Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Power December 2013
Power December 2013
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Vol. 157 No. 12 December 2013
Top Plants: Five Exemplary
Renewable Plants
BUYERS GUIDE 2014
Integrating Renewables in
China
Using SCR Catalysts for
Mercury Co-benefits
PV Modules Cast a Shadow
over CSP
Achieving Zero Liquid Discharge
When a public utility client needed upgrades to the
FGD efuent system at a coal plant, Tisha Scroggin
and Don Schilling took a long, hard look at how it could
be done. Applying recent experience, the pair helped
the utility install a zero liquid discharge (ZLD) system
in less than 20 months. With a nal cost of approximately
$45 million per 100 gpm treated, the ZLD
system eliminated a discharge point and
was completed on a schedule that deed
industry norms. In the long run, the
installation gave the utility cost and
regulatory certainty by removing future
needs for additional equipment.
WHERE WATER
and
POWER MEET
CUSTOMI ZED WATER SOLUTI ONS THAT FI T YOUR POWER PLANT
As a nationwide technical leader in ZLD system development,
Don has 40 years of experience consulting with utilities on the
water requirements for coal and other power plants. Tisha has led
the installation of ZLD systems for clients facing regulatory challenges to their
power plant water systems. They are two of our experienced professionals
who can help you identify the water alternative that ts:
Zero liquid discharge
Customized wastewater treatment and water management
Constructed wetlands
Landll and pond management
Bottom ash handling
9400 Ward Parkway
Kansas City, MO 64114
www.burnsmcd.com/water-team
E n g i n e e r i n g , A r c h i t e c t u r e , C o n s t r u c t i o n , E n v i r o n m e n t a l a n d C o n s u l t i n g S o l u t i o n s
CIRCLE 1 ON READER SERVICE CARD
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POWER www.powermag.com 1
Professional, Technical &
Integrated Maintenance
Solutions for the Power Industry
Nuclear Fossil Renewables
www.bhienergy.com
800.225.0385
Turbine Services
Valve Services
Instrumentation & Control
Specialty Welding
Radiation Protection
Engineering
Project Management
On the cover
Portugal has embraced renewable energy sources, principally wind and hydropower, be-
cause the country has no indigenous gas or oil resources. The national energy plan re-
quires construction of 10 new hydropower plants by 2020, which includes the recently
commissioned 259-MW Alqueva II, which doubled the pumped storage hydropower ca-
pacity of the facility. Courtesy: Alstom
COVER STORY: RENEWABLE TOP PLANTS
24 Alqueva II Pumped Storage Hydropower Plant, Alqueva, Portugal
Its often been said that the key to greater integration of variable renewable genera-
tion on any major grid is energy storage. This fast-response renewable plant both
provides baseload power and stores backup power for the large amount of wind
power located in the south of Portugal.
26 Macarthur Wind Farm, Victoria, Australia
Developing the largest wind farm in the Southern Hemisphere was logistically com-
plex, in part because it involved transporting the largest wind turbines ever erected
in Australia. The project also was the first to purchase the Vestas V112-3.0 MW wind
turbines.
30 Mesquite Solar 1, Maricopa County, Arizona
Power from this 150-MW photovoltaic plant is helping California meet its ambitious
renewable generation goals. It stands out not only for its size but also its use of
leading-edge components designed for the extremes of its desert setting.
32 Polaniec Green Unit, Polaniec, Poland
Across Europe, momentum is shifting from fossil fuels to renewables, and Poland
is no exception. Thats where youll find the worlds largest biomass-fired circulating
fluidized bed boiler, with a combination of renewable fuel, efficient design, and emis-
sions controls to deliver impressive results.
34 Shams 1, Madinat Zayed, United Arab Emirates
You might think a desert is an ideal location for solar power, but Masdar had to ad-
dress several challenges before bringing online the worlds largest concentrating
solar power plant (at the time it was commissioned). The lessons learned should
help future projects in the Middle East and elsewhere.
SPECIAL REPORT: RENEWABLES IN CHINA
36 A Plan for Optimizing Technologies to Support Variable Renewable Generation
in China
Between 2011 and 2015, China plans to install 75 GW of wind and solar capacity. Safely
and effectively integrating that enormous amount of variable generation into the grid
will require careful analysis and strategic deployment of appropriate technologies.
Established 1882 Vol. 157 No. 12 December 2013
24 26 34
2014
BUYERS GUIDE
2014
63
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December 2013 2
FEATURES
RENEWABLES
42 Photovoltaics Overshadow Concentrated Solar Power
Both concentrating solar power (CSP) and photovoltaic power are near grid parity,
yet CSP is far behind in total installed capacity. We look at what it would take for CSP
to maximize its technology advantages.
EMISSIONS
46 Optimized SCR Catalysts Maximize Mercury Removal Co-Benefits
A newly commercialized technology can help your plant develop a catalyst management
plan that delivers the required levels of mercury oxidation through existing equipment,
which can result in substantial cost savings over installing new equipment.
WORKFORCE TRAINING
50 Power Plant Training Simulators Explained
Faced with the dual challenges of less-experienced staff and leaner staffs, many
plants are considering the use of simulators. Before you choose between a motor-
cycle and a stretch limo, learn what various types of simulators can offer.
OFFSHORE WIND
52 A Wind Energy Plan That Fits Americas Resources
To date, offshore wind generation in the U.S. is somewhere on the horizon. One
technology developer makes the case that floating vertical axis wind turbines are
best suited for the job.
NUCLEAR
56 When It Comes to Nuclear Plants, Is Small Beautiful?
Though small modular reactors have their detractors, on balance, they appear to have
multiple advantages over the familiar large-scale plantsat least for U.S. developers.
EVENTS
59 Coal in Favor as Malaysia Increases Its Installed Capacity
Did you miss the Asian Sub-Bituminous Coal Users Group meeting? Heres a run-
down of the main themes.
DEPARTMENTS
SPEAKING OF POWER
6 The When, Where, and Why of Energy Patents
GLOBAL MONITOR
8 Germany Raises Renewables Levy by 20%
8 Headway for Congos Long-Delayed 40-GW Inga Hydro Project
10 THE BIG PICTURE: Capturing Carbon
12 IEA: Wind Power Could Supply 18% of Worlds Power by 2050
13 India Withdraws Tender for Chhattisgarh UMPP
14 Spain Inaugurates 2-GW Pumped Storage Facility
16 POWER Digest
FOCUS ON O&M
18 Preventing Failure of Elastomeric Expansion Joints in FGD Systems
LEGAL & REGULATORY
22 Federal-State Cooperation Is Needed in Transmission Project Development
By James K. Mitchell, Davis Wright Tremaine LLP
62 NEW PRODUCTS
COMMENTARY
128 Defining the Future: Time to Get Real
By Christoph Frei, secretary general, World Energy Council
Connect with POWER
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December 2013 4
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:aa|aa|.maa||a|.:am IJJZ+!' |a|a@maa||a|.:am 2013 Magnetrol International, Incorporated
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CIRCLE 13 ON READER SERVICE CARD
www.powermag.com POWER
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December 2013 20
withstand significant wear.
It should be noted that custom drill
patterns and lateral offset from pipe
misalignment can also contribute to
premature failure of suction-side expan-
sion joints.
Unlike recycle pumps, absorber bleed
pumps generally have smaller I.D.s but
higher flow velocities and greater levels
of abrasive particulates. Again, vertically
oriented flows can eliminate the protec-
tion afforded by flow liners.
Troubleshooting
Proper pipe support is critical to the per-
formance of absorber bleed pumps, as
movements during operation can magnify
the effects of abrasion-induced fatigue
on the expansion joints. Therefore, mea-
surements should be made prior to initial
installation of an expansion joint and pe-
riodically during operation to detect any
potential offsets (Figure 4).
Unlike metal expansion joints, elasto-
meric joints exhibit visible signs of wear
and fatigue that can alert observant us-
ers to potential failures. The indications
include exterior cracking, blistering, de-
formation and delamination, exposure of
metal or fabric reinforcement, ply separa-
tion of the cover, rubber deterioration, and
leakage. Signs of impending failure can be
seen in cracking at the base and soften-
ing of the joint, arch inversion, splitting
of the outer diameter of the flange, and
leakage at the flanges.
The failure modes can be attributed to a
variety of root causes, such as overextension
of the joint, chemical attack, excessive pres-
sure or vacuum, elevated temperatures, and
insufficient bolt load on the joint. Proper se-
lection of expansion joints and appropriate
preventative maintenance programs that in-
clude proactive troubleshooting and failure
analysis can result in significant savings by
reducing unplanned breakdowns and maxi-
mizing the life of non-metallic expansion
joints in FGD applications.
Sherwin Damdar (sherwin.damdar@
garlock.com) is associate product manager
and Stephen Cramb (stephen.cramb@
garlock.com) is applications and product
engineer for expansion joints, Garlock
Sealing Technologies.
FESSENHEIM - Feedwater Heater
for CNPE - France
TAVAZZANO - HRSG for Power
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Porto CORsini - hrsg
for Power Plant - Italy
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e-mail: stf@stf.it
BWE
Burmeister & Wain Energy A/S
Lundtoftegrdsvej 93A
DK-2800 Kgs. Lyngby - Denmark
Tel: +45 39 45 20 00
Fax: +45 39 45 20 05
www.bwe.dk
e-mail: info@bwe.dk
BWE Energy India Pvt. Ltd
No. 43, KB Dasan Road
Teynampet
Chennai - 600 018
TamilNadu, India
Tel: +91 44 24 32 8101/2
Fax: +91 44 24 32 8103
e-mail: info@bweenergy.in
CIRCLE 14 ON READER SERVICE CARD
3. In use. Expansion joints are used on
both the discharge and suction sides of re-
cycle pumps. Courtesy: Garlock Sealing Tech-
nologies
4. Measure twice, install once.
Measurements before and after installation
can detect potentially troublesome offsets.
Courtesy: Garlock Sealing Technologies
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CIRCLE 15 ON READER SERVICE CARD
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December 2013 22
Federal-State Cooperation
Is Needed in Transmission
Project Development
James K. Mitchell
B
eginning with its landmark Order No. 888 in 1996, the
Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) has aggres-
sively pursued policies designed to foster planning and
construction of new transmission facilities, in order to support
expansion of competitive wholesale electricity markets. However,
as FERC has acknowledged, there is longstanding state authority
over certain matters that are relevant to transmission planning
and expansion, such as matters relevant to siting, permitting
and construction. FERC can best achieve its goal of enhancing
competition through construction of new facilities if plans for
construction of such facilities are developed with due regard for
applicable state requirements.
Transmission Planning and FERC Order No. 1000
Each transmission provider is required to include in its Open Ac-
cess Transmission Tariff (OATT) provisions for engaging in a co-
ordinated, open, and transparent transmission planning process
with affected stakeholders. FERC Order No. 1000, which was is-
sued in July 2011, also obligates each transmission provider to
participate with its neighbors in coordinated regional transmis-
sion planning. This process is intended to evaluate transmission
solutions that might meet the needs of the transmission planning
region more efficiently or cost-effectively than solutions identi-
fied by individual public utility transmission providers in their
local transmission planning process.
FERC policy assumes that the regional transmission planning
process will be enhanced if new, non-utility affiliated transmis-
sion developers are encouraged to submit proposals for meet-
ing regional transmission needs. There is little incentive for such
developers to incur the costs of participation unless they can
reasonably expect that they will be designated to construct the
facilities should their proposal be adopted. Order No. 1000 there-
fore required each transmission provider to remove from its OATT
any provision giving the incumbent transmission provider a right-
of-first-refusal to construct transmission facilities in a regional
transmission plan, subject to certain limitations.
FERC has recently interpreted this provision to require dele-
tion of references in OATTs to the need for compliance with state
laws. For example, FERC ordered PJM Interconnection to remove
language giving the incumbent transmission owner a preference
to build a transmission project in any instance required by state
law, regulation or administrative order with regard to [transmis-
sion] enhancements or expansions located within that state.
In FERCs view, this provision contravened the ban in Order No.
1000 on rights-of-first-refusal. In another case, FERC ruled that
the transmission provider could not condition its acceptance of
a proposed transmission project in a regional transmission plan
on approval of the project by all of the relevant state regulatory
authorities by a specified date.
State Laws Cannot Be Ignored
State laws may establish minimum qualifications that must
be met by transmission line developers before they may build
transmission facilities within a state. FERC Commissioner Tony
Clark has therefore questioned the wisdom of rulings that may
cause state laws to be ignored. He has said that the failure of
a transmission provider to consider state laws when selecting a
project for inclusion in the regional transmission plan would
require transmission providers to select a project when it is
unclear whether [that project] will be able to secure the neces-
sary governmental approvals within the desired development
schedule, or where the project may have no legal possibility
of ever being built.
FERCs rulings have alienated the National Association of Reg-
ulatory Utility Commissioners (NARUC). NARUC has interpreted
FERCs decisions as preempting state law over transmission sit-
ing and integrated resource planning, as well as reducing the
role of states in the transmission planning process from that
of a regulator with decision-making responsibilities to that of
mere stakeholders providing input. The NARUC Board of Directors
recently adopted a resolution concluding that Order No. 1000,
as implemented, inappropriately infringes on State authority re-
served by Congress over integrated resource plans, generation
and transmission decisions, assurance of resource adequacy and
reliability, and authorization and construction of new facilities.
State Concurrence with Transmission Plans Is Preferred
Regardless of whether an OATT explicitly provides for consid-
eration of applicable state laws governing transmission siting
and construction during the transmission planning process, such
state laws cannot be simply ignored. Logically, if state laws or
regulations may cause certain entities to be disqualified from
building new transmission facilities, it would be more efficient
for transmission providers to consider such laws when developing
a regional transmission expansion plan.
The likely consequence of a failure to do so may be delay
or rejection of desirable transmission projects. FERCs ability to
achieve its goals will be enhanced if it allows transmission pro-
viders to consider state policies when evaluating proposals for
inclusion in a regional transmission plan and selecting transmis-
sion developers to construct each transmission project.
James K. Mitchell (jamesmitchell@dwt.com) is a partner in
Davis Wright Tremaine LLPs energy practice group in the firms
Washington, D.C., office.
CIRCLE 16 ON READER SERVICE CARD
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December 2013 24
TOP PLANTS
Alqueva II Pumped Storage
Hydropower Plant,
Alqueva, Portugal
Owner/operator: Energias de Portugal
S
unny Portugal enjoys a climate much
like that of Southern California and
likewise has considerable wind re-
sources. Unlike California, Portugal has
virtually no indigenous fossil fuel resources
(some coal, but no gas or oil), which has
pressed the country to rapidly develop its
wealth of renewable resources.
Portugals success in converting an econo-
my largely based on imported fossil fuels for
electricity production to one based on renew-
able energy resources has been remarkable. In
2006, for example, fossil-fueled plants pro-
duced two-thirds of the countrys electricity
consumption (~38% using imported oil and
natural gas). Today, more than half its energy
comes from wind, solar, and hydropower, hav-
ing constructed the worlds largest solar farm,
Europes largest wind farm and an extensive
network of hydroelectric facilities.
In the Beginning
Portugals push for renewables began in 2000
when the government purchased all the utility-
owned transmission lines and formed a pub-
lically owned and traded company to operate
the system. The purpose of this very contro-
versial move was to encourage capital invest-
ment in upgrades and investment in smart grid
technologies, a precursor to integrating renew-
ables onto the grid. The plan also included a
national system of electric car charging sta-
tions. Since the acquisition, over $600 million
has been invested in grid upgrades.
Unfortunately, the countrys economic
malaise, punctuated by an International Mon-
etary Fund and European Union bailout in
May 2011 that required drastic public spend-
ing cuts, has undercut the rate of renewable
expansion in Portugal. The reduction in ener-
gy consumption (averaging 6% per year for
the past three years but down only 0.4% in
the first quarter of 2013) during the economic
downturn, combined with favorable weather
conditions for hydroelectric power, resulted
in Portugals renewable energy plants sup-
plying 70% of total consumption in the first
quarter of 2013, according the Portuguese
grid operator. For a few hours in late 2011,
the countrys entire electricity demand was
provided by renewable electricity.
The Alqueva hydropower plant is part of the
governments program of exploiting the coun-
trys sizable renewable hydropower potential.
By 2020, the government plans to construct 10
new dams with hydropower plants under the
National Programme of Dams with High Hy-
dropower Potential. Portugals official goal is to
produce 60% of its annual electricity demand by
2020 with renewable energy. The hydropower
capacity portion of the goal is 7,000 MW.
Courtesy: Alstom
European Union carbon emission limitations and a lack of indigenous fossil fuel
resources pushed Portugal in 2000 to embrace renewable energy. Today, Portugal
supplies over 50% of its annual electricity demand from renewable resources, an
increase of over 25% in the past five years alone. Leading Portugals renewable
energy transformation is Alqueva II, a new pumped storage hydropower plant that
supplies baseload electricity and backstops the large amount of variable wind gen-
eration in the south.
Dr. Robert Peltier, PE
TOP PLANTS
December 2013
|
POWER www.powermag.com 25
Portugals hydroelectric generating capac-
ity increased 300% over 2012 because several
important hydropower plants recently entered
service. One major contributor to Portugals
significant increase in hydroelectric electric-
ity production was the recent inauguration of
the Alqueva II pumped storage plant.
Construction of the Alqueva Dam, located
on the Guadiana River in southern Portugal,
was completed in 2002, and the reservoir
reached capacity in 2012. The Alqueva Dam
constitutes one of the largest dams and ar-
tificial lakes (250 km
) in Western Europe.
In addition to hydropower, the entire in-
frastructure provides agricultural irrigation
water and the regional water supply, includ-
ing a strategic water reserve during periods
of extended drought. The entire hydropower
plant is expected to produce up to 10 billion
kWh per year, enough power to supply the
surrounding towns of Evora, Beja, Portel,
Moura, and Vidigueira.
The 518-MW hydroelectric power station
was constructed in two phases. Phase I (259
MW) was commissioned in 2004. In 2008, to
meet the need for network regulation because
of the booming growth of wind power in
southern Portugal, Energia de Portugal (EDP)
decided to double the hydropower capability
of the Alqueva infrastructure. The Portuguese
Minister of Environment, Agriculture and
Sea, Assuno Cristas, commissioned 259-
MW Alqueva Phase II pumped-storage hy-
dropower plant in January 2013 (Figure 1).
Pumped storage plants use reversible
pump/turbines and motor/generators that
can be used in two modes: either to gener-
ate electricity by transferring water from an
upper reservoir to a lower one, or by storing
energy by pumping water back into the up-
per reservoir, where it is stored and reused
during peak electricity production hours.
Pumped storage can recover about 80% of
energy consumed in the overall energy cy-
cle. Pumped storage plants also have very
fast response to system load changes, which
is necessary when balancing system loads
dominated by unpredictable wind energy, as
is the case in southern Portugal.
Alqueva II project was launched by EDP
to develop power production through the ef-
fective use of Portugals natural resources. The
successful completion of the Alqueva II hydro
power plant has proven once again Alstoms
capacity to execute state-of-the-art pumped
storage power plants, and demonstrate our
strong relationship with EDP, stated Angelo
Ramalho, president Alstom Portugal.
Project Features
In 2008, EDP signed a contract with Alstom
and its consortium partners EFACEC En-
genharia S.A. and SMM for the construction
of Phase II at a contract price of approxi-
mately 95 million (roughly $130 million).
Alstom delivered and installed two new
130-MW reversible pump/turbine-motor/
generator units and other hydro-mechan-
ical equipment for Phase II. In addition,
Alstom delivered ring gates, governing
systems, excitation systems, and a static
frequency converter and was responsible for
the transportation, supervision of erection,
and commissioning of the new units. Royal
Haskoning performed construction manage-
ment for the project. The entire plant is fore-
casted to run for approximately 2,100 hours
in turbine mode and approximately 1,900
hours in pumping mode every year.
Phase II doubled the output of the Phase
I project, but the new addition was not iden-
tical to the first. Operating experience from
Phase I plus advances in low-head design
and performance for increased turbine ef-
ficiency, nearly maintenance-free bearing
technology, and improved ring gate tech-
nology that reduces onsite construction
were integrated into the design of the new
addition.
Hydraulic Design Improved. The
Alqueva II hydraulic design improvements
were facilitated by advances in computer
modeling and computational fluid dynam-
ics technology, as well as the latest pump
turbine design processes. The new design
of the turbine produced an average 0.6%
increase in plant efficiency. Furthermore,
for Alqueva II, the new hydraulic design
adjusted the turbine performance curve to
maximize output in the expected range of
operation, especially at full load.
New Thrust Bearings. Reliability of the
bearing technology used in a hydropower
plant is crucial to the machines overall
reliability. The Alqueva pumped storage
plant has been equipped with Alstoms
latest thrust bearing technology, which al-
lows equal load distribution on each pad,
regardless of frame deformation, shaft line
deflection, or misalignment in all operating
conditions. Alstoms hydrodynamic thrust
bearings use a self-regulating mechanism
to carry the bearing pads. This approach
resulted in a shorter installation time plus
increased safety during operation and en-
hanced performance monitoring.
Improved Ring Gates. Pump/turbines
are usually protected by spherical or but-
terfly valves whose dimensions are often
too large for low-head pump turbines such
as at Alqueva. Ring gates are critical safety
equipment for hydropower plants because
they can shut off the flow of water to the
turbine. Alstoms ring gates reduce the
construction work required for installation
while retaining the safety and operational
advantages of inlet valves. The ring gates
used for Alqueva II have a diameter of 8.27
m and are 15 cm thick, which makes them
among the largest ring gates ever deployed
in Western Europe.
Dr. Robert Peltier, PE is POWERs
consulting editor.
1. Renewable revolution. Portugal has made significant progress in transforming its
economy from reliance on fossil fuels to renewable energy, particularly wind and hydropower.
The Alqueva Phase II project added a second block of 259 MW pumped storage capability to
southern Portugal. The Alqueva Dam is one of the largest dams and artificial lakes in Western
Europe. Its pumped storage capability is particularly important given the large amount of wind
power present in the south. Courtesy: Alstom
www.powermag.com POWER
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December 2013 26
TOP PLANTS
Macarthur Wind Farm,
Victoria, Australia
Owner/operator: AGL Energy/Malakoff Corporation Berhad
T
hough endowed with some of the worlds
largest coal resources, Australiawhose
southern coasts experience strong west-
erly winds called the Roaring Fortiesalso
has wind power as a natural choice. For cen-
turies, these powerful, largely unhampered
west-to-east air currents, which are caused
by a combination of air being displaced from
the Equator towards the South Pole and the
Earths rotation, helped speed ships sailing
from Europe to Australasia. Today, they fur-
nish hundreds of sites in South Australia with
wind speeds averaging 8 or even 9 meters
per second (m/s) at 50 meters (m) above the
groundgiving the nation wind power re-
sources that excel by world standards.
Yet the countrys wind power sector is
just getting started. At the end of 2012,
wind turbines with a total nameplate capac-
ity of 2,548 MW supplied more than 7,700
GWh, or 3.4%, of Australias overall elec-
tricity demand. Winds outlook is healthy:
The current renewable energy target (RET)
set by the Australian government requires
20%or more than 45,000 GWhof
the countrys total power generated to be
sourced from renewables by 2020, and at
least 19 GW of new wind projects are in
the pipeline.
Industry analysts forecast the growth of wind
power will be sustained despite the conserva-
tive Liberal Partys sweep to power in the Sept.
7 election, which ended a six-year term led by
the largely wind-supportive Labor government.
Newly elected Prime Minister Tony Abbott has
pledged to repeal the year-old national carbon
tax of A$23 per metric ton of carbon dioxide
equivalent emissions that was expected to last
until July 2015, after which the country was to
transition to an emissions trading scheme. But
he has also pledged to shutter the publicly fund-
ed A$10 billion Clean Energy Finance Corp.
(CEFC), and press on with a biennial review
of the RET policy, begun in January 2010 and
next due for review in 2014.
Thinking Big
In this context, full completion last January
of the 420-MW Macarthur Wind Farm in
the southeastern state of Victoria, Australias
most noteworthy wind installation to date,
marked a tremendous milestone for the coun-
trys fledgling sector.
More than 350 people were directly em-
ployed during the 30-month construction
of this A$1 billion projects 140 wind tur-
bines near Hamilton, about 245 kilometers
(km) west of Melbournemaking it the larg-
est investment in Australian renewable energy
since the 1974-completed Snowy Mountains
Scheme, a hydroelectric project widely con-
sidered an engineering wonder.
Development of the Macarthur Wind Farm
was initiated in 2007 by AGL Energy Ltd.
(AGL) and its former 50:50 joint venture part-
ner Meridian Energy, which is based in New
Zealand. The project is now owned by AGL and
Malakoff Corporation Berhad. Though primar-
ily built by a consortium comprising Australian
infrastructure and mining firm Leighton Con-
tractors and Danish wind turbine maker Vestas,
a number of local suppliers also participated.
Keppel Prince Engineering, from Portland, Vic-
toria, for example, manufactured 80 of the 140
wind towers. The remaining 60 towers were
supplied by Adelaide-based RPG Australia.
But the project also necessitated an array of
other local resources, including materials from
nearby quarries and trucking companies, which
supplied crushed rock and other materials for the
85 kilometers of internal roads and other materi-
Fully commissioned in January 2013, the 420-MW Macarthur Wind Farm is the larg-
est wind farm in the Southern Hemisphere. But sourcing and erecting 140 wind
turbines for this massive project was logistically challenging and required a rethink
on several levels.
Sonal Patel
Courtesy: Vestas
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CIRCLE 17 ON READER SERVICE CARD
TOP PLANTS
www.powermag.com POWER
|
December 2013 28
als for the significant public road upgrades that
were undertaken by project developers to ease
transportation of a plethora of partsincluding
blades, nacelles, and hubsimported to the
Port of Portland from Denmark.
Siting and Procuring Permits
The Macarthur Wind Farms 140 turbines
are spread out across 5,500 hectares on three
near-flat farms owned by separate landown-
ersa site chosen specifically because it has
a productive wind regime and average wind
speeds of about 7.6 m/s, says AGL. Those
are speeds that the U.S. National Renewable
Energy Laboratory would rank as class 5 or
higher, with class 3 or greater designated as
suitable for most utility-scale wind turbine
applications. AGL estimates the projects ca-
pacity factorthe amount of power produced
per year divided by the amount of power that
would be produced if the wind turbines oper-
ated at full capacity all the timeis 35%.
However, the site also offers proximity to
a 500-kV transmission line for connection to
the state grid, and it has good road access to
the Port of Portland, from which most of its
imported heavy equipment was trucked in,
and where many of the wind turbine tower
sections were manufactured. Developers then
procured all necessary permits, including a
state planning permit that set strict noise lim-
its. Enforced by the Victoria State government,
the permit requires noise monitoring to be car-
ried out at specific neighboring buildings and
that the noise level from an operating wind
farm at any relevant nominated wind speed
cannot exceed the background noise before
the wind farm was built by more than 5 deci-
bels (dBA), or a level of 40 dBA, whichever
is greater. AGL has undertaken over 40,000
hours of noise monitoring, and according to
the company, noise loggers installed between
February and March 2013 for an objective as-
sessment confirm the wind farm remains com-
pliant with these strict limits.
Newly Launched Technology
Yet another remarkable consideration that qual-
ifies this project as a POWER Top Plant is that
the Macarthur Wind Farm uses the worlds first
purchased Vestas V112-3.0 MW wind turbine
model (Figure 1). The deal between the wind
turbine manufacturer and project developers
for 140 of the newly launched turbines was ce-
mented in August 2010, and it comprises a full
engineering, procurement, and construction
contract; a 10-year service agreement; and a
VestasOnline Business supervisory control and
data acquisition solution.
For AGL, the choice to use Vestas new
V112-3.0 MW was based on economics. It al-
lowed the company to increase the wind farms
capacity while reducing the number of towers
from 174 to 140, said AGL CEO and Manag-
ing Director Michael Fraser. This reduces
the environmental footprint of the project and
achieves substantial operating cost savings in
excess of [A]$30 million over the [25-year]
life of the wind farm. Former co-developer
Meridian Energy revealed that it did extensive
due diligence through site visits and technical
meetings to ensure the V112-3.0 MW platform
was the right solution for the project.
Clearing Hurdles
Finally, though it was logistically complex,
Vestas and Leighton Contractors delivered
the wind farm three months ahead of sched-
ule (see table).
As Vestas Construction Supervisor Gary
Barret recalled, We would jump over one
hurdle and were confronted with another the
day after. For one, the V112-3.0 MW turbine
is the biggest wind turbine ever to be installed
in Australia, and that brought about its own
challengesand eventually even changed
the rules on inland oversized transport.
Transporting the longest blades and the
heaviest nacelles required input from various
government and local authorities, with pub-
lic safety always at the forefront, explained
Leighton Contractors Logistics Manager
Brendan Rowe. No less than four separate
stakeholders were involved with every one
of the 1,120 oversized loads delivered to the
Macarthur Wind Farm site.
Then, the projects progress was almost
thwarted by flooding that inundated the region
during 20102011 because it significantly im-
pacted the ability to build roads, hardstands, and
foundations. The excessive rainfall led to the re-
design of the road and hardstand construction, as
well as extensive dewatering of all excavations
until the end of the 2011 winter, said David
Mawhinney, a project manager with Leighton
Contractors. The wet weather also held up the
installation of the meteorological masts at the be-
ginning of the project. These are installed to col-
lect three months of wind data before the wind
turbines are erected. Consequently, we took the
unusual step of hiring a helicopter to pour the
masts concrete foundations.
More to Come
For AGL, one of Australias largest private
owners and operators of renewable energy
assets, the now-completed Macarthur project
serves as a base on which to build a sustain-
able energy future. But while Meridian funded
its debt portion of the Macarthur investment
with an award-winning project finance agree-
ment, the company this June sold its interest
in the farm to Malakoff Corporation Berhad, a
Malaysian power generator and retailer.
According to Meridian Chief Executive
Mark Binns, the companys investment was
intended to be held over the full-project term,
but a low interest rate environment and the
opportunity to invest in further wind farms in
Australia provided a compelling reason to look
at a sale and the reinvestment of funds in future
renewable generation options in Australia.
Sonal Patel is a POWER associate edi-
tor (@sonalcpatel, @POWERmagazine).
1. The first buy. The V112-3.0 MW wind turbines installed at the Macarthur Wind Farm
were Danish wind turbine maker Vestas first sale of that turbine model (though not the first
installed in the world). About 1,120 heavy lifts were required to join the tower sections, nacelles,
hubs, and blades of the farms 140 turbines, each of which has a hub height of 85 meters (m)
above ground and a rotor diameter of 112 m. The wind farm, in a region with average wind
speeds of 7.6 m/s, has a capacity factor of 35%. Courtesy: AGL Energy
Date Milestone
August 2010 Contract signed
Mid-November 2010 Site established
August 2011 Erection of first tower started
October 2011 First turbines arrive
September 2012 First turbine commissioned
October 2012 140th tower erected
January 2013 140th turbine commissioned
April 2013 Wind farm officially opens
Table 1. Macarthur Wind Farm proj-
ect schedule. Source: Leighton Contractors
CIRCLE 18 ON READER SERVICE CARD
www.powermag.com POWER
|
December 2013 30
TOP PLANTS
Mesquite Solar 1, Maricopa
County, Arizona
Owners/operators: Sempra U.S. Gas & Power and Consolidated Edison Development
C
alifornia has been pursuing renewable
generation since enactment of its Re-
newable Portfolio Standard (RPS) in
2002, which had the goal of increasing re-
newable generation to 20% of the states elec-
tricity mix by 2017. That goal was codified in
2006. In the meantime, the 2003 Integrated
Energy Policy Report (IEPR) recommended
accelerating the schedule to 20% by 2010, a
plan that utilities were ill prepared to meet,
principally because of transmission limita-
tions. The following year, the 2004 IEPR
again recommended an update to the plan,
advancing the goal to 33% by 2020. Then-
Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger signed
Executive Order S-14-08 in Nov. 2008 re-
quiring retail sellers of electricity to comply
with the new RPS standard. The RPS was
codified when Governor Edmund G. Brown,
Jr. signed SBX1-2 in April 2011. The RPS
standard applies to all publicly owned utili-
ties, investor-owned utilities (IOUs), elec-
tricity service providers, and community
choice aggregators.
There has been marked progress toward
the RPS goal during the past few years. As
of December 2012, Californias three large
IOUs reported that they serve 19.6% of their
2012 retail sales with RPS-eligible renewable
energy, slightly less than the compliance goal
of no less than 20%. Sempra Energys wholly
owned subsidiary San Diego Gas & Electric,
at 20.31%, was the only California IOU to
meet the 20112013 renewable energy goal.
Another 2,800 MW of renewable energy
is scheduled to enter service in California
during 2013, and more than 644 MW came
online in the first quarter of this year. At 150
MW, the largest of those new projects was
Sempra U.S. Gas & Powers Mesquite Solar
1. Power from Mesquite Solar 1 is being sold
to Californias Pacific Gas & Electric under a
20-year-contract.
Solar Industry Leader
Sempra Energy, a Fortune 500 energy ser-
vices holding company, is the parent of proj-
ect developer Sempra U.S. Gas & Power (a
consolidation of Sempra Energys U.S. op-
erations outside of its California utilities,
completed in January 2012) and the regulat-
ed public utility San Diego Gas & Electric.
Sempra U.S. Gas & Power has a very strong
history among developers of utility-scale PV
projects, going back to the completion of the
companys first solar energy projectthe
10-MW El Dorado Solar PV plant in Boul-
der City, Nev. That plant was named a 2009
Top Plant winner for its well-designed inte-
gration with the adjacent El Dorado Energy
gas-fired combined cycle plant. I wrote at
the time, El Dorado is Sempra Energys
first solar power generation project but will
likely not be its last.
Indeed, POWER also named Sempra
U.S. Gas & Powers Copper Mountain So-
lar 1, adjacent to the El Dorado facility,
a 2011 Top Plant. That plant entered ser-
vice in December 2010. At the time of the
award, the 48-MW plant was recognized as
the largest photovoltaic plant in the U.S.
Since then, the smaller plant has been in-
Courtesy: Sempra U.S. Gas & Power
Sempra U.S. Gas & Powers jointly owned Mesquite Solar 1 project added 150 MW
of photovoltaic-generated electricity to the grid in January 2013, making it one of
the largest PV projects of its type in the country. Sempra U.S. Gas & Powers long-
term plan is to expand the facility to 700 MW.
Dr. Robert Peltier, PE
TOP PLANTS
December 2013
|
POWER www.powermag.com 31
corporated into the larger one, now referred
to as the 58-MW Copper Mountain Solar
1. Today, the company is constructing two
additional phases of the project, Copper
Mountain Solar 2 and Copper Mountain
Solar 3, with 308 MW currently under
construction. Both projects are slated for
completion in 2015.
Sempra U.S. Gas & Power hits the POW-
ER award trifecta in 2013 with its jointly
owned Mesquite Solar 1 project. The 150-
MW facility was constructed on 920 acres
of a 4,000-acre site in Maricopa County,
Ariz., an hour and a half drive west of
Phoenix. Construction of the plant began
in June 2011. The first three blocks of so-
lar panels totaling 42 MW entered service
in late Dec 2011 with the remainder of the
150-MW first phase connecting to the grid
in late 2012. At that time, Mesquite Solar
1 became one of the largest PV projects
in the U.S., although that record was later
eclipsed by another installation. The plant
is expected to operate with an ~27% annual
capacity factor producing ~350 GWh per
year. A video describing the development
and construction of the project is available
at www.semprausgp.com/energy-solutions/
solar-mesquite-solar.html.
However, as you read above, bragging
rights are short-lived, because there always
seems to be a bigger PV project in the works.
Mesquite Solar will surely reacquire those
bragging rights, because early development to
expand the facility to a massive 700-MW PV
installation is ongoing. The PV facility is also
adjacent to Sempra U.S. Gas & Powers joint-
ly owned 1,250-MW Mesquite Power Gen-
erating Station, a 4 x 2 gas-fired combined
cycle plant that was, as you may have guessed
by now, a POWER Top Plant in 2004.
The completion of Mesquite Solar 1 moves
Sempra U.S. Gas & Power closer to its goal
of investing in 1,850 MW of renewables to
its power generation portfolio by 2017. Since
announcing progressively increasing targets
starting in early 2011, the company along
with its strategic development partners has
installed, started construction on, or secured
long-term utility contracts for more than 800
MW of additional solar and wind capacity.
We are pleased to continue the momen-
tum of our solar program with the comple-
tion of Mesquite Solar 1 and will now focus
on the development of the remaining 4,000-
acre complex, said Jeffrey W. Martin, presi-
dent and chief executive officer of Sempra
U.S. Gas & Power. This accomplishment
puts us solidly on track to own and operate
more than 1,000 megawatts of renewable en-
ergy capacity by the end of this year [2013].
We are excited about the future.
Massive in Scale
The scale of Mesquite Solar 1 is, to say the
least, large. The 830,000 panels cover acreage
equivalent to 680 football fields (Figure 1).
Mesquite Solar 1 uses Suntech Power
Holdings Co. multi-crystalline solar pan-
els with Pluto cell technology that converts
sunlight into electricity at 20.3% efficiency.
Suntech, headquartered in China and the
worlds largest producer of PV panels, pro-
vided 830,000 polycrystalline solar modules
for the project. In fact, Mesquite Solar 1 is
located only about 30 miles from Suntechs
former Goodyear, Ariz. manufacturing facil-
ity, which supplied a portion of the panels for
the plant.
Engineering, design, and construction
were handled by Zachry Holdings Inc., a fa-
miliar name in fossil-fueled power plant con-
struction. Zachry has diversified its project
portfolio to include renewable projects, such
as Mesquite Solar 1.
Inverters and transformers are normally
used to convert the direct current produced
by the PV panels into alternating current suit-
able for the grid. However, Mesquite Solar
1 is one of the first utility-scale PV sites to
use Advanced Energys AE 500NX inverter.
The inverter is modular in design and uses a
closed air-to-liquid cooling, a desirable fea-
ture for a plant located in the desert. Each
inverter handles up to 500 kW and does not
require an enclosure for cooling. Better still,
the advanced bipolar design does not require
a built-in transformer, yet makes the con-
version to 420 VAC at weighted efficiency
of 97.5% with a reliability >99%. The Ad-
vanced Energy inverters include reactive
power and power factor control features and
low-voltage ride-through capability.
Each Solaron inverter can handle up to
10 input feeds. Four Solaron inverters are
combined into an ~2 MW skid, which also
include a single 2-MW transformer, break-
ers, and a DCS cabinet. Multiple skids are
combined at the main facility transformer
where the voltage is increased to match
the grid voltage at the nearby Hassayampa
switchyard, a major energy hub for the
Southwest. Almost one million linear feet
of underground cable were used to inter-
connect the panels and inverters.
The panels are installed on Schletters
ground mount fixed-tilt system. Approxi-
mately 85,000 steel piers support the ground-
mount PV system, each embedded four feet
into the ground. The posts are galvanized
steel and the panel frames are aluminum.
Emerson supplied its Ovation distributed
control system to manage the plants con-
trol and monitoring functions. Fiber optic
cables interconnect the control room with
the switchgear and inverter skids.
Arizona may be the hub of solar electric-
ity development in the U.S. because of its
ample sunshine, but the California RPS and
other subsidies also play an important role
in developing these massive solar projects.
In September 2011, the Federal Financing
Bank provided a $337 million loan for the
development of the first phase of the $600
million Mesquite Solar 1 project. The U.S.
Department of Energy provided the loan
guarantee.
Dr. Robert Peltier, PE is a consulting
editor for POWER.
1. Carpet the desert. Mesquite Solar 1 is a 150 MW solar power plant located about 70
miles west of Phoenix, Ariz. The facilitys 830,000 solar panels cover about 920 acres or 1.4
square miles. Courtesy: Sempra U.S. Gas & Power
www.powermag.com POWER
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December 2013 32
TOP PLANTS
Polaniec Green Unit, Polaniec,
Poland
Owner/operator: GDF SUEZ Energy Poland
H
istorically, Poland has relied heav-
ily on coal for electricity generation.
International Energy Agency statis-
tics show that coal generation accounted for
86.5% of total electric power production in
2011. The Polaniec facility has been an im-
portant contributor to that total over the years.
The plant, built in the late 1970s, began with
eight 200-MW coal-fired units. Through an
upgrade process, all the units were increased
to 225 MW by 1995, giving the facility a total
capacity of 1.8 GW.
Like many other European Union mem-
bers, the Polish government has committed
to changing its energy strategy. The country
identified several areas of focus, including
improving efficiency, enhancing security,
introducing nuclear, developing competi-
tive markets, reducing environmental im-
pact, and increasing the use of renewable
energy sources.
On Nov. 10, 2009, Polands Council of
Ministers adopted a new energy policy con-
sistent with those goals. One of the objectives
of the policy was to increase the use of re-
newable energy sources in the countrys final
energy consumption to at least 15% by 2020
with further increases in the following years.
The Polaniec Green Unit provides a reliable
and consistent electricity supply, which sup-
ports that policy.
Bit by Bit a Shift to Biomass
Grzegorz Gorski, CEO of GDF SUEZ En-
ergy Poland has commented that 10 years
ago the idea was born, to do something bet-
ter for the environment and change the fuel
mix. The plant began to slowly add bio-
mass to the blend, increasing the amount
almost every year. It was a logical step to
make a fully dedicated unit, he added in a
YouTube video.
So in 2007, the owners worked with
Tractebel Engineering to develop a feasi-
bility study. Recommendations were made
regarding the process and selection of cut-
ting, drying, and milling technologies. Sug-
gestions were based on safety aspects and
the capability to meet required particle size
distribution.
With this information in hand, the compa-
ny pressed forward, having Tractebel prepare
an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA).
The EIA looked at the possible replacement
of one of Polaniecs coal-fired boilers, Unit
8, with a new biomass-fired circulating flu-
idized bed (CFB) boiler. In April 2010, a
contract was signed with Foster Wheeler to
design and construct the new unit.
Biomass Boiler Design
The Foster Wheeler design allows a variety
of biomasses to be burned efficiently and still
meet tight environmental regulations. Foster
Wheelers Advanced Bio CFB (ABC) tech-
nology enables a mix of 80% wood and 20%
agricultural by-products to be used for fuel in
the Polaniec Green Unit.
Foster Wheeler considers its ABC tech-
nology to be state of the art for biomass
combustion. The ABC concept is the result
of continuous research and experience from
more than 400 commercial CFB references.
Foster Wheelers responsibility for the proj-
ect included designing and supplying the
Courtesy: GDF SUEZ
When Grard Mestrallet, chairman and CEO of GDF SUEZ, set a target of doubling
the companys renewable energy capacity from 2007 to 2013, it seemed very ambi-
tious. Projects like the Polaniec Green Unit have helped the company reach its goal
with room to spare.
Aaron Larson
TOP PLANTS
December 2013
|
POWER www.powermag.com 33
steam generator, auxiliary equipment, and
biomass yard, as well as carrying out civil
works, erection, and commissioning of the
boiler island.
Polish regulations require a minimum of
20% agro biomass, which includes a vari-
ety of materials, such as straw, sunflower
pellets, dried fruit (marc), and palm ker-
nel shells. A major concern in the design
process was the high-alkali content of this
agricultural biomass. Pilot testing was con-
ducted to determine if the advanced agro
CFB concept would perform adequately
under these conditions. The design passed
with flying colors.
The Polaniec boiler has solids separators
built from steam-cooled panels integrated
with the combustion chamber, which avoided
heavy refractory linings in the separator. The
final superheating and reheating stages are
located in special enclosures at the bottom of
the furnace, adjacent to the main combustion
chamber (Figure 1). Because they are located
outside the main combustion area, they are
protected from the fouling and corrosive en-
vironment of the boilers hot flue gas, thus
resulting in higher steam temperatures. The
design also provides good load-following ca-
pabilities and turndown ratios.
The ABC technology uses moderate flu-
idizing velocity in the furnace and features
a full-step grid design in order to transfer
heavy unfluidized particles effectively into
the bottom ash removal system.
The unit is indeed unique, as it is one of
the largest in its sector, said GDF SUEZ
Chairman and CEO Grard Mestrallet.
Its a very original, ultra-modern unit. It
features fluidized bed combustion, which
is really at the cutting edge of combustion
technology.
Other Major Contracts
The plant utilizes the Ovation distributed
control system, supplied by Emerson Process
Management. The system can handle 6,000
I/O points and includes the AMS Suite pre-
dictive maintenance software.
A complete chipping line, which includ-
ed a drum chipper and corresponding han-
dling equipment, was supplied to the plant
by BRUKS Klckner GmbH together with
Polimex Mostostal Warszawa.
Alstom was awarded a contract to retrofit
the existing steam turbine to optimally match
the new biomass configuration. In mid-2012,
Alstom parlayed that work into a contract
worth approximately 65 million ($89.6 mil-
lion) for modernization of Units 2 through 7.
Alstom also has an option to retrofit Unit 1,
but the decision on whether to move forward
with that upgrade is not expected until 2014.
The upgraded steam turbines will increase
efficiency and allow for capacity ratings of
over 240 MW per unit, which will also sig-
nificantly reduce CO
2
emissions from the
rest of the facility.
Emissions Control
While GDF SUEZ is the largest independent
power producer in the world, with over 117
GW of installed capacity and 7.2 GW more
under construction, the company has devel-
oped a management approach designed to
limit its environmental impact. It has em-
braced a strategy that targets 20% of electric
generation capacity from renewables and
has also optimized the energy efficiency of
its production facilities in an effort to fight
climate change.
The Polaniec Green Unit is a flagship
plant that demonstrates the companys
commitment to this strategy. The boiler uti-
lizes a low and uniform temperature profile
in the furnace and staged combustion to
help control emissions. Additionally, it is
equipped with an ammonia injection sys-
tem and catalystselective noncatalytic
reduction plus selective catalytic reduc-
tionfor controlling the nitrogen oxide
emissions. An electrostatic precipitator is
used for controlling particulate emissions.
With these measures, the Green Unit can
adequately meet the required emission lim-
its noted in Table 1.
Replacing the original coal-fired boiler
in Unit 8 with the Green Unit enabled the
project to meet its goal of saving almost 1.2
million tons of CO
2
annually. As the worlds
largest biomass-fired CFB boiler, the Pola-
niec Green Unit is a well-qualified POWER
Top Plant.
The unit began commercial operation on
Nov. 15, 2012, six weeks ahead of schedule.
Its a beautiful showcase, said Jean-Fran-
ois Cirelli, vice chairman of GDF SUEZ,
All the ingredients are there for it to be a
success.
Aaron Larson is a POWER associate
editor (@AaronL_Power,
@POWERmagazine).
1. Side view of Polaniec boiler. Source: Foster Wheeler
Description Value
Flue gas exit temperature 148C (298.4F)
Boiler efficiency 91.0%
NO
x
<150 mg/Nm
3
SO
2
<150 mg/Nm
3
CO <50 mg/Nm
3
Particulate matter (dry) <20 mg/Nm
3
Table 1. Design performance data are for O
2
6% in dry gases, emissions guarantees 50%
boiler maximum continuous rating, 24-hour average. Source: Foster Wheeler
1
2
3
4
5
1 - Step grid
2 - Final SH and RH
3 - Conservative flue gas velocity and
effective temperature control
4 - Steam cooled solid separator and
return leg
5 - Optimal convective heat transfer
surfaces and correct flue gas temperature
www.powermag.com POWER
|
December 2013 34
TOP PLANTS
Shams 1, Madinat Zayed, United
Arab Emirates
Owner/operator: Shams Power Co.
T
he small nation of the United Arab
Emirates (UAE), despite having the
worlds seventh-largest proven reserves
of both oil and gas, has been working hard
to diversify its economy over the past two
decades. Though hydrocarbons still account
for the large majority of its economic activity
and more than 80% of government revenue, it
has managed to significantly reduce the share
of hydrocarbons in its total export figures.
But the rapid growth of its financial and in-
ternational trade sectors over the past decade
has meant equally rapid growth in electricity
demand, which has stretched the UAEs grid
to its limits. According to International En-
ergy Agency estimates, the UAEs electric-
ity consumption in 2011 was 83.79 TWh, a
more than 50% increase since 2001. Installed
capacity, almost entirely natural gasfired
thermal plants, was 23.25 GW in 2009, ac-
cording to the Energy Information Agency.
Despite its ample gas reserves, the UAE is
also working to diversify its generation port-
folio, having contracted with Korea Electric
Power Corp. to construct four nuclear reac-
tors, two of which are now under construc-
tion, with the first scheduled to come online
in 2017 and the others expected to be com-
pleted by 2020.
The country is also looking to boost re-
newable generation. To this end, Abu Dhabi,
the largest emirate, formed the Masdar initia-
tive in 2006, with a focus on development of
renewable and sustainable energy technolo-
gies. Masdar is a subsidiary of Abu Dhabis
state-owned Mubadala Development Co.
Masdars flagship project is Masdar City,
which aims to be the worlds first low-carbon
municipality. Located just outside the capi-
tal, it currently houses the Masdar Institute,
a joint effort with the Massachusetts Institute
of Technology. A number of other high-tech-
nology and renewable energy businesses and
organizations are planning to set up shop in
Masdar City, among them, the International
Renewable Energy Agency, Siemens Middle
East, and GE. Masdar has invested in a va-
riety of renewable energy projects, most no-
tably a 20% share in the 630-MW London
Array in the UK, currently the worlds largest
offshore wind farm.
Still, the overall goal of Masdar is to di-
versify the emirites energy sector. In the late
2000s, it began planning for a major solar
power plant in the UAE to be called Shams
Sun in Arabic.
No Simple Task
While a desert location might seem like the
ideal spot for a concentrating solar power
(CSP) plant, in fact, making one work in such
an area carried with it a number of significant
challenges that the designers had to overcome
in planning the project. The original design
for Shams 1 was proposed in 2007, and Mas-
dar tendered the project for bids in 2008.
Because the coastal areas of the UAE are
at a premium in terms of occupancy and land
values, and because such areas have lower
insolation, the project needed to be located in
the southern region of the country. These ar-
eas, however, are characterized by loose and
Courtesy: Masdar
The Arabian Peninsula might seem like the ideal location for a concentrating solar
power plant, but developers of the 100-MW Shams 1 CSP project in the UAEthe
worlds largest at its inauguration in Marchfound that things were nowhere near
that simple.
Thomas Overton
TOP PLANTS
December 2013
|
POWER www.powermag.com 35
sandy soil, high winds, and high dust levels,
as well as large rolling sand dunes.
Early research for Shams revealed that, be-
cause of the dust in the atmosphere, the site had
surprisingly low direct normal irradiance (DNI)
levels of under 2,000 kWh/m
2
/yr. This is quite
a bit less than that received by CSP projects in
Spain and the U.S., where DNI levels can reach
2,700 kWh/m
2
/yr. Initial estimates of DNI for
the sitebased on satellite datahad been sub-
stantially higher, which meant that adjustments
needed to be made in the design. This discovery
led Masdar to withdraw the tender and go back
to the drawing board.
The designers also realized that the high
dust levels meant more frequent cleaning of
the mirrors would be necessary, and overall re-
flectance of the mirrors would be lower. Stud-
ies had to be conducted to determine the level
of soiling the mirrors would experience.
Two approaches were developed to com-
bat the problem of higher mirror soiling.
First, a seven-meter-high windbreak was built
around the entire site to reduce the amount
of ground-level sand and dust blown onto
the mirrors. After extensive research, proj-
ect planners settled on a design composed of
both concrete and semi-porous fencing mate-
rial. In addition to reducing windblown dust,
the windbreak reduces the wind load on the
mirrors and limits the movement of the sand
dunes around the site.
Second, additional automatic mirror-
cleaning trucks were added to the operations
and maintenance plan in order to increase the
frequency of cleaning. This allowed the en-
tire site to be cleaned in a three-day cycle.
But the additional cleaning implicated an-
other challenge of the location: An extreme
shortage of water. Though water used for
cleaning the mirrors is collected and recycled
to the extent possible, the project team had to
consider a number of approaches for meeting
the sites water needs, not just for cleaning
but also for cooling the steam cycle. Coastal
areas of the UAE rely largely on desalinated
water, but the high cost of it, combined with
the 60-km distance from ocean, made piping
or shipping water to the site far too expen-
sive. The use of gray water for plant cooling
was studied but found to be unworkable.
All of this meant that an air-cooled con-
denser (ACC) would be necessary (Figure
1). However, while this would greatly reduce
water requirements, it would also reduce the
plants efficiency, as ACCs do not function
as well in very hot climates such as the one
at this site, where summer temperatures can
exceed 120F.
These challenges meant that several chang-
es would be needed to the design of the plant if
it was to be able to meet its specified output.
First, additional solar collectors were
added to the original design. Next, a high-ef-
ficiency steam turbine was custom-designed
by MAN to allow operation at high turbine
efficiencies at the higher vacuum pressures
that would exist at high operating loads.
Finally, the use of natural gas firing was
changed. In typical CSP plants, natural gas
is often burned to smooth out intermittency
during cloudy periods. At Shams, however,
low levels of gas are burned continuously to
increase steam temperature from the 380F
maximum from the solar collectors to 540F.
This higher temperature increases the overall
efficiency of the plant. In normal operation,
natural gas contributes about 18% of the total
heat input but about 45% of the net electricity
output. Abundant, inexpensive natural gas in
the region makes the approach economic.
Abengoa Solar and Total were selected in
2010 to develop Shams 1 on a 25-year build,
own, operate basis. Masdar owns 60% of the
Shams Solar Power joint venture, with the
other two holding 20% each. Construction
began in June 2010, and the $600 million
project was completed in late 2012.
The 2.5 km
2
plant comprises 768 parabol-
ic trough collectors that heat synthetic oil that
is used to produce steam in a Foster Wheeler
solar steam generator for the 125-MW MAN
turbine. The air-cooled condensers were sup-
plied by GEA. Overall, the design changes
actually make Shams 1 about 3% to 8% more
efficient than a typical CSP plant, despite the
challenges of the site.
An Important Regional Symbol
One key goal of the Shams project is unrelat-
ed to renewable energy. Like other countries
in the Gulf region, the UAE relies heav-
ily on foreign labor: Estimates are that less
than 1% of the private workforce is Emirati.
While the majority of the construction force
was not local, efforts were made to foster lo-
cal skills and local employment. More than
60 local companies were involved in the
construction, many of which were formed
specifically for the project. A number of
Emiratis also worked with Abengoas CSP
projects in Spain to gain the necessary skills
to work at Shams. Currently, 30% of the
plant workforce is Emirati, and plans are to
increase this to 40% over the next two years.
Local students will be trained at the plant
until they are ready to join the staff.
The importance of Shams to the UAE can
be judged from the sentiments of Sheikh
Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahyan, president of the
UAE and ruler of Abu Dhabi, who officially
inaugurated the plant in March. Shams 1 is
a strategic investment in our countrys eco-
nomic, social and environmental prosperity,
he said. The domestic production of renew-
able energy extends the life of our countrys
valuable hydrocarbon resources and supports
the growth of a promising new industry.
At the time of its inauguration, Shams
1 was the largest CSP plant in the world,
though it has since been eclipsed by proj-
ects in the U.S. At the dedication ceremony,
Masdar CEO Dr. Sultan Ahmed Al Jaber
said, We are now producing close to 10%
of the worlds installed CSP capacity and
almost 68% of the GCC [Gulf Cooperation
Council] regions renewable energy capacity.
The UAE has become the first country in the
Middle East and OPEC to produce both hy-
drocarbons and renewable energy.
For taking the lead in renewable energy
in a fossil-fuel dominated region despite nu-
merous challenges, Shams 1 is a deserving
POWER Top Plant.
Thomas W. Overton, JD is POWERs gas
technology editor (@thomas_overton, @
POWERmagazine).
1. Hot air. With water at a premium at the desert site, Shams 1 employs an air-cooled con-
denser to condense the steam from the turbine. Courtesy: Masdar
www.powermag.com POWER
|
December 2013 36
RENEWABLES IN CHINA
A Plan for Optimizing Technologies
to Support Variable Renewable
Generation in China
Between 2011 and 2015, China plans to add eight major wind generating bases
with a total capacity of 65 GW and two solar photovoltaic installations ex-
ceeding 10 GW. With all that variable generation planned, the nation must
determine how to integrate it into the grid while ensuring grid stability.
Researchers from North China Electric Power University propose a plan
that takes into consideration the best options on a regional basis.
Zeng Ming, Li Shulei, and Xue Song
R
ecently, the variable generation (VG)
industry has been strongly promoted
in China to advance sustainable energy
development, especially for wind power and
solar photovoltaic (PV) power, which have
entered rapid development periods. For ex-
ample, wind power installed capacity in China
doubled every year for four consecutive years
beginning in 2006, while large-scale solar PV
power plants have been integrated with the
grid since 2010. But more is to come.
According to the countrys renewable
energy development plan, the eight biggest
wind power developments will gradually be
constructed during the 12th Five-Year Plan
period (20112015) in Hebei, west Inner
Mongolia, east Inner Mongolia, Jilin, Shan-
dong, Jiangsu, Jiuquan, and Hami. The in-
stalled capacity of each base may exceed
10 GW, and the total capacity will reach 65
GW. Additionally, two massive PV power
bases will be constructed from 2020 to 2030
in Jiuquan and Qaidam basin, each with an
installed capacity exceeding 10 GW. Those
wind and PV developments are mainly lo-
cated in Northeast China, North China, and
Northwest China, where wind and solar re-
sources are abundant. The Chinese govern-
ment has issued a series of regulations, such
as the Renewable Energy Law, to guarantee
renewable power integration.
In China, regions abundant in wind and so-
lar energy are usually remote areas far from
load centers and the main grid. Therefore, a
current major initiative to solve integration
and demand problems is constructing more
large-scale transmission lines to enable VG
power consumption over a wider area so as to
make use of the large-scale and concentrated
wind power and solar power bases (Figure 1).
Variable energy sources such as wind and
solar have characteristics of randomness,
intermittency, and low capacity coefficient.
Additionally, local load consumption abil-
ity is limited, which challenges the local
and region power systems safe and stable
operation. These problems become more
significant as installed wind power capac-
ity increases.
The first problem concerns power system
security. Eighty wind turbine tripping acci-
dents occurred in 2010, and 193 wind turbine
tripping accidents occurred by August 2011.
The second problem is that wind power is
difficult to integrate into networks. The in-
stalled capacity of wind power accounted for
3.06%, while power production from wind
only accounted for 1.18% of total generation,
and this number still hadnt exceed 2% by the
end of 2011.
Construction of large-scale transmission
lines could help distribute variable energy
over a wider range for more-distant use. Now
the primary problem is to determine the
optimal supporting technology investment
program to back up VG and solve the safe-
ty problems posed by VG integration. The
determination of peak-shaving power sup-
ply type and scale, as well as demand-side
management and cross-regional transmission
management are involved. Hence, a techno-
economic evaluation of VG resource inte-
gration supporting technology investment
program is needed.
1. Solar siting. The 320-MW Longyangxia solar photovoltaic power plant is located in Qing-
hai Province in Northwest China and is owned by China Power Investment Corp. Courtesy: Ding
Haisheng, China Power News Network
December 2013
|
POWER www.powermag.com 37
RENEWABLES IN CHINA
3. Distribution of the eight planned large wind power bases. Courtesy:
Zeng Ming, Xue Song, Ma Mingjuan, Zhu Xiaoli. New energy bases and sustainable develop-
ment in China: A review. Renewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2013, 17:169185
Base in
Xinjiang,
Hami
Base in
Gansu,
Jiuquan
Base in Mengxi
Base in
Mengdong
Base in
Jinlin
Base in
Hebei
Base in
Shandong
Base in
Jiangsu
>200W/m
2
(High)
150-200W/m
2
100-150W/m
2
50-100W/m
2
<50W/m
2
(Low)
2. Wind density map of China. Courtesy: Zeng Ming, Xue Song, Ma Mingjuan, Zhu
Xiaoli. New energy bases and sustainable development in China: A review. Renewable &
Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2013, 17:169185
The Technical Roadmap
The approach that we propose has several
steps. First, the project would collect relevant
available information concerning distribution,
installed capacity, and integration of variable
power. Then it would analyze the difficulties
and challenges with VG integration from a
technical level. Next, we propose possible
supporting technology investment programs
and make techno-economic evaluations of
them. Finally, we would sort the various pro-
grams according to assessment results, make
final optimized decisions, and make recom-
mendations for relevant state policies.
The project collects data by referring to
information disclosed by the departments in
charge, such as the Bureau of Statistic in Chi-
na and China Electricity Council. Data need-
ed here mainly concern wind power, solar
power, and hydropower distribution; variable
power installed capacity and on-grid energy;
VG integration in each region; and the rel-
evant supporting technology parameters.
Analysis of VG Integration
Challenges
As a research basis for determining appropri-
ate supporting technologies for VG integration,
we first analyze difficulties and challenges
posed by integrating VG into networks from a
technical level. After collecting datainclud-
ing grid operation data, peak and valley dif-
ferences and peaking power units data before
wind power was integrated into networks
we can analyze the impacts of wind power on
system operation from the following angles.
Wind Powers Impacts on Grid Voltage
Level. First we plan to study the geographi-
cal and temporal distribution characteristics
of VG and energy demand, so as to make
clear the impacts on grid voltage of large-
scale variable power integration. Existing
data show that the wind energy resource and
energy demand are distributed in a reverse
direction. That means that large volumes of
wind power would need to be transmitted
long distances to load centers for consump-
tion, which may cause great voltage dips, fol-
lowed by local grid instability and reduced
stability margin. In turn, grid voltage stabil-
ity limitations also restrict the maximum in-
stalled capacity and output of wind farms.
Winds Impacts on Grid Short-Circuit
Current. Wind power units with common
asynchronous generators or doubly fed in-
duction generators are widely used in Chi-
nese wind farms, which affects short-circuit
current in a different way from traditional
synchronous generators when there is a
short-circuit fault on the grid. In this phase,
we would analyze the influence of the inte-
gration of common asynchronous generators
www.powermag.com POWER
|
December 2013 38
RENEWABLES IN CHINA
and doubly fed induction generators on grid
short-circuit current through field research.
Winds Impacts on Grid Power Quali-
ty. Wind speed fluctuation is quite obvious in
Northwest China, especially on the Tibetan
Plateau. We would take the Northwest Grid
as the example to analyze the output power
fluctuation of integrated wind power units re-
sulting from the random fluctuation of wind
speed as well as the turbulence, wake effect,
and tower shadow effect during wind power
units operation. Power quality problems
such as voltage fluctuation and flicker would
also be analyzed.
Winds Impacts on Grid Stability. To
study this issue, we would take the Northwest
Grid, which has high wind power capacity as
an example, studying the impacts that wind
power integration has on original power flow
distribution, line transmission power, and sys-
tem inertia. When analyzing the influence of
wind power integration on grid transient sta-
bility and frequency stability, we will discuss
its effects on main grid voltage stability.
Winds Impacts on Equivalent Peak
and Valley Difference. When studying wind
power integration, we could consider wind
farm output as negative load. Therefore, we
could get the equivalent diurnal load curve
through associating the diurnal variation
curves of wind farm output and load, so as
to observe the peak-valley variation. In this
analysis, we take typical days in Baicheng in
Jilin Province, which belongs to the North-
east Grid, and in Shaanxi, Gansu, Qinghai,
and Ningxia, which belong to Northwest
Grid as examples to analyze net load (load
minus wind power production) peak and val-
ley difference changes, impacts on peaking
power and frequency modulation, and grid
operation cost changes.
Winds Impacts on Regional Power
Grid Peak Shaving. Existing local units are
mainly used in China for peak shaving. Rel-
evant standards regarding interregional load
trading and settlement are absent in China so
far. In this analysis, we first would analyze
hydropower, large-scale gas-fired generation,
fast-response coal-fired units, and pumped
storage plant installed capacity and the roles
they each play in peak shaving.
At the same time, considering that wind
power is mainly concentrated in North China
(which suggests peak-shaving resources such
as cogeneration units should also meet us-
ers heating demand in winter), we will take
northeast areas as examples, analyzing im-
pacts on regional power grid peak shaving
while integrating large-scale wind power into
networks on winter nights.
Winds Impacts on the Entire Grid
Network. Wind power integration in China
now is of large scale, long distance, and
high voltage. With the development of even
more wind farms, wind power accounts for
an increasingly larger percentage of installed
capacity, and its influence on the grid is ex-
panding from partial regions. Consequently,
we plan to conduct a statistical analysis of
wind power installed capacity integrated into
distribution and transmission networks. Then
we would assess impacts on overall grid se-
curity and stable operation while wind power
is integrated into the grid through transmis-
sion networks.
Requirements for Demand-Side Man-
agement and Interregional Transmis-
sion. Considering the energy distribution
characteristics and the development of large-
scale variable energy resources in China, its
urgent to improve interregional resource al-
location optimization ability and to enhance
demand-side management (DSM) to achieve
interregional transmission. In this phase, we
will focus on analyzing the impacts on wind
power consumption and energy utilization
efficiency enabled by DSM enhancement
and interregional transmission. We will also
study the necessity of DSM and interregional
transmission for VG integration.
Techno-economic Evaluation
of Technologies to Support VG
Integration
During the 12th Five-Year period, the eight
biggest wind power bases will gradually be
constructed in Hebei, west Inner Mongolia,
east Inner Mongolia, Jilin, Shandong, Ji-
angsu, Jiuquan, and Hami. The installed ca-
pacity of each base may exceed 10 GW, and
total capacity could reach 65 GW. Bases in
Jiangsu and Shandong will mainly focus on
offshore wind power development. The dis-
tribution of wind resources in China is shown
in Figure 2; distribution of the eight largest
wind power bases is shown in Figure 3.
After analysis of the difficulties and chal-
lenges posed by grid-integrated variable
generation and initial investigation of the dis-
tribution of wind resources and load, we could
address those challenges by developing four
typical planning programs: Northeast China
(high wind power, low load), Northwest
China (high wind power, lower load), North
China (high wind power, high load), and East
China (high wind power, higher load).
Heilongjiang, Jilin, Liaoning, and east In-
ner Mongolia are included in Northeast Chi-
na, which is abundant in hydropower with
low local load. Xinjiang, Gansu, and west
Inner Mongolia are included in Northwest
China, which is rich in coal, with low load
level as well. North China contains Hebei,
arkline
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POWER www.powermag.com 39
RENEWABLES IN CHINA
Shandong, and Jiangsu and possesses a cer-
tain amount of pumped storage resource with
high local load. Zhejiang and Shanghai are in
East China, rich in pumped storage resource
with rather high local load.
Based on both national and international
research sources, we determined that tech-
nologies supporting VG integration in China
mainly consist of hydropower, large-scale
gas-fired generation, 600-MW coal-fired
units (now coal-fired units under 300 MW ca-
pacity are shut down to meet the requirement
of energy conservation and emission reduc-
tion, which makes 600-MW coal-fired units
the main peak-shaving resource), pumped
storage plants, battery energy storage tech-
nologies (including electric vehicles), dis-
tributed generation technologies, DSM, and
interregional transmission technology.
It is important to note that already-in-
stalled capacity of technologies supporting
VG integration and wind power capacity is
not considered here; we only consider newly
added future capacity.
A flow chart of the techno-economic eval-
uation of technologies supporting VG inte-
gration in China is shown in Figure 4.
Brief discussions of specific consider-
ations for each region follow. For each re-
gion, the techno-economic evaluation of the
proposed technologies involves five steps:
We begin by analyzing the exploitable 1.
wind power capacity in the region and
determine the capacity of the backup
technology needed per MW of grid-
integrated wind power. We also look at
construction and maintenance costs for
the technologies used to support VG
integration.
Based on the wind power develop- 2.
ment plan, we assume that newly
added wind power capacity increases
at a fixed growth rate, and we evalu-
ate a number of investment programs
based on the technology options for
each region.
We calculate the initial investment 3.
cost of the selected programs, the rate
of return, and payback period under
existing tariff and settlement systems
through techno-economic evaluation
theory and methods. Additionally, we
will make sensitivity analysis of those
Northeast China
Hydropower, large-scale gas-fired
generation, 600-MW coal-fired unit, and
pumped storage capacity plus a combination
of investment programs for these
technologies
Hydropower, large-scale gas-fired
generation, and 600-MW coal-fired unit
capacity plus a combination of investment
programs for these technologies
Large-scale gas-fired generation, 600-MW
coal-fired unit, pumped storage, and battery
energy storage capacity (including electric
vehicles) plus a combination of investment
programs for these technologies
Hydropower, large-scale gas-fired
generation, pumped storage, battery energy
storage (including electric vehicles), and
combined cooling, heat, and power capacity
as well as demand-side management and
a combination of investment programs for
these technologies
Northwest China
North China
East China
Interregional transmission (from Northwest China to
East China)
Analyze the exploitable wind power capacity
and the fixed growth rate
Select the alternative programs
Make techno-economic evaluations of the
programs
Assess the impacts on the power system of the
programs and their social benefits
Sort the programs
Program optimization
Calculate the
investment
cost, rate
of return,
and payback
period for
each program
and conduct
a sensitivity
analysis
4. The plan at a glance. This flow chart shows the proposed stages of a techno-economic evaluation of technologies that could be used to
support the integration of large-scale variable renewable energy (predominantly wind power) in China. Source: Zeng Ming, Li Shulei, Xue Song
www.powermag.com POWER
|
December 2013 40
RENEWABLES IN CHINA
investment programs.
We will evaluate the impacts on system 4.
operation, equivalent peak and valley
difference, and peak shaving by those
investment programs. Social benefits
also need to be evaluated, especially the
energy conservation and carbon emis-
sions benefit.
We will make a comprehensive evalu- 5.
ation of the total investment cost, in-
ternal rate of return, payback period
for investment, and social benefits.
Considering that there is a national
sustainable development plan for en-
ergy utilization and that tax incentive
measures may be issued, we will only
consider the relevant investment pro-
grams in this phase.
Northeast China. Considering resource
distribution characteristics, uneven load
distribution, and the low load in Northeast
China, we select four VG integration sup-
porting technologies for techno-economic
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Designed and delivered in 10 days
5. Transfer of power plan. This map of the regions with the greatest wind power potential shows recommended substation and trans-
mission line placement for optimizing the transfer of variable power to higher-demand regions. Source: Bo Zeng, Ming Zeng, Xue Song, Min
Cheng, et al. Overall review of wind power development in Inner Mongolia: Status quo, barriers and solutions, Renewable & Sustainable Energy
Reviews, 2013, 29: 614-624
Gansu Province
Alashan League
Ningxia Hui
Autonomous Region
Shaanxi Province
To South China
(East China)
Ordos City
Bayannaoer League
Central of Wulanchabu
League wind power
collection station
Baotou
City
Shanxi
Province
To south of
Heibei Province
Beijing
To north China
(East China)
To
Wanquan
To
Guyuan
Hebei
Province
To Chengde
Hahhot
City
S
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Xilingol League
Wulanchabu
League
Thermal power plant
Wind Farm
500 kV substation for power collection
Existing 500 kV substation and
transmission line
New 500 kV substation and transmission
line
800 kV DC substation and transmission
line
600 kV DC substation and transmission
line
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December 2013
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POWER www.powermag.com 41
RENEWABLES IN CHINA
SOFTWARE & SERVICES IT INFRASTRUCTURE
www.rittal.us
evaluation: hydropower, large-scale gas-fired
generators, 600-MW coal-fired units, and
pumped storage.
Northwest China. Considering resource
distribution characteristics, the areas rich-
ness in coal and water resources, uneven load
distribution, and lower load, we select these
three VG integration supporting technologies
for techno-economic evaluation: hydropow-
er, large-scale gas-fired generators, and 600-
MW coal-fired units.
North China. Considering resource dis-
tribution characteristics with the absence of
a large coal power and hydropower base,
even load distribution, and high load level,
we select these five VG integration sup-
porting technologies for techno-economic
evaluation: large-scale gas-fired generators,
600-MW coal-fired units, pumped storage,
and battery energy storage technologies (in-
cluding electric vehicles).
East China. Considering resource dis-
tribution characteristics with rich water
resources, even load distribution with high
load level, and the regions high dependence
on cross-province transmission, we select
these six VG integration supporting tech-
nologies for techno-economic evaluation:
hydropower, large-scale gas-fired genera-
tors, pumped storage plants, battery energy
storage technologies (including electric ve-
hicles), and CCHP (combined cooling, heat-
ing, and power).
Evaluation of Interregional Trans-
mission Technology Programs
In China, regions that are abundant in wind
and solar energy usually have low load lev-
els (for example, the Northwest Grid). That
combination contributes to limited ability
for local energy consumption, wind power
abandonment, and low energy utilization
efficiency. A smart grid with an ultra-high-
voltage grid as its backbone network is being
built in China to achieve VG integration via
large-scale interregional transmission over
long distances with high efficiency to en-
able remote consumptiontypically, in East
China (Figure 5).
In considering this challenge, we will
propose an interregional transmission plan
considering relevant issues to improve VG
consumption levels and increase energy
utilization efficiency. We will also take the
ultra-high-voltage transmission line from
Northwest China to East China as an exam-
ple to evaluate possible economic and envi-
ronmental benefits.
From Evaluation to Implementation
After comprehensively assessing the results
of the techno-economic and social benefit
evaluations of the various technology options
for supporting VG integration in each region,
and accounting for renewable energy policies
and their trends, we will select and propose
the preferred investment plan for VG integra-
tion supporting technologies in each region.
As investors are usually encouraged by eco-
nomic interests, we should make investment
decisions according to each programs techno-
economic evaluation results. For programs eco-
nomically viable and with good social benefits,
the government should support market-oriented
investments, while the governments main duty
is to conduct market regulation.
As to programs not economically viable
but with good social benefits, the gov-
ernment should introduce incentive mea-
suressuch as tariff compensation, direct
subsidies, or preferential loansto support
investments. Programs economically vi-
able but with poor social benefits could be
treated as options. Programs not economi-
cally viable and with bad social benefits
should be abandoned.
Goals and Impacts
If this project is successfully implemented as
outlined here, the project is expected to have
three main benefits.
First, it could provide a decision-making
basis for the Chinese government that could
help it determine the appropriate combina-
tion of technologies for supporting VG in-
tegration and their capacity when a certain
amount of wind power is put into produc-
tion. That could contribute to maximizing the
amount of grid-integrated VG.
Second, it could provide an investment de-
cision-making basis for players in the market
and help improve investment efficiency.
Third, mature experience concerning
large-scale and concentrating VG exploita-
tion and long-distance transmission is absent
at present. If this project is successfully im-
plemented, the research results can provide a
reference for other countries.
Zeng Ming, Li Shulei, and Xue Song
(xuesongbjhd@163.com) are all with North
China Electric Power University, Beijing.
The work described in this article was
supported by National Science Foundation
of China (NSFC) (71271082), The National
Soft Science Research Program (2012GX-
S4B064), and The Energy
Foundation (G-1006-12630).
www.powermag.com POWER
|
December 2013 42
RENEWABLES
Photovoltaics Overshadow
Concentrated Solar Power
Though much newer, solar photovoltaic technology has gained a much larger market
share than concentrated solar power, even though the latter promises thermal
storage and the potential to be almost fully dispatchable.
Sonal Patel
A
s solar technologies, both solar pho-
tovoltaic (PV) and concentrated so-
lar power (CSP) are often discussed
collectively, along with solar thermal and
solar fuels. But the difference between the
two power generating technologies that
have evolved independently for decades is
significant: CSP harnesses irradiative solar
energy, which is easily transformed into
heat through absorption by gases, liquids,
or solid materials and is then converted to
mechanical energy and finally electrical en-
ergy, while PV uses solar radiation, which
is essentially a flux of elementary particles
that promote photoreactions and generate a
flow of electrons.
Technology-agnostic solar industry ob-
servers note that both technologies are today
approaching grid parity as solar utilities
around the world develop them with rela-
tive success. But solar PV has vastly over-
taken CSPs market share, and will prevail for
a long time. At the end of 2012, the worlds
PV installations totaled 32 GWcompared
to a cumulative 2.9 GW of CSP capacity, the
bulk concentrated in Spain (68%) and the
U.S. (28%).
Of the 1,176 MW of utility-scale solar ca-
pacity in the U.S. at the beginning of 2012,
about 43% came from concentrated thermal
technology while 57% came from PVbut
PV accounts for 72% of solar projects under
construction. And while 2012 was a banner
year for the worlds CSP sector, marking the
most installationsmore than 1 GWover
a 12-month period in the technologys 135-
year history, experts forecast that growth
spurt will be short-lived, overshadowed pri-
marily by plunging prices of PV panels and
a variety of hurdles that are stalling the still
relatively small sector.
At least 7.3 GW of new CSP capacity is
in various stages of preconstruction develop-
ment in the U.S., the Middle East and North
Africa, and in China, India, and Australia.
Saudi Arabia, notably, will lead a longer-
term charge with its ambitions to generate 75
to 110 TWh by 2032, which could require the
installation of 25 GW of capacity in Saudi
Arabia alone. Yet, PVs growth is slated to
soar to a staggering 41 GW by 2014an ex-
pansion that will be undertaken by all major
world regions, according to market research
firm IHS.
A Cost Disparity
The paramount reason for this market share
disparity is cost. According to the Interna-
tional Energy Agency, CSP received a mi-
nuscule 7% share of public research and
development (R&D) funding from the Or-
ganisation for Economic Cooperation and
Development countries for renewables in
2010, compared to 36% for solar PV and
28% for wind. This is why, some experts
say, innovation in the CSP field has been
limited and patent rates declined signifi-
1. In a new light. Spain led the world with 1.95 GW of installed concentrated solar power
(CSP) capacity at the end of 2012 and generated 5,138 GWh from 42 plants: 37 parabolic trough,
three tower, and two Fresnel plants. Spanish companies are also putting up a number of the
CSP plants worldwide, like Abengoa SAs $2 billion Solana parabolic trough plant, which came
online near Gila Bend, Ariz., this October. That 280-MW plant built with a $1.45 billion U.S. fed-
eral loan guarantee uses a thermal storage system to produce power for six hours at full power.
Courtesy: Abengoa SA
December 2013
|
POWER www.powermag.com 43
RENEWABLES
cantly between 1977 and 2000.
Moreover, CSP is a capital-intensive
technology whose initial investment is
dominated by solar field equipment and
labor. Accounting for 84% of electric-
ity generation costs of CSP, initial invest-
ment requirements range from $2,500 to
$10,200/kW, depending on capacity factor
and storage size. In contrast, solar PVs
initial investment costs range from $3,500
to $6,000/kW. The remaining 16% for CSP
typically consists of fixed operation and
maintenance costs, which average $70/
kW per year, while variable maintenance is
limited to about $3/MWh.
Cost concerns are also possibly the most
plausible reason why investment in CSP is
substantially lower than for PV: In 2011, the
sector garnered just $18 billion worldwide,
while PV got $125 billion.
A Vulnerable Sector
As with most dawning technologies, the
economic crisis hit CSP particularly hard as
governments reconfigured subsidies and im-
posed austerity measures, forcing develop-
ers to rethink projects or convert to PV. For
Spain, the only European Union member
to have developed a CSP production sec-
tor, and a country that spurred the worlds
concentrated solar technology revival in the
second half of the 2000s, CSPs future has
all but been eclipsed by both a moratorium
on financial aid imposed by the Spanish
government earlier this year and the gov-
ernments intention to retroactively redefine
plant remuneration terms.
At the end of 2012, though Spain com-
missioned 17 new plants to bring its to-
tal CSP capacity up to 1.95 GWand all
within the last five yearsthe future of at
least six new plants hangs in the balance as
Spanish CSP developers have been forced
to turn to other countries to develop their
technology (Figure 1) and bring down pro-
duction costs on their own. Protermosolar,
the countrys CSP industry association,
bemoans the governments measures that
it says came before the nations CSP sec-
tor could become as competitive as other
generation sectors.
More Stringent Requirements
Added to cost concerns are a number of
The Evolution of CSP
Since the worlds very first concentrating solar thermal systems
were developed in 1878 by French inventors Augstin Mouchot and
Abel Pifre, the fundamental quest for solar thermal energy devel-
opers of a great variety of designs and applications has been to
increase working temperatures. Today, four different technology
approaches focus the suns energy onto mirrors to create steam to
drive a turbine that generates power:
Trough systems, which use large, U-shaped (parabolic) reflec-
tors that heat oil-filled pipes running along their center, or
focal point, as high as 750F. The parabolic trough is today the
most mature of CSP technologies and forms the bulk of current
commercial plants (Figure 2).
Power tower systems, also called central receivers, which use
many large flat heliostats to track the sun and focus its rays
onto a tower-mounted receiver. The receiver heats a fluid, such
as molten salt, to temperatures of up to 1,050F to make steam
or store energy for days before being converted into electricity.
Dish/engine systems, which use mirrored dishes nearly 10 times
larger than a backyard satellite to focus sunlight onto a re-
ceiver that is integrated into a high-efficiency external com-
bustion engine outfitted with thin tubes containing hydrogen
or helium gas.
Linear-Fresnel reflectors, which approximate the parabolic shape
of trough systems but use long rows of flat, or slightly curved,
mirrors to reflect the suns rays onto a downward-facing linear,
fixed receiver.
Mouchots and Pifres inventions were based on dishes, though
the parabolic trough was invented soon after, in 1884, by Amer-
ican engineer John Ericsson. In 1897, another American engi-
neer, Frank Shuman, demonstrated a solar engine that worked by
reflecting solar energy onto collector boxes filled with ether
which has a lower boiling point than waterand later, an im-
proved system using mirrors to reflect solar energy onto boxes
filled with water. He also developed a 560-W low-pressure steam
turbine and, in 1912, set up the worlds first solar power thermal
power station in Meadi, Egypt, using parabolic troughs to power a
60- to 70-horsepower engine that pumped 6,000 gallons of water
per minute from the Nile River to nearby cotton fields.
In contrast, PVs evolution has been much more recent. The
first photovoltaic technology capable of providing sufficient
power to electrical equipmenta primitive version with an ef-
ficiency of only 4% that cost $300/W to producewas invented
in 1954 by the Bell Telephone Laboratories. Solar PV got its
boost with the space age, after the U.S. launched its first satel-
lites into space. Finally, in 1970, a solar cell was developed that
tamped down the price of energy from $100/W to $20/Wa
breakthrough that made it realistic to use solar applications for
residential use.
Operational Under construction Planned
71.4%
Trough
15.9%
28.6%
26.9%
25.8%
2.7%
0.04%
Tower Linear Fresnel Dish
17.6%
7.4%
0.8%
0.3%
1.8%
0.6%
2. CSP projects by type. Parabolic trough plants account
for the majority of operational capacity due to cost advantages, but
solar tower systems are also increasing, accounting for 52% of
planned projects. The first large-scale linear-Fresnel plant is already
in operation in Spain (Puerto Errado 2), but dish systems are still at
an early stage of development. Source: IEA Solar Paces database,
March 2013
www.powermag.com POWER
|
December 2013 44
RENEWABLES
obstacles. According to the U.S. National
Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL),
generation-weighted averages for total land
area requirements range from 3.2 acres/
GWh per year for CSP towers to 5.3 acres/
GWh per year for Stirling dish CSP systems;
large (>20 MW) PV systems require between
2.8 and 3.4 acres/GWh. But not only must
CSP plants be installed at larger scales to be
cost-effective, they also need higher levels of
irradiancewhich means siting is limited in
the U.S. to the Sunbeltand access to water.
That also means they can take years to permit
and connect to the grid.
In fact, CSP needs a tremendous amount
of water for cooling processesup to
3,780 liters/MWh for Fresnel installations
and 2,835 liters/MWh for solar towers,
compared to just 19 liters/MWh for PV
and this in turn has environmental implica-
tions in arid and semi-arid areas. However,
at least four large plants with dry cooling
technologywhich promises to reduce
water consumption by more than 90% (but
increase generation costs by 5%)have
come online this year alone: three Integrat-
ed Solar Combined Cycle (ISCC) plants in
Hassi Rmel, Algeria; Kuramayat in Egypt;
and Ain Beni Mathar in Morocco; plus
the 100-MW Shams 1 in the United Arab
Emiratesa POWER Top Plant (see story
on p. 34).
Significantly, PV has a number of stand-
alone smaller applications, attributable to
its low maintenance requirements and low
costs. One reason for PVs extensive mar-
ket growth has been its suitability for resi-
dential power supply, points out pro-solar
community resource group, the Principal
Solar Institute. In fact, photovoltaics have
found a place meeting a broad spectrum of
energy needs. While large-scale photovol-
taic projects are competing with traditional
utilities to meet consumer demand at one
end of the spectrum, smaller residential
projects are working to replace them at the
other end, it says.
The Promise of Thermal Storage
Perhaps CSPs saving grace could be its
most formidable advantage over PV, which
is its ability to store thermal energy for
up to 16 hours. Innovations are expected
in all four CSP technologies (see sidebar)
and throughout the system value chain as
research and development is focused on
improving dispatchability. According to
Romeu Gaspar, founder of energy consult-
ing firm X&Y Partners, Dispatchability
will be increasingly important when and
where renewable energies achieve high pen-
etration rates, so two things can happen:
CSP becomes a commercially viable solu-
tion before a commercial PV storage system
is developed, carving its own market seg-
ment; or the PV industry quickly solves the
storage issue and becomes the solar technol-
ogy of choice.
Other experts point out that CSP is also
better suited to hybridization with com-
plementary solar and fossil fuel primary
energy sources. And it can be applied to
a number of niche industrial processes to
desalinate water, improve water electroly-
sis for hydrogen production, generate heat
for combined heat and power applica-
tions, and support enhanced oil recovery
operations.
That means CSP isnt going to disappear
from the market altogether, the Principal
Solar Institute says. The future of CSP will
depend on its stronghold at the utility scale,
where no amount of PV cost-reduction is
expected to overcome its inherent technology
advantages.
Sonal Patel is a POWER associate edi-
tor (@sonalcpatel, @POWERmagazine).
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December 2013 46
EMISSIONS
Optimized SCR Catalysts Maximize
Mercury Removal Co-Benefits
New air emission rules limit the amount of mercury (Hg) air emissions from coal-fired
power plants. Many plant owners may find leveraging the Hg removal co-ben-
efits available from SCR Hg oxidation and FGD Hg collection a more attractive
option than constructing new equipment or using other expensive mitigation
technologies.
Chris Bertole, PhD and Scot Pritchard
T
he new Mercury and Air Toxics Stan-
dards (MATS) have given coal-fired
power plant owners a short time to
bring their plants into compliance with rules
that require significantly less mercury (Hg)
in stack gases emitted into the atmosphere.
MATS applies to U.S. plants, but the move
to reduce power plant mercury emissions has
gone global. In January 2013, after four years
of negotiations, 140 nations signed the first
legally binding agreement to control mercury
emissions from power plants (and many oth-
er sources and products). The official signing
of the Minamata Convention (named after a
city in Japan that experienced environmental
damage caused by industrial mercury dis-
charges into local rivers) is scheduled for Oc-
tober of this year. New rules are expected to
go into force over the next three to five years,
with full effect by 2020.
Flue gas from coal-fired power plants may
contain Hg in three different species or forms.
First, the Hg may be in particulate form (Hg
P
),
which is typically removed with the ash and
unburned carbon in an electrostatic precipita-
tor or fabric filter. Second, the Hg may be in
oxidized form (Hg
2+
), which is water-soluble
and can be removed by a wet flue gas desulfu-
rization system (FGD). The Hg may also ap-
pear in its elemental form (Hg
0
), which is not
water-soluble and usually passes unchanged
straight through most air quality management
systems and into the atmosphere.
The potential synergy from combining SCR
and FGD technologies for mercury removal
has been known for some time. Data collected
during the Environmental Protection Agencys
(EPAs) Information Collection Request cam-
paigns in 1998, 2005, and updated in 2009,
showed that mercury capture in bituminous-
fired units with cold-side electrostatic pre-
cipitators increased from about 36% to 75%
when a wet FGD was also in service. The data
also showed that the amount of Hg removal
increased to >95% with the SCR in-service
compared to when it was in bypass. More
recent studies have produced similar results
(see Determining AQCS Mercury Removal
Co-Benefits, in POWERs July 2010 issue
and An SCR Can Provide Mercury Removal
Co-Benefits, October 2011).
You Have Options
The two most familiar options to reduce mer-
cury emissions are a high capital cost retro-
fit with equipment specifically designed for
mercury removal (such as TOXECON) or
using an expensive combustion gas additive,
such as activated carbon injection (ACI),
that will adsorb the mercury for capture in a
downstream filtration system. The effective-
ness of both approaches is highly dependent
on the type of fuel consumed by the plant.
A third option, the use of existing equip-
ment, or co-benefit option, can be the most
cost effective: leverage air quality control
equipment already in place at most coal-fired
plants to produce the necessary Hg reduction
without an extended plant outage required
for an equipment retrofit. This two-step ap-
proach occurs by first oxidizing the Hg
0
present in the stack gas as it passes through
the SCR and then removing the Hg
2+
in the
FGD. In many cases, the catalyst used in
the SCR must be optimized for site-specific
conditions to achieve the desired Hg
0
oxida-
tion rate and therefore the overall mercury
removal efficiency. In addition, recent ad-
vancements in FGD technology and additives
help to prevent re-emission of the captured
oxidized mercury. Another option is to utilize
supplemental mercury capture using sorbents
such as ACI in combination with the exist-
ing equipment. This option can be used to
increase mercury removal efficiency where
specific plant equipment and/or conditions
do not allow optimization of the SCR/FGD
co-benefit.
Cormetech recently commercialized its
Oxidized Mercury Emissions Technology
(COMET) that can be used to characterize
reactor performance for a set of plant-spe-
cific features and fuels, determine the cor-
rect catalyst formulation so that NO
x
removal
rates remain unchanged, and provide a spe-
cific catalyst management plan to obtain the
required levels of mercury oxidation through
the SCR. The potential mercury removal co-
benefits and cost savings can be substantial.
SCR Hg Oxidation Co-Benefit
The SCR of NO
x
using NH
3
as the reductant
for V
2
O
5
- (WO
3
or MO
3
)/TiO
2
catalysts is the
current best available control technology for
NO
x
emissions from coal-fired utility boil-
ers. SCR has demonstrated NO
x
removal ef-
ficiencies of 90% or more. The primary NO
x
reduction reaction proceeds according to the
stoichiometry described by the following two
equations (note that NO
x
levels in the flue
gases from coal-fired boilers typically con-
tain >90% NO).
Equation 1: 4NO + 4NH
3
+ O
2
4N
2
+
6H
2
O
Equation 2: 2NO + 2NO
2
+ 4NH
3
4N
2
+ 6H
2
O
SCR catalysts are also active for the oxi-
dation of Hg
0
by chlorine as HCl and/or by
bromine as HBr, as described by Equation
3 for HCl. The conversion of Hg
0
, which is
water-insoluble, to HgCl
2
or HgBr
2
(water-
soluble oxidized mercury Hg
2+
) allows for
capture of mercury in a downstream flue gas
desulfurization system.
Equation 3: 2Hg
0
+ 4HCl + O
2
2HgCl
2
+ 4H
2
O
SCR Does Double Duty
Differences between NO
x
and Hg removal
performance must be considered within and
December 2013
|
POWER www.powermag.com 47
EMISSIONS
surrounding the SCR. From an SCR per-
spective, de-NO
x
performance is well de-
fined and controlled within the SCR reactor
by catalyst selection, cross-sectional area,
number of modules, and so on. However,
total Hg removal must carefully consider
the mercury removal performance of equip-
ment downstream of the SCR, such as the
air heater, particulate control device(s), and
the FGD. A number of system-level factors
relative to characterizing and understanding
catalyst performance must also be consid-
ered (Table 1).
Cormetechs early product development
work to quantify the co-benefits SCR + FGD
mercury removal used a mercury activity test
reactor system in conjunction with a multi-
layer catalyst system to perform multiple
parametric tests. For example, one set of
tests characterized layer position and halogen
content for a given catalyst. Tests were also
conducted on new as well as aged catalysts
taken from operating plants. This critical
data enables accurate prediction of catalyst
Hg oxidation performance for unique appli-
cations. Typical results from those tests show
that NO
x
reduction is a strong function of the
operating temperature of the reactor and the
HCl present in the gas. In addition, the Hg
0
oxidation to Hg
2+
is a strong function of the
halogen content (HBr) and operating tem-
perature (Figure 1).
Catalyst Design and Selection
Traditional catalyst management techniques
provide very accurate predictions of de-NO
x
performance for various fuels and fuel addi-
tives. At the heart of the catalyst management
process for de-NO
x
is a simplified method to
describe catalyst oxidation potential, shown
in Figure 1 and represented by Equation 4.
Equation 4: K de-NO
x
/AV = ln (1 de-
NO
x
efficiency), where K de-NO
x
= cata-
lyst de-NO
x
activity, AV = area velocity, =
NH
3
:NO
x
molar ratio = 1
The addition of mercury oxidation as a
performance feature of the SCR adds com-
plexity to the management process where
both de-NO
x
and Hg oxidation needs must be
managed simultaneously. Thus it is important
to develop equations and tools to accurately
model mercury oxidation performance as has
been done with de-NO
x
. Again, a simplified
approach to describe catalyst oxidation po-
tential is shown in Figure 1 and represented
by Equation 5.
Equation 5: K HgO
x
/AV = ln (1 Hg
0
oxidation) at = variable, where K HgO
x
=
catalyst Hg oxidation activity and AV = area
velocity
Although the equations are similar, the
usefulness of the equation for Hg oxidation is
influenced to a greater extent by the ammo-
nia concentration. Therefore, instead of sim-
plifying the assessment to one molar ratio,
multiple molar ratios must be considered to
properly assess the performance capability of
a given catalyst layer in a particular position
within the reactor. Plant-specific conditions
related to fuel parameters, such as halogen
De-NO
x
Mercury
NO
x
inlet
a
NO
x
inlet
Efficiency
a
NH
3
efficiency
Slip
a
NH
3
slip
Temperature Hg oxidation
a
SO
2
conversion
b
Temperature
Fuel->contaminants->K/Ko SO
2
conversion
b
Reactor condition
Fuel->contaminates
->K/Ko
O
2
, H
2
O, SO
2
(lower
impact)
Reactor condition
Halogen (fuel or ad-
ditive)
Layer position (NH
3
)
CO
O
2
, H
2
O, SO
2
(can be
larger impact)
Notes: a. Performance threshold; b. Catalyst
formulation
Table 1. Key factors that influence
SCR de-NO
x
performance and Hg
oxidation performance. Of particular
importance are the concentrations of halo-
gens and reducing agents, such as CO and
NH
3
, present in the stack gas. Halogens,
whether present in the fuel or as an additive,
favorably influence SCR catalyst performance.
The ammonia concentration is a function of
the desired de-NO
x
performance, layer posi-
tion, and chemistry. Source: Cormetech Inc.
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0
d
e
N
O
x
(
%
)
20 40 60 80 100 120
HCl (ppmvda)
1. MATRS test data. The SCR Hg
0
oxidation rate is a function of halogen content and
temperature (right). The SCR performance of the same catalyst is shown for comparison (left).
The parametric studies used fresh and field-aged catalyst. Source: Cormetech Inc.
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.0
H
g
o
x
i
d
a
t
i
o
n
(
%
)
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
HBr (ppmvda)
400C 340C
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
1
R
e
l
a
t
i
v
e
K
H
g
O
x
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Standard COMET
2. COMET catalysts perform. Test results of COMET versus a standard de-NO
x
catalyst
illustrate a significant improvement in Hg
0
oxidation rates. The ability of the catalyst to oxidize
mercury is represented by the K HgO
x
, the catalyst oxidation activity (Equation 5). The data was
taken at 403C; 107 ppm of NO
x
; 3.5% O
2
; 14% H
2
O; 245 ppm SO
2
; and 8 ppm of HCl. Source:
Cormetech Inc.
NH
3
ppm 0 0 0 0 0 21 21 21 21 86
CO ppm 0 100 0 100 0 0 0 100 0 0
HBr ppm 0 0 0.1 0.1 1 0 0.1 0.1 1 0
www.powermag.com POWER
|
December 2013 48
EMISSIONS
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0
N
H
3
s
l
i
p
(
p
p
m
)
20,000
Operating hours
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
40,000 60,000 80,000 100,000 120,000 140,000
D
e
-
N
O
x
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y
(
%
)
,
S
C
R
o
u
t
l
e
t
o
x
i
d
i
z
e
d
H
g
(
%
)
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0
N
H
3
s
l
i
p
(
p
p
m
)
20,000
Operating hours
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
40,000 60,000 80,000 100,000 120,000 140,000
D
e
-
N
O
x
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y
(
%
)
,
S
C
R
o
u
t
l
e
t
o
x
i
d
i
z
e
d
H
g
(
%
)
Target 80% ox. Hg
Action: Inject halogen
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0
N
H
3
s
l
i
p
(
p
p
m
)
20,000
Operating hours
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
40,000 60,000 80,000 100,000 120,000 140,000
D
e
-
N
O
x
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y
(
%
)
,
S
C
R
o
u
t
l
e
t
o
x
i
d
i
z
e
d
H
g
(
%
)
Target: 90% ox. Hg
Action: Initially change 2
layers to max. length COMET
and repeat for layer 3
3. Baseline management plan. A baseline performance curve where de-NO
x
and Hg
0
oxidation performance requirements are well synchronized is illustrated at top, with de-NO
x
=
85%, Hg
0
oxidation rate = 70%, and maximum NH
3
slip is 2 ppm. This baseline catalyst man-
agement plan shows that a standard catalyst could be used to meet both target performance
requirements. The center chart illustrates the impact of a rise in the target Hg
0
oxidation from
70% to 80% after 70,000 operating hours. In this situation, the 80% Hg oxidation requires injec-
tion of a halogen. The bottom chart represents the impact of a change in the target Hg
0
oxidation
from the baseline of 70% to 90% after 70,000 operating hours. In this case, a catalyst replace-
ment was required to achieve the Hg oxidation target. Source: Cormetech Inc.
De-NO
x
efficiency SCR outlet oxidized Hg NH
3
slip
CIRCLE 22 ON READER SERVICE CARD
December 2013
|
POWER www.powermag.com 49
EMISSIONS
and Hg concentration, also need to be es-
tablished in the same way as the traditional
inputs for de-NO
x
, such as temperature, inlet
NO
x
, O
2
, H
2
O, SO
2
, and SO
3
.
The optimal SCR catalyst design for a giv-
en unit will maximize the rates of the de-NO
x
(Equations 1 and 2) and Hg oxidation (Equa-
tion 3) reactions, while minimizing the rate of
the SO
2
oxidation reaction, SO
2
+ O
2
SO
3
.
Routinely, SCR catalyst is formulated to a
maximum allowed SO
2
oxidation rate to min-
imize the negative effects of high SO
3
caused
by air preheater plugging or opacity concerns
(visible plume), while continuing to meet the
de-NO
x
and NH
3
slip requirements. In other
words, the de-NO
x
reduction is limited by the
expected SO
2
oxidation. COMET is designed
to function within these de-NO
x
operational
constraints without impacting its mercury
reduction function. Other factors impact the
catalyst design, such as Hg
0
oxidation that
occurs across the air preheater, the efficiency
of Hg
P
removal, the Hg
2+
capture efficiency in
the FGD, HCl and HBr concentration in the
flue gas, SCR operating temperatures (partic-
ularly for cycling and load-following units),
and so on. Figure 2 illustrates improvements
that have been made in Hg oxidation perfor-
mance as a function of key input parameters,
specifically NH
3
, CO, and halogen content,
while maintaining constant de-NO
x
and SO
2
conversion rates.
Managing Catalyst Performance
Once SCR de-NO
x
and Hg
0
oxidation tar-
gets are established, catalyst management
options can be explored. Figure 3 presents
a series of catalyst management strategies
over the lifetime of a catalyst. Figure 3, top,
illustrates a typical baseline catalyst man-
agement plan with a de-NO
x
rate of 85%
and an Hg
0
oxidation rate of 70%. If at some
time in the future the desired Hg
0
oxida-
tion rate were increased from 70% to 80%
at 70,000 hours of operation, then the cata-
lyst management plan would be modified
to increase the halogen injection (Figure 3,
middle). If the required removal rate were
to increase from 70% to 90% at 70,000 hour
of operation then a catalyst change would
be required (Figure 3, bottom). Note that
combinations of additives and catalyst de-
sign options would also be considered when
updating the catalyst management plan to
achieve the most cost-effective system or
to add additional operating flexibility to the
unit.
Figure 3 illustrates a single catalyst man-
agement plan responding to a hypothetical
change in the required mercury removal rate
in the future. There are many other combina-
tions available than just those illustrated. The
SCR can be tuned should Hg removal rates
be ratcheted up again in the future or if there
are other operating changes in the plant, such
as a fuel switch.
More aggressive emissions rules are likely
in the future, so the best upgrade path for
many plants is to keep their future options
open and capital costs low. COMET is a
highly flexible, cost-effective compliance
strategy for a unit, plant, or even an entire
fleet of coal-fired facilities.
Chris Bertole, PhD (bertolecj@cormetech.
com) is catalyst development manager and
Scot Pritchard (pritchardsg@cormetech.
com) is senior vice president, sales engi-
neering for Cormetech Inc.
Nol-Tec Systems, Inc. 425 Apollo Drive Lino Lakes, MN 55014
sales@nol-tec.com
MATS and MACT compliant mitigation of
Hg SO
2
SO
3
HCI HF
Dependable, continuous sorbent fow, with
redundant design as needed
Reliable automated operation and control, for
optimal performance and consistent costs
On-site, self-contained testing systems, to ensure
the precise results you need
When it has to work, when it has to last
Call 651-780-8600 today to begin an analysis
of your pollution mitigation needs.
With 30 years of industry experience, Nol-Tec
thoroughly understands air pollution migitation.
We design our dry sorbent injection systems to
suit your specifc control needs. Our experts look
at every variable to guarantee compliant levels
for your emissions.
And were there for you throughout the life of your
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www.nol-tec.com
Nol-Tec Systems
your parnter in handling success
CIRCLE 23 ON READER SERVICE CARD
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|
December 2013 50
WORKFORCE TRAINING
Power Plant Training Simulators
Explained
Faced with the necessity of doing more with lessand less-experiencedstaff, the
power business increasingly is turning to simulators for reliable and efficient
real-world training.
Richard W. Vesel
T
raining simulators are worth their
weight in gold to the power industry,
as well as to most process industries in
general. People tend to learn the fastest and
the most thoroughly when hands-on trial and
error is part of their training process. Opera-
tional errors made while engaged in training
simulations are cost-free and provide high-
return lesson events. Conversely, the results
of operator errors made during actual plant
operations can range from inefficient to cata-
strophic. Simulators can reduce the time for
training an operator from years to months,
and achieve it with far better thoroughness
and retention. With a built-in ability to re-
view, vary, and repeat operational scenarios
until they are cemented in the minds of op-
erators and operators-to-be, no power plant
should be without one.
Simulators come in many varieties,
where complexity and efficacy are ex-
changed for cost (Figure 1). Simulators
distinguish between emulation and virtual
simulation. Emulators do not physically
contain the same control system elements
or HMIs that the actual process controls
contain but merely mimic them with soft-
ware. A virtual simulator contains exactly
the same process controls and HMIs that
an operator will encounter in the real pro-
cess control room, and only the physical
processes themselves are simulated by
computer. The better the physical system
process simulation, the more realistic the
virtual simulator becomes, until using it
is almost indistinguishable from the real
plant control room experience.
The complexity and accuracy of this phys-
ical process simulation is characterized by
what is called the fidelity of the simulator.
Simulator fidelity is usually described as be-
ing low, medium, or high (Table 1). The best,
most process-realistic simulators are high fi-
delity, and as one might expect, they are also
the most expensive. Cost notwithstanding,
many users choose high-fidelity simulators
to train operators so that the trainees get as
deeply exposed to the plant as possible, with-
out actually touching it.
Simulators as a Critical Training
Tool
What are some of the benefits to having a
training simulator? Obviously, training is
faster and more effective, but this can provide
benefits across all plant operations.
For example, new operators can fill va-
cancies in the existing operator force more
quickly. This helps reduce the impact of
workforce turnovers and attrition. When
new equipment is installed, a simulator is
the fastest method of getting existing op-
erators familiar with new procedures. For
new plants, simulators can give operators
early hands-on experience, especially
with turnkey projects. Simulators can also
be used to let operators practice standard
operations. This means faster and more re-
liable startups, shutdowns, and runbacks.
Standardization of operating practices
through the use of simulators means that
operators who are identified as those with
best practices can train other staff mem-
bers in their methods.
And of course, simulators are ideal for
safely training operators to respond to abnor-
mal plant conditions. This means improved
operational flexibility and response times to
widely varying dispatch signals, a reduction in
abnormal operating situations, and a reduction
of unplanned outages due to operator errors
and unforeseen equipment trips.
Financial Returns from Simulator
Investments
Low-fidelity simulators are low six-figure in-
vestments, while a medium-fidelity simulator
will be in the mid six figures. A full high-
fidelity simulator will typically be in very
low seven-figure territory. From date of order
to delivery date, the typical simulator project
tends to run about three to six months.
1. Many options. A variety of simulator options are available. The best (and most expen-
sive) can exactly duplicate real plant processes and operations. Courtesy: ABB
December 2013
|
POWER www.powermag.com 51
WORKFORCE TRAINING
With even the basic benefits discussed
above, such as faster startups and reduced
outages, simulator projects are amongst the
easiest to justify. If a plant has had any sig-
nificant operator error events in its recent
history, eliminating these events can bring
immediate returns.
Best Practices for Incorporating
Simulators
The following are suggested approaches
for getting the most value from a simulator
investment:
Use the simulator to familiarize trainees
with plant systems, functions, and interac-
tions, as well as familiarization with HMIs
and process data views.
Use the simulator as a cross-training
tool for members of the plant engineering,
technical,and maintenance staffs.
Use the simulator as a key element of new
operator training:
Unit startup, shutdown, and steady state
operations
Normal responses to small or moderate
changes in demand
Unit runbacks and turndowns to lowest
stable levels of operation
Boiler efficiency and safety management
under normal conditions
Scheduling of routine intermittent opera-
tions such as soot-blowing
Use the simulator as the central element
for refresher or continuing education train-
ing for existing experienced operators:
Shift-to-shift transfer of best setup and
control strategy practices
Shift-to-shift transfer of abnormal situa-
tion responses
Advanced efficiency improvement topics
Retraining due to unit equipment modifi-
cations/additions
Focus on abnormal situational control,
with accident prevention and remediation:
Large tube leaks
Loss of large pump function
Loss of fan function
Loss of feedwater heater(s)
Loss of burner fuel flow (mill plugging,
etc.)
Boiler pressure control malfunction
Loss of automatic O
2
control
Loss of critical measurements
Boiler trip management
Fuel variability management
Alarm flooding scenarios
Use the simulator with plant technical
staff, or consulting suppliers, to assist with:
Review of existing control logic and pro-
cess responses
Replays of plant problem scenarios to im-
prove controls and responses
New control logic testing and debugging
Design and test of one-button startup/shut-
down controls
Alarm management studies and corrective
actions
Cross-training between specialists of dif-
ferent disciplines
Experiences on the simulator, when com-
bined with actual physical walkdowns, are
the fastest way to introduce a new hire or
transferee to the characteristics of a unit. The
practices outlined above will keep operations
staff at the best readiness to handle abnormal
situations when they occur. This is born out
by the experiences of simulator users not only
in fossil and nuclear power, but in all indus-
tries that must control large, complex equip-
ment, right up to airline pilots and astronauts.
Investments in training simulators continue
to grow, and they continue to provide ever-
greater possibilities to improve plant safety,
reliability, and profitable operation.
Richard W. Vesel is global product
manager for power generation energy
efficiency with ABB Power Generation,
North America.
Low fidelity Medium fidelity High fidelity
Benefits Lowest cost, fastest
delivery time
Moderate cost, moderate deliv-
ery schedule, greater process
simulation detail, unit startup
and shutdown simulations
Best possible process model,
most realistic operator experience
for startup, shutdown, dynamic
operations, runbacks/turndowns,
and plant performance tuning
Limitations Process model is static,
good for basic training
in HMI and controls
navigation.
Process model cannot handle
fast process dynamic responses,
runbacks to low levels, or
operational tuning for best unit
financial performance.
Highest investment cost, longest
project execution time
Table 1. Benefits and limitations of simulators vs. fidelity type. Courtesy:
ABB
CIRCLE 24 ON READER SERVICE CARD
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|
December 2013 52
OFFSHORE WIND
A Wind Energy Plan That Fits
Americas Resources
The U.S. lags far behind Europe in offshore wind power production due in part to
deepwater challenges. Using floating vertical axis wind turbines and energy
storage could be the nations best means to resolve technical and investment
issues and launch the fledgling sector.
Drew Devitt
A
merica is blessed with long coastlines
and relatively deep waters. But ironi-
cally, this has been a disadvantage to
the U.S. offshore wind industry. Compared to
more than 1,000 turbines that are already op-
erating in the relatively shallow waters around
the British Isles, and the significant offshore
wind turbine generating capacity in many other
European countries, only one offshore turbine
is operational in the U.S. today. This is in no
small part because shallow U.S. coastal waters
are relatively close to the shoreline, which is
problematic because it means offshore instal-
lations, limited by technical hurdles, must be
closer to people, migratory bird patterns, and
within state jurisdictions.
As for any new industry, it is a good idea
to get a big picture view of the sectors par-
ticular circumstances and objectives. First,
it is a given that renewable wind generation
should be relatively close to demand, yet not
in someones backyard. Several technical
trends are symbiotically conspiring to avoid
not in my back yard (NIMBY) issues and
dramatically change the offshore wind model
developed in Europe. These trends include
the development of floating wind turbines
as opposed to seafloor-supported designs,
the use of deep ocean water near U.S. coast-
lines as an effective head for energy storage,
and the use of direct current (DC) deepwater
cables in energy transmission. This article
shows how these technologies could work
together in the context of Americas natural
resources and political landscape.
The Case for Offshore Wind
Turbines
When used for offshore wind power produc-
tion, floating structures have the potential to
reach a much larger and significantly more
energetic wind resource than seafloor-mount-
ed turbines. At the same time, they increase
social acceptance because they allow turbines
to be installed far away from people.
Sandy Butterfield and his colleagues at
the National Renewable Energy Laboratory
(NREL) have published papers confirming
the huge potential advantages of floating wind
turbines, noting in 2010: The NREL has esti-
mated the offshore wind resource to be greater
than the 1000 GW of the continental United
States. The wind blows faster and more uni-
formly at sea than on land. A faster steadier
wind means less wear on turbine components
and more electricity generated per turbine.
The wind increases rapidly with distance from
the coast, so excellent wind sites exist within
reasonable distances from major urban load
centers reducing the onshore concern of long
distance power transmission.
To emphasize Butterfields point regard-
ing transmission, the best winds within the
continental U.S. are class 3 and 4 winds in
the Great Plains and Mountain States
but typically 1,500 miles from major load
centers. Comparatively, areas just 30 miles
offshore from major metropolitan hubs see
class 6 winds. This is significant because an
estimated 70% of U.S. electricity demand is
close to its coastlines and the Great Lakes.
It is also important to add that the energy in
wind increases as a cube function of its veloc-
ity, so wind of 6 meters per second (m/s) has
more than double the energy of wind at 4 m/s.
Also, wind velocity near the ocean surface is
higher than on land, as thermal boundary layers
created by the sun heating the land are elimi-
nated farther from shore. About 20 miles out to
sea, wind currents aloft sink and reattach to the
ocean surface, becoming trade winds. This re-
duces the need to elevate the turbine into the air
and improves its capacity factor.
Types of Wind Turbines
Wind turbines can have either a horizontal or
a vertical axis of rotation. Another important
point of differentiation is that wind turbines
employ two basic principles to capture en-
ergy from moving air: aerodynamic turbines
use low-pressure lift (like an airplane wing),
while impulse turbines use drag (like a water
wheel). The differentiating factor is that the
blade tip speed of aerodynamic turbines is a
multiple of the wind speed, but an impulse
turbine will not spin faster than the wind.
Aerodynamic turbines can be more efficient
than impulse turbines (Figure 1).
An anemometer, a device for measuring
wind speed, is an example of an impulse-
type device with a vertical axis of rotation
though vertical axis wind turbines (VAWTs)
may employ aerodynamic or impulse design.
Conventional horizontal axis wind turbines
(HAWTs) used widely at utility scale are
an example of aerodynamic turbines with
Betz max. efficiency 2-blade HAWT
aerodynamic 3-Blade HAWT aerodynamic
2-Blade Darrieus VAWT aerodynamic
2-Blade Dutch HAWT aerodynamic Multi-
blade American HAWT hybrid Multi-blade
Savonius VAWT impulse
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0
E
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y
(
%
)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1. Turbine efficiency by type. This
chart describes the efficiency of different types
of utility-scale wind turbines. The charts verti-
cal axis represents the turbines efficiency as a
percentage of the total energy in the wind. The
horizontal axis represents the relationship be-
tween wind speed and turbine tip speed. Aero-
dynamic turbine types have tip speeds of four
to seven times the wind speed, and impulse
turbines have tip speeds on the order of the
wind speed. Aerodynamic turbines are favored
because they have roughly twice the efficiency
of impulse-type turbines, but impulse turbines
have historically been used whenever cost,
reliability, or capacity factor is more important
than efficiency. Source: Jean Lucmenet
December 2013
|
POWER www.powermag.com 53
OFFSHORE WIND
tip speeds today reaching 100 m/s (360 ki-
lometers or 225 miles per hour). The old
four-bladed Dutch wind-powered mills and
water pumps that used cloth-covered, wood-
en-framed blades as well as the iconic Wild
West American multiblade wind turbines are
almost impulse type systems when consid-
ered in the context of todays modern aero-
dynamic HAWTs.
A lot of engineering and technical develop-
ment has gone into modern HAWTs in order
to drive their efficiencies to 45% at the high
end. The theoretical maximum efficiency is
limited by Betzs Law to 59%. A wind tur-
bine cannot be 100% efficient, as this would
imply that the air exiting the turbine would
have zero velocity and so would prevent oth-
er air from flowing through the turbine.
Efficiency factors can be misleading,
though, in that they presume a certain wind
speed, which is usually not noted. For in-
stance, a HAWT may have an efficiency of
45% for a wind speed of 14 m/s, but it would
not even spinmeaning it would have zero
efficiencywith a 5 m/s wind. HAWTs are
a logical optimization of the wind turbine
specifications. The energy in wind is a cubed
function of its velocity, so optimizing wind
turbine efficiencies for high wind speed re-
sults in large megawatt ratings. This works
well for the sales team when selling a turbine
based on its megawatt rating.
What should be considered instead are capac-
ity factors. Capacity factors are based on a power
curve for the particular wind turbine as well as
wind speed data from the proposed site where
the turbine will be installed. Capacity factors for
land-based wind turbines are typically claimed
to be 25% to 35%. Comparatively, gas or steam
turbine capacity factors approach 100%.
To maximize the capacity factors for
wind energy, the focus of the offshore wind
industry should change from the megawatt
rating of a turbine to useful load matching,
1,200
1,000
800
600
400
200
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22
H
o
u
r
s
p
e
r
y
e
a
r
420
350
280
210
140
70
0
E
n
e
r
g
y
(
k
W
h
)
Hours Energy
2. Time versus wind energy. This chart, showing the distribution of wind speeds with
respect to time, plots two years worth of wind speed data from a buoy at the mouth of the
Delaware Bay. Total hours that the wind blew at a particular speed are shown as a bar chart. To
show the energy that is contributed at each of the wind speeds, the power in the wind (a cubed
function of its velocity) is multiplied by the time that the wind blew at that speed. Notice that the
maximum energy was at 11 meters per second but that the wind blew at this speed only 4%
of the time. Half of the total energy for the year occurred on the high-speed side of the energy
peak during 15% of the total hours. Source: American Offshore Energy
CIRCLE 25 ON READER SERVICE CARD
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December 2013 54
OFFSHORE WIND
with more interest given to turbines opti-
mized for higher capacity factors in aver-
age wind speeds. In the current paradigm,
HAWTs have the highest efficiencies in the
higher wind speed ranges, and this results
in high megawatt ratings for the turbines
but low capacity factors, meaning that the
turbine will generate its rated capacity only
a small fraction of the time. This causes
spiky power, that is, much of a turbines
power is made over a relatively short period
of time (Figure 2). For this reason, wind
turbine electricity must be associated with
storage in order to be considered as a basel-
oad power source.
In comparison, VAWTs in an impulse con-
figuration have a relatively high efficiency in
lower wind speeds because they have higher
blade areas as a percentage of swept area. This
could be thought of as the barn door method
of collecting energy from the wind: Although
not as efficient at higher wind speeds, impulse
type VAWTs will make power most of the time
the wind is blowingmaking them more suit-
able to power companies and mitigating the
need for time shifting or storing wind energy.
However, utility-scale energy storage would
still be beneficial to any electrical grid if it can
be done cost effectively.
Ocean Energy Storage
Much has been invested in trying to develop
energy storage technologies as a way to more
evenly distribute renewable power across
time. So far, only compressed-air storage and
pumped-hydro storage have the capacity to
practically time shift utility-scale energy,
but both require specific geological features
that are generally not found close to major
load enters. If the electrical generation occurs
over deep ocean water, though, energy stor-
age becomes much more convenient.
In another significant advantage for floating
wind turbine technology, the pressure of the
deep ocean waters under the turbines can be
used for utility-scale energy storage. A number
of different engineering approaches to this have
been explored using air or water. Colorado-
based Bright Energy Storage, for instance, has
a plan to pump air into huge bags in deep water,
while Dr. Alexander Slocum, a mechanical en-
gineering professor at the Massachusetts Insti-
tute of Technology, suggests using excess wind
power to pump water from hollow concrete
spheres (made from fly ash) that are ballasted
by their own weight to the seafloor. Doubling
as an anchor for floating wind turbines, a 25-
meter-diameter sphere could store up to 10
MWh of power, depending on depth.
Pairing deepwater wind generation with
energy storage could make wind energy the
most flexible of all energy sources. A 1-MW
wind turbine that is able to produce 10 MWh
over 24 hours could sell all 10 MWh dur-
ing the hottest hour of the next day at peak
prices. Wind farm operators could even begin
bidding in the frequency regulation market,
where the price per kilowatt-hour is five to
10 times the price that can be negotiated in
power purchase agreements. This would both
improve returns for investors and provide an
environmental bonus because turbines that
now provide frequency regulation, being
smaller and more flexible, have fewer pollu-
tion controls. It is good for everyone when
clean flexible power is worth more.
Addressing Transmission
Concerns
But to accomplish frequency regulation from
the deep ocean, transmission capabilities are
obviously required. Several developments
have been made here, too. Trans-Elect Devel-
opment Co. has proposed the Atlantic Wind
Connection (AWC), a 6,000-MW transmis-
sion backbone running from Virginia to
northern New Jersey, some 30 to 50 miles
out in the Atlantic Ocean. That $5 billion
plan has attracted more than $500 million
control You
CAN
dust & spillage.
call 800.544.2947
visit martin-eng.com
email info@martin-eng.com
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December 2013
|
POWER www.powermag.com 59
EVENTS
Coal in Favor as Malaysia
Increases Its Installed Capacity
Attendees at the third annual Asian Sub-Bituminous Coal Users Group learned de-
tails about Southeast Asias first 1-GW supercritical coal-fired power plant and
heard of plans to expand coals use further across the region.
By David Wagman
M
alaysias largest power provider
considers coal to be an important
fuel for future growth as the South-
east Asian nation of nearly 30 million people
works to diversify its generation portfolio
away from natural gas even as it meets grow-
ing demand for electricity.
Attendees at the third annual Asian Sub-
Bituminous Coal Users Group (ASBCUG)
in George Town, Penang, Malaysia (Figure
1) in October saw evidence of that com-
mitment to coal during a visit to the Stesen
Janakuasa Sultan Azlan Shah power plant, a
3 x 700-MW coal-fired power plant equipped
with Alstom turbines that entered service in
2003. The power plant is sited on reclaimed
land next to the Straits of Malacca on the
countrys west coast. Work is underway at
an adjacent location on a 1,000-MW super-
critical coal-fired unitalso using Alstom
technologythat is slated to enter service in
March 2015. Conference attendees also heard
Tenaga Nasional Bhd (TNB) Vice President
of Generation Zainuddin Ibrahim say that
the company will build two more 1,000-MW
coal-fired power plants by 2017.
Zainuddin said Malaysias electricity de-
mand is growing at a 2.9% annual rate and
that TNB currently generates 35% to 40%
of its electricity from coal, 50% from natu-
ral gas, and the remainder from renewable
energy, including hydroelectricity. Asia as a
whole obtains around two-thirds of its elec-
tricity from coal-fired power plants, he said.
Our aim is to give the most cost-efficient
supply of electricity, Zainuddin told report-
ers on the sidelines of the annual conference,
which is organized by TradeFair Group, pub-
lisher of POWER. He said coal ranks as one
of Malaysias most important energy sources
and that more than 80% of the fuel is imported
from Indonesia, South Africa, and Australia.
TNB is the countrys largest utility and
is one of the ASBCUGs founding utilities.
Other founders include CLP Power Hong
Kong, the Electricity Generating Public Co.
Ltd. (EGCO) of Thailand, Hong Kong Elec-
tric, Taiwan Power, Korea Southeast Power
(KOSEP), and the U.S.-based Powder River
Basin Coal Users Group.
Coal Plant Visit
Two motor coaches took ASBCUG attend-
ees to TNBs 2,100-MW Stesen Janakuasa
Sultan Azlan Shah power plant (Figure 2),
a three-hour drive from the UNESCO World
Heritage city of George Town. The power
plants three subcritical units entered service
between April and September 2003 and oper-
ate with main steam and reheat steam tem-
peratures of 540C. The boilers are two-pass,
drum-type boilers with seven elevations of
tangential firing coal burners and four eleva-
tions of distillate oil burners. At 100% load
the station burns 320 tons of coal per hour.
The stations coal yard can accommodate a
30-day supply of coal.
Since the station entered service, op-
erators have burned 43 different brands of
bituminous and subbituminous coal. That
represents a total burn of around 48.4 million
tons of subbituminous coal and 9.1 million
tons of bituminous coal.
Azizul Othman, operations manager,
said the plant meets World Bank standards
for emissions. It achieves those standards
by using flue gas desulfurization and elec-
trostatic precipitators. Low-NO
X
burners as
well as low-sulfur subbituminous coal also
help achieve emission goals, which are 50
mg/Nm
3
for particulates, 750 mg/Nm
3
for
sulfur dioxide, and 650 mg/Nm
3
for nitrogen
oxide. The plant does no on-site coal blend-
ing. Instead, ships holds are unloaded at an
offshore jetty and the coal is conveyed to the
plants coal yard. The plants boilers then
burn one shipload of coal at a time.
Nearby, work is underway on what is
expected to be Southeast Asias first super-
critical coal-fired boiler at the 1,000-MW
Manjung 4 unit. Work on the project began
in March 2011, and the facility is expected
to begin producing electricity for Malaysias
national grid in early 2015, said Rosli Mo-
hammad Appandi, who heads TNBs boiler,
coal, and ash operations. The unit is expected
to be anywhere from 37% to 41% efficient
and achieve a heat rate ranging from 9,200
1. UNESCO World Heritage Site. The third annual Asian Subbituminous Coal Users
Group met in George Town, Penang, Malaysia. The 2014 conference will take place in Bangkok,
Thailand. Source: David Wagman
www.powermag.com POWER
|
December 2013 60
EVENTS
Btu/kWh to 8,300 Btu/kWh. The 80-meter-
tall two-pass boiler will be equipped with
a pulverizer and dynamic classifier. Fabric
filters will be installed to handle particulate
control instead of electrostatic precipitators.
Appandi said the units personnel are cur-
rently in training using both simulators and
on-site training at an overseas power plant.
As required by the project lender, TNB has
also hired a technical service advisor to assist
with power plant operations for its first two
years of service.
Coordinating with Malaysias national
load dispatch center is likely to be complex,
he said, since this will be the first time that 1
GW of capacity will come from a single unit.
Not surprisingly, the unit runs best at basel-
oad, and Appandi said any request to reduce
the plants output could negatively impact
its overall efficiency. A second challenge in-
volves preparing contingency plans should
the unit trip offline.
Mercury Strategies
Mercury emissions also were a topic of dis-
cussion during the two-day conference. The
Minamata Convention on Mercury, named
after a Japanese city where industrial emis-
sions of mercury caused a poisoning disease
that affected thousands of people, was signed
by multiple nations in early October. It aims
to prevent health damage and environmental
pollution. The convention was adopted at an
international conference organized by the
United Nations (UN) Environment Program
and drew delegates from 140 nations.
The pact will take effect 90 days after it is
ratified by at least 50 nations and maps out
measures to curb health and environmental
damage caused by mercury. Lesley Sloss,
principal environmental consultant for the
International Energy Agencys Clean Coal
Center, told ASBCUG attendees that the
UN Environmental Program had named
mercury as the greatest danger globally,
2. Emission standards. Azizul Othman, operations manager at the 2,100-MW coal-
fired Stesen Janakuasa Sultan Azlan Shah power plant in Malaysia, said the plant achieves
World Bank emission standards by using flue gas desulfurization and electrostatic precipitators.
Source: David Wagman
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|
POWER www.powermag.com 61
EVENTS
and that perhaps 25% of mercury releases
to the environment may come from power
plants. She said Asia is a primary focus for
mercury reductions given the amount of
coal burned for power production across
the region.
She said that although the United States
was among the first to initiate mercury con-
trols, Canada was the first to adopt emission
limits in 2010. Ontario complied in part by
closing all of its coal-fired power plants, she
said. (For more on Ontarios coal phaseout,
see Ontario Goes Coal-Free in a Decade in
the May issue of POWER.)
The U.S. emission standards are par-
ticularly stringent and require mercury
reductions of between 90% and 95%, she
said. The standard was set based on emis-
sions from the top 12 performing coal-fired
plants, and compliance may be achieved
through approaches that include both wet
and dry flue gas desulfurization, dry sor-
bent injection, selective catalytic reduction
(SCR), activated carbon injection, and bag-
house and fabric filters. (See Optimized
SCR Catalysts Maximize Mercury Removal
Co-Benefits in this issue.)
Sloss said that many U.S. power gen-
erators have found compliance to require a
significant investment, but that compliance
with the Minamata Convention standards
may be a less-expensive undertaking. Rela-
tively simple steps such as fuel switching,
operating adjustments, and coal washing may
be effective mitigation tools. Sloss said that a
5% to 10% blend of bituminous with subbi-
tuminous coal could add sufficient amounts
of chlorine and potassium to enhance mer-
curys conversion to an oxidized state, which
may be captured at rates of up to 90%.
Other Regional Coal-Burning
Concerns
Attendees also heard Rod Hatt, president of
Coal Combustion Inc., discuss challenges
operators face due to variations in coal qual-
ity. He said that because coal originates from
fossilized swamps, wide variability in coal
quality should be expected, even from a
single seam in a mine. Whats more, he said
sampling techniques and standards have not
evolved much over the decade. This means
that broad variations in coal quality may exist
but remain unidentified.
As one example, he said that coal volatil-
ity refers to the amount of smoke a particular
coal produces, a gauge first identified in the
mid-1800s by naval commanders and used
as a means to measure how visible their war-
ships might be under full steam. Were us-
ing 1880s technology in 2013, he said.
Doug Hart, firing systems manager at Al-
stom Power, extended the discussion about
coal to note that low-rank coals tend to burn
easier, but they also may spontaneously com-
bust on the coal pile. He said subbituminous
coal produces lower NO
X
and SO
2
emissions,
but at the expense of a lower heat value and
higher moisture content. Hatt said that lower
NO
X
can detune a boiler and increase the
amount of slagging. Combustion efficiency
also may be affected, he said.
Hart pointed to a variety of systems that
may need to be modified or upgraded by a
power plant that burns subbituminous coal.
Those systems include mills, high-velocity
coal piping, burners, the furnace, air heaters,
and induction fans.
The 2014 Asian Sub-bituminous Coal Us-
ers Group conference will be held in Bang-
kok, Thailand. Visit www.asiansbcusers.com
for details.
David Wagman is content director
for the ELECTRIC POWER Conference,
which takes place April 13, 2014, in New
Orleans. Visit www.electricpowerexpo.
com for details.
For more information, call Wrights Media
at 877.652.5295 or visit our website at
www.wrightsmedia.com
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