices.
2. Practical assignment.
Literature recommended
1. nc A. H., Btena O. H. . Cca ac-
xsa. - ., 1991. - C. 7-26.
84 85
2. At H. B. Cca cneme ac xsa. -.,
1990. - C. 7-24.
3. ysen . ., Ceen . . Cca ac xsa. -H.,
1960.-C. 3-9.
4. Galperin I. R, Stylistics. - Moscow, 1981. -P. 9-35.
5. Maltzev . A. Essays on English stylistics. - Minsk, 1984. - P. 415.
'e/n#( ?o ] >-n)ton#l
styles o, the Kn!lsh l#n!-#!e
1. General considerations.
2. The style oI oIIicial documents.
3. The style oI scientiIic prose.
4. The newspaper style.
5. The publicistic style.
6. The belletristic style.
7. Literary colloquial style and inIormal colloquial style.
8. Special colloquial English.
9. Practical assignment.
/iterature recommended
1. nc A. H., Btena O. H. . Cca ac-
xsa. - , 1991. - C. 235-266.
2. At H. B. Cca cneme ac xsa. -.,
1990.-C. 243-288.
3. ysen . ., Ceen . . Cca ac xsa.
-H., I960.-C. 118-139.
4. Galperin I. R. Stylistics. - Moscow, 1981. - P. 249-318.
5. Maltzev . A. Essays on English stylistics. - Minsk, 1984. - P. 89-109.
'e/n#( ?o ^
'tylst) le*)olo!y
1. General considerations.
2. Neutral words and common literary words.
3. Special literary vocabulary: terms, poetic words, archaic words, bar-
barisms and Ioreignisms, neologisms.
4. Common colloquial vocabulary.
5. Special colloquial vocabulary: slang, jargonisms, proIessionalisms, dia-
lectal words, vulgar words.
6. Set expressions.
7. Practical assignment.
/iterature recommended
1. nc A. H., Btena O. H. . Cca ac-
xsa. - , 1991. - C. 93-136.
2. At H. B. Cca cneme ac xsa.
-., 1990.-C. 105-130.
3. ysen . ., Ceen . . Cca ac xsa.
-H., I960. - C. 44-64.
4. Galperin I. R. Stylistics. - Moscow, 1981. - P. 70-122.
5. Maltzev . A. Essays on English stylistics. - Minsk, 1984. -P. 60-70.
'e/n#( ?o _66`
=o(.holo!)#l stylst)s
1. The notion oI transposition oI parts oI speech.
2. Transposition oI nouns.
3. Stylistic use oI the articles.
4. Transposition oI pronouns.
5. Transposition oI adjectives.
6. Transposition oI verbs.
7. Practical assignment.
/iterature recommended
1. nc A. H., Btena O. H. . Cca ac-
xsa. - ., 1991. - C. 70-92.
2. At H. B. Cca cneme ac xsa.
-., 1990.-C. 139-159.
3. naen B. H. sne nasete cecna ycc y-
xecne ns. - ., @S+@. - C. @]+5@_T.
4. Maltzev . A. Essays on English stylistics. - Minsk, 1984. - P. 76-79.
87
86
./
Seminar No 5 1honet) #n% !(#.h)
expressive means and stylistic %e2)es
1. General considerations.
2. Instrumentation means: alliteration, assonance, onomatopoeia, tone.
3. ersiIication means: rhyme, rhythm.
4. Graphic means: punctuation, orthography, type, text segmentation.
5. Practical assignment.
Literature recommended
1. nc A. H., Btena O. H. . Cca ac-
xsa. - ., 1991. - C. 50-69.
2. At H. B. Cca cneme ac xsa.
-., 1990.-C. 208-242.
3. ysen . ., Ceen . . Cca ac xsa.
-H., 1960.-C. 95-117.
4. Galperin I. R. Stylistics. - Moscow, 1981. -P. 123-135.
5. Maltzev . A. Essays on English Stylistics. -Minsk, 1984. - P. 47-49.
Seminars No 6, 7 Lexico-semantic expressive means #n%
stylistic devices: ,!-(es o, s-3stt-ton
1. General considerations.
2. Figures oI quantity:
- hyperbole
- meiosis (litotes).
3. Figures oI quality:
- metonymy (synecdoche, periphrasis, euphemism)
- metaphor (antonomasia, personiIication, allegory, epithet)
- irony.
4. Practical assignment.
Literature recommended
1. nc A. H., Btena O. H. . Cca ac-
xsa. - .. 1991. - C. 164-186.
2. At H. B. Cca cneme ac xsa.
-m. 1990.-C. 74-93.
3. ysen . ., Ceen . . Cca ac xsa.
-H., 1960. -C. 13-27, 35-36, 38-41.
4. Galperin I. R. Stylistics. - Moscow, 1981. - P. 139-148, 157-162,
169-177,246-248.
5. ukharenko . A. Seminars in style. - Moscow, 1991. - P. 24-26.
'e/n#( ?o +
&e*)o5se/#nt) e*.(ess2e /e#ns #n% stylst) %e2)esY
,!-(es o, )o/3n#ton
1. General considerations.
2. Figures oI identity:
- similie
- use oI synonyms.
3. Figures oI contrast:
- oxymoron
- antithesis.
4. Figures oI inequality:
-climax
- anticlimax
- zeugma
- pun.
5. Practical assignment.
Literature recommended
1. nc A. H., Btena O. H. . Cca ac
xsa. - ., 1991. - C. 186-199.
2. At H. B. Cca cneme ac xsa.
-., 1990.-C. 95-96, 130-131.
3. ysen . ., Ceen . . Cca ac xsa.
-H., I960. - C. 11-13,28-29,33-35, 37-38.
4. Galperin I. R. Stylistics. - Moscow, 1981. - P. 162-164, 167-169,
219-225,148-153.
5. ukharenko . A. Seminars in style. -Moscow, 1991. -P. 85-87,26-27.
N! 89
'eminars )o dCef 'tylst) synt#*Y synt#)t)
e*.(ess2e /e#ns #n% stylst) %e2)es
1. General considerations.
2. Syntactic expressive means and stylistic devices oI the English language:
- based on reduction oI the initial sentence model: ellipsis, aposiopesis,
nominative sentences, asyndeton
- based on extension oI the initial sentence model: repetition, enumera-
tion, tautology, polysyndeton, "it is (was) he, who...", the emphatic
verb "to do", parenthetic sentences
- based on change oI word-order: inversion, detachment
- based on interaction oI syntactic structures in context: parallel con-
structions
- based on transposition oI meaning and connection oI constituent parts:
rhetoric questions, parceling.
3. Practical assignment.
/iterature recommended
1. nc A. H., Btena O. H. . Cca ac-
xsa. - ., 1991. - C. 137-162.
2. At H. B. Cca cneme ac xsa.
-., 1990.-C. 160-198.
3. ysen . ., Ceen . . Cca ac xsa.
-H., 1960.-C. 66-94.
4. Galperin I. R. Stylistics. - Moscow, 1981. - P. 191-246.
5. Maltzev . A. Essays on English Stylistics. - Minsk, 1984. - P. 79-89.
6. ukharenko . A. Seminars in style. - Moscow, 1991. - P. 63-66.
EIRK$T0VK'
narrative didactic plain
ritualistic succinct impersonal
religious inIormal literary
colloquial Iormal poetic
technical dramatic traditional
'TETK=K?T
I'm telling you, you just wouldn't believe the crowds in Tesco this morning!
Dearly beloved, we are gathered here today in the sight oI God to join
this couple.
Cook in a hot oven Ior 20 minutes and serve immediately with rice or pasta.
A poet could not but be gay in such jocund company.
The tropical rainIorests provide habitats Ior numerous species oI cold
blooded animals.
James Black stared at his image in the cracked mirror, placed the gun to
his head and Iired.
$onte*t
Ie)%e , these st#te/ents #3o-t )onte*t #(e t(-e o( ,#lse.
A dictionary gives the real meaning oI a word.
Language does not exist except in a social context.
The road sign 'NO ENTRY' is striking because oI its red background.
Placing events outside their normal context can produce humorous eIIects.
Context can only reIer to time or place.
Contextualising can help to clariIy an item oI communication.
-ractical .ssi$n(ents fr Se(inars
Seminar No 1
Style and Stylistics
a 'tyle
0%ent,y the style o, e#)h o, the ,ollo"n! st#te/ents.
$hoose t"o o( /o(e #%4e)t2es "h)h %es)(3e the style.
0
>o(/
0%ent,y the ,o(/ o, e#)h o, the ,ollo"n!
te*ts.
sugar
butter
shoe-polish
vegetables
GUARDIAN
Sb 91
=( and Mrs John Smith invite you to attend the wedding oI their daugh-
ter Isobel to Bertrand Williams.
I am in love with my boss and I'm aIraid I'm going to lose my job be-
cause it's obvious to all my colleagues that we are having an aIIair. m
at my wits end and have no one to turn to. Please help.
Did our Iathers and our Iathers' Iathers struggle and slave Ior this Is
this all we have to show Ior our liIe-long devotion to duty at the risk oI
liIe and limb I leave you with a Iinal plea to show your protest by putting
your mark on the ballot paper where it belongs.
British Taxicom - good morning - my name's Shelley -how can I help you
A bright start to the day today in most parts oI the country. I'll start with
the South East oI the country where squally showers have already made
driving hazardous and these conditions seem set to continue throughout
the day.
'tylst) #n#lyss
Ie)%e "hethe( the ,ollo"n! st#te/ents #(e t(-e o( ,#lse.
Stylistic analysis oI literary and non-literary texts has an identical outcome.
Stylistic Ieatures are elements oI the text which we admire.
Analysing Iiction spoils the reader's pleasure.
Non-literary texts are easier to analyse than literary texts.
Stylistic analysis is a procedure by which we prove a hypothesis.
In stylistic analysis oI non-literary texts, we look at phonology, grapholo-
gy, vocabulary, grammar, and semantics.
~ 't#n%#(% Kn!lsh
Ie)%e , these st#te/ents #3o-t 't#n%#(% Kn!lsh #(e t(-e o( ,#lse.
Standard English is an accent spoken by the upper classes.
Standard English was once a dialect.
For a language to be standardised, it must have a written Iorm.
Standard English is so called because it is Iixed and unchanging.
The term Standard English applies only to writing.
Standard English is the best Iorm oI the language, and we should all
aspire to use it.
V#(etes
0n "h)h s-352#(ety o, s.o7en o( "(tten Kn!lsh %o these 3elon!F
Dear Mum, ope you're O.
0 I swear by Almighty God to tell the truth, the whole truth, and nothing but
the truth.
"Ahoy there!"
It is with extreme regret that I have to inIorm you oI my resignation Irom
the Party.
To be, or not to be that is the question.
Mom had gotten us each a cookie Irom the store that morning.
Ess!n/ent @. =#t)h the ,ollo"n! notons "th the( ,e#t-(esY LC
styleC ^H normC gH contextC hH expressive meansC bH stylistic devicesC iH
imae-
a) phonetic, morphological, lexical, and syntactic units and Iorms which are
used in speech to intensiIy the meaning oI the utterance, to make it emphatic
b)a set oI certain rules which in a certain epoch and in a certain society
is considered to be most correct and standard Ior a deIinite Iunctional style
c)a subsystem oI the principles, extralinguistic circumstances, and the
eIIect oI the usage oI phonetic, morphological, lexical, and syntactic language
means oI expressing human thoughts and emotions
d)reIlection oI reality in linguistic and extralinguistic contexts Irom the
speaker's/ writer's point oI view
e) phonetic, morphological, lexical and syntactic Iigures oI speech Iormed
on the basis oI language units and Iorms
I) linguistic or situational encirclement oI a language unit in which it Iinds
itselI in speech.
Ess!n/ent ]. Ett(3-te .(o.e(ly the o34e)t o, st-%yn! to the
,ollo"n! ty.es o, stylst)sY eH linuisticC ^H communicativeC gH codinC
hH decodinC bH literaryC iH contrastive-
a) studies the individual style oI the author
a) deals with the stylistic expressive means oI a certain literary work or
author, or literary trend
b) investigates the peculiarities oI Iunctional styles and expressive means
oI language
92 93
d)deals with text interpretation which is based upon certain objective
language codes
e) studies real texts and their communicative potential
I) investigates stylistic potentialities oI two or more languages in comparison.
Ess!n/ent ^. 1ont o-t s-3ty.es ,o( the ,ollo"n! ty.es o, context:
a) linguistic, b) stylistic, c) situational.
Ess!n/ent _. =#t)h the ty.es o, ln!-st) )onte*t "th the(
)h#(#)te(st)sY 1) microcontext, 2) macrocontext, 3) megacontext, d) stv-
listic context.
a) a context which contains unpredictable, untypical oI a certain style
language unit(s)
b) a context oI a chapter, a story, or the whole book
c) a context oI a single utterance
d) a context oI a paragraph in a text.
Ess!n/ent c. Ie)%e "h#t 3(#n)h o, ln!-st)s stylst)s s )on5
ne)te% "th \ eH phonetics, 2) lexicologv, 3) grammar "hen t st-%esY
a) vocabulary, its development in language, expressiveness oI semantic
structure oI words, semantic relations between words
b) stylistically coloured words, word combinations, sentences and texts
c) emotional expressiveness oI sound repetition, stresses, articulation,
intonation, rhyme, speech rhythm.
Ess!n/ent T. K*.l#n ho" se/#nt)s o, the )o/.o-n%s %e.en%
on the( .honet)s B.(on-n)#tonCY
1) overwork ('extra work', 'hard work inquiring one's health')
2) bookcase ('a paper cover Ior books', 'a piece oI Iurniture with shelves
Ior books')
3) mankind ('the human race', 'men' |contrasted with women|).
Ess!n/ent U. En#lyse %e.en%en)e o, se/#nt)s on the !(#/5
/#t)#l /e#nn! o, .l-(#lty n the ,olo"n! 2o)#3-l#(yY
still liIes still lives cloth basket clothes basket good train goods
train saving bank savings bank.
94
Ess!n/ent +. He2e" the t"o 2e(ses #n% .-t ,o(2#(% the #(!-5
/ents "h)h %s)lose the )onne)ton o, stylst)s "th othe( 3(#n)hes b,
ln!-st)sY
aream aeferred
What happened to a dream deIerred
Does it dry up like a raisin in the sun
Or Iester like a sore -And then ran
Does it stink like rotten meat Or
crust and sugar over -like a
syrupy sweet Maybe it just sags
like a heavy load. Or does it
explode
(Langston ughes)
The year
A storm oI white petals, Buds
throwing open baby Iists Into
hands oI broad Ilowers.
Red roses running upward,
Clambering to the clutches oI liIe
Soaked in crimson.
Rabbles oI tattered leaves
olding golden Ilimsy hopes
Against the tramplings Into
the pits and gullies.
oarIrost and silence:
Only the muIIling
OI winds dark and lonesome -
Great lullabies to the long sleepers.
(Carl Sandburg)
95
Ess!n/ent S. Ie,ne the /#n stylst) notons (stvle, norm, form,
text, context, speech, writing, expressive means, stvlistic devices, image),
(e2e"n! the ,ollo"n! passages:
1) Still ran Dingo - Yellow-Dog Dingo - always hungry, grinning like a
rat-trap, never getting nearer, never getting Iarther, - ran aIter angaroo.
e had to!
Still ran angaroo - Old Man angaroo. e ran through the ti-trees: he
ran through the mulga he ran through the long grass he ran through the short
grass he ran through the Tropics oI Capricorn and Cancer he ran till his hind
legs ached.
e had to!
Still ran Dingo - Yellow-Dog Dingo - hungrier and hungrier, grinning like
a horse-collar, never getting nearer, never getting Iarther and they came to
the Wollgong River.
Now, there wasn't any bridge, and there wasn't any Ierry-boat, and
angaroo didn't know how to get over so he stood on his legs and hopped.
e had to!
(From R. ipling's Just So Stories)
2) Crabbed age and youth cannot live together:
Youth is Iull oI pleasure, age is Iull oI care
Youth is like summer morn, age like winter weather
Youth like summer brave, age like winter bare.
Youth is Iull oI sport, age's breath is short Youth is
nimble, age is lame: Youth is hot and bold, age is
weak and cold Youth is wild, and age is tame. Age,
1 do abhore thee, youth I adore thee Oh! My Love,
my Love is young. (W. Shakespeare)
3) naa ce. ea sxa nncx ns n mcxnt,
, namct y ma, an, s xam sancx asa, a nym'x. ee
na act , n cay axnm n, cynact ne a
ne acan a nym'xm, snan s n, mnyxn m n cyc
a, san mynan, cnant esna. Hx x nym'x
a, meymct maet, esc m, ama y a
ea, mcxnx, nym'x. a a, a, me. H-
ym'x x c, ne ancx m, mcxnt s xam an cee ma, e
y nxyy n ea, n a, n me.
(From . ynnychenko's Student)
4) 3 xym act xact...
B ctsa, x n xemya, m cm,
s nm am sact, x
me sx !
B ma s acm xya.
Oa et, ya cnx...
e mx m ta,
yx - e sam x...
(Alexander Oles)
5) Governorship oI Coventry Island. - . M. S. Yellowfack, Command
er Jaunders, has brought letters and papers Irom Coventry Island. . E. Sir
Thomas Liverseege had Iallen a victim to the prevailing Iever at Swamp-
town. is loss is deeply Ielt in the Ilourishing colony. We hear that the Gover
norship has been oIIered to Colonel Rawdon Crawley, C. B., a distinguished
Waterloo oIIicer. We need not only men oI acknowledged bravery, but men
oI administrative talents to superintend the aIIairs oI our colonies and we
have no doubt that the gentleman selected by the Colonial OIIice to Iill the
lamented vacancy which has occurred at Coventry Island is admirably calcu
lated Ior the post which he is about to occupy.
(From anitv Fair by W. M. Thackeray)
"Hcaa yeaa a cn ne.
Bctn aet "Cyxe" n mam anaa xaeca
nns c ase s cna ne. netmxct ce mac
Hnecx can xenm max, nme n aay. nya -
x cymyc s nny nc xx na. C ya, m ncay yea-
a sannna nnn Py y, anaen ea Has,
nen, m nsancx n n n Bae. x eynax amm
xm am n m, x e t sacn cnm ct,
a mamt c amcaa, m e cymnacmcx, m mcecn
na y my x sammex naac, xa sntacx
nac cym n a cn ne."
(Translated bv Olga Senvuk)
96 97
Ess!n/ent @b. P(o-. the ,ollo"n! e*.(ess2e /e#ns nto ,2e
)ol-/ns #))o(%n! to the( ty.eY eH phoneticC ^H morpholoicalC gH lex0
icalC hH syntacticC bH raphic-
whispering text segmentation synonyms vocabulary oI non-neutral Iunc-
tional and etymological layers (poetic, archaic words, vulgarisms, etc.) or-
thography pitch emphatic constructions (with inverted word order, when the
rheme oI the utterance precedes the theme oI it when the auxiliary verb
"do" is used emphatically emphatic conIirmation a subordinate clause with
the emphatic subject "//") punctuation demonstrative pronouns used em-
phatically homonyms ellipsis melody interjections pausation type trans-
positions in grammatical categories/Iorms singing expressive aIIixes one-
member sentence descriptive attributes stress.
Ess!n/ent @@. P(o-. the ,ollo"n! stylst) %e2)es nto th(ee
)ol-/ns #))o(%n! to the( ty.eY eH phoneticC ^H lexical Flexico0semanj
ticHC gH syntactic-
repetition simile personiIication antithesis polysyndeton oxymoron
stylistic inversion metaphor parallel constructions periphrasis rhetorical
question synecdoche allegory gradation onomatopoeia euphemism par-
celing metonymy alliteration hyperbole enumeration meiosis aposiopesis
epithet detachment irony assonance zeugma antonomasia rhyme litotes
rhythm pun.
'e/n#( ?o ] >-n)ton#l 'tyles o,
The Kn!lsh &#n!-#!e
Ess!n/ent @. Ie,ne ,-n)ton#l style ,e#t-(es o, the ,ollo"n!
.#ss#!esY
1) Satellite communication systems, like other wireless communication
systems, convey inIormation using electromagnetic waves. Since radio was
the Iirst practical application oI wireless technology, we may reIer to them as
radio waves.
2) 'Never you mind what they say, dear', said Mrs. odges.'I've 'ad to
go through it same as you 'ave. They don't know any better, poor things. You
take my word Ior it, they'll like you all right iI you 'old your own same as I
'ave'. (W. S. Maugham)
^C
INCIDENTALLY
Last Tuesday, ten Melitopol machine building plants employing 22,000
v/orkers came to a standstill. The enterprises are lacking the Iunds required
to pay Ior 50 oI electricity consumed according to the latest government's
decision. This will entail an automatic suspension oI allocations into the state
budget and a Iurther increase in arrears oI wages and salaries. The Board oI
Melitopol Directors sent a telegram to the President and the Cabinet asking
the government to suspend the decision and keep the payment procedure un-
changed Ior a three months period, The Davs V)to( 1-dh#)he(e%# reports.
4) The Petrivka book market:
El2e e Q)7n!
Te*tY Tetiana oncharova
>o( se2e(#l ye#(s the(e h#2e 3een .e(sstent (-/o-(s th#t Qy2;s
/ost .o.-l#( /#7esh,t 3oo7 /#(7et 1et(27# s ne#(n! ts en%. But it
is alive and shows no signs oI deterioration, although rumours persist. People
were especially worried aIter the so-called Book Square opened on Plosh-cha
Slavy |ictory Sq.|. Petrivka enemies were rubbing their hands in antic-
ipation, but their expectations were not to be rewarded. Petrivka staggered
under the blow but survived.
AIter all, what better place is there Ior the local book, video and CD
lovers Petrivka oIIers a stunning assortment and the prices are more or less
aIIordable. |...|
bH !()TRA!T ...
orlivka Julv 17, ...
1#(tes to ths $ont(#)t #(eY
orlivka open-type Stockholding Company "CONCERN STIROL" here-
inaIter reIerred to as the "Seller" represented by Mr Rachinsky acting on
the basis oI the Statute Irom one part, the Iirm "S. E. R. C. L." hereinaIter
reIerred to as the "Buver" represented by its President Mr Roland ytter-
haegen acting on the basis oI the Statute Irom the other part, concluded the
present contract on the Iollowing: |...|
TC :(st "#t)h /-s) .o"e(.
1#n#son);s &1ear /-s) /#)hne s so s/#ll yo- )#n "e#( t l7e
# "#t)h.
Despite its size it provides 2 hours oI your music Irom a 64mb SD mem-
98 99
y card that is no bigger that a postage stamp. For the Iashion conscious lady
you can even wear it as a pendant round your neck. Apparently it unIortu-
nately does not also tell the time so you still have to wear your watch on the
other wrist.
This would be an interesting idea Ior your mobile as well because in the
heat oI summer when clothing is sparse it would be most convenient to wear
your phone on your wrist.
7) The City oI DreadIul Night rises Irom its bed and turns its Iace to
wards the dawning day. With return oI liIe comes return oI sound. |... J What
is it Something borne on men's shoulders comes by in the halI-light, and I
stand back. A woman's corpse going down to the burning-ghat, and a by
stander says, "She died at midnight Irom the heat." So the city was oI Death
as well as Night, aIter all.
(Rudvard Kipling, The Citv of Dreadful Night)
+C Dear Ladies and Gentlemen,
I am pleased to welcome you to the 2001 UMC Annual Report on behalI
oI the UMC Board oI Directors.
2001 was an extremely successIul year Ior UMC and its Subscribers...
A number oI important technologies were introduced...
Importantly, UMC moved closer to the Customer...
The Iinancial results...
On behalI oI the UMC Board oI Directors, I would like to thank all
UMC employees, business partners and most importantly our Subscribers,
Ior a record result in 2001.
Gemot Taufmann
Chairman of the Board
Ess!n/ent ]. 1#y #ttenton to the .e)-l#(tes o, t(#nsl#ton o,
the #3o2e )te% ,-n)ton#l style .#tte(nsY
1) Ccem cynyn sn'xsy, x m ccem esaet
sn'xsy, neeamt manm sa nmm eema nt.
Oct a y nemm nam saccynaxm esaet
e, m mxem asna anxm.
2) "He sneae a ynay, yt, - asaa mcc xec.
- ax cnay aenacx n . et, ae nxe n
nnax. yte cn, n s m saee cnty mny. Hme e
anae cee cn, et na s mee."
3) HH
my nn ecxt mamyn sann a 22 000 -
mcnt nn y. n nncmcn emac mn x na
sa cam mexm yxy 50 nac cnx eeee. a
can cnxt anmae nnex nna nan
ac y exan mxe sc sanac y sa na
am cyxnnxm. Hanx nncmcn enx aca
eeamy Hesey aey cn s naxm yxy
nac nax ncan sam es sm nneyy na a
mcxn, nnmxc ecne ase "et"B Hyxaeea.
_C AfghijkA lf mhf
gNY exa ana
n N oN, pq ANrA 5 pops rp
5 prNp tuprvNO. y n cmet me ta
n my, a c xt. Ocn necx nnmnacx, a
Heecty, x nm Can, nncx "xn naa". B
"Hen" nxe na y. Ae , ncxa, a, t
nyacx.
a y me nacx amm maam, nemaam mn'm-
em maam, x e a , e c nees n e a "ycm"
n|...|
cC klghkg w...
. 17 ...
xNrpY
ncte ne anee nacn "ne C", aa
"Hanent", y c ea n my "C" naa Pact-
1.3. m nnn Cayy, s y, ma S. . R. C L.,
aa "Hynent", y c nesea naa Paa eaea m
nnn Cayy, s m y, ya ne a n acyn-
e:|...|
6) Hec - x ay .
kyO 1#n#son) pyzNp{ |{ y{vr e1ear. }~
mxa pNp O ~|pp.
Hesnaxam a sm, met mxe nana 2 nam
me mys s 64 meaa SD a santm s nmny
may. n, mayt, cmyt nec x y a m. Ha xat, n
100 101
e nasyc ac, my nam neetcx xa a my yy.
He y enam ecm x mt eey, ct ny
xy cac sa meme, nac nema, y nac mt.
actcx, a yn x t aame mcne.
7) c Cam H, x a yma, nntcx s cn xa
a sneac x nemt x. Pasm s xxm mca
nneamtcx sny. |...| B ne B an nncy ta nn
mct ecyt a nea, x ncynam m s . ecyt cnamna
meny xy, ct ny mee axe:
- Bmea nn n cne.
Oxe, ne e t mc H, a mc Cme.
8) an Ha a Hane!
e yxe ncm na Bac a Pmy sn UMC sa 2001 n
me Hanx UMC.
2001 yn asna nam x UMC a aen mna...
y sannaxe eta n e...
Baxn, m mnax UMC asacx cn...
uacn esyta...
B me Hanx UMC x n nxyna ycm nannam
UMC, nm naeam, a atme - amm aeam - sa e
esyta 2001 y.
e ayma
na Hanx
Seminar No
Stylistic Lexicology
Vo)#3-l#(y
Ies)(3e the ty.e o, 2o)#3-l#(y -se% n the ,ollo"n! st#te/ents.
At the seminar the proIessor will outline the assessment criteria and then
give his paper.
I will liIt up mine eyes unto the hills Irom whence commeth my help.
102
Youth's trauma in blazing inIerno. eartbroken mother makes agonised plea.
John Brown, Maple LeaI Cottage, Greenholme, Essex.
What matters in liIe is honesty, trust, courage, and thriIt. All these lead to
happiness.
This is a classic Burgundy, vintage 1989, with lots oI Iinish.
'ynony/s
:h)h o, the ,ollo"n! .#(s #(e )lose synony/sF
Iabulous - Iantastic
dramatic - theatrical
heavenly - celestial
strength - power
reverence - respect
nervous - anxious
'l#n!
V
1)7 o-t #ny sl#n! te(/s n these st#te/ents.
"e's won the lottery and got loads oI dosh,"
"Give me lots oI spuds with my dinner."
"Put the kettle on, and we'll have a cup oI Rosy Lee."
"e squealed to the cops, and that put a spanner in the works."
"The tea-leaves scarpered with all the moolah."
"She's got big blue eyes and a nice pair oI pins."
Ess!n/ent @. Ie,ne the stylst) 2#l-e o, e#)h o, the ,ollo"n!
"o(%sY eH neutralI ^H common literaryI gH common collo+uialI hH special
literary FspecifyHI bH special collo+uial (specifv).
1. leave, abandon, kick
2. send packing, expel, give the axe, discharge
3. Iree, dismiss, liberate, release
4. associate, comrade, Iriend, buddy, china
5. aerial, antenna, rabbit ears
6. lodgings, accomodation, Ilat, digs
103
7. phoneyness/phomness, hypocrisy
8. conversation, chat, intercourse
9. disposition, mood, spirit, guts, shade
10. bad temper, depression, dumps, bate
11. primate, monkey
12. spring, prime
13. quick, alive, quickie
14. believe, accept, buy
15. perjurer, story-teller, liar
16. wits, comprehension, understanding, brains, smarts
17. inIorm, acquaint, let know, put (someone) in the picture
18. alluring, beautiIul, drop-dead
19. show up, materialize, come, appear
20. physician, doc, doctor
21. daddy, Iather, parent
22. intelligent, clever, smart, highbrow, brainy
23. welkin, sky, azure, empyrean
24. misappropriate, deIalcate, steal, pocket, cabbage
25. eve/ even, eventide, twilight, evening
26. eatables, eats, nourishment, Iood
27. get, arrest, collar
28. eclipse, darkening
29. dayspring, dawn, morning
30. omo sapiens, humanity, people, Ilesh
31. start, commence, begin
32. die, kick the bucket, pass away, decease
33. be crazy about, like
34. inIant, descendant, kid, child
35. nipper, crook, thieI
36. continue, proceed, go on
37. catty, malicious
38. mischieI, misconduct, acting up, monkey business
39. villain, culprit, criminal
40. money, currency, needIul, dough, dibs
41. nemt, m, ym, ment, ny
42. sann, ynnx, ecame, san
43. anea, enena, amanen, nns
44. y, mea, mya, naxn
45. een, mna, cm, e, cent
46. y, semx, nect
47. cynax, ecnenx, neenca
48. ana, sac, ent, e
49. sym, ee, ys, xma, sacana, ena
50. nna, na, ac.
Ess!n/ent ]. 1ont o-t # ne-t(#l #n% # s.e)#l lte(#(y "o(% B/e%5
)#l te(/C. K*)h#n!e the/ n the( .l#)es #n% /#7e #%4-st/ents ,o(
the se)on% (e/#(7 to so-n% lo!)#l then #s "ellY
"Is the doctor treating her Ior nervousness" - "Oh, dear, no. She's rich
enough to have psychoneurosis."
Ess!n/ent ^. Iete(/ne the stylst) ,e#t-(es o, the ,ollo"n!
senten)es #n% .#(#.h(#se s.e)#l 2o)#3-l#(y nto ne-t(#lY
1. Overtime emoluments are not available Ior employees who are not
resident.
2. e had a buddy Irom Brooklyn. Sort oI a brainy guy who, however,
was just crazy about shooting madman stuII. Yeah, a show-oIIy-looking Iella.
3. - It will cost ya a hundred bucks to buy that pitcher.
- Anyways, I gonna. I was not kidding when I toleja I'm pretty
loaded t'day.
4. e made out like as iI he didn't even hear they gonna give him the axe
at the institute.
5.1 have our brochure here setting out our services. Were you thinking
oI interment or incineration oI the deceased
6. aply some hoary-headed swain may say,
OIt have we seen him at the deep oI dawn ...(Grav)
1. Tell me, thou star, whose wings oI light speed thee in thy Iiery Ilight...
(Shellev)
Ess!n/ent _. =#t)h the "o(%s "th the $o)7ney sl#n! e8-2#5
lentsY
1) north and south a) head
2) tit Ior tat b) teeth
3) rosie lee c) mouth
4) loaI oI bread d) suite
5) dicky dirt e) wiIe
105
6) mince pies I) boots
7) whisle and hute g) eyes
8) plates oI meat h) shirt
9) hampstead heath i) Ieet
10) trouble and striIe j)tea
11) daisy roots k)hat
Ess!n/ent c. 1ont o-t se/#nt) .(n).les o,Y /) phraseoloical
fusions 2) praseological unities 3) phraseological combinations.
a) the emotional quality is based upon the image created by the whole
b) they are not only motivated but contain one component used in its
direct meaning while the other is used Iiguratively
c) represent the highest stage oI blending together.
Ess!n/ent T. P(o-. the ,ollo"n! set e*.(essons #))o(%n! to
the se/#nt) 2#(#nts they (e.(esent n the/sel2esY LC phraseoloical
fusions 2) praseological unities 3) phraseological combinations.
to meet the requirements, to take something Ior granted, to lose one's
heart to someone, to be the last straw, at sixes and sevens, to have a bite, to
stick to one's word, neck and crop, to stick to one's guns, tit Ior tat, to know
the way the wind is blowing, bosom Iriends, to make a mistake, in a nutshell,
to talk shop, to Iall between two stools, to turn the scale(s), a black sheep.
Ess!n/ent U. $hoose the senten)e th#t sho"s the /e#nn! o, the
%o/ n t#l)sY
1. That was a slap in the face.
a) Someone hit me in the Iace.
b) Someone insulted me.
c) Someone complimented me.
2. John is wet behind the ears.
a) e didn't dry his ears.
b) e doesn't have much experience.
c) e hears well.
3. They don't see eve to eve.
a) They never look at each other.
b) They always wear dark sunglasses.
c) They don't agree with each other.
106
4. That car is on its last legs.
a) It only has one tire.
b) It needs a paint job.
c) It is about to break down completely.
Ess!n/ent +. P(o-. the set e*.(essons #))o(%n! to the( )on5
not#tonY a) positive b) negative.
to wash one's dirty linen in the public, to keep in the pin, to take leave oI
one's senses, to kick the bucket, to look like a thousand dollars, to call names,
to lend a helping hand, to Ilog a dead horse, to miss the boat, to pull the wool
over someone's eyes, leaves without Iigs, to bring home the bacon, a wet
night, to bury the tomahawk, the iron in one's soul, alive and kicking.
Ess!n/ent S. K*.l#n the /e#nn! o, the ,ollo"n! set e*.(es5
sons #n% )hoose t"o synony/s ,o( e#)h o, the/ ,(o/ those /en5
tone% 3elo"Y
a) to eat the fat of the land b) to fish in the air c) to come off cheap.
to seek a hare in a hen's nest, to roll in luxury, to sow the sand, to get oII
with a whole skin, to live in a bed oI roses, to get unscathed out oI the battle.
Ess!n/ent @b. 0n%)#te e#)h set e*.(esson #s 3elon!n! to one o,
the ,ollo"n! 7n%s #))o(%n! to the s.he(e o, -s#!eY eH lealismI 2)
commercialism 3) theatricalism 4) militarv term 5) naval term 6)
parliamentarism 7) hunters term.
a) to draw the badger b) to make an aIIidavit c) to block the bill d) to
come out oI action e) to be all adriIt I) short bill g) Iull house.
Ess!n/ent @@. 0n%)#te e#)h set e*.(esson #s 3elon!n! to one o,
the ,ollo"n! 7n%s #))o(%n! to the 2o)#3-l#(y l#ye(Y eH archaismI 2)
poeticism 3) barbarism 4) bookish expression 5) colloquialism 6)
fargonism.
a) proud sea b) Achilles heel c) ask me another d) a la mode e) mon-
key's allowance I) at adventure.
Ess!n/ent @]. P(o-. se.#(#tely .h(#seolo!)#l -nts )ont#n5
In
g:
a) metaphor b) metonvmv.
the weaker vessel - xa all ears - yxe ynax an old hand
-cnea ma old Iox - caa cnx, y blue bonnet -
107
maent to count noses - c queer Iish - na slow coach
-ynyna, nca.
Ess!n/ent @^. 1ont o-t o, the ,ollo"n!Y eH cliches 2) proverbsI
3) savings 4) epigrams aphorisms 5) quotations 6) allusions.
a) Give every man thy ear, but Iew thy voice When people agree with
me I always Ieel that I must be wrong b) No little Grandgrind had ever
associated a cow in a Iield with that Iamous cow with the crumpled horn that
tossed the dog that worried the cat that killed the rat that ate the malt... It is
diIIicult to answer to be or not to be c) the irony oI Iate swan song d) This
scholar treats style as "socially cognized and Iunctionally conditioned inter-
nally united totality..." The government "has a lot oI liIe in it as a single-
party ruling regime," adds the diplomat e) A drowning man will clutch at #
straw Two many cooks spoil the broth I) as pleased as Punch tit Ior tat.
Ess!n/ent @_. 0n%)#te the ty.e o, %e)o/.oston o, .h(#seo5
lo!)#l -ntsY eH shortening 2) expansion 3) insertion hH substitution 5)
1ord order change 6) contextual change 7) complex change.
a) It's time to make political hay. b) The crow is not so bad a bird aIter
all. It never shows the white Ieather and never complains without caws, c)
'The police say that you and your wiIe had some words." - "I had some, but
I didn't get a chance to use them." d) I preIer a bird in the hand, e) Deep runs
smooth water, I) e is murdering time, g) Little Jon had been born with a
silver spoon in his mouth, which was rather curly and large.
'-..le/ent Ess!n/ent. @. 1ont o-t set e*.(essons, %e,ne the(
ty.es #n% ll-st(#te 7n%s o, %e)o/.oston. ]. En#lyse #ll e*.(ess2e
/e#ns #n% stylst) %e2)es "h)h #(e -se% n the -tte(#n)es. $o/5
/ent on the( stylst) ,-n)tons #n% t(#nsl#ton 2#(#ntsY
1. The dirty Iloor had evidently been as long a stranger to the scrubbing-
brush as to carpet or Iloor-cloth. (Ch. Dickens) - B e,
, , r
.
2. But he meant to do something. Somehow, somewhere, somewhen he
would prove his mettle. OII his own bat too. (R. Greenwood) - A
u . B, ,

. I e, .
3. Somehow or other she had Iormed great Iaith in the stability oI this Jack
and now he seemed a Jack oI both sides. (R. Blackmore) -
r, ,
e, em u u.
4. Peter had been at great pains to Iool them but they seemed to him so
easy to Iool that his pains were wasted. (U. Sinclair) - H
e , u r
e, r .
5. ...when the young man casts sheep's eyes at the gel |girl| every time
she moves, and the gel is either singin' about the house or sittin' quiet as
a mouse in a brown study - what do you think that means (R. Alding-
ton) - ... m r
, ,
u, , - , e, ?
6. In 1866, arper's Weekly wrote oI President Andrew Jackson: 'e must
know that they would willingly use him as a wedge to split the Union
party, as a stalking horse to their own purposes...' (NLP) - 1866
" " m r. "B
, m m,
".
7. There is not halI enough oI this type oI propaganda today. We have all
become so hard and practical that we are ashamed oI painting the vision
splendid - oI showing glimpses oI the promised land. (. Pollitt)
-O
e. 3 ,
, m m ,
r .
8. He told how murderers walk'd the earth beneath the curse oI Cain. (OED)
- B , , m m,
r .
9
- She had an ally in the lion's mouth: a spy in the Iriend's camp a IaithIul
traitor! (J. Galsworthy) - , ue
r , '
" Feel a Iellow ought to do his bit. Once we set our hand to the plough, we
got to keep on till we make a saIe harbour. (S. Lewis) - Brm,
r . B r sa
, r, .
108 109
11. That evening Chance, which visits the lives oI even the best-invested
Forsytes, put a clue into Fleur's hands (J. Galsworthy) - Te
B r -
m, . 1
m.
12. He had thrown his humanity into the gutter, he had betrayed the trust that
men place in one another, and with his thirty pieces oI silver he had
bought... what had he bought (J. Wain) - B
m, , e u,
... A ?
13. C , , e,
e m "",
r e .
At Iirst she, like a naughty Ily, Ilew into a rage, and then Iought Ior
control in an up-hill Iight with her selI to which all her neighbours had
already applied all craIt and bone-graIt.
14. B r . , um
e, r , -
, r (,
e ) . -All my
liIe have I been on the trail. On the trail aIter knowledge which costs not
a lot iI you can appreciate the lot which Irom time immemorial has been
worth memorizing at a time and which can be put back (up to a time,
sure thing) into a sack as old sake.
15. B r,
m. - He is too alive to Iall asleep with the dead sleep oI
Iatigue and health.
16. e , . - eep up with
me, but don't keep at my heels.
17. . 1 e
m, e
. - It was a bribery set-back. And when he Iought Ior control
over the public the public control Iought him down and set back.
18. B e, u,
r - ,
, m m ,
e , e.
Without batting an eyelash could he stake his Iortune on the turn oI a
110
card and hazard his liIe Ior any passion which, erect oI carriage and with a
peal oI laughter over something, Ior the wit oI which I wouldn't vouch, was
passing by. f 9. B ,
. - The prooI oI the pudding is the eating. But he was not an
eater.
20. K m , e ,
, r r e
. - When one doesn't only know that one is worth one's weight in
gold but begins to put on airs, one may out oI a blue sky Iall under such
a burden oI knowledge.
21. Be, ,
. 3 eu. eu. r,
r, m
u . um
u . - For God's sake, either get out oI the habit
oI putting on airs or get out oI here. I'll give a sigh oI relieI. Relieved will
be breath oI air. Maybe I'll choke with a peal oI laughter at my complete
independence, but will not allow others to laugh at my Ieelings. I will not
hazard my soul Ior any other passion.
22. ,
, e ... e ,
e e r-e m ,
. - The eating is the prooI oI the pudding Ior
which he hazarded his Iortune, gnawed knowledge... LiIe would give
peals oI laughter at him, gnawed him, and out oI a blue sky threw him
to the ground when he appeared up in the clouds.
23. T - e - e,
m . H
eu. - The moment - memories - on the spur oI the
moment moved by him when he in involuntary movements was soaping
and washing his soaped hands. Then he gave a sigh oI relieI.
24. r m? B . Heu
. . H, r r. B
m ... ? ? B
m , e e r
... ? e , ? r e e,
e r. A r... -
hazard liIe Ior an adventure A peal oI laughter. A sigh oI
111
relieI. Like over a dead. No, liIe goes on. I stake on the turn oI a card..
What Am I dreaming It's worth while getting out oI the habit oI dream-
ing on the spur oI the moment when out oI a blue sky there may come..
What God knows, what. Maybe even nothing Ior which it would be
worth while hazarding liIe. But it's a pity...
Seminar No 4
Morphological Stylistics
Ess!n/ent @. >n% )#ses o, t(#ns.oston o, no-ns #n% )o//ent
on the/Y
@. They would put away the card-table and empty the ash-receivers with
many "Oh, I beg your pardon's" and "No, no -1 was in your way's." 2. "Madge,
what's 'necessitas', masculine or Ieminine" - "Why, Ieminine, oI com -
"Why" - "Why, she was the mother oI invention." 3. "Who is your Iavorite
classic novelist" - "Thackeray." - "Great Scott!" - "Some think so still 1
preIer Thackeray." 4. This is the Naval Reserve OIIicers Training Corps. Its
members are called "Neurotics." 5. "Yes," prattled the elderly lady, "that is
the Duke and Duchess the couple behind them are the Mayor and the
Mayoress, and those on the right are the icar and the-er-ixen." 6. "II I
speak oI afoot, and you show me your feet, and I give you a boot, would a
pair be called beetl II one is a tooth and a whole set are teeth, why shouldn't
the plural oI booth be called beeth 7. The man I argued yesterday's expla-
nation puzzled me greatly.
Ess!n/ent ], En#lyse stylst) -se o, the #(t)lesY
1. A Drive Safe sign. "It's better to be late, Mr. Motorist, than to be
the late, Mr. Motorist." 2. Advertisement. "Lion tamer wants tamer lion." 3.1
thought it was Iine - especially the Chopin. 4. I don't want to turn into a
Teddy Bolan. 5.1 will never go to a Sahara. 6. Sun. Friend not Foe. 7. Slowly
but surely man is conquering Nature.
Ess!n/ent ^. Iete(/ne t(#ns.oston o, .(ono-nsY
1. Are they going to take thee away 2. They arrived at the IiIth inning
"What's the score, Jim" she asked a Ian. "Nothing to nothing." was the
reply. "Oh, goodly!" she exclaimed. "We haven't missed a thing!" 3. 'So
your son is in college ow is he making it" - "To be exact, he isn't making
it. I'm making it and he's spending it." 4. Chivalry is how you Ieel when
you're cold. 5. Sign on the wall of a research laboratorv. "Consider the
turtle - e doesn't make any progress unless he sticks his neck out." 6. The
masculine pronouns are he, his, him, but imagine the Ieminine she, shis, and
shiinl 7. "Correct this sentence: 'it was me that spilt the ink. '" - "It wasn't
me that spilt the ink."
Ess!n/ent _. 1ont o-t #n% e*.l#n )#ses o, t(#ns.oston o, #%5
4e)t2esY
1. A0 want you to teach my son a Ioreign language." - "Certainly, mad-
am, French, German, Russian, Italian, Spanish -" - "Which is the most
Ioreign" 2. Landladv. "I think you had better board elsewhere." Boarder.
"Yes, I oIten have." Landladv. "OIten had what" Boarder. "ad better
board elsewhere." 3. "What are the comparative and superlative oI bad,
Berty" - "Bad - worse - dead." 4. "Unmarried" - "Twice." 5.1 don't like
Sunday evenings: I Ieel so Mondayish.
Ess!n/ent c. 1)7 o-t #n% #n#lyse t(#ns.oston o, 2e(3sY
1. "An' what's more, I ain't 'ad a day's illness in my liIe!" - "Lor lumme,
what on earth d'yer Iind to talk about" 2. "And your brother, who was trying
so hard to get a government job, what is he doing now" - "Nothing. e got
the job." 3. "I would like to settle that little debt oI mine." - "I'm very glad to
hear it!" - "I said I would like to but I can't." 4. "I must say these are Iine
biscuits!" Exclaimed the young husband. "ow could you say those are Iine
biscuits" inquired the young wiIe's mother, in a private interview. "I didn't
say they were Iine. I only said I must say so." 5. A man who is always
complaining is the easiest man to satisIy because nothing satisIies him. 6. At
IiIteen I'm an orphan, and ic moves in. "From now on you'll do as I tell
you," he says. It impressed me. 7. "Can you tell me where this road goes,
please" - "It don't go anywhere it just stops where it is." 8. "I'm taking
Political economy at college." - "That's a useless course. Why learn to econ-
0n
iize in politics It's not being done." 9. "Waiter!" - "Yes, sir." - "What's
this" - "it's bean soup, sir." - "No matter what it's been. What is it now"
'0.1 said, "This deed, sir, will you do" And soon the deed was dod! 11. "What
w
ould you do iI you were in my shoes" - "Polish them!" 12. "Does a doctor
`tor a doctor according to the doctored doctor's doctrine or doctoring, or
112 113
does the doctor doing the doctrine doctor the other doctor according to his 1
own doctoring doctrine" 13. "If we forget, then weve forgotten, But things
we wet are never wotten, And houses let cannot be lotten." 14. "So you're not
going to Paris, this year" - "No - it's London we're not going to this year it
was Paris we didn't go to last year!"
Ess!n/ent T. En#lyse stylst) 2#l-e o, #%2e(3sY
1. "er husband didn't leave her much when he died, did he" - "No
but he leIt her very oIten when he was alive." 2. "Shay, pardon me, oIIisher,
but where am I" - "You're on the corner oI Broadway and Forty-second
Street." - "Cut out the details. What town am I in" 3. "Your hair wants
cutting badly, sir," said a barber insinuatingly to a customer. "No, it doesn't,"
replied the man in the chair "it wants cutting nicely. You cut it badly last time."
4. Jane was terriIically beautiIul. 5. e seemed prosperous, extremely mar-
ried and unromantic.
Ess!n/ent U. Ie,ne stylst) 2#l-e o, /o(.holo!)#l t(#ns.os5
ton n the ,ollo"n! senten)esY
1. Roll on, thou dark and deep blue Ocean - roll! 2. What were you
talking about to that old mare downstairs 3. The real war was not between
the Bill Davidsons and the Jean Duvals and the ans MUllers ... (
anxm, anysam mnxm). 4. The blonde I had been dancing with's
name was Bemice - Crabs or rebs. 5. A world without goodness - it'd be
Paradise. But it wouldn't no more than now. The only paradises were Iools'
paradises, ostriches' paradises. 6. Waters on a starry night are beautiIul and
Iair. 7. e was engaged to be married to a Miss ubbard. 8. You are not the
Andrew Manson I married, 9. It was a dead leaI, deader than the deadest
tree leaI. 10. You have come Irom Them to spy on me. I told my uncle that
the next one would suIIer. And you're him. 11. A great pity! Surely something
could be done! One must not take such situations lying down. She walks on,
and reached a station, hot and cross. 12. You can never know what you can
do till you try. 13.1 don't want to write 1 want to live. What does she (I)
mean by that. It's hard to say. 14. All the people like us are We, and everyone
else is they. 15. "And what are we going to do now, escape" the warder
asked the prisoner. 16. You're burning yourselI out. And Ior what 17. I'm
going there tomorrow. 18. The auditorium is quite the largest in the world-
19. She is terribly pretty.
114
'e/n#( ?o c
1honet) #n% P(#.h) K*.(ess2e =e#ns
#n% 'tylst) Ie2)es
a Ellte(#ton
0%ent,y e*#/.les o, #llte(#ton n the ,ollo"n!.
Jack and Jill went up the hill
Mary had a little lamb
Pick up a Penguin!
The rising world oI waters dark and deep.
We'll croon in tune, beneath the moon.
is soul swooned slowly as he heard the snow Ialling Iaintly through the
universe and Iaintly Ialling, like the descent oI their last end, upon all the
living and the dead.
Esson#n)e y
1)7 o-t e*#/.les o, #sson#n)e n the ,ollo"n!.
Pick up a Penguin
Beanz meanz einz
Find a bin to put it in.
Abracadabra! The magic spell is upon you!
What a wonderIul bird is the pelicanlts beak can hold more than its belly can.
When the red, red robinComes bob, bob bobbin' along.
` Dno/#to.oe#
1)7 o-t e*#/.les o, ono/#to.oe# n the ,ollo"n! st#te/ents.
The bees were buzzing around the hive.
Sue whispered the secret to her Iriend.
"Splish! Splash! I was taking a bath."
115
By the end oI the race he was gasping Ior breath.
The chaIIinch and the cuckoo are common birds in Britain.
The susurration oI her dress alerted us to her arrival.
Ess!n/ent @. Ie,ne "hethe( the !(#.hons sho" the s.e#7e(;s
.hys)#l .e)-l#(tes Fphysical defect of speechC excitementC intoxica0
tionC carelessnessHC o( so)#l, te((to(#l, #n% e%-)#ton#l st#t-sY
@. A Frenchman stopped a newsboy in New York City to make some
inquiries oI his whereabouts. "Mon Iren, what is ze name oI zis street"
-"Well, who said 'twant'" - "What you call him, zis street" - "OI course we
do!" - "Pardonnez! I have not the name vat you call him." - "Yes, Watts we
call it." - "ow you call ze name oI zis street" - "Watts street, I told yen"
-""is street." - "Watts street, old Ieller, and don't you go to make game o' me.
"Sacre! I ask you one, two, tree several times oItin, vill you tell me ze name
oI ze street-eh" - "Watts street, I tole yer. Wer drunk, ain't yer" 2. "It's
lonesome enough Iur to live in the mount'ins when a man and a woman keers
Iur one another. But when she's a-spittin' like a wildcat or a-sullenin' like a
hoot-owl in the cabin, a man ain't got no call to live with her." (O'enry)
3. "The b-b-b-b-bas-tud-he seen me c-c-c-c-com-ing." (R. P. Warren) 4. "Wall,"
replide I, "in regard to perlittercal ellerIunts don't know as how but what they
is as good as enny other kind oI ellerIunts. But maik bold to say thay is all a
ornery set and unpleasant to hav round. They air powerIul hevy eaters and take
up a right smart chans oI room." (Artemus Ward) 5.'MISS JEMIMA!' ex-
claimed Miss Pinkerton, in the largest capitals. (W. Thakeray) 6. A producer
recently imported an alien star. "She's a nize goil," he announced, "and I'm
gonna loin her English." 7. "ey," he said "is it a goddamn cardroom" o( #
latrine Attensh - - UT! Da-ress right! DRESS!" (J. Jones) 8. (School-
bov) "Gam, I ain't done it." - (Teacher) 'Tommy, Tommy, where is your
grammar" - "She's a tome in bed, teacher, with the noomonier."
Ess!n/ent ]. Ie,ne the ty.e o, (hy/e Fcoupletsk triplek cross
rhymekframinH #n% nst(-/ent#ton /e#nsY
@. SwiItly, swiItly Ilew the ship, Yet
she sailed soItly too Sweetly, sweetly
blew the breeze -On me alone it blew.
(Coleridge)
@@T
2. Close to the sun in lonely lands, Ring'd with the
azure world, he stands. (Tennvson)
3. is wiIe was a Wave he waved at a Wac. The Wac
was in Iront, but his wiIe was in black. Instead oI a wave
Irom the Wac, it is said, What he got was a whack Irom
the Wave he had wed.
4. I saw thee weep - the big bright tear
Came o'er that eye oI blue And then
methought it did appear A violet dropping
dew. (Bvron)
5. But any man that walks the mead, In
bud, or blade, or bloom, may Iind,
According as his humours lead, A meaning
suited to his mind. (Tennvson)
6. SoItly sweet, in Lydian measures Soon he
soothed his soul to pleasures. (Drvden)
7. I bring Iresh showers Ior the thirsting Ilowers,
From the seas and the streams I bear light shade Ior
the leaves when laid In their noonday dreams.
(Shellv)
8. O that those lips had language! LiIe has passed With
me but roughly since I heard thee last. (Cowper)
Ess!n/ent ^. En#lyse nst(-/ent#ton #n% !(#.h) /e#ns n the
,ollo"n!Y
1- There she sees a damsel bright, Drest in a silken robe oI white. (Col-
eridge)
2- Een Irom the tomb the voice oI Nature cries, Een in our ashes live
their wanted Iires. (Grav)
3- Full Iathom Iive thy Iather lies. (Shakespeare)
The worth oI that (-my mortal selI) is that which it contains
A
nd that is this (-this sonnet), and this with thee remains. (Shakespeare)
117
4. West wind, wanton wind, wilIul wind, womanish wind, Ialse wind Irom,
over the water, will you never blow again (Shaw)
5. And the silken sad uncertain rustling oI each purple curtain Thrilled
me - Iilled me with Iantastic terrors never Ielt beIore. ()
6. 'Tutor" he cried. "Tewtor TerYEWtor" (Wodehouse)
7. "Silence! Silen-n-n-n-nce!" (Shaw)
8. "Fact is, man, they were drunk, yes, dr-r-unk." (Priestlev)
9. "But you ought to have it. II he takes it away Irom you he's unfust."
(Bennett)
10. "Oh! I do hate the telephone." (Wilson)
11. "Wassa matter"
"ell I dunno. ... One them automoebile riots I guess. Aint you read
the paper I don't blame em do you" (Dos Passos)
12. is soul swooned slowly as he heard the snow Ialling, Iaintly through
universe and Iaintly Ialling like the descent oI their last end, upon the
living and the dead. (J. Jovce)
13. From the morn to the night, he's so joyous and bright, And
he bubbles with wit and good humour! (Gilbert)
14. Leaves
Murmuring by myriads in the shimmering trees
Lives
Wakening with wonder in Pyrenees.
Birds
Cheering chirping in the early day.
Bards
Singing oI summer scything thro' the hay. (Owen)
15. "They've killed him, those vile, filthv Ioreigners. My babv son."Sam
Browne, still mystiIied, read the telegram. e then stood to attention,
saluted (although not wearing a cap), and said solemnly: "A clean sport-
in' death, an Englishman s death."
(When uns were killed it was neither clean nor sportin', but served the
beggars - ("........." among men) - right. ) (Aldridge)
16. "AS - I - WAS - SAYING," said Eyore loudly and sternly, "as I was
saying when I was interrupted by various Loud Sounds, I Ieel that -'
(Milne)
17. The trouble with a kitten is
TAT
Eventually it becomes a
CAT. (Nash)
'e/n#(s ?o T,U
&e*)o5se/#nt) K*.(ess2e =e#ns
#n% 'tylst) Ie2)esY >!-(es D, '-3stt-ton
a >!-(es o, s.ee)h
1)7 o-t #n% n#/e the ,!-(es o, s.ee)h -se% n these st#te/ents.
Shall I compare thee to a summer's day
She was thrilled to bits when she heard the news.
The sky looked like black velvet.
'Sit still!'she hissed.
The chancellor will steer the economy through these choppy waters.
e was over the moon when the team scored.
=et#.ho(s
:h)h 7ey "o(% )(e#tes the /et#.ho( n these st#te/entsF
\'ee , yo- )#n #lso %ent,y ts !(#//#t)#l ,-n)ton<.
Don't think you can come waltzing in here.
e was a wizard with Iigures.
Wipe that smile off vour face right now.
You are my sunshine.
That junction's always a bottleneck.
The road was a ribbon oI moonlight.
=etony/y
0%ent,y #ny /etony/y n the ,ollo"n! st#te/ents.
The pound has risen in strength today against the dollar.
It's about time you put your Ioot down.
The bench has decreed that the case be dismissed.
118 119
Japan is sometimes reIerred to as the land oI the rising sun.
The whole city will welcome this grant Irom the government.
'In all oI omer, there is no Iiner view oI Greece than this.'
'yne)%o)he
1)7 o-t #ny e*#/.les o, syne)%o)he n the ,ollo"n! st#te/ents.
England lost the Ashes in 1997.
In the estuary there appeared a Ileet oI IiIty sail.
The Church has declared that abortion is a sin.
FiIty head oI cattle were sold at auction yesterday.
"You won't Iind any jokers in this pack."
Everton scored in extra time to win the Cup.
0(ony
Ie)%e , these st#te/ents #(e (on) o( not.
"So you've lost the books I lent you Well, that's wonderIul!" "She gave
us a two-hour lecture on how to make a cup oI tea. It was really
Iascinating."
"We can't select you Ior the play. It doesn't Ieature simpletons." "Yes, put
the baby next to the Iire. That will be the saIest place." "Don't look at me
in that way - unless you want a thick ear!" It is a truth universally
acknowledged that a man in possession oI a Iortune must be in want oI a
wiIe.
Ess!n/ent @. =#t)h e#)h ,!-(e o, 8-#ntty "th ts /#n stylst)
,e#t-(eY
@. yperbole. 2. Meiosis. 3. Litotes.
a) positive sense oI a structure with double negation
b) a deliberate exaggeration
c) a deliberate diminution.
120
Ess!n/ent ]. 0n%)#te se.#(#tely the )#ses o,Y #C hy.e(3oleZ 3C
/eossZ )C ltotesY
1. English and American hands were as scarce as hen's teeth in this
unhealthy place. (W. Foster). 2. e would give the world Ior her Iair eyes.
3. Dear aunt, you Irightened me out oI my senses. (. Fielding). 4. A smile
crossed Natt's Iace Irom ear to ear. (. Caine). 5. An unIortunate man would
be drowned in a tea-cup. 6. A watched pot never boils. 7. e said: "I thought
I'd come up and have a word with you, Iather." (A. Cronin). 8. I have not
seen you Ior ages. 9. To write a novel is as simple Ior him as Ialling oII a
chair, I suppose. 10. You make noise enough to wake the dead. 11. We'll be
back in three shakes oI a dead lamb's tail. (J. Conroy). 12. e seemed to me
to be Irightened all to pieces. (A. Doyle). 13.1 don't speak empty words.
14. It hadn't been Ior nothing aIter all. 14. No man is indispensable. 15. These
cabins aren't halI bad. (. Wells). 16. Nothing is impossible to a willing heart.
17. I've had such a lot oI worry lately that I don't know whether I'm on my
head or heels. (. Lawson). 18. And the Iloors! They haven't seen water Ior
ages. (J. Steele). 19. An old dog barks not in vain. 20. "Well, that's not a bad
idea," he said Iinally. (M. Wilson). 21. e proceeded very slowly and cau-
tiously, an inch at a time. (J. London). 22. e was a good-Ior-nothing Iellow.
23.1 wouldn't say it is beyond your purse to buy that book.
Ess!n/ent ^. =#t)h e#)h /etony/) ,!-(e o, 8-#lty "th ts
/#n stylst) ,e#t-(eY
@. Metonymy. 2. Synecdoche. 3. Periphrasis. 4. Euphemism.
a) replacement oI a direct name oI a thing/phenomenon by the description
oI some oI its quality
b) naming the whole object by mentioning part oI it, or naming a constitu-
ent part by mentioning the whole object
c) replacement oI an unpleasant, impolite word or expression with a mild-
er and decent one
d)transIerence oI a name oI one object to another based upon contiguity.
Ess!n/ent _. =#t)h e#)h /et#.ho() ,!-(e o, 8-#lty "th ts
/
#n stylst) ,e#t-(eY
@. Metaphor. 2. Epithet. 3. Antonomasia. 4. PersoniIication. 5. Allegory.
a) an attribute describing an object expressively, pointing out an implied
Iigurative connotation
121
b) an abstract notion in a concrete image, embodied throughout a whole text,
oIten possessing the Ieatures oI a human being and having its proper name
c) transIerence oI a name oI one object to another based on similarity
d) usage oI common nouns as proper names based on similarity oI quali-
ties, or usage oI proper names as common nouns
e) ascribing human behaviour, Ieelings, thoughts and actions to inanimate
objects.
Ess!n/ent c. =#t)h the .e(.h(#ses "th the notons they (e.5
(esentY 0.
1) a gentleman in brown
2) a gentleman in black
3) a gentleman/ knight oI industry
4) a gentleman oI the (long) robe
5) the Father oI Lights
(the king oI glory/ heaven)
00. 1) the Father oI Rivers/ Waters
2) a daughter oI the soil
3) a daughter oI Eve
4) a daughter oI Jezebel
5) a son oI Mars
000. 1) a son oI the Nile
2) a son oI ulcan
3) a son/ knight oI the Spigot
4) the king oI birds
5) the king oI terrors
I. 1) the king oI the sea
2) the king oI beasts
3) the king oI day
4) a knight oI Iortune
5) a knight oI the Iield
. 1) a knight oI the pen/ pencil/ quill
2) Iires oI heaven
3) old moustache
4) the arena oI the bears and bulls
5) cold Ieet
122
a) Satan
b) a bug, bed-bug, clinch
c)God
d) a swindler
e) a lawyer, judge
a) a soldier military man
b) a woman
c) the Nile
d) a peasant woman
e) a an impudent woman
a) an eagle
b) a tavern-keeper
c) death
d) a crocodile
e) a (black)smith, Iarrier
a)the sun
b)an adventurer, gambler
c)a tramp, vagrant, hobo
d)herring
e)a lion
a)a cowardice
b)a writer, journalist, clerk
c)stock exchange
d) stars
e)a veteran
Ess!n/ent T. 't#te the 7n% o, the .e(.h(#ssY aH logical bH met0
onymicI PH metaphoric. K*.l#n "h#t s /.le%Y
1. e was a mere adventurer, a man, who out oI oIIice must live by his
eikXTh. Macanlay). 2. e is now under IiIteen, and an old limb oI the law.
(Ch. Dickens). 3. Learning is the eye oI the mind. 4.1 am desperately Iond oI
her: she is the light oI my eyes. (Ch. BrontJ. 5. Soldiers are citizens oI death's
`Tjivjand. drawing no dividend Irom time's tomorrows. (S. Sassoon). 6. Sui-
cide note: The calm, cool Iace oI the river asked me Ior a kiss. (L. ughes).
7 ppd cock will crow in his house. 8. "OI what proIession is Mr. Archer"
OI the Corporation oI the Goosequil - oI the Press, my boy," said War-
rington. (W. Thackeray). 9. Neither oI them had a word to throw to a dog.
10. You are scarcely out oI the shell yet. 11. The woman was a walking
mrpse. 12. Bacchus has drowned more men than Neptune. 13. e is a
npen book. 14. She's the skeleton in the Iamily cupboard. 15. She distrusted
nl heads on young shoulders. (. Walpole). 16. I know she has a sweet
tooth still in her head. (M. Edgeworth). 17. e had a warm place in his heart
Ior dogs. (M. Twain). 18. Jack was aIraid they were going to ease him oI his
purse. 19. John was too much oI an aIternoon Iarmer to carry the business
successIully. (J. Dixon). 20.1 thought it wise to keep that sum Ior a rainy day.
21. e is not going to depart this liIe. I suppose. 22. Geargel had been nearly
six years upon the throne. (W. Ainsworth). 23. eep a civil tongue, or I'll
throw you to the crowd. (J. Galsworthy). 24. ere in Montreal she was a Iish
out oI water. (Th. Dreiser). 25. A IorgetIul head makes a weary pair oI heels.
26. e is disadvantaged, underprivileged - he still doesn't have a dime. 27. In
the real world oI political compromise, Iew hats are all white. (W. SaIire
"Satire's Political Dictionary"). 28. It is nothing to say that he hadn't a word
to throw at a dog. (Ch. Dickens). 29. "I'm running a nut house." e rubbed
his hand over his bald dome. 30. Soon he will pay his debt to nature. 31.1 wish
I
w
ere under the turI. 32. "Go and take a nice big jump in the lake and Iorget
-Come out." says the truck driver. (J. Steele). 33. I was pretty much oI a
eeenzhorn, I guess. 34. She suddenly took to her heels. (Th. ardy). 35. Charles
Sates expressed his opinion that it was the time to pad the hooI. (Ch. Di-
c
kens). 36. Snawley himselI can tell that this is not his son, and that his son is
0BH worms. (Ch. Dickens). 37. In your chair days you will understand all
yur vanity. 38. The grocery store on the corner, halI a block Irom where
bother lived, changed hands. (J. London). 39. You know the Blakes next
or but one. Only last week they Ilitted between the moon and the milkman.

J
- Lindsay).
123
Ess!n/ent U. '-..ly the /ssn! "o(%s ,(o/ the lst 3elo". Ie5
,ne the ty.es o, /et#.ho(Y eH deadoriginal ^H nominativekconitivek
imainativeI gH simpleksustained-
1. Then we'll an hour in the lounge. (A. Cronin). 2. unger . stone
walls. 3. When e enters the door, love will Ily out oI the window. 4. is heart
was m with sympathetic tenderness. (J. London). 5. In a little district west oI
Washington Square the streets ` and broken themselves into small strips
called "places." (O'enry)
a) povertv b) kill c) have run crav d) melting e) breaks
Ess!n/ent +. Ie,ne ty.es (associated I unassociated simple I com0
pound I phrasal clausalH #n% .#(#.h(#se the e.thets n the )onte*tY
1. Well, haven't you always advocated a kid-glove policy (D. Carter).
2. Never such a cat-and-dog liIe as they've been leading ever since! (Th.
ardy). 3. She gave him a penny-in-the-slot smile. (D. Bullett). 4. Does he
really think that I will Iollow his hole-in-the-head advice 5. As ve oIten told
you, I'm a dyed-in-the-grain Liberal with no conIidence in the Liberal Party.
(J. Lindsay). 6. My Lady Dedlock Iell not into the melting, but rather into a
Ireezing mood. (Ch. Dickens). 7. Europe's new dead-end generation has lost
Iaith in the Iuture. (Newsweek). 8. Mine has been comparatively but aiotusr
eating existence hitherto to-morrow I begin the battle oI liIe. (E. Yates). 9. My
rascals are not milk-and-water rascals, I promise you. (W. Thackeray).
10. She didn't like his gin-and-water voice. 11. A green wound is soon healed.
12. The baculine method was a quite common mode oI argument in those
days. (W. Thackeray).
Ess!n/ent S. 1ont o-t /et#.ho( #/on! /etony/y. Ie,ne ts
stylst) ,-n)ton n e#)h case:
1. ow to earn daily bread by my pen was then the problem. (B. Shaw)-
2. A loose tongue wagged spiteIully outside the hospital. (A. Cronin). 3. e
bears no malice Ior you or your relatives. 4. The pen is mightier than the
sword. 5. Proverbs are the wisdom oI the streets. 6. As things were he had to
put his pride in his pocket - he couldn't quarrel with his bread and butter.
(A. Cronin). 7. Fortune gives her hand to a bold man. 8. It's well known, isn '
it, that her circle is very Iree and easy. (J. Galsworthy). 9. We're badly
need oI new blood. (A. Cronin). 10. is tongue Iailed him. 11. ow is th
e
124
world treating you 12. ungry bellies have no ears. 13. Idleness is the moth-
er oI all evil. 14. MisIortunes come on wings and depart on Ioot. 15. The
captain was ashore, where he had been engaging some new hands to make
up his Iull crew.
Ess!n/ent @b. 1ont o-t /etony/y #/on! /et#.ho(. Ie,ne ts
stylst) ,-n)ton n e#)h )#seY
1. Father is a treasure, a brother is a comIort, but a Iriend is both. 2. Pat's
got somebody in her mind's eye. (. S. Prichard). 3. The heart that once truly
loves never Iorgets. 4. The heads oI the church and State reaped only that
which they had sown. (Th. Macaulay). 5. Absence makes the heart grow
Ionder. 6. e was tolerably stricken in years by this time. (Ch. Dickens). 7. The
servant answered the bell. 8. An enemy's mouth seldom speaks well. 9. e's
hand in glove with you against me. (A. Cronin). 10. We're ruled by the inven-
tors and human nature, and we live in Queer Street, Mr. Desert. (J. Galswor-
thy). 11. Young man, you're ready with your tongue. (D. Cusack). 12. The
company Iound their tongues at last. (. Caine). 13. Flesh and blood could
not stand the strain. (A. Doyle). 14.1 saw him down at the hotel shouting the
drinks Ior Sam. I think he's pretty Iond oI the bottle now. (J. Aldridge). 15. Oh,
and the next two hours tripped by on rosy wings.
Seminar No 8
Lexico-semantic Expressive Means
and Stylistic Devices: Figures oI Combination
a '/les
:h)h o, the ,ollo"n! st#te/ents )ont#n s/lesF
It was as Ilat as a pancake.
There was as much as you could eat.
She was as bright as a button.
As iI I would do a thing like that!
Where the bee sucks, there suck I.
O my love is like a red, red rose.
@]c
a D*y/o(on
:h)h o, these st#te/ents )ont#n o*y/o(onF.
No light, but rather darkness visible.
'I like a smuggler. e's the only honest thieI.'
e was condemned to a living death.
ere's much to do with hate, but more with love. Why then, O brawling
love! O loving hate!
"Make mine a wiskey sour, please!"
The shackles oI an old love straiten'd him,is honour rooted in dishonour
stood,And Iaith unIaithIul kept him Ialsely true.
1#(#%o*
:h)h o, these st#te/ents )ont#n # .#(#%o*F
A mixture oI sound and silence pervades the shady part oI the wood.
She's got her knickers in a twist over this issue.
A libel may be all the more a libel, Ior being true.
A paradox is simply that which contradicts popular opinion or which in
too many cases is a Ialse opinion.
The dullness oI the book is increased in proportion to the density, and it
becomes ten times more tedious by its compression.
e has a powerIul weakness Ior drink.
Ess!n/ent @. =#t)h e#)h ,!-(e o, )o/3n#ton "th ts /#n
stylst) ,e#t-(eY
@. Simile. 2. Synonyms. 3. Oxymoron. 4. Antithesis. 5. Climax. 6. Anti-
climax. 7. eugma. 8. Pun.
a) a Iigure oI ascending arrangement oI emotional, qualitative, or quanti-
tative Ieatures oI the reIerent under description
b) a Iigure oI contrast at the level oI two semantically opposite phrases'
c) identity is expressed in the words with similar meanings
d) a play on homonymic or polysemantic words
e) a Iigure oI identity consisting in expressive comparison oI two belong'
ing to diIIerent semantic classes objects which have something in common
126
I) a Iigure oI inequality realised in decreasing signiIicance, importance or
emotional tension oI narration
g) a Iigure oI contrast based on the combination oI semantically
incompatible, almost antonymous words describing one reIerent
h) an at least three-component Iigure oI inequality, in which the basic
component Iorms with the adjacent ones both a metaphoric expression and a
Iree word combination.
Ess!n/ent ]. 1)7 o-t the #..(o.(#te )o/.#(#t2e e*.(essons
,(o/ the a0e lst 3elo". K*.l#n the stylst) ,-n)ton o, e#)h s/le.
Ie,ne othe( stylst) %e2)esY
0.
1. "urrah, hurrah!" Ramage bellowed ` waving his arms. (A. Cronin).
2. e'd only have to take one look at Jan to be convinced in his honest old
heart that his son was lower . (D. Cusack).
3. Tom is raving, running about ` (F. Danby).
4. But the long seconds went by and she was as still m. (M. Wilson).
5. I should have thought you would have got on with these young Iolks like
- ` . (Ch. Yonge).
a) than a snake's belly b) like a house on Iire c) as ice d) like a bear
with a sore head e) like a bull
II.
1. "What's that" cried Brodie, turning ` (A. Cronin).
2. The creature was as lithe ` and as active ` .(. Beecher Stowe).
3. Why, you're shaking ` now because I mentioned his name! (E. oynich).
4.1 will be as silent , . (B. Show).
5. This was now a road oI ice Iive miles long, smooth J''., and all but as
straight m . (. Caine).
a) as glass ... as an arrow b) like a leaI c) like a Ilash d) as a cat... as
a
monkey e) as the grave
i.
1-1 should be no guide to you, Ior we are as diIIerent . (E. Lyall).
2- March comes in ` and goes out `.
3- Be you soIt ` and cunning `.. (R. Aldington).
127
4. It |. e. the talk| rolled oII his mental sphere m .
5. e is as dead ` .
a) as a door-nail b) like water oII the Ieathers oI a duck c) as doves as
serpents d) like a lion ... like a lamb e) as chalk and cheese
I.
1. This hand-to-mouth existence kept him as thin `. (J. Galsworthy).
2. Dave's voice drew the others m . (D. Carter).
3. Your Iather was as like you are now ` . (A. Cronin).
4.1 can't believe this is true. It sounds m to me. (A. Cronin). 5.
And his boss is as crooked ` . (. S. Prichard).
a) as two peas in a pod b) like complete cock-and-bull yarn c) as
dog's hind leg d) like a magnet e) as a rail
.
1. Your attention is as good Ior him `.
2. And all oI a sudden he went as dumb
3.1 should stick to it ` .Ior my own sake
4. Anyway, he is as blind `.
5. Curses ` come home to roost.
a) like a Ilea to Ileece b) as a bat c) as a Iish d) like chickens e) as a
shoulder oI mutton to a sick horse
Ess!n/ent ^. 1#(#.h(#se the ,ollo"n! )#ses o, s/le, n%)#te
.ost2e o( ne!#t2e )onnot#tonY
1) like a squirrel in a cage 2) (as) light as a butterIly 3) (as) Iussy as a
hen with one chick 4) (as) gaunt as a grey-hound/ as bone 5) (as) gaudy as
a peacock 6) (as) gentle as a lamb 7) like a boiled rag 8) like a Iighting-
cock 9) like a Iish out oI water 10) like a million dollars 11) (as) Iirm/ steady
as a rock 12) like swine 13) (as) clear as mud 14) (as) black as a thunder
cloud 15) (as) Ileet as a deer.
Ess!n/ent _. D-t o, the ,ollo"n! e*.(essons %ete(/ne those,
"h)h (e.(esentY eH oxymoronI ^H antithesis. 1ont o-t othe( stylst)
%e2)esY
1. A little body oIten harbours a great soul. 2. Sprinting towards the
levator he Ielt amazed at his own cowardly courage. 3. Little pigeons can
an-y great messages. 4. To know everything is to know nothing. 5. The play s
awIully Iunny. 6. She pleased his eyes and plagued his heart. 7. The
Measures oI the mighty are the tears oI the poor. 8. A Iriend to all is a Iriend to
none. 9. A joke never gains an enemy but oIten loses a Iriend. 10. The aaraae
was Iull oI nothing. 11. The Iurthest way about is the nearest way home- 12.
False Iriends are worse than open enemies. 13. e is so Iull oI himselI that
he is quite empty. 14. There's a change coming, Erik. Any blind man can see
that. 15. Old Jolyon seemed master oI perennial youth. 16. The Iool does
think he is wise, but the wise man knows himselI to be a Iool. 17. Good
words cost nothing and are worth much. 18. Better a lean peace than a Iat
victory. 19. Cheapest is the dearest. 20. Better a glorious death than a
shameIul liIe. 21. The newly planted trees wouldn't stand the gentle
violence oI the wind. 22. The speaking silence grew oppressive. 23. The
picture was horribly beautiIul. 24. Don't use big words. They mean so little.
Ess!n/ent c. $hoose ,(o/ the a0e lst the #..(o.(#te ,o( .-n
"o(%s, /ssn! n the senten)es. 1ont o-t the 7ey "o(%s o, .-nY
1. "Are the tires on the car .." - "No, two oI them are leIt."
2. "Son, are you pursuing your studies IaithIully" - "Yes, indeed, Iather.
I'm always ,"
3. "II you were in AIrica and saw a lion coming, what steps would you
take" - W
4. "Is it a board school you go to, my dear" - "No, sir. I believe it is ..."
5. "Papa, what kind oI a robber is ..." - "A what" - "It says here that
two pages held up the bride's train."
a) brick b) behind c) a page d) the longest e) all right
Ess!n/ent T. '-!!est the /ssn! .#(ts o, the h-/o(o-s (e.les
3#se% on .-n o, the /e#nn!s o, the -n%e(lne% "o(%sY
@. "asn't arvey ever married" - "... , because he's studying Ior a
bachelor's degree."
2. "Did you have any luck, hunting tigers in India" - "... Didn't come
across a single tiger."
3. "What, your son is an undertaker I thought you said he was a doc
tor" - "Ncx I said he Iollowed ..."
128 129
`. BR.
Galsworthy). . (G.
Eliot).
4. "What is the meaning oI the word 'matrimony'" - "Father says it it's
a sentence."
5. "What model is his car" -"... it's a horrible example."
Ess!n/ent U. Istn!-sh 3et"eenY #H ironyI ^H ceumaI gH p%n
1ont o-t othe( stylst) %e2)esY
@. For my own part, I swim like a stone. 2. Joe's been putting two and
two together to make a million. 3. Bookcases covering one wall boasted a
halI-shelI oI literature. 4. "Lord enry, I am not at all surprised that the world
says that you are extremely wicked." - "But what world says that" asked
Lord enry, elevating his eyebrows. "It can only be the next world. This
world and I are on excellent terms." 5. Last time it was a nice, simple, Euro-
pean-style war. 6. Your project is just Iit Ior the wastepaper basket. 7. e is
really now a gentleman oI the three outs: out oI pocket, out oI elbow, out oI
credit. 8. Yes, he is my blood cousin, seven times removed. 9. Telling oI a
member expelled Irom her club, a woman said: "They dismembered her."
10. "Unmaried" - "Twice." 11. The quickest way to break a bad habit is to
drop it. 12. The man who is always asking Ior a loan is always leIt alone.
13. Father to daughter's suitor: "My daughter says you have that certain
something, but I wish you had something certain!" 14. (She, tearfullv)
-"You said iI I'd marry you you'd be humbly grateIul." - (e, sourlv) - "Well,
what oI it" - (She) - "You're not you're grumbly hateIul." 15. (an epitaph
on Sir John Strange) ere lies an honest lawyer, and that is Strange.
'-..le/ent Ess!n/ent. En#lyse the ,ollo"n! ,!-(es o, s-3st5
t-ton #n% )o/3n#tonY
1. The whole lobby was empty. It smelled like IiIty million dead cigars.
2. Somebody knocked on the door, and when I went to open it, I Iell over my
suitcase. I always pick a gorgeous time to Iall over a suitcase or something.
3.1 dropped about a thousand hints but I couldn't get rid oI him. 4. e was
two years younger than I was, but he was about IiIty times as intelligent. e
was terriIically intelligent. 5. They both laughed like hyenas at stuII that wasn't
even Iunny. 6. e didn't have too bad a sense oI humor. 7. At Pency, you
either Iroze to death or died oI the heat. 8. e's not too bad. 9. There were
about three inches oI snow on the ground, and it was still coming down Like a
madman. 10. In New York, boy, money really talks - I'm not kidding. 11. The
one ugly one, Laverne, wasn't too bad a dancer, but the other one, old Marty,
was murder. Old Marty was like dragging the Statue oI Liberty around the
Iloor. 12. Four times she asked me that - she was certainly witty. 13. It was
that kind oI a crazy aIternoon, terriIically cold... (J. D. Salinger). 14. e
caught a ride home to the crowded loneliness oI the barracks. (J. Jones). 15. e
smiled back, breathing a memory oI gin at me. (W. S. Gilbert). 16. e is a
proud, haughty, consequential, turned-nosed peacock. (Ch. Dickens). 17. Now
let me introduce you - that's Mr What's-his-name, you remember him, don't
you And over there in the corner, that's the Major, and there's Mr What-
d'you-call-him, and that's an American. (E. Waugh). 18. AIter a while and a
cake he crept nervously to the door oI the parlour. (A. Tolkien). 19. "Some-
one at the door," he said, blinking. - "Some Iour, I should say by the sound,"
said Fili. (A. Tolkien). 20. Like a well, like a vault, like a tomb, the prison had
no knowledge oI the brightness outside. (Ch. Dickens). 21. We danced on the
handkerchieI-big space between the speak-easy tables. (R. P. Warren). 22.
Liza amilton was a very diIIerent kettle oI Irish. er head was small and
round and it held small and round convictions. (J. Steinbeck). 23. There are
three doctors in an illness like yours. I don't mean only myselI, my partner and
the radiologist who does your X-rays, the three I'm reIerring to are Dr Rest,
Dr Diet and Dr Fresh Air. (D Cusack). 24. Little Jon was born with a silver
spoon in his mouth which was rather curly and large. (J. Galsworthy). 25.
uck Finn and olden CaulIield are Good Bad Boys oI American literature.
(. G. allins). 26. e smelled the ever-beautiIul smell oI coIIee
imprisoned in the can. (J. Steinbeck). 27. er painIul shoes slipped oII. (J.
Updike). 28. We sat down at the table. The jaws got to work around the
table. (R. P. Warren). 29. e had all the conIidence in the world, and not
without reason. (J. O'ara). 30.1 took my obedient Ieet away Irom him. (W.
S. Gilbert). 31. Most women up London nowadays seem to Iurnish their
rooms with nothing but orchids, Ioreigners and French novels. (O. Wilde).
32. I Ielt I wouldn't say "no" to a cup oI tea. (. MansIield). 33. Better
beans and bacon in peace than cakes and ale in Iear. (Aesop). 34. A most
intense young man, A soulIul-eyed young man. An ultra-poetical, super-aes-
thetical, Out-oI-the-way young man! (Gilbert). 35. When every one is some-
body, Then no one's anybody. (Gilbert). 36. The black Ilower oI civilized
society, a prison. (N. awthorne). 37.1 like work it Iascinates me. I can sit
and look at it Ior hours. I love to keep it by me: the idea oI getting rid oI it
nearly breaks my heart. (J. . Jerome). 38. A Ily sat on the chariot wheel and
said, "What a dust I raise." (J. La Fontaine). 39. Please return this book I
Iind that though many oI my Iriends are poor arithmeticians, they are nearly
all good bookkeepers. (W. Scott). 40. CauliIlower is nothing but cabbage with
a
college education. (Mark Twain).
130 131
'e/n#(s ?o S,@b
'tylst) 'ynt#*Y 'ynt#)t) K*.(ess2e =e#ns
#n% 'tylst) Ie2)es
Ess!n/ent @. 1)7 o-t the synt#)t) stylst) %e2)es 3#se% on a)
reduction, b) extension of the sentence model.
1) a rhetoric question 2) polysyndeton 3) parceling 4) detachment
5) repetition 6) tautology 7) aposiopesis 8) inversion 9) an apokoinu con-
struction 10) ellipsis 11) asyndeton 12) enumeration 13) a nominative sen-
tence 14) parallel constructions.
Ess!n/ent ]. 1ont o-t se.#(#tely the cases o, 1) elliptical sen-
tences, 2) nominative sentences, 3) apokoinu constructions.
1. Malay Camp. A row oI streets crossing another row oI streets. (P. Abra-
hams). 2. "What did you divorce your husband Ior" - "Two hundred dollars
a month." 3. "Don't you think he's rather good-looking" - "In a way."
-"What kind oI a way" - "Away oII." 4. There was no door led into the
kitchen. (Sh. Anderson). 5. The day passed on. Noon, aIternoon, evening.
Sunset. (J. Galsworthy). 6. e was the man killed the deer. (R. P. Warren).
Ess!n/ent ^. 1)7 o-t t#-tolo!y n the ,ollo"n! senten)esY
1. Pain, even slight pain, tends to isolate. Pain, such as he had to suIIer,
cuts the last linkswith society. (S. Chaplin). 2. The widow Douglas, she took
me Ior her son. (M. Twain). 3. "What's the matter" - "Nothing... every-
thing. .. it's good news... news... well, Jean's much better. 4. And - now my
Arvie's gone. Whatever will I and my children do Whatever will I do What-
ever will I do.. (. Lawson). 5.1 can say no more, but blessings, blessings
on all in the dear house I leave, prays. (W. Thackeray).
Ess!n/ent _. '-..ly the /ssn! "o(%s to n%)#te cases o, (e.5
etton. Ie,ne the (e.etton ty.esY
1. Avoid evil and it will ` you. 2. Live not to 1JJm but eat to live. .A`
Ior everything and everything in its place. 4. The alarm swept Irom lip to.....,
Irom group to Irom street to HHB. (M. Twain). 5. Nothing will come oI
` . 6. What is lost is `. 7. The worst has come to AJA. 8. God deIend me Irom
my Iriends Irom my enemies I can myselI. 9. e's not Iit to ` others that
cannot command himselI. 10. e that hatches matches catches. 11. II the
mountain will not come to Mahammed, ` must go to `. 12. . to you is like
talking to the wall. 13. It was a ghost oI a train, a Flying Dutchman oI ` a
nightmare oI `. (R. Davis). 14. Nothing comes Irom .. 15. "That's a Iine
orJen mind you've got there!" "Open mind, my eye! We didn't come with `
(M- Wilson). 16. abit cures `. 17. It's queer that you should be so diIIer -
ent Irom iolet. u is as hard as nails. (B. Shaw). 18. A crooked stick throws a
` shadow.
Ess!n/ent c. $h#n!e the "o(% o(%e( to /#7e the senten)es
!(#//#t)#lly #n% se/#nt)#lly )o((e)tY
1. Wanted, a situation as governess by a young lady aged 26 Ior three
years. 2. Lost, an umbrella in ictoria by a lady with whalebone ribs. 3. Girl
with wonderIul personality wants work as maid in good Iamily. Can cook and
admire children.
Ess!n/ent T. Iete(/ne stylst) #n% )o//-n)#t2e ,-n)tons o,
%et#)h/entZ %e,ne the ty.es o, (e.etton n the ,ollo"n! senten)esY
1. You know what I mean. You look like a million dollars, I mean. (A. Sax-
ton). 2.1 have seen old Flint in the corner there, behind you as plain as print,
I've seen him. (R. Stevenson). 3. "Serious Irom my heart - Irom my soul!"
returned Mr. Winkle, with great energy. (Ch. Dickens). 4. "In a barrack, by
Jove - I wish anybody in a barrack would say what you do," cried out this
uproused British lion. (W Thackeray). 5. Now, although we were little and I
certainly couldn't be dreaming oI taking Fonny Irom her or anything like that,
and although she didn't really love Fonny, only thought that she was supposed
to because she had spasmed him into this world, already, Fonny's mother
didn't like me. (J. Baldwin).
'-..le/ent Ess!n/ent. En#lyse the ,ollo"n! le*)o5se/#nt) #n%
synt#)t) e*.(ess2e /e#ns #n% stylst) %e2)es #s to the( ty.es, ,-n)5
ton#l 2#l-e #n% )o/.#(e "th the !2en t(#nsl#tons nto J7(#n#nY
W. M. Thackerav.
1. All the world used her ill, said this young misanthropist. - "C
r", m .
2. The world is a looking-glass, and gives back to every man the reIlec-
tion oI his own Iace. Frown at it, and it will in turn look sourly upon you laugh
132 133
at it and with it, and it is a jolly kind companion. - C - ,
r e . H -
e e, e
- , .
3. She was small and slight in person pale, sandy-haired, and with eyes
habitually cast down: when they looked up they were very large, odd, and
attractive so attractive, that the Reverend Mr. Crisp, Iresh Irom OxIord, and
curate to the icar oI Chiswick, the Reverend Mr. Flowerdew, Iell in love
with Miss Sharp being shot dead by a glance oI her eyes, which was Iired all
the way across Chiswick Church. - , ,
, u ,
, , e
, , , e
O U m,
e , u
m .
4. Oh, why did Miss Pinkerton let such a dangerous bird into her cage
- Ox, H m
?
5. She took advantage, thereIore, oI the means oI study the place oI-
Iered her. - T r,
, e .
6. 'No, never, upon my word,' said the head under the neckcloth, shaking
very much. - i, e, , e - .
7. George, oI course, took charge oI Amelia. She looked as happy as a
rose-tree in sunshine. - rr, , ,
, .
8. The IaithIul chambers seem, as it were, to mourn the absence oI
their masters. The Turkey carpet has rolled itselI up, and retired sulkily under
the side-board the pictures have hidden their Iaces behind old sheets oI brown
paper the ceiling-lamp is muIIled up in a dismal sack oI brown holland the
window-curtains have disappeared under all sorts oII shabby envelopes the
marble bust oI Sir Walpole Crawley is looking Irom its black corner at the
bare boards and the oiled Iire-irons |...| - B
e. T
, u e
, m e u,
u.
e K e
m , , r /.../.
9. A tempest in a slop-basin is absurd. We will reserve that sort oI thing
Ior the mighty ocean and the lonely midnight. The present Number will be mild.
Others - but we will not anticipate those. - B - e.
Hr ee e .
r e. 3 u... e .
10. er roses Iaded out oI her cheeks, and the pretty Ireshness leIt her
Iioure aIter the birth oI a couple oI children, and she became a mere machine
in her husband's house, oI no more use than the late Lady Crawley's grand
piano. - T , ,
u r ,
um, ,
r K.
11.That blood-red hand oI Sir Pitt Crawley's would be in anybody's
pocket except his own. - U H
-m um, m .
12.She did not pester their young brains with too much learning, but, on
the contrary, let them have their own way in regard to educating themselves
Ior what instruction is more eIIectual than selI-instruction - B
r e m m, , ,
m , r
?
13.'My mind shudders when 1 think oI her awIul, awIul situation, and that,
near as she is to the grave, she should be so given up to vanity, licentiousness,
proIaneness, and Iolly.' - B em, m r,
, , m em
e, e , , r u e.
14. Let us return to umdrum all. - B H.
15. The captain has a hearty contempt Ior his Iather, I can see, and he
calls him an old put, an old snob, an old chaw-bacon, and numberless other
pretty names. - H .r e, u
e , e myxacm, saym, xym
u e .
16. 'And it's to this man's son -this scoundrel, gambler, swindler, murderer
oI a Rawdon Crawley, that Matilda leaves the bulk oI her money. I say it's
unchristian. By Jove, it is. The inIamous dog has got every vice except
hypocrisy, and that belongs to his brother. ' - / e
K, e, e, u , -
134 135
u e e? -,
' -e. H -' B
, , e '
17. 'You, my love, are a little paragon - positively a little jewel - You
have more brains than halI the shire. - T, m,
r . T u e u e, r.
e e.
18. Their house was comIortable their papa's table rich and handsome
|...|. - B O u, e
-e ....
19. Poor little tender heart! and so it goes on hoping and beating, and
longing and trusting. - Bu r ' B
, r .
20. While Becky Sharp was on her own wing in the country, hopping on
all sorts oI twigs, and amid a multiplicity oI traps, and pecking up her Iood
quite harmless and successIul, Amelia lay snug in her home oI Russell Square
iI she went into the world, it was under the guidance oI the elders nor did it
seem that any evil could beIall her or that opulent cheery comIortable home
in which she was aIIectionately sheltered. - T B
, e ,
m , u r,
r e -. B
, e u ,
, e e, , u
, r .
21. He was her Europe, her emperor, her allied monarchs and august
prince regent. e saw her sun and moon and I believe she thought the grand
illumination and ball at the Mansion ouse, given to the sovereigns, were
especially in honour oI George Osborne. - rr. m,
, m u --
e. B . H-, r-
, mm - u
m , rr O.
22. What were her parents doing, not to keep this little heart Irom beat-
ing so Iast - K ? U ,
e?
23. author) I know where she kept that packet she had - and can steal
in and out oI her chamber like Iachimo - like Iachimo No - that is a bad
nart. I will only act Moonshine, and peep harmless into the bed where Iaith
and beauty and innocence lie dreaming. - B m,
u rr, e
H , I... I? H, e . B
m , C. r, r
CH , .
24. olding this kind oI conversation, and building numberless castles in
the air (which Amelia adorned with all sorts oI Ilower-gardens, rustic walks,
country churches, Sunday schools, and the like while George had his mind's
eye directed to the stables, the kennel, and the cellar), this young pair passed
away a couple oI hours very pleasantly. - 3 m m -
( u
, r, , u
, rr. - m, ) u
r e .
Rudvard liplin-
25. Again the big gong beat, and a second time there was the rushing oI
naked Ieet on earth and ringing iron the clatter oI tools ceased. In the silence,
men heard the dry yawn oI water crawling over thirsty sand. - 3 e
ee,
e. B . u ,
, m e .
26. The dense wet heat that hung over the Iace oI land, like a blanket,
prevented all hope oI sleep in the Iirst instance. - , e ,
m , m
.
27. The heated air and the heavy earth had driven the very dead upward
Ior coolness' sake. - r
e e u .
28. Then silence Iollows - the silence that is Iull oI the night noises oI a
great city. - - u. Tu, e .
29. All the heat oI a decade oI Iierce Indian summers is stored in the
Pitch-black, polished walls oI the cork-screw staircase. - B , ,

e e e
m .
136 137
30. The city is absolutely quiet now, but Ior some vagrant dog's love,
song. Nothing save dead heavy sleep. - r , u
m m e e . H e, .
re, e .
mL *enry -
3 J. The imperturbability oI the mountains hung upon him like a suit oI
armor. Hu e e, .
32. Through it all gleamed a Iaint protest oI cheated youth unconscious
oI its loss. - K e e u m,
, r .
33. er soul peeped out once through her impassive Iace, hallowing it.
-H u r u ,
u .
34. Jud was a monologist by nature, whom Destiny, with customary
blundering had set in a proIession wherein he was bereaved, Ior the greater
portion oI his time, oI an audience. - H r
eu e, , r,
m, e ue
.
35. The machine sitting at that desk was no longer a man it was a busy
New York broker, moved by buzzing wheels and uncoiling springs. -Hm,
, u mm.
m- - u, r.
36. The broker's hour is not only crowded, but the minutes and seconds
are hanging to all the straps and packing both Iront and rear platIorms.
- ,
m r.
37. On the Exchange there were hurricanes and landslides and snow-
storms and glaciers and volcanoes, and those elemental disturbances were
reproduced in miniature in the broker's oIIices. - H r u e-
e , , r r ,
m .
38. is window was open, Ior the beloved janitress Spring had turned on
a little warmth through the waking registers oI the earth. - B
, u B r
e .
39. omeless, they have a hundred homes. They Ilit Irom Iurnished
oom to Iurnished room, transients Iorever - transients in abode, transients in
heart and mind. - m , . B
m u,
r, .
40. The expression on Dodson's Iace changed in an instant to one oI cold
Ierocity mingled with inexorable cupidity. The soul oI the man showed itselI Ior
a moment like an evil Iace in the window oI a reputable house. - B e
- e m -
e r. u e -
m, re .
41. The Ily in Ikey's ointment (thrice welcome, pat trope!) was Chunk
McGowan. - Hrm em A U -
.
42. A dead leaI Iell in Soapy's lap. That was Jack Frost's card. Jack is
kind to the regular denizens oI Madison Square, and gives Iair warning oI his
annual call. - Hr C. T
. B u -
r .
43. And to the waiter he betrayed the Iact that the minutest coin and
himselI were strangers. - A , , C,
u - r- .
44. Neatly upon his leIt ear on the callous pavement two waiters pitched
Soapy. - C, e
.
45. He halted in the district where by night are Iound the lightest streets,
hearts, vows, and librettos. - 3 ,
, e , m
.
46. When one loves one's Art no service seems too hard. - K mu
, r m .
47. Joe was painting in the class oI the great Magister - you know his
Iame. is Iees are high his lessons are light - his highlights have brought him
renown. Delia was studying under Rosenstock - you know his repute as a
disturber oI the piano keys. - r r e
e r. B, , e. B
e, ,
. u -
, u m u.
138 139
48. People here lie down on the Iloor and scream and kick when
you am
the least bit slow about taking money Irom them. - T m,
eu um, e'
m e e.
49. In November a cold, unseen stranger, whom the doctors
called Pnen.
monia, stalked about the colony, touching one here and there with his iCy
Iingers. -Av , u, e
m Hm, , m
e, ee r .
50. Whenever my patient begins to count the carriages in her Iuneral
procession I subtract 50 per cent Irom the curative power oI medicines.
-K m m e,
- .
51. Young artists must pave their way to Art by drawing pictures Ior
magazine stories that young authors write to pave their way to Literature.
- r u ,
mm m r ,
u e, u H.
52. Forty years he had wielded the brush without getting near enough to
touch the hem oI his Mistress's robe. - C
, ,
m .
53. She told him oI Johnsy's Iancy, and how she Ieared she would, in-
deed, light and Iragile as a leaI herselI, Iloat away, when her slight hold upon
the world grew weaker. - Cm r
m e, e, e
, , ,
u.
54. er eyes were shining, and her cheeks showed the delicate pink oI
liIe's - real liIe's approaching dawn. - O , u
r r u r - re
r.
55. Manhattan, the night-blooming cereus, was beginning to unIold its
dead-white, heavy-odoured petals. - , ,
-, r m.
56. Piggy needs but a word. When the girls named him, an undeserving
stigma was cast upon the noble Iamily oI swine. The words-oI-three-letters
lesson in the old blue spelling book begins with Piggy's biography. e was Iat
had the soul oI a rat. the habits oI a bat, and the magnanimity oI a cat.
Hee r u . K e
(Hee - e.), r e e
e . Hee ,
u . e, u ,
61)- r, u ...
57. With the morbid thirst oI the conIirmed daily news drinker, he
awkwardly Iolded back the pages oI an evening paper, eagerly gulping down
the strong, black headlines, to be Iollowed as a chaser by the milder details oI
the smaller type. - Cu m e, m
rm ee r r e-
, m, u u .
58. Outside was one oI those crowded streets oI the east side, in which,
as twilight Ialls, Satan sets up his recruiting oIIice. .. .here were the children
playing in the corridors oI the ouse oI Sin. Above the playground Iorever
hovered a great bird. The bird was known to humorists as the stork. But the
people oI Chrystie Street were better ornithologists. They called it a vulture.
- B e I-C, ,
m ,
C. ... H. H
e r u . r,
. A r K- em.
e u.
59. er eyes were shining brilliantly, but her Iace had lost its color within
twenty seconds. - O , ,
.
60. It is well that hay Iever and colds do not obtain in the healthIul
vicinity oI Cactus City, Texas, Ior the dry goods emporium oI Navarro &
Piatt, situated there, is not to be sneezed at. - r ,
K-C, u T, r,
u e "H
H" e.
61. Old izzbaum had the eye oI an osprey, the memory oI an elephant,
and a mind that unIolded Irom him in three movements like the puzzle oI the
carpenter's rule. - C 3 e ,

, - , .
62. " shouldn't care to live in it," said the Texan. "Your son and I knocked
around quite a little last night. You've got good water, bit Cactus City is better
140
141
lit up." "We've got a Iew lights on Broadway, don't you think, Mr. Piatt"
"And a good many shadows," said Piatt. "I think I like your horses best r
haven't seen a crowbait since I've been in town." - "B r
H. - u e 3
m , , K-C ." "H
B , , H?" "A
u, - H. - r, u
. u ."
63. "Quite unseldom I have been Iit to impugn your morals when you
have been chewing the rag with me about your conscientious way oI doing
business. - "Ox ,
r .r " ".
64. - 'JeII,' says he, 'some time when you have the leisure I wish you'd
draw oII a diagram and Iootnotes oI that conscience oI yours.' " - "r, -
u , - , u , ,
e . T ,
. "
65. JeII is in the line oI unillegal graIt. e is not to be dreaded by widows
and orphans he is a reducer oI surplusage. - H r
u. e
e. u.
66. There was a town down there, as Ilat as a Ilannel-cake, and called
Summit, oI course. - , , , ,
, Bu.
67. We knew that Summit couldn't get aIter us with anything stronger
than constables and, maybe, some lackadaisical bloodhounds and a diatribe or
two in the Weeklv Farmers Budget. - , Bu e
em e uue, r ,
r, -u -
"r mr ".
68. They had the appearance oI men to whom liIe had appeared as a
reversible coat - seamy on both sides. - r,
e, e .
69. herded sheep Ior Iive days on the Rancho Chiquito and then the
wool entered my soul. That getting next to Nature certainly got next to me. I
was lonesomer than Crusoe's goat. I've seen a lot oI persons more entertain-
ing as companions than those sheep were. - H
U, , P~
Hr e . B
e(1u, r. K. H ..
(. u , r .
70. I've got to do something in an intellectual line, iI it's only to knock
somebody's brains out. - r
, e.
71. "ave you seen or heard oI any strangers around here during the
past month" "I have not," says I, "except a report oI one over at the Mexi-
can quarters oI Loomis' ranch, on the Frio." "What do you know about him"
asks the deputy. "e's three days old," says I. - "T
u m ,
?" "H, , - r ,
Hm, , m." "
u ?" - . " ," - r .
72. AIter indulging himselI in a lot more non-communicative
inIormation and two thirds oI my dinner, the deputy rides away. -
Hu r e
e , u e.
-ractical .ssi$n(ents fr in1e&en1ent 2r3
0n%e.en%ent 1e(son#l :o(7 @ 'tyle,
'tylst) &e*)olo!y, Kt).
0te/ @
"e's gone oII his rocket!" shouted one oI the Iathers, aghast, and the
other parents joined in the chorus oI Irightened shouting. "e's balmy!" they
shouted. "e's nutty!" "e's screwy!" "e's batty!" "e's dippy!" "e's
dotty!" "e's daIIy!" "e's gooIy!" "e's beany!" "e's buggy!" "e's
wacky!" "e's loony!" "No, he is not!" said Grandpa Joe.
Ess!n/ents ,o( stylst) #n#lyss
1. DeIine what neutral word |a) drunkard, b) mad. c) disobedient| slang
e
quivalents substitute in the passage above.
142 143
2. Explain whether this extract presents a narration or a description
3. Is there any emotional or qualitative climax in the extract ow doth
words "No, he is not'" Iit all the other exclamations
4. What is the sentence structure in the direct speech - simple/ cornno
ite, complete/ elliptical Do the exclamations maniIest any deIinite style oI
language What exactly
5. What is the tone oI speech in this extract: Iormal/ semiIormal/ inIor.
mal/ conversational/ casual/ sympathetic/ cheerIul/ vigorous/ serious/ humor-
ous/ mock-serious/ lyrical/ dramatic/ excited/ agitated/ passionate/ impassive/
detached/ matter-oI-Iact/ dry/ impartial/ melancholy/ moralising/ unemotion-
al/ pathetic/ sarcastic/ ironical/ sneering/ bitter/ reproachIul, etc.
6. What is: a) the basic theme, b) the idea oI the episode
0te/ ]
Reporter - "Madam, you may recollect that we printed yesterday your
denial oI having retracted the contradiction oI your original statement. Would
you care to have us say that you were misquoted in regard to it"
Ess!n/ents ,o( stylst) #n#lyss
1. Explain what exactly speaks oI the style oI this passage What style is
represented
2. ow does the choice oI words inIluence perception oI the inIorma-
tion DeIine the tone oI the note: Iormal/ semiIormal/ inIormal/ conversation-
al/ casual/ sympathetic/ cheerIul/ vigorous/ serious/ humorous/ mock-seri-
ous/ lyrical/ dramatic/ excited/ agitated/ passionate/ impassive/ detached/
matter-oI-Iact/ dry/ impartial/ melancholy/ moralising/ unemotional/ pathetic/
sarcastic/ ironical/ sneering/ bitter/ reproachIul, etc.
3. State: a) the basic theme, b) the idea oI the passage.
0te/ ^
"May it please the courtT said an American la1yer to a Germanfustice
of the peace beIore whom he was tryin a case, "this is a case oI great
importance. While the American eagle, whose sleepless eye watches over
the 1elfare oI this mighty republic, and whose wings extend Irom the Allegn-
enies to the Rocky Chain oI the West, was refoicing in his pride oI place
Shtop dare! I say vat hass dis suit to do mit de eagles Dis suit hass n-
10 do mit de vild bird. It vas vun sheep," exclaimed the fudge. True, your
honour, but my client has rights and" "Your gliant hass no right to de
eagle." "OI course not, but the laws oI language"
"at I care Ior de laws oI language, eh I oonderstand de laws oI de
tates und dot is enough Ior me. Talk aboudt de case alretty."
"Well, then, your honour, my client is charged with stealing a sheep and"
"Dat vill do! Dat vill do! Ten dollars Iine, undder court vill ad,ourn.T
Ess!n/ents ,o( stylst) #n#lyss
1. What is: a) the basic theme, b) the central idea oI the passage
2. Point out what layer oI vocabulary the marked words belong to.
3. DeIine the context oI the plot description. What exactly (vocabulary
choice, pronunciation, the context itselI) produces a humorous eIIect
4. Analyse the style and tone oI speech oI both the interlocutors.
0te/ _
A0 am not to be loded there!" the lin said, with a shudder, that had
something in it ominous.
"No," replied the grey-headed seneschalC who attended upon him un-
bounded." "God Iorbid! - Your Mafestvs apartments are prepared in these
lower buildings which are hard by, and in which ing John slept two nights
beIore the battle oI Poicters."
"um - that is no lucky omen neither" - muttered the ing "but what oI
the Tower, my old Iriend and why should you desire oI *eaven that I may
not be there lodged"
"Nay, my gracious liege," said the seneschal, "I know no evil oI the
Tower at all - only that the sentinels say lights are seen, and strange noises
heard in it, at night and there are reasons why that may be the case, Ior
anciently it was used as a state prison, and there are many tales oI deeds
which have been done in it."
|ing| Louis asked no Iarther questions Ior no man was more bound
than he to respect the secrets oI a prison-house. At the door oI the apart -
ments destined Ior his use, which, though oI later date than the Tower, were
st
i both ancient and gloomy, stood a small party oI the Scottish $uardC which
144 145
the aukeC although he declined to concede the point to Louis, had ordered t
be introduced, so as to be near the person oI their master. The IaithIul Lord
CrawIord was at their head.
"CrawIord - my honest and IaithIul CrawIord," said the ing, "where
hast thou been to-day - Are the Lords oI Burgundy so inhospitable as to
neglect one oI the bravest and most noble gentlemen that ever trode a courtTH
- 0 saw you not at the ban+uet.T
A0 %e)lne% t, /y le!e,A s#% $(#",o(% 5 At/es #(e )h#n!e%
"th /e. The %#y h#s 3een th#t 0 )o-l% h#2e ventured a )#(o-se with
the best man in Burgundy, and that in the juice oI his own grape but a matter
oI Iour pints now Ilusters men, and I think it concerns your Majesty's service
to set in this an example to my callants.T
From Walter Scotts Quentin Durward
Ess!n/ents ,o( stylst) #n#lyss
1. Decide what vocabulary layer the marked words belong to.
2. State the number oI characters introduced in the episode. What are
the theme and the tone oI each part oI the conversation
3. Is the setting realistic/ historical/ Iantastic/ exotic/ rural
4. Analyse the style and the context (or their kinds) disclosed in the extract.
5. ow can the notion oI norm be applied to the extract Point out con-
spicuous expressive means and stylistic devices. What Iunction and eIIect
does each oI them have
6. Analyse how the notion "the author's voice" is revealed in the extract
Theo(et)#l te/s ,o( n%e.en%ent .e(son#l )ons%e(#ton
1. The text ontology and gnosiology.
2. Approaches to the text deIinition.
3. Text and discourse.
/iterature recommended
1. mamee A. H. . Heneanx yxecne eca
(em. xs.). - ., 1989. - C. 11-27.
146
2. nc A. H., Btena O. H. . Cca ac-
xsa. - ., 1991. - C. 201-211.
2. Pasa H. . uynatax cca ac xs-
., 1989.-C. 98-122.
-
0n%e.en%ent 1e(son#l :o(7 ]
Lexico-semantic Expressive Means
and Stylistic Devices, Etc.
Item 1
The insurance adjuster who had been investigating the Iire turned to go.
"I came down here to Iind out the cause oI this Iire and I have done so,"
he remarked.
"That's what I want to know. What caused it" remarked the house owner.
"It's a plain case oI Iriction."
"What-ya-mean - Iriction."
'The Iire was undoubtedly caused by rubbing a three thousand dollar
insurance policy on a two thousand dollar house."
Ess!n/ents ,o( stylst) #n#lyss
1. DeIine a) the theme, b) the idea oI the episode.
2. Does the dialogue present the theme in Iorm oI description or narration
3. Is the plot simple/ complex/ intricate
4. State whether the setting is realistic/ historical/ Iantastic.
5. Analyse and explain the metaphor: "Its a plain case of friction."
6. Decide and explain whether the tone oI the text is Iormal/ semiIormal/
inIormal/ conversational/ casual/ sympathetic/ cheerIul/ vigorous/ serious/
humorous/ mock-serious/ lyrical/ dramatic/ excited/ agitated/passionate/ im-
passive/ detached/ matter-oI-Iact/ dry/ impartial/ melancholy/ moralising/
unemotional/ pathetic/ sarcastic/ ironical/ sneering/ bitter/ reproachIul, etc.
0te/ ]
There was a steaming mist in all the hollows, and it had roamed in its
Iorlornness up the hill, like an evil spirit, seeking rest and Iinding none. A
147
clammv and intenselv cold mist, it made its slow way through the air
ripples that visibly Iollowed and overspread one another, as the waves oI a
unwholesome sea might do. It was dense enough to shut out everything
Irom the light oI the coach-lamps but these its own workings, and a Ieu,
yards oI road and the reek of the labouring horses steamed into it, as iI
they had made it all.
From Charles Dickens' A Tale of Two Cities
Ess!n/ents ,o( stylst) #n#lyss
1. Analyse the theme and the idea disclosed in the extract.
2. DeIine whether the text is more narration or description. What is the
author's role in it
3. Is there any exaggeration in depicting the phenomenon
4. DeIine the kind oI context. Characterise semantic and structural types
oI metaphor in the passage. What eIIect does the metaphoric description
produce
5. Analyse stylistic value oI the simile used in the passage. Is the clause
"as if thev had made it all" in the last sentence also an instance oI simile
What is the semantic stylistic essence oI this concluding part
6. Explain whether the conjunction "but" introduces antithesis.
7. What eIIect is produced by the detached nominative clause "A clam-
mv and intenselv cold mist"?
8. In what tone is the extract written What words speciIy it
0te/ ^
The summer passed slowly like some torturing thing reluctant to let go.
The rains came just in time, Ior the oily leather leaves were curling with
crispness and turning yellow with the septic threat oI death. In places the
ground had cracked open, exposing millions oI swarming insects to the harsh
scorch glare oI the sun: they ran out and withered in a Iew hours. It was
impossible to have open the windows oI the Company oIIice Ior Iear oI mos-
quitoes and huge gnats pumped up with blood, but this did at least keep down
the sickening stench oI the river. It had shrunk during the summer to halI its
size, leaving a mass oI grey, stagnant silt to bake and stink in the sun. The
Animals instinctively kept away Irom it.
From David Clarke's The Turtles
titles
148
Ess!n/ents ,o( stylst) #n#lyss
1. DeIine the style represented by the extract.
2. State the theme and the idea oI the text.
3. What is basically presented in the passage - narration or description
is there any emotional climax in the text
4. Analyse: a) whether the setting is realistic/ Iantastic/ exotic b) what
span oI time the extract covers.
5. What is the tone oI the extract Choose three words or phrases which
you think convey the unpleasantness oI the weather or the landscape. Ex-
plain how these words or phrases achieve their eIIects.
6. Analyse metaphor and explain simile in the excerpt.
7. Is/ are there any image/ images created in the context Comment on
your answer.
0te/ _
Their own tea arrived and they prepared to begin. Attempting to break
the silence Mr Stone Iound that he whispered, and the whisper was like gun-
shot.
And then silence vanished. The door was pushed vigorously open and
there entered a very tall man and a very small Iair girl. The man was in
mountaineering clothes, like one equipped Ior a imalayan or at least Alpine
expedition. e carried rucksack and ropes his thick rough trousers were
tucked into thick woollen socks, and these disappeared into massive lustre-
less boots with extraordinarily thick soles. e created, by his masculine entry
and the laying down oI detachable burdens, as much noise as Ior two or
three. The girl was soIt and mute. er slacks, imperIectly and tremulously
Iilled, suggested only Iragility so did her light-blue silk scarI. The pale colours
oI her clothes, the milky Iawn oI her raincoat, and the style oI her pale tan
shoes marked her as a European.
From . S. Naipaul's Mr Stone and the Knights Companion
Ess!n/ents ,o( stylst) #n#lyss
1. Analyse the style and way (

3
rd
person narration/ description) oI
the extract presentation.
2. DeIine the theme oI the passage.
@_S
3. Recognise a stylistic device in the proper name Mr Stone and deIjne
its stylistic Iunction.
4. Analyse how the beginning oI the extract with the simile "the whisper
was like gunshot" correlates with the second paragraph.
5. Name and explain the eIIect oI the stylistic device the author resorts
to in direct parallel portrayal oI the man and the girl. Point out the words and
phrases which maniIest diIIerence oI these people. Do these lexical ele-
ments represent any other stylistic devices What detail is opposed to "light
blue silk scarfl DeIine person-images.
6. In what tone is the extract written Explain the idea oI it.
Theo(et)#l te/s ,o( n%e.en%ent .e(son#l )ons%e(#ton
1. Divisibility and integrativity oI the text.
2. Equipotential nature oI the text.
3. Collision and coherence oI the text.
/iterature recommended
1. yae B. A. Heneanx eca. - M., 1988. - C. 70-89.
2. nc A. H., Btena O. H. . Cca ac-
xsa. - ., 1991. - C. 211-227.
0n%e.en%ent 1e(son#l :o(7 ^
'ynt#)t) K*.(ess2e =e#ns #n%
'tylst) Ie2)es, Kt).
0te/ @
"'e was a remarkable man/ I said, unsteadily. Then beIore the appeal-
ing Iixity oI her gaze, that seemed to watch Ior more words on my lips, I went
on, 'It was impossible not to -'
"'Love him,' she Iinished eagerly, silencing me into an appalled dumb-
ness.'ow true! how true! But when you think that no one knew him so well
as I! I had all his noble conIidence. I knew him best.'
'"You knew him best,' I repeated. And perhaps she did. But with every
word spoken the room was growing darker, and only her Iorehead, smooth
`d white, remained illumined by the unextinguishable light oI belieI and love."
"You were his Iriend,' she went on.'is Iriend,' she repeated, a little
louder.'You must have been, iI he had given you this, and sent you to me. I
Ieel I can speak to you - and oh! I must speak. I want you - you who have
heard his last words - to know I have been worthy oI him. ... It is not pride.
, Yes! I am proud to know I understood him better than any one on earth
-Iie told me so himselI. And since his mother died I have had no one - no one
to - to -'
"I listened. The darkness deepened."
From Joseph Conrad's eart of Darkness
Ess!n/ents ,o( stylst) #n#lyss
1. DeIine the basic theme and the idea disclosed in the extract. What
contextual eIIect is produced by the introductory words "e was a remark-
able man"'
2. Say whether the extract contains description or narration. Who is
perceived as the author oI the piece and what is his role in presenting the
conversation
3. Analyse the tone oI the passage, the stylistic Iunction oI exclamations.
Is the modality oI speech oI both the interlocutors the same
4. What kind oI climax -emotional, qualitative, quantitative- is observed
in the extract ow is it expressed
5. Analyse the sentence structure and Iunctional peculiarities oI: a) de-
tachment b) asyndeton c) enumeration d) tautology.
6. What is the signiIicance oI break-in-the-narrative in the text
7. Explain the contextual stylistic Iunction oI the concluding metaphor
"The darkness deepened."
0te/ ]
To write oI someone loved, oI someone loving, above all oI oneselI being
IIived - how can these things be done with propriety ow can they be done
at
all I have treated oI love in my published work I have used it - with
avarice, envy, revenge - as one oI the compelling motives oI conduct. I have
w
ritten it up as something prolonged and passionate and tragic I have written
150 151
it down as a modest but suIIicient annuity with which to reward the just
have spoken oI it continually as a game oI proIit and loss. ow does any 0I
this avail Ior the simple task oI describing, so that others may see her. the
woman one loves ow can others see her except through one's own eyes
and how, so seeing her, can they turn the pages and close the book and lje on
as they have lived beIore, without becoming themselves the author and
themselves the lover The catalogues oI excellencies oI the Renaissance
poets, those competitive advertisements, each man outdoing the nejctjn
metaphor, that great blurt - like a publisher's list in the Sunday newspnrier
- the Song oI Solomon, how do these accord with the voice oI love - love
that delights in weakness, seeks out and Iills the empty places and com-
pletes itselI in its work oI completion how can one transcribe those ac-
cents Love, which has its own liIe, its hours oI sleep and waking, its health
and sickness, growth, death and immortality, its ignorance and knowledg p`
experiment and mastery - how can one relate this hooded stranger to the
men and women with whom he keeps pace It is a problem beyond the
proper scope oI letters.
From Evelyn Waugh's Work Suspended
Ess!n/ents ,o( stylst) #n#lyss
1. DeIine the theme oI the passage.
2. Analyse the role oI the protagonist in the extract.
3. Describe syntactic and Iunctional properties oI the underlined clauses.
4. Characterise: a) all variants oI repetition b) parallel constructions and
enumeration according to the types oI connection, equality, and pragmatic
eIIect c) stylistically signiIicant instances oI detachment.
5. Explain the essence oI the interrogative sentences and clauses.
6. Analyse stylistic Iunctions oI gradation within the passage.
7. Explain the metaphor "this hooded stranger".
8. Characterise the stylistic Iunction oI the utterance: "It is a problem
bevond the proper scope of letters", and the idea expressed in the whole
extract.
0te/ ^
To begin with the old rigmarole oI childhood. In a country there was a
shire, and in that shire there was a town, and in that town there was a house.
nd in that house there was a room, and in that room there was a bed, and in
that bed there lay a little girl wide awake and longing to get up, but not daring
do so Ior Iear oI the unseen power in the next room - a certain Betty, n0Se
slumbers must not be disturbed until six o'clock struck, when she wakened
oI herselI 'as sure as clockwork', and leIt the household very little oeace
aIterwards. It was a June morning, and early as it was, the room was Iull oI
sunny warmth and light.
From Mrs Gaskell's Wives and Daughters
Ess!n/ents ,o( stylst) #n#lyss
1. DeIine the theme oI the extract. Is it disclosed through (1
st
/ 3
rd
per-
son) narration or description
2. Describe the tone oI the extract (whether it is casual/ sympathetic/
cheerIul/ serious/ humorous/ mock-serious/ lyrical/ dramatic/ excited/ agitat-
ed/ passionate/ impassive/ detached/ matter-oI-Iact/ dry/ impartial/ melan-
choly/ moralising/ unemotional/ pathetic/ sarcastic/ ironical/ sneering/ bitter/
or reproachIul, etc.) and the author's attitude to the introduced characters.
Explain the pragmatic peculiarity oI the word "slumbers" and Iind stylistic
devices in the Iollowing: "the unseen power in the next room a certain
Bettv" "she wakened of herself as sure as clockwork, and left the
household verv little peace afterwards". Say iI there is any contrast be-
tween the two girls, and whether the author resorts to direct or indirect char-
acterization.
3. Analyse the structure and the pragmatic eIIect oI the introductory
sentence. DeIine the stylistic essence oI the phrase "the old rigmarole of
childhood".
4. Characterise all the other syntactic stylistic peculiarities oI the pas-
sage, analyse their Iunctions.
5. DeIine the idea expressed in the extract.
Theo(et)#l te/s ,o( n%e.en%ent .e(son#l )ons%e(#ton
1. The text inIormation category.
2. Factual and conceptual inIormation in the text content. The notion oI
'`plication.
152 153
Literature recommended
1. cna H. B. Haece nce n enean e
ca. - c, 1987. - C. 80-93, 10-46.
2. . A. Heneanx eca (. xs.). - ., 1985 -
4-142.
3. Heena H. u. Ccec aas yxecne e-
ca. - ., 1980. - C. 184-187, 229-234.
0n%e.en%ent .e(son#l "o(7 _
Phonetics, Etc.
)ote- Measuring the rhvthm oI stressed and unstressed syllables alter-
nation can be realized in the Iollowing metrical feet.
t(o)hee - / S
/IS /I S I S I S I
Monday, morning, thunder Spider lumbers down the web
#/3 -
0 4 04 04 04 04567879 04:;04<04
alive, astir, beIore, restart The moon shines bright in such a night as this
%#)tyl - / S S
S S S S S S S S S S S S
Saturday, Iavourite, delegate Merrily, merrily he will live now
#n#.#est - '
S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S interrupt,
guarantee, overlook e was Iree. Was he happy The question is absurd
#/.h3(#)h5
////)/!/
umbrella, emergence, botanic We call it the bottom oI hardships
s.on%ee - //
/ / - / / - , / , / /
get up, maintain, jump on e will read this, strong wish
(Scansion is deIining the number oI metrical Ieet within a line oI verse:
e a. monometer (one Ioot), dimeter (2), trimeter (3), tetrameter (4), pen-
tameter (5), hexameter (6), heptameter (7), octometer (8), etc. )
0te/ @
The Tvger bv William Blake
Tyger! Tyger! burning bright
In the Iorests oI the night,
What immortal hand or eye
Could Irame thy IearIul symmetry
In what distant deeps or skies
Burnt the Iire oI thine eyes
On what wings dare he aspire
What the hand dare seize the Iire
And what shoulder, & what art,
Could twist the sinews oI thy heart
And when thy heart began to beat.
What dread hand & what dread Ieet
What the hammer what the chain
In what Iurnace was thy brain
What the anvil what dread grasp
Dare its deadly terrors clasp
When the stars threw down their spears,
And water'd heaven with their tears,
Did he smile his work to see
Did he who made the Lamb make thee
Tyger! Tyger! burning bright
In the Iorests oI the night,
What immortal hand or eye
Dare Irame thy IearIul symmetry
154
155
Ess!n/ents ,o( stylst) #n#lyss
1. Apply the notions oI style, norm, context, image to this poem.
2. DeIine a) the basic theme b) the central idea oI the piece oI verse
1. What do the pronoun Iorms "thv", "thine", "thee" stand Ior tyb.
layer oI vocabulary do they belong to SpeciIy. Is there any rnorphologiCai
transposition
2. Comment on the graphic means in the Iollowing: "Tvger", &, waterd
Do they also speak oI poetic diction
3. Whom does the author imply by the pronouns "he ", "his "? Say whether
the questions are rhetoric and iI they are directed to only one image What
eIIect does all this questioning produce
4. State whether the pronounced with exclamation word "Tvger'" js
direct address or a nominative sentence. What kind oI repetition is this:
"Tvger'" "Tvger'"? Does this variant oI repetition help to understand the
expressed emotion and attitude What is expressed in this exclamation
-Iear, excitement, regret, joy, amazement, or any other Ieeling
5. Does the poem contain any elliptical parts, or are those enumerated
word combinations joined asyndetically
3. Analyse the rhythm oI the poem.
6. DeIine the type oI rhyme: a) couplets/ triple/ cross rhyme/ Iraming
b) broken/ identical/ eye rhyme c) single (masculine or male)/ double (Iem-
inine or Iemale)/ treble (triple or tumbling). Point out instrumentation means
(alliteration, assonance, onomatopoeia).
10. Analyse the kind and contextual essence oI metaphoric expressions
in the poem.
11. Decide and explain whether the tone oI the poem is casual/ sympa-
thetic/ cheerIul/ serious/ humorous/ mock-serious/ lyrical/ dramatic/ excited/
agitated/ passionate/ impassive/ detached/ matter-oI-Iact/ dry/ impartial/
melancholy/ moralising/ unemotional/ pathetic/ sarcastic/ ironical/ sneering/
bitter/ reproachIul, etc. What eIIect is produced by the Iollowing words: burn-
ing, immortal, fearful, fire, dare and dread (repeated several times), ham-
mer, chain, furnace, deadlv terrors, tears?
12. Analyse the stylistic essence oI the utterance "Did he smile his
work to see?" State the type and Iunction oI the stylistic device in the sen-
tence "Did he who made the /amb make thee (the Tvger)?"
13. The Iirst Iour lines oI the poem are repeated at the end oI it. What
kind oI repetition is this What eIIect does it produce What does the substi-
tution oI "dare" Ior "could" in the Iourth repeated line aim at
14. Explain how the Iorm oI image presentation helps to perceive the
ithor's attitude and the philosophic consideration.
0te/ ]
The Baltimore & Ohio R. R. Co.,
Pittsburgh, Pa.
Gentlemen:
Why is it that your switch engine has to ding and Iizz and spit and pant
and grate and grind and puII and bump and chug and hoot and toot and whis-
tle and wheeze and howl and clang and growl and thump and clash and boom
and jolt and screech and snarl and snort and slam and throb and roar and
rattle and hiss and yell and smoke and shriek all night long when I come home
Irom a hard day at the boiler works and have to keep the dog quiet and the
baby quiet so my wiIe can squawk at me Ior snoring in my sleep
Ess!n/ents ,o( stylst) #n#lyss
1. DeIine the style oI the extract, prove your point oI view.
2. State a) the basic theme b) the central idea oI the letter.
3. Decide what prevails in the text - description or narration what per-
son (1/3) presentation the text is and how it inIluences the reader's per-
ception oI the idea.
4. Does the text have a simple, or complex, or intricate plot
5. Is the setting oI the events realistic/ historical/ Iantastic/ exotic/ rural
6. Prove whether the interrogative sentence is a rhetoric question or not.
7. Are the phenomena in the text described as long in duration, constant,
or reccurent ow is this realised in the sentence structure Is the sentence
simple or composite Is enumeration homogeneous or heterogeneous Are
the enumerated components joined by means oI asyndeton or polysyndeton
What is the stylistic eIIect oI this
8. Determine whether there is or there is not any text segmentation.
9. Decide and explain whether the tone oI the text is Iormal/ semiIormal/
tnIormal/ conversational/ casual/ sympathetic/ cheerIul/ vigorous/ serious/
humorous/ mock-serious/ lyrical/ dramatic/ excited/ agitated/ passionate/ im-
passive/ detached/ matter-oI-Iact/ dry/ impartial/ melancholy/ moralising/
unemotional/ pathetic/ sarcastic/ ironical/ sneering/ bitter/ reproachIul, etc.
10. Enumerate and prove by illustration what oI these phonetic stylistic
156 157
devices the text contains: a) onomatopoeia (direct or indirect), b) allitera-
tion, c) assonance, d) rhyme, e) rhythm. What are they used Ior
11. DeIine the rhythm oI the text.
12. Say whether all the enumerated components present onomatopoeia
What is the stylistic Iunction oI this
13. What stylistic eIIect does the adjective "quiet" have in the text
What stylistic device(s) is/are represented in this element
14. Decide iI the text has the climax and the denouement.
15. In conclusion, explain how the expressive means and stylistic devic-
es characterize the protagonist and the situation.
Theo(et)#l te/s ,o( n%e.en%ent .e(son#l )ons%e(#ton
1. The text communicative pragmatic aim. The category oI addressing.
2. Anthropocentrism, modality, and "point oI view" in the text.
/iterature recommended
1. . A. Heneanx eca (. xs. ). - ., 1985. - C.
181-283.
2. mamee A. H. . Heneanx yxecne eca
(em. xs.). - ., 1989. - C. 52-114.
3. yae B. A. Heneanx eca. - ., 1988. - C. 133-188.
4. nc A. H., Btena O. H. . Cca ac-
xsa. - ., 1991. - C. 227-234.
5. Heena H. u. Ccec aas yxecne e-
ca. - ., 1980. - C. 187-206, 234-237.
0n%e.en%ent .e(son#l "o(7 c Morphological
and Graphic Expressive Means, Etc.
0te/ @
Sometimes we'd have the whole river all to ourselves Ior the longest
time. Yonder was the banks and the islands, across the water and maybe a
spark - which was a candle in a cabin window - and sometimes on the wattj
you could see a spark or two - on a raIt or a scow, you know and maybe you
could hear a Iiddle or a song coming over Irom one oI them craIts. It's lovely
t0 live on a raIt. We had the sky, up there, all speckled with stars, and we used
to lay
on

our
backs and look up at them, and discuss about whether they was
made, or only just happened - Jim he allowed they was made, but I allowed
they happened I judged it would have took too long to make so many. Jim
said the moon could a laid them well, that looked kind oI reasonable, so I
didn't say nothing against it, because I've seen a Irog lay most as many, so oI
course it could be done. We used to watch the stars that Iell, too, and see
them streak down. Jim allowed they'd got spoiled and was hove out oI the nest.
From Mark Twain's uckleberrv Finn
Ess!n/ents ,o( stylst) #n#lyss
1. DeIine the theme oI the extract.
2. Analyse the way and Iorm oI presentation - whether the passage is
the l
s
7 3
rd
person narration/ description. What is the author's role
3. Characterise the stylistic value oI the Iollowing morphological items
within the text: the superlative degree Iorm: "wed have the whole river all
to ourselves for the lonest time" the pronoun "vou" the number category
in "Yonder 1as the banks and the islands", "thev was made..., was hove
out of the nest" the inIinitive Iorm: "we used to lay on our backs", "Ive
seen a frog layTI expression oI correlation: "it would have took too long to
make so manv", "the moon could a laid them", "of course it could be
doneTI the double negation: "I didnt sav nothing" double expression oI
the same syntactic component: "from one of them crafts ", Tnim he
allowed...". What are those grammatical Iorms among the mentioned ones
that speak oI a) the pragmatic intention, b) emotional state, c) educational
background oI the narrator SpeciIy.
4. Point out and comment on the stylistic Iunctions oI a) detachment, b)
asyndeton, c) repetition.
5. Characterise the Iollowing metaphors: "the skv, up there, all speck-
led with stars" "the moon could a laid them" "thevd got spoiled and was
hove out of the nest".
6. DeIine the tone oI the piece, the narrator's character, and the idea
expressed in the text.
158
159
0te/ ]
"E was blinded up 'Eeps way, sir. Come out o' St. Dunstans n
nothin', not a man's work. Weaves mats, or something like that. Course, 'e ' s
got 'is pension, but what I always ses is, what's a pension to a man what's
lost 'is sight See 'im walkin' past 'ere last week, with 'is ole mother 'olding
'im by the arm t' guide 'im, an' lookin' up at 'im pitiIul like. Give me a turn it
did, 'im with 'is scarred Iace - good-lookin' young Ieller 'e was too once-
and 'er leadin' 'im along like a child. Gives up all 'er liIe to that boy, she does.
But she ain't many years Ior this world, crackin' up Iast, she is, and then
what's goin' t' look aIter 'im'
E was blinded up Eeps wav - B I
(ipres i.pr - I - e , e ' igfv
u i e, ).
From Richard Aldington's The Lads of the illage
Ess!n/ents ,o( stylst) #n#lyss
1. State the theme and the idea expressed in the extract.
2. DeIine the Iorm oI presentation, its tone, and the narrator's attitude.
3. Characterise the sentence structure and syntactic stylistic peculiari-
ties oI the extract.
4. Say whether the Iollowing questions can be considered rhetoric: "whats
a pension to whats lost is sight?" "and then whats goin t look
after im?"
5. Point out and analyse cases oI morphological transposition. State their
Iunction.
6. Enumerate the instances and state the stylistic Iunction oI the numer-
ous illusions and orthography graphons.
7. Characterise lexico-semantic peculiarities oI the Iollowing: "Give me
a turn it did" "leadin im along like a child" "Gives up all er life to that
hov" "But she aint manv vears for this world, crackin up fast, she is".
8. Decide whether there is/ are any image(s) disclosed in the extract.
0te/ ^
The Salmon is ever bred in the Iresh Rivers (and in most Rivers about
the month oI August) and never grows big but in the Sea and there to an
credible bigness in a very short time to which place they covet to swim, by
the instinct oI nature, about a set time: but iI they be stopp'd by .illsC Flood-
nates or Weirs, or be by accident lost in the Iresh water, when the others go
(which is usually by Ilocks or shoals) then they thrive not.
And the old Salmon, both the Melter and Spawner, strive also to get into
e Sea beIore Winter but being stopped that course, or lost, grow sick in
Iresh waters, and by degrees unseasonable, and kipper, that is, to have a bony
oristle, to grow (not unlike a awks beak) on one oI this chaps, which hinders
him Irom Ieeding, and then he pines and dies.
From Izaak Walton's The Complete Angler
Ess!n/ents ,o( stylst) #n#lyss
1. DeIine the theme disclosed in the extract.
1. Decide and explain whether the subject matter is presented in realis-
tic/ historical/ Iantastic/ or exotic setting.
2. Characterise stylistic properties oI the capitalized and italicized nouns.
3. Analyse syntactic stylistic peculiarities oI the extract.
4. Decide whether the extract can be considered an article.
5. Point out and analyse the instances oI morphological transposition.
2. Explain what lexico-semantic stylistic devices are observed in the Iol-
lowing: "not unlike a awks beak".
3. Say whether there is any internal/ external conIlict, image(s), and
what idea is expressed in the extract.
0te/ _
The Soul selects her own Society -
Then - shuts the Door -
To her divine Majority -
Present no more -
Unmoved - she notes the Chariots - pausing
At her low Gate -
Unmoved - an Emperor be kneeling
Upon her Mat -
I've known her - Irom an ample nation -
Choose One -
Then - close the alves oI her attention -
Like Stone -
bv Emilv Dickinson
160 161
Ess!n/ents ,o( stylst) #n#lyss
1. State what idea is expressed in the poem.
2. Analyse the rhyme and rhythm oI the piece.
1. Characterise the text segmentation and punctuation. Suggest and ex-
plain the division oI the poem into sentences.
2. Say what images are presented in the poem and why so many words
within the lines are capitalized.
3. Is there any conIlict described in the poem SpeciIy.
3. Characterise a) the types and stylistic Iunctions oI the metaphoric
expressions b) the role oI the author in the poem.
4. Name the stylistic device and deIine its pragmatic stylistic Iunction:
"Like Stone". Analyse what type oI context is speciIied by this expression.
5. Decide what pragmatic and stylistic eIIect must have been aimed at
by the author in placing a dash even in the end oI the poem.
Theo(et)#l te/s ,o( n%e.en%ent .e(son#l )ons%e(#ton
1. Functional stylistic paradigm oI the text.
2. Functional semantic paradigm: texts-descriptions, texts-narratives,
texts-reIlection, texts-dialogues, polylogues.
3. Compositional structural paradigm oI the text.
4. Individual paradigm oI the author.
/iterature recommended
1. cna H. B. Haece nce n enean e-
ca. - c., 1987. - C. 10-27, 47-63, 64-79.
2. . A. Heneanx eca (. xs.). - ., 1985. - C.
143-180.
3. mamee A. H. . Heneanx yxecne eca
(em. xs.). - ., 1989.-C. 115-156.
4. yae B. A. Heneanx eca. - ., 1988. - C. 90-132.
5. Heena H. u. Ccec aas yxecne e-
ca. - ., 1980. - C. 184-228.
6. Pasa H. . uynatax cca ac xs-
a. - ., 1989.-C. 98-122.
0n%e.en%ent 1e(son#l :o(7 T
Set Expressions, Etc.
0%o/s
0%ent,y #ny %o/s n these st#te/ents.
She used to let her hair down aIter a Iew drinks.
The sideboard was priceless and very beautiIul.
John and Marlene hit it oII right Irom their Iirst meeting.
Well, I never understood why there was a smoking ban in the waiting room.
Well I never! What a lovely surprise to see you here.
Sometimes we have Iish and chips Ior supper.
0te/ @
e was disappointed with Rome. It was still beautiIul indeed, but without
his Iather to say 'ere Gibbon must have heard the monks singing in the Ara
Cceli,' or 'ere's the rostrum - let's see how much we can remember oI the
Catiline oration,' the ruins and the churches had somehow lost their charm.
And the charm had gone too Irom Roman liIe. Cars hooted through the nar-
row streets, the old restaurants had vanished in a wholesale demolition, a
pinchbeck Americanism had taken the place oI the old lazy dignity. The beg-
gars had gone, but so had the Iriendliness and simplicity. Under oIIicial en-
couragement the age-old society oI Judas appeared to have taken on a new
lease oI liIe the Eternal City swarmed with intellectual English, neo-Thomists
possessed oI small Latin and less Greek, and with homosexual peers in violet
cassocks. But worst oI all, a strange Ieeling oI moral oppressiveness hung
over the town. It was unpleasant to Ieel that he was probably being watched,
that an imprudent phrase might involve him in disagreeable results.
Gibbon - e (1737-1794),
e "I "
(Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire).
Ara Cceli (. ) - ,
r m.
162
163
the Catiline oration - u Ce Pu,tv
, K v
,
(I . . . ).
neo-Thomists - -, -
, D8: e Ae
. C. A (XIII cm. )
, e m
m .
From Richard Aldington's Meditation on a German Grave
Ess!n/ents ,o( stylst) #n#lyss
1. DeIine the subject matter oI the extract and the Iorm oI its presentation.
2. Characterise the tone oI the piece, and analyse what predetermines
the atmosphere - the person-image or the city-image
3. Explain what exactly the author contrasts through the expression "It
|Rome| was still beautiful indeed, but..." and the Iollowing description.
4. DeIine, judging by the quotations, what must have been the protago-
nist's Iirst consideration.
5. Point out allusions and speciIy their source.
6. Analyse the stylistic eIIect oI linking repetition within the Iollowing:
"the ruins and the churches had somehow lost their charm. And the
charm had gone too from Roman life."
7. Enumerate those items oI situation in Rome which are disclosed in
parallel constructions. Is there any kind oI climax or contrast SpeciIy.
8. Characterise all metaphoric and metonymic expressions used in the
extract as to their types and Iunctions.
9. Whose attitude obviously prevails in the text - the author's, or the
character's Explain you point oI view.
0te/ ]
I will always remember how staggered I was when an American col-
league said that I was as blind as a bat. Although no native speaker oI English
would give the term a moment's thought, in Ukrainian Iolklore bats are al-
`ays associated with evil, and because oI this I was deeply shocked. AIter a
Iew seconds oI reIlection, I could see that it is really no worse than being as
blind as a mole (our Ukrainian equivalent). In another instance, I was un-
pleasantly surprised by the words oI my arvard Iriend who said that I work
like a beaver. Personally unacquainted with any beavers in Ukraine, I, oI
course, could not appreciate that this was a really complimentary compari-
son. My Iriend, no less a workaholic than me, would probably be greatly
surprised iI I compared him - a very substantial man weighing more than 200
pounds - to a little bee, which is exactly what we would say in Ukrainian.
From Oksana abuzhko's essay When in Rome... in Panorama
Ess!n/ents ,o( stylst) #n#lyss
1. What is the subject matter oI the extract
2. DeIine the style and the types oI context observed in the narration.
1. ow many cases oI English-Ukrainian phraseologic discrepancy are
described in the text Point out and translate all the set expressions.
2. Was the author's experience pleasant or unpleasant to her Is this
exactly reIlected in the tone oI the narration Characterise the tone.
3. Analyse the syntactic and lexical stylistic properties oI the extract.
4. What idea is expressed in the extract
0te/ ^
e spoke with homicidal eloquence, keeping the game alive with genial
and well-judged jokes. e had a Sergeant to assist him. The Sergeant, a tall
sinewy machine, had been trained to such a pitch oI IrightIulness that at a
moment's warning he could divest himselI oI all semblance oI humanity. With
riIle and bayonet he illustrated the Major's Ierocious aphorisms, including
Iacial expression. When told to "put on a killing Iace", he did so, combining it
with an ultravindictive attitude. "To instil Iear into the opponent" was one oI
the Major's main maxims. Man, it seemed, had been created to jab the liIe
ut oI Germans. To hear the Major talk, one might have thought that he did it
himselI every day beIore breakIast.
AIterwards I went up the hill to my Iavourite sanctuary, a wood oI ha-
e
ls and beeches. The evening air smelt oI wet mould and wet leaves the
164 165
trees were misty-green the church bell was tolling in the town, and smoke
rose Irom the rooIs. Peace was there in the twilight oI that prophetic Ioreign
spring. But the lecturer's voice still battered on my brain. "The bullet and the
bayonet are brother and sister." "II you don't kill, he'll kill you."
From SiegIried Sassoon's Memoirs of an Infantrv Officer
Ess!n/ents ,o( stylst) #n#lyss
1. DeIine the theme and the idea disclosed in the extract.
2. Characterise the type and stylistic eIIect oI the subject matter presen-
tation.
3. ow many and what logical parts can the extract be divided into
What is the stylistic Iunction and tone peculiarity oI each part separately and
in connection
4. Analyse a) the setting (realistic/ historical/ Iantastic/ exotic/ rural)
b) the approximately obvious span oI time the extract covers c) the kind oI
narrative Ilow (straight/ complex/ circular/ Irame-like).
5. What stylistic device the writer resorts to in order to name the war
representing characters - Sergeant, Major What impressions oI the charac-
ter oI the protagonist do you derive Irom this passage
6. DeIine the type and stylistic contextual essence oI the expressions
"put on the killing face", "to instil fear into the opponent", "The bullet and
the bavonet are brother and sister", "If vou dont kill, hell kill vou"
rendered in inverted commas in the extract.
7. Analyse stylistic Iunctions oI other expressive means and stylistic de-
vices within the extract.
8. Make a conclusion oI the character oI the writer.
0te/ _
'Oh dear!' said Grimes despondently, gazing into his glass.'Oh, Lord! oh.
Lord! That I should come to this!'
'Cheer up, Grimes. It isn't like you to be as depressed as this,' said Paul.
'Old Iriends,' said Grimes - and his voice was charged with emotion
-'you see a man standing Iace to Iace with retribution. Respect him even iI
you cannot understand. Those that live by the Ilesh shall perish by the Ilesh.
1 am a very sinIul man, and I am past my Iirst youth. Who shall pity me in
that dark declivity to which my steps inevitably seem to tend I have boasted in
iny youth and held my head high and gone on my way careless oI consequence,
but ever behind me, unseen, stood stark Justice with his two-edged sword. '
More Iood was brought them. Mr Prendergast ate with a hearty appetite.
'Oh, why did nobody warn me' cried Grimes in his agony.'I should
have been told. They should have told me in so many words. They should
have warned me about Flossie, not about the Iires oI hell. I've risked them,
and I don't mind risking them again, but they should have told me about
marriage. ' |...|
"Those that live bv the flesh shall perish bv the flesh -
em . all thev that take the sword shall
perish with the sword (e , 26, 52)
Justice with his two-edged sword - e
e e H, r
e .
From Evelyn Waugh's Decline and Fall
Ess!n/ents ,o( stylst) #n#lyss
1. The extract describes despair oI one oI the characters because oI his
Iorthcoming marriage. Analyse the tone oI the piece - whether (and in what
part exactly) it is Iormal/ semiIormal/ inIormal/ conversational/ casual/ sym-
pathetic/ cheerIul/ vigorous/ serious/ humorous/ mock-serious/ lyrical/ dra-
matic/ excited/ agitated/ passionate/ impassive/ detached/ matter-oI-Iact/ dry/
impartial/ melancholy/ moralising/ unemotional/ pathetic/ sarcastic/ ironical/
sneering/ bitter/ reproachIul, etc. SpeciIy your consideration.
2. Explain how the exclamations and allusions (point them out) made by
the protagonist in the extract, as well as his Iriend's words and his own judge-
ment oI himselI, characterise him.
3. Analyse stylistic Iunctions oI other expressive means and stylistic de-
vices within the extract.
1. Make a conclusion oI the style and the idea disclosed in the extract.
Theo(et)#l te/s ,o( n%e.en%ent .e(son#l )ons%e(#ton
1. The problem oI intertextual relations. Intertextuality and its types.
2. Intertextuality and the problem oI the text comprehension.
166 167
/iterature recommended Ess!n/ents ,o( stylst) #n#lyss
1. . A. Heneanx eca (. xs.). - ., 1985. -
63-99.
2. mamee A. H. . Heneanx yxecne eca
(em. xs. ). - ., 1989. - C. 115-156.
3. yae B. A. Heneanx eca. - ., 1988. - C. 79-89
4. Pasa H. . uynatax cca ac xs-
a. - ., 1989.-C. 98-122.
0n%e.en%ent .e(son#l "o(7 U
Overall Stylistic Analysis
0te/ @
A winter morning a sombre and secluded library leather bound unread,
unreadable books lining the walls below the windows, subdued, barely per-
ceptible, like the hum oI a mowing machine in summer on distant lawns, the
sound oI London traIIic overhead, in blue and white plaster, an elegant Adam
ceiling a huge heap oI glowing coal in the marble Iireplace a leather topped,
mahogany writing-table: the pen poised indecisively above the Ioolscap
-what more is needed to complete the picture oI a leisured litterateur
embarking upon his delicate labour
Alas! too much. An elderly man has just entered, picked up a French
novel and glanced at me resentIully. This is not my library. Nor, in the words
oI a French exercise, are these my pens, ink or paper. I am in my Club, in the
room set aside Ior silence and heavy aIter-luncheon sleep. It is three days past
the date on which I promised delivery oI copy. Leisured litterateur my Ioot.
'Eats well, sleeps well, but the moment he sees a job oI work he comes
over queer.' That is my trouble, an almost Ianatical aversion Irom pens, ink
or paper.
Adam ceiling A
e ,
A (1728-1792).
From Evelyn Waugh's General Conversation. Mvself-
168
1. Analyse the theme and the idea disclosed in the extract.
2. DeIine the way oI the subject matter presentation, and the notion
"author" oI the piece.
3. ow many and what logical parts can the extract be subdivided into
4. Characterise the tone oI the extract utterances. What lexical expres-
sive means help to identiIy it
5. Analyse the types and Iunctions oI the syntactic expressive means
and stylistic devices observed in the extract.
6. Explain what is expressed in the repetition oI the Iollowing enumerat-
ed objects: "pens, ink or paper" and the phrase "leisured litterateur."
7. Analyse pragmatic stylistic essence oI the quotation: "Eats well, sleeps
well, but the moment he sees a fob of work he comes over queer." What
are the other means characterising the protagonist What image is created
through them
8. What is the compositional and pragmatic correspondence between
the Iirst and the subsequent paragraphs SpeciIy the stylistic essence oI the
rhetoric question "what more is needed to complete the picture of a lei-
sured litterateur embarking upon his delicate labour?" and the elliptical
answer "Alas' too much." Make a conclusion about the author's judgement
oI the proIession oI a writer.
0te/ ]
It is spring, moonless night in the small town, starless and bible-black, the
cobblestreets silent and the hunched, couriers'-and-rabbits' wood limping in-
visible down to the sloeblack, slow, black, crowblack, Iishingboat-bobbing sea.
The houses are blind as moles (though moles see Iine tonight in the snouting,
velvet dingles) or blind as Captain Cat there in the muIIled middle by the
pump and the town clock, the shops in mourning, the WelIare all in widows'
weeds. And all people oI the lulled and dumbIound town are sleeping now.
From Dylan Thomas' Under Milk Wood
Ess!n/ents ,o( stylst) #n#lyss
1. Say what can be considered the subject matter oI the extract.
2. What tone prevails in the piece
169
3. Analyse the syntactic and compositional arrangement oI the three
utterances within the extract.
4. What are the stylistic Iunctions oI simile and detachment in the second
sentence What eIIect is produced by the second instance oI simile contain-
ing allusion
5. Point out all cases oI alliteration observed in the text and analyse
whether they serve any pragmatic Iunction.
6. Characterise the types and stylistic Iunctions oI all metaphoric ex-
pressions used in the extract. What image is created by their means
0te/ ^
It was a town oI red brick, or oI brick that would have been red iI the
smoke and ashes had allowed it but as matters stood it was a town oI unnat-
ural red and black like the painted Iace oI a savage. It was a town oI machin-
ery and tall chimneys, out oI which interminable serpents oI smoke trailed
themselves Ior ever and ever, and never got uncoiled. It had a black canal in
it, and a river that ran purple with ill-smelling dye, and vast piles oI buildings
Iull oI windows where there was a rattling and a trembling all day long, and
where the piston oI the steam-engine worked monotonously up and down like
the head oI an elephant in a state oI melancholy madness.
From Charles Dickens' ard Times
Ess!n/ents ,o( stylst) #n#lyss
1. Characterise the subject matter oI the extract, the compositional es-
sence oI the introductory sentence, the manner oI the subject matter presen-
tation, and deIine the idea rendered in the text.
2. Analyse the syntactic expressive means and stylistic devices the writ-
er resorts to in the utterances within the extract. Point out the Iunction and
eIIect oI each syntactic stylistic peculiarity.
3. Explain the stylistic value oI the expressions: "it was a town of un-
natural red and black like the painted face of a savage" "the piston of the
steam-engine worked monotonouslv up and down like the head of an
elephant in a state of melancholv madness".
4. What stylistic notions are observed within the Iollowing: "intermina-
ble serpents of smoke trailed themselves for ever and ever, and never got
uncoiled"} What Iunctions do they perIorm in the text
5. Point out the words and phrases which Iorm the tone oI the extract.
What tone is observed
6. Analyse what prevails in the text - metonymic or metaphoric expres-
sions. Characterise the stylistic Iunctions perIormed in the extract by each.
7. Explain how the notion oI modality is applied to image creation within
the extract. DeIine the Iormed image.
0te/ _
It was Miss Murdstone who was arrived, and a gloomy-looking lady she
was dark, like her brother, whom she greatly resembled in Iace and voice
and with very heavy eyebrows, nearly meeting over her large nose, as iI,
being disabled by the wrongs oI her sex Irom wearing whiskers, she had
carried them to that account. She brought with her two uncompromising hard
black boxes, with her initials on the lid in hard brass nails. When she paid the
coachman she took her money out oI a hard steel purse, and she kept the
purse in a very jail oI a bag which hung upon her arm by a heavy chain, and
shut up like a bite. I had never, at that time, seen such a metallic lady altogether
a Miss Murdstone was.
From Charles Dickens' David Copperfield
Ess!n/ents ,o( stylst) #n#lyss
1. DeIine the theme and the idea disclosed in the extract.
2. Analyse what prevails in the extract - (1
st
/ 3
rd
person) narration or
description. Apply the notions oI "modality" and "point oI view" to the episode.
3. Characterise stylistic syntax oI the introductory part oI the extract: "//
was Miss Murdstone who was arrived, and a gloomv-looking ladv she
was dark, like her brother, whom she greatlv resembled in face and voice
and with verv heavv evebrows, nearlv meeting over her large nose..."
4. Recognise the type and deIine the Iunction oI the repetition oI the
proper name Miss Murdstone.
5. Say whether this surname can be considered antonomasia.
5. Point out the words and phrases which characterise Miss Murdstone
as "a metallic ladv". Indicate the stylistic devices used in the clause: "she
kept the purse in a verv fail of a bag which hung upon her arm bv a heavv
chain, and shut up like a bite". What Iunctions do they perIorm in
presenting the character DeIine the Iormed image.
170 171
0te/ 5
Little Miss Peecher, Irom her little oIIicial dwelling-house, with its little
windows like the eyes in needles, and its little doors like the covers oI school-
books, was very observant indeed oI the object oI her quiet aIIections. Love
though said to be aIIlicted with blindness, is a vigilant watchman, and Miss
Peecher kept him on double duty over Mr. Bradley eadstone. It was not
that she was naturally given to playing the spy - it was not that she was at all
secret, plotting, or mean - it was simply that she loved the unresponsive
Bradley with all the primitive and homely stock oI love that had never been
examined or certiIicated out oI her.
|...| Though all unseen and unsuspected by the pupils, Bradley ead-
stone even pervaded the school exercises. Was Geography in question e
would come triumphantly Ilying out oI esuvius and Atna ahead oI the lava,
and would boil unharmed in the hot springs oI Iceland, and would Iloat majes-
tically down the Ganges and the Nile. Did istory chronicle a king oI men
Behind him in pepper-and-salt pantaloons, with his watch-guard round his
neck. Were copies to be written In capital B's and 's most oI the girls
under Miss Peecher's tuition were halI a year ahead oI every other letter in
the alphabet. And Mental Arithmetic, administered by Miss Peecher, oIten
devoted itselI to providing Bradley eadstone with a wardrobe oI Iabulous
extent Iourscore and Iour neck-ties at two and ninepence-halIpenny, two
gross oI silver watches at Iour pounds IiIteen and sixpence, seventy-Iour
black at eighteen shillings and many similar superIluities.
The vigilant watchman, using his daily opportunities oI turning his eyes in
Bradley's direction, soon apprized Miss Peecher that Bradley was more preoc-
cupied than had been his want and more given to strolling about with a down-
cast and reserved Iace, turning something diIIicult in his mind that was not in
the scholastic syllabus. Putting this and that together - combining under the
head "this," present appearances and the intimacy with Charley exam, and
ranging under the head "that" - the visit to his sister, the watchman reported to
Miss Peecher his strong suspicions that the sister was at the bottom oI it.
From Charles Dickens' Our Mutual Friend
Ess!n/ents ,o( stylst) #n#lyss
1. DeIine the theme and the idea disclosed in the extract.
2. What is the manner oI presentation
3. Characterise the plot (simple/ complex/ intricate) and the setting oI
the events (realistic/ historical/ Iantastic/ exotic)
4. ow many and what logical parts can the extract be subdivided into
5. Analyse stylistic Iunctions oI detachment, enumeration and repetition
in the 1
st
paragraph.
6. Characterise stylistic structural and pragmatic essence oI the inter-
rogative sentences and the replies to them within the second passage.
7. Explain how the expression "Love, though said to he afflicted with
blindness, is a vigilant watchman, and Miss Peecher kept him on double
dutv over Mr. Bradlev eadstone" has predetermined the 3
rd
passage ut-
terances. Analyse the stylistic device.
8. Consider whether there is any other non-person image and how it is
expressed stylistically.
9. Characterise the tone oI the piece - whether (and in what part exact
ly) it is Iormal/ semiIormal/ inIormal/ conversational/ casual/ sympathetic/
cheerIul/ vigorous/ serious/ humorous/ mock-serious/ lyrical/ dramatic/ excit
ed/ agitated/ passionate/ impassive/ detached/ matter-oI-Iact/ dry/ impartial/
melancholy/ moralising/ unemotional/ pathetic/ sarcastic/ ironical/ sneering/
bitter/ reproachIul, etc. SpeciIy your consideration.
10. Analyse the stylistic essence oI repetition oI the adjective "little" in
the I
s
' passage.
11. Point out all the other lexico-semantic stylistic peculiarities oI the
extract and characterise their stylistic Iunctional properties.
12. Make a conclusion oI the author's style oI writing and the types oI
context the characters are disclosed in.
Theo(et)#l te/s ,o( n%e.en%ent .e(son#l )ons%e(#ton
1. Integration oI expressive means and stylistic devices at the text level.
2. Possible approaches to the stylistic analysis oI the whole text.
Literature recommended
1. cna H. B. Haece nce n enean e-
ca. - c., 1987. - C. 64-79, 94-99.
2. mamen A. H. . Heneanx yxecne eca
(em. xs.). - ., 1989. - C. 35-51.
172 173
&te(#t-(e to theo(et)#l te/s ,o(
n%e.en%ent .e(son#l )ons%e(#ton
@. cna H. B. Haece nce n enean eca
(nsa): e. nc. - c: Bcmax, ma, 1987.
2. . A. Heneanx eca: (u. xs.) e. nc
-.: Hcnemee, 1985.
3. mamee A. H. . Heneanx yxecne eca:
(Hem. xs. ) e. nc. - 2-e s., a. - .: Hcnemee, 1989.
4. yae B. A. Heneanx eca: e. nc. - 2-e s.,
neea. - .: Hcnemee, 1988.
5. nc A. H. . Cca ac xsa: e-
.-.: Bma ma, 1991.
6. Heena H. u. Ccec aas yxecne e-
ca: e. nc. - .: Hcnemee, 1980.
7. Pasa H. . uynatax cca ac xsa:
e. nc. - .: Bcmax, ma, 1989.
.&&r#i(ate Sc'e(e f O*erall
Stylistic .nalysis f a Fictin Te#t
The text (extract, excerpt, episode, passage, piece, paragraph) under
consideration (analysis) comes Irom
- (indefinite) a work oI literature (novel, story, short story, tale, play,
Iable, poem) written by ... name of the author,
- (definite) the book (novel, story, short story, tale, play, Iable, poem)
... name of the work ...written by ... name of the author.
The author (writer, poet) is Iamous Ior (known as an) ...a bit of infor-
mation about the author and his works, stvle of writing.
The extract concerns (is devoted to, deals with) ...
The basic theme is ...
The central idea Iinds its particularization in .../ is disclosed through the
Iollowing collision (internal/ external conIlict)...
From the point oI view oI presentation the text is
- the l
s
7 3
rd
person narrative
- rather a description than a narration
- rather a narration than a description
- a mixture oI narration and description
with some a) insertions oI direct/ interior/ represented speech
b) lyrical/ critical/ philosophical digression/ retardation/
Ioreshadowing/ Ilashbacks to the past
The plot is simple/ complex/ intricate. It centres around ...
The setting oI the events is realistic/ historical/ Iantastic/ exotic/ rural.
The span oI time the extract covers is (obviously) ...
The narrative Ilow is straight/ complex/ circular/ Irame-like.
The climax oI the plot development is presented in ...
The denouement is shown in ...
The sentence structure is (predominantly) a) simple b) composite c)
complicated by the Iollowing predicative complexes ... homogeneous/ het-
erogeneous enumeration oI ... It is aimed at exciting (evoking) a Ieeling/ an
emotion/ a state oI mind/ the sense oI being a witness oI a particular logical
(complex, conIused) philosophical (moral, social) consideration (observation).
The text segmentation is realized by the Iollowing graphic means: ...
The tone oI the piece oI literature is Iormal/ semiIormal/ inIormal/
conversational/ casual/ sympathetic/ cheerIul/ vigorous/ serious/ humorous/
mock-serious/ lyrical/ dramatic/ excited/ agitated/ passionate/ impassive/
detached/ matter-oI-Iact/ dry/ impartial/ melancholy/ moralizing/ unemo-
tional/ pathetic/ sarcastic/ ironical/ sneering/ bitter/ reproachIul, etc. It be-
comes obvious owing to:
a) such cases oI morphemic Ioregrounding as repetition oI the root.../
the preIix.. ./the suIIix.. ./the inIlexion
b) the morphological transposition oI...
c) the Iollowing phonetic stylistic phenomenon/ -na:...
The direct/ indirect characterization oI the person-image/ landscape-
image/ animal-image/ object-image ...mention the personnon-person im-
age.. . is achieved with a number oI stylistic devices.
Thus, thanks to the
- associated (unassociated) epithet(s) ...
- dead (original) nominational (cognitive, imaginative) simple (sustained)
metaphor ..., etc.
we may perceive the optimistic/ involved/ critical/ contemptuous/ ironi-
cal/ cynical, etc. attitude oI the narrator/ interlocutor(s).
174 175
A deliberate exaggeration .../an unexpected comparison
(simile) .../-round-about metonymic (metaphoric) way oI portraying
(exposing, revealing enIorcing, rendering, bringing out, ridiculing, etc) the
positive (negative, contradictory, complex/ well-rounded) character oI...
produces the eIIect oI
To stimulate/ stir imagination (to arouse warmth/ aIIection/ compassion/
delight/ admiration/ dislike/ disgust/ aversion/ resentment/ antipathy, etc. to in-
crease the credibility oI the plot to stimulate the reader to make his own judge-
ment to increase the immediacy and Ireshness oI the impression, etc. ) the
author makes use oI ... name the stvlistic phenomenon phenomena), etc.
=#cer&ts fr O*erall Stylistic .nalysis
I.
Rip an Winkle, however, was one oI those happy mortals, oI Ioolish,
well-oiled dispositions, who take the world easy, eat white bread or brown
whichever can be got with least thought or trouble, and would rather starve
on penny than work Ior a pound. II leIt to himselI, he would have whistled liIe
away in perIect contentment but his wiIe kept continually dinning in his ears
about his idleness, his carelessness, and the ruin he was bringing on his Iam-
ily. Morning, noon, and night, her tongue was incessantly going, and every-
thing he said or did was sure to produce a torrent oI household eloquence. Rip
had but one way oI replying to all lectures oI the kind, and that, by Irequent
use, had grown into a habit. e shrugged his shoulders, shook his head, cast
up his eyes, but said nothing. This, however, always provoked a Iresh volley
Irom his wiIe...
Washington Irvim
II.
It was in this apartment, also, that there stood against the western wall, a
gigantic clock oI ebony. Its pendulum swung to and Iro with a dull, heavy,
monotonous clang and when the minute-hand made the circuit oI the Iace,
and the hour was to be stricken, there came Irom the brazen lungs oI the
clock a sound which was clear and loild and deep and exceedingly musical.
176
but oI so peculiar a note and emphasis that, at each lapse oI an hour, the
musicians oI the orchestra were constrained to pause, momentarily, in their
perIormance, to hearken to the sound and thus the waltzers perIorce ceased
their evolutions, and there was a brieI disconcert oI the whole gay company
and, while the chimes oI the clock yet rang, it was observed that the giddiest
grew pale, and the more aged and sedate passed their hands over their brows
aS iI in conIused reverie or meditation.
Edgar Allan
III.
... The houses had generally an odd look. ere, the moonlight tried to get
a glimpse oI one, a rough old heap oI ponderous timber, which, ashamed oI its
dilapidated aspect, was hiding behind a great thick tree the lower story oI the
next had sunk almost under ground, as iI the poor little house were a-weary
oI the world, and retiring into the seclusion oI its own cellar Iarther on stood
one oI the Iew recent structures, thrusting its painted Iace conspicuously into
the street, with an evident idea that it was the Iairest thing there. About mid-
way in the village was a grist-mill, partly concealed by the descent oI the
ground towards the stream which turned its wheel. At the southern extremity,
just so Iar distant that the window-panes dazzled into each other, rose the
meeting-house, a dingy old barnlike building, with an enormously dispropor-
tioned steeple sticking up straight into heaven, as high as the Tower oI Babel,
and the cause oI nearly as much conIusion in its day.
Nathaniel awthorne
I.
Pausing at the threshold, or rather where threshold once had been, I saw,
through the open door-way, a lonely girl, sewing at a lonely window. A pale-
cheeked girl, and Ilyspecked window, with wasps about the mended upper
panes. I spoke. She shyly started, like some Tahiti girl, secreted Ior a sacri-
Iice, Iirst catching sight, through palms, oI Captain Cook. Recovering, she
bade me enter with her apron brushed oII a stool then silently resumed her
own. With thanks I took the stool but now, Ior a space, I, too, was mute.
This, then, is the Iairy-mountain house, and here, the Iairy queen sitting at
her Iairy window.
David Crockett
177
. III.
My name is Jim Griggins. I' m a low thieI. My parents was ignorant
Iolks, and as poor as the shadder oI a bean pole. My advantages Ior getting
a eddycation was exceedin' limited. I growed up in the street, quite loose and
permiskis, you see, and took to vice because I had nothing else to take to, and
because nobody had never given me a sight at virtue.
I'm in the penitentiary. I was sent here onct beIore Ior priggin' a watch
I served out my time, and now I' m here agin, this time Ior stealin' a Iew
insigniIicant clothes.
Artemus
Ward I.
The momentary excitement brought Mr. Oakhurst back to the Iire with
his usual calm. e did not waken the sleepers. The Innocent slumbered peace-
Iully, with a smile on his good-humored, Ireckled Iace the virgin Piney slept
beside her Irailer sisters as sweetly as though attended by celestial guardians
and Mr. Oakhurst, drawing his blanket over his shoulders, stroked his mus-
taches and waited Ior the dawn. It came slowly in a whirling mist oI snow-
Ilakes that dazzled and conIused the eye. What could be seen oI the land-
scape appeared magically changed. e looked over the valley, and summed
up the present and Iuture in two words - "snowed in!"
Francis Bret arte
2n.
Then this old person got up and tore his paper all into small shreds, and
stamped on them, and broke several things with his cane, and said I did not
know as much as a cow and then went out and banged the door aIter him,
and, in short, acted in such a way that I Iancied he was displeased about some-
thing. But not knowing what the trouble was, I could not be any help to him.
Pretty soon aIter this a long, cadaverous creature, with lanky locks hanging
down to his shoulders, and a week's stubble bristling Irom the hills and valleys
oI his Iace, darted within the door, and halted, motionless, with Iinger on lip.
and head and body bent in listening attitude. No sound was heard. Still he
listened. No sound....
Mark Twain
They gave small tips, but they were liked they didn't do anything them-
selves, but they were welcomed. They looked so well everywhere they grat-
iIied the general relish Ior stature, complexion, and "Iorm". They knew it
without Iatuity or vulgarity, and they respected themselves in consequence.
They were not superIicial they were thorough and kept themselves up - It
had been their line. People with such a taste Ior activity had to have some
line. I could Ieel how, even in a dull house, they could have been counted upon
Ior cheerIulness. At present something had happened - it didn't matter what,
their little income had grown less, it had grown least - and they had to do
something Ior pocket-money. Their Iriends liked them, but didn't like to sup-
port them....
enrv James
IX.
As Peyton Farquhar Iell straight downward through the bridge, he lost
consciousness and was as one already dead. From this state he was awak-
ened - ages later, it seemed to him - by the pain oI a sharp pressure upon his
throat, Iollowed by a sense oI suIIocation. een, poignant agonies seemed to
shoot Irom his neck downward through every Iibre oI his body and limbs.
These pains appeared to Ilash along well-deIined lines oI ramiIication, and to
beat with an inconceivable rapid periodicity. They seemed like streams oI
pulsating Iire heating him to an intolerable temperature. As to his head, he
was conscious oI nothing but a Ieeling oI Iullness - oI congestion. These
sensations were unaccompanied by thought. The intellectual part oI his na-
ture was already eIIaced, he had power only to Ieel, and Ieeling was torment.
Ambrose Gwinett Bierce
>?
A seat in this boat was not unlike a seat upon a bucking broncho, and by
the same token a broncho is not much smaller. The craIt pranced and reared
and plunged like an animal. As each wave came, and she rose Ior it, she
seemed like a horse making at a Ience outrageously high. The manner oI her
scramble over these walls oI water is a mystic thing, and, moreover, at the top
oI them were ordinarily these problems in white water, the Ioam racing down
178 179
Irom the summit oI each wave requiring a new leap, and a leap Irom the a"
Then, aIter scornIully bumping a crest, she would slide and race and splash
down a long incline, and arrive bobbing and nodding in Iront oI the next menace
Stephen Crane
XI.
When you are a boy and stand in the stillness oI woods, which can be so
still that your heart almost stops beating and makes you want to stand there in
the green twilight until you Ieel your very Ieet sinking into and clutching the
earth like roots and your body breathing slow through its pores like the leaves
- when you stand there and wait Ior the next drop to drop with its small, Ilat
sound to a lower leaI, that sound seems to measure out something, to put an
end to something, to begin something, and you cannot wait Ior it to happen
and are aIraid it will not happen, and then when it has happened, you are
waiting again, almost aIraid.
Robert Perm Warren
XII.
"That ain't the question, it's iI we want to Iight now or later. Them Nazis
ain't gonna sit!" shouted the red-Iaced man. "They got Egypt practically, and
then it's India iI it ain't England Iirst. It ain't a question oI the communists, the
communists are on itler's side. I tellya we can wait and wait and chew and
spit and the Iirst thing you know they'll be in England, and then who's gonna
help us when they start aIter us Maybe Brazil Get wise to the world! Spain
don't matter now one way or the other, they ain't gonna help and they can't
hurt. It's Germany and Italy and Japan, and iI it ain't too late now it's gonna
be. Get wise to yourselI. We shoulda gone in-" ...
John Berrvman
XIII.
For evin, his employment by the automobile Iactory was like a child's
ticket oI admission to an awesome, halI-believed-in Iairyland oI new sights,
sounds, colors, and odors. Even the preliminary physical examination, which
his nude Iellow Job applicants, shivering in their stockinged Ieet, swore was
Just too damned much like the army, was a revelation to evin, who had not
been in the United States long enough to learn how to conceal his astonish-
ment. The young men in line with him grumbled and cursed, or stood embar-
lSsed at their physical inadequacies but evin - six Ieet two, sturdy as an
oak- white-skinned and Ireckled Irom the roots oI the Ilaming hair, standing
a and away Irom his Iorehead, to the outer edges oI his massive shoulders
-was more interested by the Iact that he was being examined Ior nothing.
arvev Swados
xrv.
To the intent ear, Nation was voicing her growing pains, but, hands that
create are attached to warm hearts and not to calculating minds. The Lean as
he Iought his burden on looked Iorward to only one goal, the end. The barrow
he pushed, he did not love. The stones that brutalized his palms, he did not
love. The great God Job, he did not love. e Ielt a searing bitterness and a
Iathomless consternation at the queer consciousness that inIlicted the ever
mounting weight oI structure that he AD TO! AD TO! raise above his
shoulders! When, when and where would the last stone be Never... did he
bear his toil with the rhythm oI song! Never... did his gasping heart knead the
heavy mortar... A voice within him spoke in wordless language.
Pietro Di Donato
X.
is mother bent down again. "I can't use it while you're working. I can't
use it while you're reading. I can't use it until ten o'clock in the morning
because you're sleeping". She started the machine. "When am I supposed to
clean the house" she called over the noise oI the cleaner. "Why don't you
sleep at night like everybody else" And she put her head down low and
vigorously ran the machine back and Iorth.
Andrew watched her Ior a moment. No arguments came to him. The
sound oI the cleaner so close to him made his nerves jump. e went out oI
the room, closing the door behind him.
Irwin Shaw
XI.
Not unbewildered, again he gazed oII Ior his boat. But it was temporarily
hidden by a rocky spur oI the isle. As with some eagerness he bent Iorward,
watching Ior the Iirst shooting view oI its beak, the balustrade gave way
beIore him like charcoal. ad he not clutched an outreaching rope he would
180 181
have Iallen into the sea. The crash, though Ieeble, and the Iall, though hollo
oI the rotten Iragments, must have been overheard. e glanced up. y-
sober curiosity peering down upon him was one oI the old oakum-picker
slipped Irom his perch to an outside boom while below the old Negro, and
invisible to him, reconnoitering Irom a port-hole like a Iox Irom the mouth oI
its den, crouched the Spanish sailor again.
erman I~
xvn.
"Yes, I think it was, but I didn't know it Ior a month or so, when it suddenly
struck me that what I Ielt Ior her-1 don't know how to explain it, it was a sort
oI shattering turmoil that aIIected every bit oI me - that that was love, I knew
I'd Ielt it all along. It was not only her looks, though they were awIully
alluring, the smoothness oI her pale skin and the way her hair Iell over her
Iorehead and the grave sweetness oI her brown eyes, it was more than that
you had a sensation oI well-being when you were with her, as though you
could relax and be quite natural and needn't pretend to be anything you
.weren't. You Ielt she was incapable oI meanness. It was impossible to think oI
her as envious oI other people or catty. She seemed to have a natural
generosity oI soul. One could be silent with her Ior an hour at a time and yet
Ieel that one had had a good time.
William Somerset Maugham
XIII.
These October days were the best oI the year. The trees had turned
Iully and there was an edge oI winter in the air. alIway to town a maple
stood each morning he had watched its leaves die toward scarlet until today
the tree Ilamed with a Iall Iire. The hills beyond town, nearly high enough to
be called true mountains, had come into a variegated beauty, clusters oI oaks
shading into a scope oI richer sweetgum, interspersed by the evergreen denial
oI pine and cedar, so that John walked with his eyes liIted up to them.
Borden Deal
XIX.
When a girl leaves her home at eighteen, she does one oI two things.
Either she Ialls into saving hands and becomes better, or she rapidly assumes
182
. ~ cosmopolitan standard oI virtue and becomes worse. OI an intermediate
|ance, under the circumstances, there is no possibility. The city has its cun-jn2
wiles, no less than the inIinitely smaller and more human tempter. There e
large Iorces which allure with all the soulIulness oI expression possible in the
most cultured human. The gleam oI a thousand lights is oIten as eIIective as
the persuasive light in a wooing and Iascinating eye. alI the undoing oI the
unsophisticated and natural mind is accomplished by Iorces wholly super-
human. A blare oI sound, a roar oI liIe, a vast array oI human hives, appeal to
the astonished senses in equivocal terms.
Theodore Dreiser
>>?
The rest oI the story is pointless. I said so long to the young Assyrian
and leIt the shop. I walked across town, Iour miles, to my room on Carl
Street. I thought about the whole business: Assyria and this Assyrian, The-
odore Badal, learning to be a barber, the sadness oI his voice, the hopeless-
ness oI his attitude. This was months ago, in August, but ever since I have
been thinking about Assyria, and I have been wanting to say something about
Theodore Badal, a son oI an ancient race, himselI youthIul and alert, yet
hopeless. Seventy thousand Americans, a mere seventy thousand oI that great
people, and all the others quiet in death and all the greatness crumbled and
ignored, and a young man in America learning to be a barber, and a young
man lamenting bitterly the course oI history.
William Sarovan
I.
acx my, m nce an s cncx, cxn e nn s
ea nce ccn na acynacx nnxm xcanm cn-
cm. Bc yx eycx y ne ce- acyax eny act.
an ce, m anca an, esa maxct a a y,
nynan e, m ae ncnycct x my aymy nsan an-
m ynect cn, sacx m-a cnm, nn am, ae cnee-
y asna ca nys. anacx, yma smmct-
cx, xct esmex mm nyn nytc x, m xn y, a
n sem, -s'cax nct xn, ea sem, n sem, a ax
n ea - yn nt sanamnan yce ne, anmm xnx.
183
Han n, x yactcx c n x cea n an a y mn
x n'c en nnx xma antcx n s-
ne ma. Byn a cm am, y, nees esmex
nc, yma na y, saamct a ee, nna, -
nam ae nae, mee cyny.
B
II.
Be cmc, sacaxe esm y , xnn my an-
m cn saxe m - nce am y cnnee nnce a-
mm, nnm nem. anacx, m ne nt nt s t
cam scnactcx y nc. Bac n, nt, nt s
ncy t, camct a nns a naa, cnmm
nen, m m camt nm y a. Henmne sanex,
xe nyn n y nm, nacx esem cna, n tmy, x n
es , y scxe m maecm e esaate ny-
x nc. Cn mx c amx, nmct na n cny,
anm xc c ssymn, m nce na t, nce x t nce
n tmy cyc. x aact yneme a nyca a eet-
a nnycmma, n x x nnnacx nnancm, a
xcmnacx cnm a mym cnm. x n ycan, m
ny ne mmnte mcne ycamex, m yxe xc nc ne-
c e cn s cm, sn yn , ae ca.
B
III.
C ynac ma na nns ees e s ecx ay
- e y xce, maene enee. ma, x s'xnxcx
nm, y nca, sanacx, x , m nec esn-
ay, ny cxny m nca a semm ce cxn. B
my cxn mct x cana m'xm m cnmnacx
a, m ant s na e a. By maxe e y,
ae e, m ene nymn cx, c y c neme nyx ce
a n. xn, n y ana ax snacx nny, e n-
nxm cnc , x xen, ny y. ae, c, ean s
nem - s yxe snes, ce aa m semc-
xn ty. Ha c nm ya cyna y-cm, cnyc-
act nmacx, ycx anmna mee, - n
mee ae y n anmcm nam. Pa nmea n
cncmy x, ncynaa yna nyx: ynatn yxe e
nxaa naa nta.
B
I.
m y mcxmy nm sanancx xc-c n amam nax-
cx, yc acna sa , see xa, ect ae yn saan
ns, my sacx, m n nm n nm mcxnem nc sm-
mctcx my yma. 'x csyna c m, em -
ncx na, ae yn ne m xnm cm. ayyan ect ea-
e nnet, e, nne an s, anm ncn. Hnxn cnx,
ax c, ne, came n syn a me amane cx. y
sameec, a semm s ym cym cnacx me s ecx
aman. Bm nxcx ax s , smn, n -
m my nna e . yn a nn y n, cnx, y-
na sanay nnx an nxe em, anamct enenm,
cm, ae n-cncmy nam cnm: y my cn, xm ncynn
annmnacx e, n n ec, nyn cee Bm e-
naxm a camm. my sacx, m x ye ayc n-
nx, m cn can y a sames, a my t samcx,
m a esmn c a n- na.
B
.
y n et nmy. nca a semem emm xam
ma, a sa am ncx, ae ncnma xamnme cnacx
sa cm. emx maa n cmy cn, nx cct ynaact y ymy
me, nc sana. Hx nacynaa nesaxy, na-
cynaa acn acma cn: essyme, esace n-
yx - na, m sa asny. Hea n-cncmy nsaaa
e cnnct a ea, e mnacx, x nnn n a, ma
ncnma cnact y acyme a. On nt - c-
184 185
n, ne nyna smmna, ae e sacnmna - cmy can cH
x n ma, ncx n ncx, ae myam x cee cx
ncny...
B macy ym, x n xmy m a ac, xn mn.
cacx emacx, mnn y cc a. |...| st nne acx
ana, mn exna, , mna nx a cn s. y cn
. Bacx a a, m naa s macy yacx mx
B UleenvK
I.
ect ceny saxan sanaan cenn t, n
xax sycx, snecacx n esmmy nc.
Hyn yn n sa cnm, ae e eyncx. a cam man
, a cam, nynmct, an n. Bxe naa c meen
ca a ae aaaa nmx cee, - mn tnxm
cnemy , a y.
Hasaxn nsa t nem, na sn n ce-
nn m. Hc samxee x, na , nyca, saae
sa nya, a a mann, nx nm, ae nnx et, y - nem-
m e sncx nceenn n an.
t saxan, ae nneey sya ya, ya
nnaa n nc nnn t ae mct naan, snn ny
ncyancx, yxe s ecxt n n y. Oa s sany-
mcx: ny, m ecnna nyan sa cnm, man cn sana.
B
II.
cxe cxn nymcx a a, cnact y a een,
nsact n cm'x ca sna n sanam-
n na. aa nmea semx, cy ne n, ae nay, n-
xm nynxm ymynan c ca. y naa xya a
ym, sanacx, ax anmnt cana, nny ea na n
, necan am necetnem aa. u nec ( cxa a
an) , ncnnm xsa (mcxnt en ncn cee ea),
ncynan ma (s mct cnacx sy) na y'x-
, ymct s s acxm scx n sem: -
186
H nec nynan ncm - ne-nay scn anm s x
nn eena, nan anncx cme saaynan ne-
y et- ecney ycay. n n a smny
nn en, acx em yexam na eecet-
a, et-et nym m caam. n, snx n-
an cn ama, nsya nxe a enaxnx nn,
ne cc ax nyn a c nem sa nce am, x e an
ct c x cn nc ea, cnm a y ny.
B
2/.
.. . ca can cxc, acm n nan, a sa m a-
cx ya ma ya caa. n cts ccx s c,
x ne a, e. ac nma ym maam n smm-
a ca, , cne cxx cn, y maa saa ma-
et nece.
Hme nn syncx. Han anm y my mcn, e t-
y mc, se cee ceny. ynact y my se xce cne,
ae mn y tmy sy mcy, aa a nm camx a
mena. aa yxn naaa ytm a ny. sny saa
am, cee enm y, cnamnaacx xcan-m e-
nm nem.
, x yt, n cxn a sac anm s. C
, ece cnm nam, cn s a e nn, m a-
cx nneey, eet neent nymn m m nccxm.
ya an esmt, t enamn xan n cn
sn, ma cxa nenca - ma, x aa anaa.
B
IX.
eme! axycm ac eae x , m m snx
cnc e cene. y e mxem ncx n ee, x nac
, y sac ac yaa acy, ae x t n nmya-
mt namt et ncx n , m sny naem
mcnt, e nneme na ee s cn nc, ae neeyy -
nt, nm s nent maet, y m - naem a
187
0
cnmen nn'x, e m nneme cyn a ee cx, sna nc
en say n xa cn nm esmxy cy. x met
a nnea ee sa s ae cnn - e yn, x cn-
xe n xat, myam ee n ymaa, e an, x
escam naax snamtcx n esa ce, a m x
m e ee, nx e sae, m n mx x-
nyt cam sa sem na. x n camt enee-
m me sa nxt n'xt mtn men n sem, a y
m, m eamtcx n mem a, cat nx n'x..
B 3
>?
naa ce. ea sxa nncx ns n mcxnt, ,
namct y ma, an, s xam sancx asa, a nym'x. eena
act , n cay axnm n, cynact ne a
ne acan a nym'xm, snan s n, mnyxn m n cyc
a, san mynan, cnant esna. Hx x nym'x
a, meymct maet, esc m, ama y a
ea, mcxnx, nym'x. a a, a, me. H-
ym'x x c, ne ancx m, mcxnt s xam an cee ma, e
y nxyy n ea, n a, n me. cxnt y, e
nc, a sncm snct, ne cmncx, nt n, a-
yxe, e nnaxam a me, ae e a n nxe, can
naca. y , cn, a, ea cma ya
ex ayxe, n, cme. A s y, e sa nna cea,
c cne, necxe ace. Hanmnat my a e a, a
c, x, a y yy, a nnc y maet me.
B B
XI.
B maex y nn n. He yn sne any, nn a-
cx - . Hant y a ncees aa nn m
mct a sn, a nsy. ym y xct mam, sas
na, sane mtm. yn me maex cx a neese -
, nmasae mem, n xe nact my sa nce cm.
ect nneey yncx c aa. ayt na a na,
m nnyact a ncma nmaynaa yam.
e nect m ces nnanmna nema, m ynen-
ct, m , c, na a na. xym ntmy, m y ea-
e n cam y.
na maa c, y, ae ma acmnc. Ba
ac cnaact cn x cna, cnaa m es ay
sanyynaact cee , m esnm synxact nax aa. Ae
e naaa ym me s tmm sansxxm sanam nnaact nne-
e. He ya cesa eea a, nc cya ynax.
B B
H.
Oec cnan m, nac nya, nc a cncmy
mcn ya, cne caa ynyna, eena a ytnaa see
cmxct, na n ac nya. a nc es nmy x m-
e, m, ca, n, x, a sy ac es-
mex eysasmy. H e y cme, sayma,
eynax. Bc cya an a, x mxa cya cnyme a
semm a naamya xn s ncm n acnex xe.
ma nem nan em m, a ymt, x
ca, nae n nyny eny, snancx m necn
ycc nm ne ne ata nxx nc nxncx n-
cmancx ct cn cn.
Cena Hen s Oem Bnm ex m n ex
cxx sanexm. Psmnx, symctcx, e mxa y. a n
m mxa smnx n nyx, x nn neennmna y
ycm cy m Haamm nxnm mxyt nn y a
ecm , a mnax, a xe mnax: e e,sa xm na-
mtcx em!
B B
XIII.
-...Hene, a n sanc ynac: nann mamt ny acy, a
s ac e ac. xe , sana a a yma, a saxyna-
mee emacx macx.
- ne - emacx macx - enn nyyn nam,
nycam.
188
?
189
- x sacm, x x saya mee a nmna s Ocman
namem. xx y xx . Ha m x "ex" sacyxn-
atme cnc aacn, am cnnm ay nnm can, m nca-
a cam neem. He y y mna nynan, x na s
cm na mee. O, exa mx xxm a eyxm, man
ac nyma, m ae cyca cyc. A nm, yxe ma, n, n.
xne c mee a nacn macx - a na, m ncm ma'm
caa. na mn'm cncm m saaa, n y naa,
aasaa macx t sem xa, es a m e na
Hana, cnamna m na e a my mcn - samn n
n, ecxt ecx. mm, nanm y, anaent
ynect n e anan cna. A y mee c yn cn, atme c-
cx x. He n n, a a ys - n.
C
XI.
.. .xat my ca sa-m matna cnn nny, m n cnn-
a cnan y xyx n ms, nnt, m nxe e ext t,
ca, m nncx t, e saynm, m ae cmyme x-
x. A sae, nxe, anene, ns ye, x nyacm ymy,
syacm yce. O xetcx n enen ananx, nacm
nsem can, a e xmt, m nce ne cyca cyc.
xen na, samym, sacnna nmssm nyexne
ee, ny nen y cnxemy aet, e sea ncnynan
ms semx a c naacx ce. A mcxnm nce cx
anct y nxmy s m - n saan ax n came e,
anm a nynan a caey cn, m ax cct a.
|...| Ct n mcxnem y saymy cn ma, xa nxe xne
e xne, sayc mct yxe anc eanc, neeymyc , cmy,
ncn, nmactcx ycm m, m n e, m cama s-
a, a nae nac ymm, ym, xa nxe, mayt, ncac
nc ce cxa x. cn, x ne a - cx!..
C
X.
yt m. c yma yat y cnycamt a
semm m c. Hne y c esnc yta, nne esax, ca
`nac cym. Hayt eena, nayt cm'x c, nmnactcx
cHsam ya semx e sac, cmetcx. C smxmt em
. e e e cne a anet, mn yme a, m
sxct saa nc, cnaamt y nnyt, smma s semem,
ym nam. Hema ncy, ema sna. u ym, e
cex yxtcx y, a nm, ncxt maam, xtcx ymam,
ycm cee e ax, emn a ymem...
aete, ce, sanaae nne. st n m - Acn,
aan, x ym, sysm m yt saa. yt a
yt, , ne, m, emac, emn a-xyan, m n-
ct n cn ma, emn c m. yt samt y c esnc...
tmx n an. Hxt m maet na, myxtcx n
y, t sta cex, nae saxyee cene.
Km
XI.
Ha H maxe a Hea Be e snamtcx .
ac snac a eeset. Cnay n nayyc n
ca - nynac s-n cy me esmy ncx, nm sm-
xyc c y ees, na ce macnm ctsm, - e a
sea. a ny neca namt cn nm na-
mtcx t - nneyt cnm cm cmam, nxe t
ncyacx - a eeam sa eeam smctcx eex
neesn, a n eea mnt, ye, maec a ac sac
nntea nx. m ncx eme saa cnem a na n
y nmy nn, m nc n ny, ny cn a-
a a saa nety-nm, ynatct ne, cxn m e
s nen.
Hmncx eeset s ncxm a mann a aactm -
m, n m nyy , scny ncyy a a y a
a x xnne, a m' x s ensm ee, n sann mymn-
xm, acncx nnam sxm, m x sana mm m.
C
xvn.
Cn. acya nx y , sacyn nc a m. A
t x e xe cnc cynax na, m a -
190 191
cn aayc, c: nee xnam n sanx t caactcx sa a.
m, a nnt , me a xyct acy. Heexn'x'
He a na, n cen cexa cxtcx am n a
a mx m cymtcx cymtcx en, nene, me s xsnt ny
nne ct xa. at y cn s ca, m0
aancx, ameecncx, acnnancx sa e n n nxe sana,
sam, nnae a semm, ne me, xxe enm m
a c.
ca, na-ca a man esm ene ym, ean
s m syc me , n me naynancx n seemy necxmy
cnny, mynancx, x a n-nmy x nx
nn ca, an, n aancx c y n saym cxn
ny. A ene y nm cxny n nmancx s m, ame e m,
man cmy, man act nmax.
C
xvm.
Ha nmem sanxem cenm cxa aa ma, m y
y, x ssy ac c, a s nnaamt c mcxa x.
acm nxe ny xa sam nnancx y sacy
es, n menxy xct nnaacx nxa ynact y an.
a synncx a s, e cact cna xa ne-
ma, tmxa n mcxn st nmen, nan ca ncy ny
es. Ha cyee, n xen xan tne nnna ct-
sam, aa enmct ya n x can, m sny nymact
n mcte e.
anymct x nax, x ym n snyct s
n ny, cnanx am n, nm. nxe e cenx e
mn x men cy, sx n, mcxe maen.
A n cxct cxct a c-mac nx, a ae a, ncn-
x me, xm e cnacx, sacnmna semm, myact na.
C
XIX.
Be neecet ma yman n ct, n cam nxm
nam axe namat s en'xcy, a n yna n e nce-
cx n. Oct t n cxax n x nmee an
nayt e ct sem, ct an snesem cm. m, nene,
0ct cxa a cact: y nx tm na metcx a
em. ax enem et.
cama cact, e c mxm ent c, nmactcx s m
s am, a nce ece y nmm an, ene ca-
e mxm mc ent c mxn ca aem, ae at-
ny ce a a nnynax. O nmn n mx nenm
a nmem, t e sx ene nmac cae y, aayc
n ae a, mact s mxm tme a, ax
se.
n y scya namea ea, x e a saane
yn nacetcx ca ne t nynm , n nmac a-
aynay ny cm m, n xmy saxa syma, nana
m neat, ntcx a ca...
C
>>?
aynacx my, x mam a ees nan na,
n "sameenynancx", nnec a cecax . a sn n.
yc a m snam, xyan a see cna, m'x an
n en n, mn ycae nccx, a sa n m cn.
na cnnac y n, an y nanx ycmamt, camt seem
cm, a sa em nxc cncm nm ea, x e nam,
a m ncxt ca x sa. |...| m a n nactcx san-
x myct n eea, aac s nann, mymt y mema, xx
an a ncy, xe, xe n, a "xn-xn-xn!", a
a, ax cee na, a am yxe nce nem, cna -
nyacx, n eec s'cacx s nm, - nxe cynta
ema ca, meec, mym mee: m-m-m!..
Ae ne m sa, n sanx mtcx a cn, nne
n
sc-c neeca, e cee, snamc, saanyc, nce-
xc y m ym xct ma, y, nc amaamtcx neenn y,
sa mym em.
H 3e
192 193
Fictin =#tracts fr a C(&arati*e .nalysis
f =n$lis' an1 U3rainian %eans
f Stylistic =#&ressin in @elles)lettres
I. As the Manager oI the PerIormance sits beIore the curtain on the
boards, and looks into the Fair, a Ieeling oI proIound melancholy comes over
him in his survey oI the bustling place. There is a great quantity oI eating and
drinking, making love and jilting, laughing and the contrary, smoking, cheating,
Iighting, dancing, and Iiddling: there are bullies pushing about, bucks ogling
the women, knaves picking pockets, policemen on the look-out, quacks (oth
er quacks, plague take them!) bawling in Iront oI their booths, and yokels
looking up at the tinselled dancers and poor old rouged tumblers, while the
light-Iingered Iolk are operating upon their pockets behind. Yes, this is anity
Fair not a moral place certainly nor a merry one, though very noisy.
W. M. Thackerav, "anitv Fair"
Hxta ct a y nee cnymem sancm ntcx
a xma, m nyc y t, nanyc a, saymna me-
ax. y, y e xt, xt n'mt, saymtcx saxymt,
cmmtcx nayt y yxt, maymt, 'mtcx, na-
mt a cnn y sma a xyt, m saenn, ytnc
e nnycamt a nmy xct mn, myan sasa-
mt a yx aman, nna ntymt ay, ycn (me xct 'x-
ncx, a m ent!) amt nee cnm aaaam, ctct -
n ynxt a snxntna canam annnt xam-
, ca, aym'xe myan, a m acm cn smx,
nanmcx ssay, yymt y mex. a, ne c ma Cyc,
snyce, sna, mcne, e necee, yxe aacne.
H Oe Cm
II. The street
They pass me by like shadows, crowds on crowds,
Dim ghosts oI men, that hover to and Iro ugging
their bodies round them, like thin shrouds
194
Wherein their souls were buried long ago:
They trampled on their youth, and Iaith, and love,
They cast their hope oI human-kind away,
With eaven's clear messages they madly strove,
And conquered, - and their spirits turned to clay:
Lo! how they wander round the world, their grave,
Whose ever-gaping maw by such is Ied,
Gibbering at living men, and idly rave,
"We only truly live, but ye are dead."
Alas! poor Iools, the anointed eye may trace
A dead soul's epitaph in every Iace!
James Russell Lowell
B
xm, ann a ann, mee nmamt
Hca c cn. B ncm, sanx.
B , mn n cana, an cee amt,
ymy cnanm anm nxe an y
ct, nct, ax sact m yecm,
By n my n enm na,
"Cn cnc" ymaat, xamt cnxmecm.
cam, yn, nc nnn sa.
xe! yamt n cny n, x n m:
eaxen nam x- ne xen.
A yxt n mxm, n ecxm sece:
" yem x n, a n nxe men!"
a a, mae, nnsac sanx Bcenm
ymy yy meny n cnxm m!
H. Reserving judgements is a matter oI inIinite hope. I am still a little
aIraid oI missing something iI I Iorget that, as my Iather snobbishly suggest-
ed, and I snobbishly repeat, a sense oI the Iundamental decencies is parcelled
out unequally at birth.
And, aIter boasting this way oI my tolerance, I come to the admission
that it has a limit. Conduct may be Iounded on the hard rock or the wet
marshes, but aIter a certain point I don't care what it's Iounded on. When I
195
came back Irom the East last autumn I Ielt that I wanted the world to be in
uniIorm and at a sort oI moral attention Iorever I wanted no more riotous
excursions with privileged glimpses into the human heart. Only Gatsby, the
man who gives his name to this book, was exempt Irom my reaction - Gats-
by, who represented everything Ior which I have an unaIIected scorn.
E Scott Fitgerald, "The Great Gatsbv"
Cmact y cyxex ncexc eneny am. B c n-
mmcx nran mct, xm sayy atne cccte saynaxex
-xe x n-ccctmy nnmm - n e, m na axc me
sm symxm sne esne.
A ene, nnanmct cncm enmcm, x mymy ssacx, m
na e esmexa. Hnea m mxe ryynacx a sacaa
ne, x amt, n, x nat, ae acm acac aa mt,
mee nxe t, a my na yyctcx. y ce,
x nneyncx s Htm-a, me cx, m mcn ca a nay
cn mat nce, x saxy y my ca. mee -
ct yxe y syt ecyc s nnaxm nacm sayn
mct ym. t x ec, m, m'xm x asnaa nx x-
a, x sn nx, - x ec, ycmnan yce e, m x
senaxam.
H He
I. A breeze blew through the room, blew curtains in at one end and out
the other like pale Ilags, twisting them up toward the Irosted wedding-cake oI
the ceiling, and then rippled over the wine-colored rug, making a shadow on it
as wind does on the sea.
The only completely stationary object in the room was an enormous couch
on which two young women were buoyed up as though upon an anchored
balloon. They were both in white, and their dresses were rippling and Ilutter-
ing as iI they had just been blown back in aIter a short Ilight around the house.
I must have stood Ior a Iew moments listening to the whip and snap oI the
curtains and the groan oI a picture on the wall. Then there was a boom as
Tom Buchanan shut the rear windows and the caught wind died out about the
room, and the curtains and the rugs and the two young women ballooned
slowly to the Iloor.
F. Scott Fitgerald, "The Great Gatsbv"
196
He nent yxn n ma, nnmm sanc, mn
nan, - nynam cee, nmyym an, a anm
nam ny, ce, cx a asyna nect ,
n nycacx, n my n ty neeaa t, mn xmy,
sx sm a mct a.
Cm nn eymm m n ma ya neesa
aana, a x, mn a saxe nnx y, c n m x,
cy mmct n, eae n n m sae
cm ncx nty an my. , anene, s ny
ncxn, cyam, x myxt nxcymt sanc nnyc aa
a c. Hm mct my - m 'mee san s y
ne, - nnma ne sa y ya ma, a sanc, m n
m x nn nyccx y.
H He
. About halI way between West Egg and New York the motor road
joins the railroad and runs beside it Ior a quarter oI a mile, so as to shrink
away Irom a certain desolate area oI land. This is a valley oI ashes - a
Iantastic Iarm where ashes grow like wheat into ridges and hills and gro-
tesque gardens where ashes take the Iorms oI houses and chimneys and
rising smoke and, Iinally, with a transcendent eIIort, oI ash-gray men who
move dimly and already crumbling through the powdery air. Occasionally a
line oI gray cars crawls along an invisible track, gives out a ghastly creak, and
comes to rest, and immediately the ash-gray men swarm up with leaden spades
and stir up an impenetrable cloud, which screens their obscure operations
Irom your sight.
F. Scott Fitgerald, "The Great Gatsbv"
ect a nns mx Bec-m Htm-m mce anm
nac sas na s net m xt nn m, emn
axam saea my nee nmye nycme. He a xy-
xen - nma a, e xyxenx ct, mn sxxx, ynmm
yyy, na, me ca e xyxenx aynac cn yn
s mam mm, m ytcx ny, e ant, xm yxe
nt nncx, mxa na xyxe nn, x
namt, sxmtcx n mcmy, nntmy yma. uac n
acy naa c nae nnnsac enmm eam, synxctcx
s canm xsm, nasy x nnexc-c n cm
197
aamtcx a s naxm naam smamt ay ycy ma-
y, m st e nxe e n, xm acmm m n sax.
H He
I. There was music Irom my neighbor's house through the summer
nights. In his blue gardens men and girls came and went like moths among the
whisperings and the champagne and the stars. At high tide in the aIternoon I
watched his guests diving Irom the tower oI his raIt, or taking the sun on the
hot sand oI his beach while his two motor-boats slit the waters oI the Sound,
drawing aquaplanes over cataracts oI Ioam. On week-ends his Rolls-Royce
became an omnibus, bearing parties to and Irom the city between nine in the
morning and long past midnight, while his station wagon scampered like a
brisk yellow bug to meet all trains. And on Mondays eight servants, including
an extra gardener, toiled all day with mops and scrubbing-brushes and ham
mers and garden-shears, repairing the ravages oI the night beIore.
F. Scott Fitgerald, "The Great Gatsbv"
Hm neam s yy m cyca ya mysa. un
x, mn meen, s'xnxct sa n cxn cay, cee
meecy cn, mamnact s. Bet, n ac nnny, x an,
x c camt y ny s nm a na a sacmaamt a
axmy ncy nxxy, a na m ae samt n
n, sa m y n mymnx samt anana. H cyam
ex "c-c" neenmnancx a ecn anyc s en'x
ay nst nsn ce s mca mca, a y,
mn ny xn xy, an can syca xe ns. A y
ne nctme cy, cee an ax y can-
, acx sa mna, m, m can xn n et y
n a ycyna c nam yynat.
H He
II. Every Friday Iive crates oI oranges and lemons arrived Irom a
Iruiterer in New York - every Monday these same oranges and lemons leIt
his back door in a pyramid oI pulpless halves. There was a machine in the
kitchen which could extract the juice oI two hundred oranges in halI an hour
iI a little button was pressed two hundred times by a butler's thumb.
At least once a Iortnight a corps oI caterers came down with several
hundred Ieet oI canvas and enough colored lights to make a Christmas tree oI
Gatsby's enormous garden. On buIIet tables, garnished with glistening hors-
d'oeuvre, spiced baked hams crowded against salads oI harlequin designs
and pastry pigs and turkeys bewitched to a dark gold.
F. Scott Fitgerald, "The Great Gatsbv"
Bn'xn n'xt xmn anetcn a mn nyna n n-
caata s Htm-a, mnea cam anetc m
sama y s y y nx snne my-
. Ha y cxa mama, m sa nn nanmnaa c s n-
c anetcn x nt ea y t nc asn acy nat-
nem a ny. Bameme n a mcxnt m cyca nsn
n sa ean, x nns tac men esey ay
x tct s amn, sacx neen ne-
es ca ec a snxy xy. Ha ca, mx na say-
c, macx amnna nxmam c, ncxn, mn y a-
ea, caa, ncxa n c , n act cnc neen-
e a ene s.
H He
III. On Sunday morning while church bells rang in the villages along-
shore, the world and its mistress returned to Gatsby's house and twinkled
hilariously on his lawn.
"e's a bootlegger '," said the young ladies, moving somewhere be-
tween his cocktails and his Ilowers. "One time he killed a man who had Iound
out that he was nephew to on indenburg
2
and second cousin to the devil.
Reach me a rose, honey, and pour me a last drop into that there crystal glass."
Once I wrote down on the empty spaces oI a timetable the names oI
those who came to Gatsby's house that summer. It is an old timetable now,
disintegrating at its Iolds, and headed "This schedule in eIIect July 5
lh
, 1922."
But I can still read the gray names, and they will give you a better impression
than my generalities oI those who accepted Gatsby's hospitality and paid him
the subtle tribute oI knowing nothing whatever about him.
F. Scott Fitgerald, "The Great Gatsbv"
e, m, e
.
2
H e (18471934), e
r 1925 . - H 1933 .
u, u .
198 199
Be nan, nen sn me ya n neex
mcea, nm cn asm s eecm cnm nneancx ca
ec necem cam scnancx a any.
- B yee, - neemnxct m am, nmamct cmam
en namam nn. - B ex eya m
a cam caa, n yn na, x ae yn n .
n me aety xy, s, a me me n y
maen e.
ct x nan sancyna mx xam sas say mea
ce, m yna y mcea ec a. Ha sa sasae: "u-
s 5 nx 1922 y", n an sacan nxe scnactcx. Ae nnn
sanc nce me mxa sa, n ame, x m nnen cncee-
xex, naxyt nam, x m cynacx ccm ec, m-
'xs nxym cnaen m, m ct n t e sa.
H He
IX. " love to see you at my table, Nick. You remind me oI a - oI a rose,
an absolute rose. Doesn't he" She turned to Miss Baker Ior conIirmation:
"An absolute rose"
This was untrue. I am not even Iaintly like a rose. She was only extempoz-
ing, but a stirring warmth Ilowed Irom her, as iI her heart was trying to come
out to you concealed in one oI those breathless, thrilling words. Then suddenly
she threw her napkin on the table and excused herselI and went into the house.
Miss Baker and I exchanged a short glance consciously devoid oI mean-
ing. I was about to speak when she sat up alertly and said "Sh!" in a warning
voice. A subdued impassioned murmur was audible in the room beyond, and
Miss Baker leaned Iorward unashamed, trying to hear.
F. Scott Fitgerald, "The Great Gatsbv"
me ncm a ee sa amm cm, Hy! acm,
cx a... a xy, a, came a xy. Hana x - sneyacx
na mc ee, myam n e nnexex. - Hana x, n
-cnanxx xa
He ya enana. B ant nae e cx a xy. Ba
na, m a ymy cnne, ae n e nx snymnm enm,
eae cene nnacx asn s nm n axn, eex
cn. A nm na anm ya ceney a c, naact ex
sa y nat.
200
s mc ee mxcx mnm nxam, symce nsan-
em yt-x nasy. n mct casa, ae na, cnyn-
mct, ammacx saceexn ntya a mee. Hme, cn-
tna c y ac s nat, mc ee naacx ncm
m ynee, escm ncyamct.
H He
X. By seven o'clock the orchestra has arrived, no thin Iive-piece aIIair,
but a whole pitIul oI oboes and trombones and saxophones and viols and
cornets and piccolos, and low and high drums. The last swimmers have come
in Irom the beach now and are dressing up-stairs the cars Irom New York
are parked Iive deep in the drive, and already the halls and salons and veran
das are gaudy with primary colors, and hair shorn in strange new ways, and
shawls beyond the dreams oI Castile. The bar is in Iull swing, and Iloating
rounds oI cocktails permeate the garden outside, until the air is alive with chat
ter and laughter, and casual innuendo and introductions Iorgotten on the spot,
and enthusiastic meetings between women who never knew other's names.
F. Scott Fitgerald, "The Great Gatsbv"
O ctm nynac ec - e xct am xam ne, a y
nnmy ca: , m, cac, at, e, e-
, ne a ma aaa. Ha ne ac ca nxx, nneyn-
mct s eea, nxe xamtcx a mam s tm-ctm -
meam nmynacx nee ym y n'xt xn, n saa, y nat-
x, a neaa, m mxtcx ncma anam nece, mxa na
sac, se sa cam m m, ma, x e ccx ant
actctm mnxm. ame t ncamt ana, an s -
exm nnnamt mx eenam cay, nxe came nnx cac n'x-
m snm n ny cmy, nx my nam, cxm
a n, nx samcn, m sa ny yyt say, na
nat, xm mmmtcx am, m e sa a y a m'x.
H He
XI. The day-coach - he was penniless now - was hot. e went out to
the open vestibule and sat down on a Iolding-chair, and the station slid away
and the backs oI unIamiliar buildings moved by. Then out into the spring
Iields, where a yellow trolley raced them Ior a minute with the people in it
who might once have seen the pale magic oI her Iace along the casual street.
201
The track curved and now it was going away Irom the sun, which, as
sank lower, seemed to spread itselI in benediction over the vanishing ci
where she had drawn her breath. e stretched out his hand desperately as
to snatch only a wisp oI air, to save a Iragment oI the spot that she had made
lovely Ior him.
F. Scott Fitgerald, "The Great Gatsbv"
B cxmy na - a am n my e nca me
-y saym. B nmn a ny nmay cn a n
cent. Canx nnna asa, sameta y c xct esa-
m yn. Hm nncx nc necx nx, xm , emn-
annnee s nsm, xn amna mxn, myct s me
y tmy anxcx a a nyn an e x.
Pe saney, ns n et n cnx, a cne, nxe xct
say, mn ncxacx n acne a mcm, m sa,
mcm, nnxm x aa na. B snan ncx yy,
n san nmy nnx, saa s cm acy nt mca,
cnxe ncycm.
H He
XII. Outside the wind was loud and there was a Iaint Ilow oI thunder
along the Sound. All the lights were going on in West Egg now the electric
trains, men-carrying, were plunging home through the rain Irom New York. It
was trie hour oI a proIound human change, and excitement was generating
on the air.
As I went over to say good-by I saw that the expression oI bewilder-
ment had come back into Gatsby's Iace, as though a Iaint doubt had occurred
to him as to the quality oI his present happiness. Almost Iive years! There
must have been moments even that aIternoon when Daisy tumbled short his
dreams - not through her own Iault, but because oI the colossal vitality oI his
illusion. It had gone beyond her, beyond everything. e had thrown himselI
into it with a creative passion, adding to it all the time, decking it out with
every bright Ieather that driIted his way.
E Scott Fitgerald, "The Great Gatsbv"
a nam sannan ne, ect ae a nm sxancx
y my. Bec-y nxe cncx nc n neenne ee-
s Htm-a sa sancy my. He ya a, mct
smmctcx, mct nmctcx n m n nn cymyc ecn.
Hmnm nmact, x sny nan a ec t s-
yec - eae n ymy my saancx cymn m nn na-
e macx. axe n'xt n! Hen, ct nxe anxcx n-
, cnanxx es nanaa y nnx s es mxm, -
cnana y ya e n , a n nnx c yxn. Bn yxn yn
e nc am sa es, n yn ecxx. ny cncm mcm,
ec nect ac ae saaynan , smm xm xcanm
n'm, m nanxa my y.
H He
XIII. There was not a breath oI air moving, nor a sound but that oI the
surI booming halI a mile away along the beaches and against the rocks out-
side. A peculiar stagnant smell hung over the anchorage - a smell oI sodden
leaves and rotting tree trunks. I observed the doctor sniIIing and sniIIing, like
some one tasting a bad egg.
"I don't know about treasure," he said, "but I'll stake my wig there's
Iever here."
II the conduct oI the men had been alarming in the boat, it became truly
threatening when they had come aboard. They lay about the deck growling
together in talk. The slightest order was received with a black look, and grudg-
ingly and carelessly obeyed. Even the honest hands must have caught the
inIection, Ior there was not one man aboard to mend another. Mutiny, it was
plain, hung over us like a thunder-cloud.
R. L. Stevenson, "Treasure Island"
e sny, xe nyn nenx e nymyna men m. t
saey, s m nx cna, cm an y mym nm, m
snancx ce. nn yncx xct cn, sana
-sana n cx y eena. nmn, m a nce nm-
yctcx nmyctcx, eae nee m y ye xne.
- He sam, c y ca, - nymn n, - ae yycx cncm
neym, m nnacnx c.
Hnea ma, m ena mee me a mmnn, caa nxm-
a sasna, m nneycx a aet. ac nemacx
n nay n mct neemnxcx. xe aas syca e-
sane nyna ee. Hant aam mac saas-
202
203
cx nm acem, my y saa nxy. Hasnan y
nx sasa anca a am, ae sna maa.
H P Ke
XI. By this time the schooner and her little consort were gliding pretty
swiItly through the water indeed, we had already Ietched up level with the
camp Iire. The ship was talking, as sailors say, loudly, treading the innumera
ble ripples with an incessant weltering splash and until I got my eye above
the window-sill I could not comprehend why the watchmen had taken no
alarm. One glance, however, was suIIicient and it was only one glance that
I durst take Irom that unsteady skiII. It showed me ands and his companion
locked together in deadly wrestle, each with a hand upon the other's throat.
I dropped upon the thwart again, none too soon, Ior I was near over-
board. I could see nothing Ior the moment but these two Iurious, encrimsoned
Iaces, swaying together under the smoky lamp and I shut my eyes to let
them grow once more Iamiliar with the darkness.
R. L. Stevenson, "Treasure Island"
m acm mya cyny - m n - mn ma sa
ecm. nxe nnxcx s aaxm a ees. Cy "san",
x axyt mx, na mym ssa n, , n x e sa-
syn y nne, x e m say, my na e smamt n.
xct neeyct, x sasyn y amy t as, ae nt
y ct, m yce ssym. saet ec nam, ynnm
sa x, cx e a xx, a a cmet.
mn csyn asa y n. Be ceya, n neeyn-
cx. B a y mee nce me m m, a n'm x nan,
cne tmxm cnm amn. ant sanmmn , m na
n cee ne xane nnme.
H P Ke
X. There was a great, smooth swell upon the sea. The wind blowing
steady and gentle Irom the south, there was no contrariety between that and
the current, and the billows rose and Iell unbroken.
ad it been otherwise, I must long ago have perished but as it was, it is
surprising how easily and securely my little boat could ride. OIten, as I lay still
at the bottom, and kept no more than an eye above the gun-wale, I would see
a big blue summit heaving close above me yet the coracle would but bounce
a little, dance as iI on springs, and subside on the other side into the trough as
lightly as a bird.
.. .And I had hardly moved beIore the boat, giving up at once her gentle
dancing movement, ran straight down a slope oI water so steep that it made
me giddy, and struck her nose, with a spout oI spray, deep into the side oI the
next wave. |...| It was plain she was not to be interIered with, and at that
rate, since I could in no way inIluence her course, what hope had 1 leIt oI
reaching land
R. L. Stevenson, "Treasure Island"
Ha m ya mena nx. ne yn nnac, x yxe
an nyn. a ant n ntmy nmy nn mxa y t
nynact, x e nt e m maet n. Hexa a
, x e as an, x neesa aa nx na ya ny
mee. Ae m n, ncym, emn a nyxa, e san a
et nan cnycancx ns, ae na.
...ct me y nyyct, x n samct , m nan
cnyccx, a mn y san s eex nt , sam
s, saymnancx cm y ny, m y mee na ma em.
|...| e ca xc, m necyna e mxa. Ae x xe x m
cnnacx act eea
H P Ke
XI. John de GraIIenreid Atwood ate oI the lotus, root, stem, and Ilow-
er. The tropics gobbled him up. e plunged enthusiastically into his work,
which was to try to Iorget Rosine.
Now, they who dine on the lotus rarely consume it plain. There is a sauce
au diable that goes with it and the distillers are the cheIs who prepare it. And
on Johnny's menu card it read "brandy." With a bottle between them, he and
Billy eogh would sit on the porch oI the little consulate at night and roar out
great, indecorous songs, until the natives, slipping hastily past, would shrug a
shoulder and mutter things to themselves about the "Americanos diablos."
...Johnny was in that phase oI lotus-eating when all the world tastes
bitter in one's mouth.
O. enrv, "Shoes"
x e ae ny cymynan ca. B n t, ce,
ny. n ny . s sanam n ysxncx . A
Pa n t ya a: cnyna say Psy.
204 205
, cnxnac c, xt es nnan. A nnana
t - nna au diable', ymt e ya, a ny. mem
x nx nnana asnaact "tx" . c ne x a
y ncxyna sa nxmm a nea cytct ya
a c ncnnym nxees enc nc, m ytn, mn-
mam neay, t ssyna nema ym mct n
"Americanos diablos"
2
.
...x came yn y emy as cnxnax ca,
n n cny t t y .
H B
1
H- (. )
A (. )
XII. "...when I cash in my winnings, I don't want to Iind any widows'
and orphans' chips in my stack."
The grass-grown globe was the green table on which eogh gambled.
The games he played were oI his own invention. e was no grubber aIter
the diIIident dollar. Nor did he care to Iollow it with horn and hounds. Rather
he loved to coax it with egregious and brilliant Ilies Irom its habitat in the
waters oI strange streams. Yet eogh was a business man and his schemes,
in spite oI their singularity, were as solidly set as the plans oI a building
contractor. In Arthur's time Sir William eogh would have been a night
oI the Round Table. In these modern days he rides abroad, seeking the
GraIt instead oI the Grail.
!
O. enrv, "Ships"
According to a medieval legend onlv a knight pure in thought, word
and act could find and keep the olv Grail, but as soon as its keeper
became impure the Grail vanished.
- ... x aynamy cn nam, x e y a a mea
cts nn a c.
Bcx sema yx, na anm, ya m seem cm, sa xm
y nn asay y. an n t n a , x cam naynan. B e
axncx sa nnanm am, e neecynan mcnctm -
m a am. my tme nact nnmna a cy
cyy mymy y na es . nce-a y yn ,
na, esnaxam a ncm m aacct, y a x y-
a, x na nem-nm ynet nxa. B ac x
Aya ce txm y yn naem y Cy. B am n
st n cny, ae ene mea e aat, a a.
H B
XI. An hour later Billy eogh lounged into the consulate, clean and
cool in his linen clothes, and grinning like a pleased shark.
"Guess what" he said to Johnny, lounging in his hammock.
Too hot to guess," said Johnny, lazily.
"Your shoe-store man's come," said eogh, rolling the sweet morsel on
his tongue, "with a stock oI goods big enough to supply the continent as Iar
down as Terra Fuego. |...| Four-thousand-dollar stock oI goods!" gasped
eogh, in ecstasy. "Talk about coals to Newcastle!.."
eogh loved to take his mirth easily. e selected a clean place on the
matting and lay upon the Iloor. The walls shook with his enjoyment.
O. enrv, "Shoes"
uees y cytcna samn y, ncym
cnxm nxm cmmm mxct, x sanea aya.
- aaect, xa n mee na, - casan n x, m nexy-
nancx n amay.
- Ha xa, m yayna, - n nnnn x.
- Hsan nam nent nsyxm, - casan y, acym nm c-
m cnem, - nns ay cy eenn, m ncat a n
e, ax Bx em . |... | H a cx an nay!
- ax sayncx n sanex y. - Bce , m s nyxm Htm-
aca!..
y mn ncmxcx n ym. B nan a nnn ce mcne
. Ax c em n necemn!
H B
XIX. "Ah," said he, "this '11 be as good as drink to my mate Bill." The
expression oI his Iace as he said those words was not at all pleasant, and I
had my own reasons Ior thinking that the stranger was mistaken, even
supposing he meant what he said. But it was no aIIair oI mine, I thought and,
besides, it was diIIicult to know what to do. The stranger kept hanging about
just inside the inn door, peering round the corner like a cat waiting Ior a
mouse. Once I stepped out myselI into the road, but he immediately called me
206
207
back, and, as I did not obey quick enough Ior his Iancy, a most horrible
change came over his tallowy Iace, and he ordered me in, with an oath that
made me jump.
R. L. Stevenson, "Treasure Island"
- Ax, - casan esam, - m y sac me, mn
an.
Bas x, n nmnn n cna, yn ax x e n-
cm, x man yc ncan aa, m esam nmxncx, ant
n cnan yman e, m asan. Ae x nnaxan, m nx cnana mee
e t. x nax y nm, m ea sa a
can. Hesam nt cexn sa nema m, nynmct
x ny, mn , m nceac mmy. x cnynan n a
y, n ea aasan me nneyct. my sacx, m x e
ct mn nan aas c x m xana maca neeca
x, n a myn a mee, m x ax ncyn s neexy.
H P Ke
XX. He examined them with the care with which a warrior examines his
arms beIore he goes Iorth to battle Ior his lady-love and liIe. The burrs were
the ripe August product, as hard as Iilberts, and bristling with spines as tough
and sharp as needles. Johnny whistled soItly a little tune, and went out to Iind
Billy eogh.
Later in the night, when Coralio was steeped in slumber, he and Billy
went Iorth into the deserted streets with their coats bulging like balloons. All
up and down the Calle Grande they went, sowing the sharp burrs careIully in
the sand, along the narrow sidewalks in every Ioot oI grass between the silent
houses. |...| And then, nearly at the dawn, they laid themselves down to rest
calmly, as great generals do aIter planning a victory according to the revised
tactics, and slept, knowing that they had sowed with the accuracy oI Satan
sowing tares and the perseverance oI Paul planting.
O. enrv, "Ships"
B n sxan , x n xac sm, nee m x n n
sa xx a sa amy cn cenx. Pen'x y ncxc, cenen,
mn, x cn . B xacx nynm, mm mem, mn
am. x et sacncn xyct am nmn y.
Hsme, a ny n c, n nmn asm s a
esm nyn. nxa synact, x nnx y. ys
n atc ae, caa sacnam nc en'xam sacx nc cex,
e my any nmx esmnm yam. |...| t nee
cnam n cn s cnm cenem, x cnnamt ne
nnn nee neemxm nm, xy n a caa yna.
ene n m cna, sam, m ncx cn en'x a cam
eet, x Caaa cxn nene, a cam anen, x Han
caxan na.
H B
>n#l Tests
V#(#nt @
@.@. g e#)h o, the ,ollo"n! words /#(7e% "th # n-/3e( /#t)h
the /ost s-t#3le "o(% /#(7e% "th # lette( so th#t #n /#!e s ,o(/e%Y
l)Rain is a) a Iirework
2) Anger is b) a prison
3) Peace is c) a rose
4) Poverty is d) sadness
@.]. :h#t stylst) %e2)e s (e#lse% n the ,o(/e% /#!esY aH met-
aphor, b) metonvmv?
].@. Ie)%e "h#t style \ a) newspaper, b) colloquial, c) scientific s
(e.(esente% n the ,ollo"n! e*t(#)tY
It's no good worrying and trying to look ahead and plan and scheme and
weigh your every action, because you never can tell when doing such-and-
such won't make so-and-so happen - while, on the other hand, iI you do so-
and-so it may just as easily lead to such-and-such.
].]. :h#t does the senten)e )ont#nY a) enumeration and framing
repetition, b) polvsvndeton and ellipsis, c) enumeration and chiasmus,
d) polvsvndeton and framing repetition?
208 209
^.@. :h#t /e#nn!s #(e e,,e)t2e n the ,ollo"n! 4o7eY aH neutral
and colloquial, b) neutral and literarv?
"What did you Iind out about the salivary glands" "I couldn't Iind out a
thing, they're too secretive."
^.]. :h#t stylst) %e2)e s o3se(2e% n the 4o7eY aH eugma
b) pun?
_. Ie)%e "h#t the senten)es )ont#nY aH direct meaninC bH meta
phorC c) metonvmv.
1) The head oI the pin is rather large.
2) The dinner cost two dollars a head.
3) e is the head oI the Iirm.
4) The man has a large head.
5) er name is at the head oI the list.
5. :h#t %oes the senten)e )ont#nY aH metaphor and metonymyC
b) onlv metaphor?
is eyes Iell on the picture oI Anne.
T. :h#t stylst) %e2)eBsC sL#(e -se% n the ,ollo"n! senten)
esY a) hvperbole and metaphor, b) hvperbole and metonvmv, c) onlv
hvperbole?
1) The whole town was there.
2) There was an uneasy sea oI doubt and hope.
U. P(o-. the ,ollo"n! "o(% )o/3n#tons nto t"o )ol-/ns, )on
t#nn! /) descriptive attributes, 2) epithets.
a) black-winged bird, b) iron will, c) wooden manners, d) honey-coloured
air, e) blooming Ilowers, I) cold water.
+. :h#t stylst) %e2)e s the ,ollo"n! senten)e 3#se% onY aH oxy
moronC b) antithesis?
Books are a guide oI youth and an entertainment Ior age. 210
S. Ie)%e n e#)h )#se "hethe( the senten)eY aH contains litotes,
b) has simple negation.
1) Don't you think that the problem is really great
2) Jack was unpredictable.
3) It was unillegal business.
@b. Ie,ne the 7n% o, /et#.ho( n the ,ollo"n! senten)eY /: aH nom0
inational, b) cognitive, c) imaginative II. a) simple, b) sustained.
Don't jump to conclusions - you might get a nasty Iall.
11. Distinguish between: a) ellipsis and b) nominative sentence.
1) (at an examination) "ow Iar are you Irom the correct answer"
"Two seats."
2) The program said, 'Second Act, Two Years Later' I couldn't wait to
see the second act oI the play.
1) Committee: body that keeps minutes and wastes hours.
2) Two seats. Isn't it enough
@]. 0n%)#te the ty.e o, (e.etton o-t o, the ,ollo"n!Y aH simple,
b) consecutive, c) anaphora, d) epiphora, e) linking, f) framing, g) chain,
h) chiasmus.
1) Leave me all alone. I want to stay all alone.
2) Oh, they know me! They know me!
3) The suggestion is interesting, indeed. I like the suggestion.
4) Time waits Ior no man. Thus, don't lose time.
@^. $hoose ,(o/ the synt#)t) stylst) %e2)es \ aH polysyndetonC
b) tautologv, c) ellipsis, d) asvndeton, e) enumeration, f) a nominative
clause, g) parallel constructions, h) parceling those that are used the
,ollo"n! senten)eY
It was the money, oI course money which did strange things to human
beings, making them greedy, panicked, at times sub-human.
211
@_.@. 0n%)#te the ty.e o, %e)o/.oston o, the .h(#seolo!)#l
unit | a) shortening, b) expansion, c) insertion, d) substitution, e) word
order change, f) contextual change, g) complex change in the Iollowing:
Where there's a will there's an heir oI expectation.
@_.]. :h#t stylst) %e2)e s o3se(2e% n the -tte(#n)eY aH meta
phorC b) metonvmv?
@c. ?#/e e*.(ess2e /e#ns #n% stylst) %e2)es #n% !(o-. the/
#s ,ollo"sY
1) expressive means : a) phonetic, b) morphological, c) lexical, d) syntac-
tic, e) graphic
2) stylistic devices : a) phonetic, b) lexical (lexico-semantic), c) syntactic.
V#(#nt ]
@.@. To e#)h o, the ,ollo"n! "o(%s /#(7e% "th # n-/3e( /#t)h
the /ost s-t#3le "o(% /#(7e% "th # lette( so th#t #n /#!e s ,o(/e%Y
@C A traitor is a) the hammer oI God
2) LiIe is b) a many-headed beast
3) Thunder is c) a journey
4) A crowd is d) a snake
@.]. :h#t stylst) %e2)e s (e#lde% n the ,o(/e% /#!esY aH me0
tonymyC b) metaphor?
2.1. Decide what style | a) newspaper, b) scientific, c) publicistic s
(e.(esente% n the ,ollo"n! e*t(#)tY
In other words, education is the instruction oI the intellect in the laws oI
nature, under which name I include not merely things and their Iorces, but
men and their ways and the Iashioning oI the aIIections and oI the will into
an earnest and loving desire to move in harmony with those laws.
212
].]. :h#t %oes the senten)e )ont#nY a) parceling and enumera0
tionC b) detachment and parallel constructions, c) detachment and enu-
meration, d) parceling and parallel constructions?
^.@. :h#t /e#nn!s #(e e,,e)t2e n the ,ollo"n! 4o7eY aH neutral
and colloquial, b) neutral and literarv?
Cannibal - "'We've just captured an actor." Chief "urray! I was
hoping Ior a good ham sandwich."
^.]. :h#t stylst) %e2)e s o3se(2e% n the 4o7eY aH punC bH ceuma?
_. Ie)%e "h#t the senten)es )ont#nY aH direct meaninC bH meta
phorC c) metonvmv.
1) The body oI the plane was repaired.
2) She is a quiet little body.
3) This animal has a large body.
4) The body oI his discourse was about poetry.
5) The distance oI such celestial bodies can be readily determined.
c. :h#t %oes the senten)e )ont#nY aH only metaphorC bH metaphor
and metonvmv?
Lady Alison Iell into a train oI thought.
T. :h#t stylst) %e2)eBsC sL#(e -se% n the ,ollo"n! senten)
esY a) hvperbole and metaphor, b) hvperbole and metonvmv, c) onlv
hvperbole?
1) This is a world oI eIIort you know, Fanny.
2) I see a IrightIul lot oI writers and painters.
U. P(o-. the ,ollo"n! "o(% )o/3n#tons nto t"o )ol-/ns, )on
t#nn! 1) descriptive attributes, 2) epithets.
a) cold reason, b) wooden tables, c) black-winged wind, d) blooming
girls, e) brown-eyed cat, I) iron bridge.
213
+. :h#t stylst) %e2)e s the ,ollo"n! senten)e 3#se% onY eH an
tithesisC 2) oxvmoron?
Past pain is pleasure.
S. Ie)%e n e#)h )#se "hethe( the senten)eY aH contains litotes
b) has simple negation.
1) No policeman would ever cope with this.
2) e's not good enough at maths.
3) The drinks had no eIIect oI making them less conversational than beIore.
@b. Ie,ne the 7n% o, /et#.ho( n the ,ollo"n! senten)eY /.-
a) nominational, b) cognitive, c) imaginative II. a) simple, b) sustained.
I put the letter well into the mouth oI the box and it Iell turning over and over.
11. Distinguish between: a) ellipsis and b) nominative sentence.
1) A notice: 'an Dyke, by imselI'.
2) "Don't you know what they call a star with a tail" "Sure - Mickey
Mouse."
3) Mickey Mouse - a Iamous image.
4) "Did you have any luck playing golI" "Marvellous luck."
@]. 0n%)#te the ty.e o, (e.etton o-t o, the ,ollo"n!Y aH simpleC
b) consecutive, c) anaphora, d) epiphora, e) linking, f) framing, g) chain,
h) chiasmus.
1) Nobody knows the answer the answer is not simple.
2) She listened, she stopped knitting, she saw the light again.
3) Let's make it clear -1 don't know you, and you don't know me.
4) It is enough! It is enough!
@^. $hoose ,(o/ the synt#)t) stylst) %e2)es \ aH polysyndetonC
b) tautologv, c) ellipsis, d) asvndeton, e) enumeration, f) a nominative
clause, g) parallel constructions those that are used the Iollowing
senten)eY
The sun was high, the sky unclouded, the air warm with a dry Iresh breeze
@_.@. 0n%)#te the ty.e o, %e)o/.oston o, the .h(#seolo!)#l
unit a) shortening, b) expansion, c) insertion, d) substitution, e) word
order change, f) contextual change, g) complex change in the Iollowing:
Don't make a mountain out oI accounting.
@_.]. :h#t stylst) %e2)e s o3se(2e% n the -tte(#n)eY aH meta
phorC b) metonvmv?
@c. ?#/e e*.(ess2e /e#ns #n% stylst) %e2)es #n% !(o-. the/
#s ,ollo"sY
1) expressive means : a) phonetic, b) morphological, c) lexical, d) syntac-
tic, e) graphic
2) stylistic devices: a) phonetic. lexical Hec -sema ntic'). c) syntactic.
=#a(inatin /uestins
1. The subject oI stylistics and its place in the system oI related disciplines.
Types oI stylisties.
2. The main stylistic notions: style, norm, Iorm.
3. The main stylistic notions: text, context.
4. The main stylistic notions: speech, writing.
5. The main stylistic notions: expressive means oI language.
6. The main stylistic notions: stylistic devices.
7. The main stylistic notions: image.
8. The style oI oIIicial documents. The style oI scientiIic prose.
9. The newspaper style. The publicistic style.
10. The belletristic style. The language oI emotive prose.
11. The styles oI drama and poetry.
12. The literary colloquial style and inIormal colloquial style.
13.Special colloquial English.
14. Neutral words and common literary words.
15. Special literary vocabulary: terms, poetic words, archaic words.
214 215
16. Special literary vocabulary: barbarisms, Ioreignisms, neologisms.
17. Common colloquial vocabulary.
18. Special colloquial vocabulary: slang, jargonisms.
19. Special colloquial vocabulary: proIessionalisms, dialectal words, vulgar words.
20. Set expressions.
21. Stylistic transposition oI nouns. Stylistic use oI the articles.
22. Stylistic transposition oI pronouns and adjectives.
23. Stylistic transposition oI verbs.
24. Instrumentation means: alliteration, assonance, onomatopoeia.
25. ersiIication means: rhyme, rhythm.
26. Graphic means: punctuation.
27. Graphic means: orthography, type, text segmentation.
28. Figures oI quantity: hyperbole, meiosis, litotes.
29. Figures oI quality: metonymy, synecdoche.
30. Figures oI quality: periphrasis, euphemism.
31. Figures oI quality: metaphor.
32. Figures oI quality: antonomasia, personiIication.
33. Figures oI quality: allegory, epithet.
34. Figures oI quality: irony.
35. Figures oI identity :similie.
36. Stylistic use oI synonyms.
37. Figures oI contrast: oxymoron.
38. Figures oI contrast: antithesis.
39. Figures oI inequality: climax and anticlimax.
40. Figures oI inequality: zeugma and pun.
41. Sentence model reduction: ellipsis and aposiopesis.
42. Sentence model reduction: nominative sentences and asyndeton.
43. Sentence model extension: repetition and enumeration.
44. Sentence model extension: tautology and polysyndeton.
45. Sentence model extension: "it is washe, who...", sentence structures
with the emphatic verb "to do", parenthetic sentences .
46. Stylistic inversion.
47. Detachment oI sentence parts.
48. Parallel constructions.
49. Rhetoric questions and other variants oI syntactic transposition.
50. Disruption oI syntactic models: parceling.
@.SIC "IT=R.TUR=
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