Paper On Super Critical Technology and Analysis For Indian Environment

Analysis of Supercritical technology in Indian Environment and Utilizing Indian coal
Boben Anto C Head of Plant services Evoni Energy Services India !td Prof" # # Hasan #echanical Engineering dept $amia Islamiya %e& 'elhi
'ESI(%) I%S*A!!A*I+% , +PE-A*I+% +. SUPE-C-I*ICA! P+/E- P!A%*S
*AB!E +. C+%*E%*S
SEC*I+%S PA(E INTRODUCTION.....................................................................9
ASSI(%#E%* A%' +B$EC*I0ES111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111123 APP-+ACH A%' #E*H+'+!+(5111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111123
Assignment1111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111123 +b4ectives111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111123 'ata Collection1111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111123 Choice of supercritical technology 1111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111122 'esign Issues1111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111122 Implementation Issues11111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111122 +perational Issues11111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111122 Environment Issues1111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111122 'evelopment of Simulation #odels 11111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111126
EVOLUTION OF TECHNOLOGY ..............................................14

%EE' .+- I%C-EASI%( E..ICIE%C511111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111127 'E0E!+P#E%* +. SUPE-C-I*ICA! *ECH%+!+(5 111111111111111111111111111111111111128
*echnology evolution in U1S1A111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111128 *echnology evolution in Europe and $apan1111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111129 21212*echnology evolution in China 111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111:3 'evelopment of supercritical technology in India1111111111111111111111111111111111111111111:3 'evelopment prospects1111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111:3
POPULATION OF SUPERCRITICAL PLANTS .............................23

P-+P+SE' A%' U%'E- C+%S*-UC*I+% SUPE-C-I*ICA! P!A%*S I% I%'IA 111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111:; SUPE-C-I*ICA! P!A%*S I% +*HE- C+U%*-IES111111111111111111111111111111111111111111:<
AVAILABILITY OF MANUFACTURES OF SUPERCRITICAL PLANTS ..................................................................................34 SPECIAL MATERIALS FOR SUPERCRITICAL PLANTS.................37
B+I!E-11111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111 69
#aterials for Boilers in Ultra Supercritical Po&er Plants111111111111111111111111111111111169 Boiler #aterials -e=uirements111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111;3 Historical Evolution of Steels111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111;2 Evolution of .erritic Steels111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111;6 Evolution of Austenitic Steels11111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111;< Choice of #aterials for Headers and Steam Pipes111111111111111111111111111111111111111111173 Choice of #aterials for Superheater>-eheater *ubes111111111111111111111111111111111111117; Creep -upture Strength111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111177 .ire?side Corrosion1111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111117@ Steam?side oAidation11111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111<2 Summary of SH>-H *ube?#aterial Status11111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111<2 Choice of #aterials for /ater&alls111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111<6 /ater&all Corrosion Concerns11111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111<6 Summary11111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111<; #aterials for *urbines in Ultra Supercritical Po&er Plants1111111111111111111111111111111<9 #aterials for Casings and Shells111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111<9 #aterials for Bolting111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111183 #aterials for -otors>discs1111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111182 #aterials for Blading11111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111182 Summary111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111118: -ole of o&ner of plant11111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111118:
*U-BI%E111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111<9
E3;3> -EP+-*Boben Anto C
PA(E : +. 2<6
OPERATIONAL FLEXIBILITY AND PERFORMANCE OF SUPERCRITICAL PLANTS...............................................76

+PE-A*I+%A! .!EBIBI!I*5 +. SUPE-C-I*ICA! P!A%*S11111111111111111111111111111188
Start?up fleAibility in supercritical boilers1111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111188 Shorter start?up times111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111189 .leAibility for !oad Changes111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111199 .uel fleAibility11111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111119@ /ater Chemistry1111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111119@ Higher efficiency1111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111119@
6.1.7 PROBLEMS FACED BY SUPERCRITICAL PLANTS IN INDIA IMPACT OF FIRING INDIAN COAL ON AVAILABILITY OF SUPER AND ULTRA SUPER CRITICAL BOILERS ...............91
+ther operational problems1111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111@< High availability1111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111123@ Improved cost effectiveness111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111123@ <1212: -eliability11111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111123@ Assumptions for Plant Parameters1111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111223 Coal Analysis1111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111222 Ambient Conditions11111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111122: Performance #odelling -esults11111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111122:
+PE-A*I+%A! PE-.+-#A%CE +. SUPE-C-I*ICA! P!A%*S1111111111111111111111223
DESIGN ISSUES.................................................................11
!A5+U* A%' C!EA-A%CES1111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111122<
Plant !ayout1111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111122< Pipe !ayout 11111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111228 *ypical !ongitudinal Sectional 0ie& 1111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111228
B+I!E- C+%.I(U-A*I+% A%' *ECH%ICA! .EA*U-ES11111111111111111111111111111122@

*&o path>*o&er type11111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111122@ Constant Pressure > Sliding C0ariableD Pressure *ype11111111111111111111111111111111111122@ Spiral *ype11111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111112::
*UBE !A5+U*111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111112:6 B.P , HP B5 PASS S5S*E#111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111112:6 I#P-+0E#E%* I% C+#BUS*I+% S5S*E#111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111112:< +PE-A*I+% I% I%'IA% C+%'I*I+%S11111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111112:8 E!EC*-+?S*A*IC P-ECIPI*A*+- CESPD1111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111112:@ #I!!S 2:@ 'ESI(% .EA*U-ES +. *U-BI%ES11111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111263
#aterials for High *emperature11111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111262 #aterials for High *emperature11111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111262 Continuous Cover Blade CCCBD111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111126: *andem?Compound High Supercritical S*( 111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111266
#A*U-I*5 +. SUPE-C-I*ICA! *ECH%+!+(511111111111111111111111111111111111111111111267
IMPLEMENTATION ISSUES..................................................136
I%*-+'UC*I+%1111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111126< *ECH%+!+(5 ISSUES111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111126<
/ater&all Crac ing111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111268 %egative .lo& Characteristic 1111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111268 Slagging11111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111269 /elding of Special #aterials1111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111269 *ube Spacing to Handle Indian Coal111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111126@ Height of Structure11111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111126@
+*HE- ISSUES ASS+CIA*E' /I*H 'EP!+5#E%* +. SC *ECH%+!+(5 I% I%'IA111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111126@

*ransportation of #a4or E=uipment11111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111126@ #aterial Handling1111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111112;3
PA(E 6 +. 2<6
'ESI(%) I%S*A!!A*I+% , +PE-A*I+% +. SUPE-C-I*ICA! P+/E- P!A%*S (rid Code1111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111112;3 S illed #anpo&er1111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111112;3 Coal Euality and Boiler Performance1111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111112;3 Environmental Benefits1111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111112;2 Socio?economic Benefits11111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111112;:
OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE ISSUES..............................143

SUPE- C-I*ICA! *ECH%+!+(5 I% I%'IA% A#BIE%* C+%'I*I+%S and I%'IA% C+A!S1111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111112;; +PE-A*I+% A%' #AI%*E%A%CE ISSUES .+- SUPE- A%' U!*-A SUPEC-I*ICA! *ECH%+!+(5 I% I%'IA11111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111112;7
'esign and manufacture of components for supercritical coal fired plants in developing countries111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111112;7 Availability of contractor for maintenance11111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111112;7 Availability of Critical Spare) *ools and *ac les in India111111111111111111111111111111112;7 Status of super and ultra super critical boiler manufacturers > suppliers1111112;<
ENVIRONMENT ISSUES.......................................................147
I%*-+'UC*I+%111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111112;9 I%'IA% S*A%'A-'S11111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111112;9
Ambient Air Euality Standards11111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111112;9 .lue (as Emission Standards1111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111112;9 /aste&ater Euality Standards11111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111112;@ %oise Standards11111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111273 C+: Emissions -esults1111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111273 +ther Emission -esults111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111273 %itrogen oAides Emissions1111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111272 Sulphur oAides Emissions11111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111127: Particulate Emissions11111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111127:
E#ISSI+%S -ESU!*S 11111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111273
APP!ICABI!I*5 +. S*A%'A-'S A%' C+#P!IA%CE11111111111111111111111111111111111276 C'# ISSUES 11111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111127;

#ethodology 11111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111127; Applicability Conditions111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111277
COST IMPLICATION OF TECHNOLOGY IN INDIA.....................1 7 REFERENCE.......................................................................161 LIST OF ABBREVIATION......................................................162 !IS* +. *AB!ES T!"#$ 2-1% C#!&&'(')!*'+, (+- C+!# F'-$. P#!,*&.......................1 T!"#$ 3-2% L'&* +( U#*-! M$/! P+0$- P-+1$)*& ', I,.'!.............24 T!"#$ 3-3% L'&* +( U,.$- C+,&*-2)*'+, S23$-)-'*')!# T4$-5!# P+0$- S*!*'+,& ', I,.'!................................................24 T!"#$ 3-4% L'&* +( P-+3+&$. S23$-)-'*')!# P+0$- S*!*'+,& ', I,.'!...........................................................................2 T!"#$ 3- % S23$-)-'*')!# P+0$- P#!,*& ', *4$ 6+-#.................27 T!"#$ 3-6% S23$-)-'*')!# P+0$- P#!,*& +( $!)4 E#$)*-') P+0$- C+. ..................................................................................27 T!"#$ 3-7% S*$!5 P!-!5$*$-& +( S23$-)-'*')!# P#!,*& ', 8!3!, 27 T!"#$ 3-7% A.9!,)$. S23$-)-'*')!# P#!,*& ', 8!3!,.................27
PA(E ; +. 2<6
T!"#$ 3-9% S*$!5 P!-!5$*$-& +( S23$-)-'*')!# P#!,*& ', USA...29 T!"#$ 3-1:% S*$!5 P!-!5$*$-& +( S23$-)-'*')!# P#!,*& ', G$-5!,;.....................................................................29 T!"#$ 3-11% A.9!,)$. S23$-)-'*')!# P#!,*& ', G$-5!,;..........29 T!"#$ 3-12% S*$!5 P!-!5$*$-& +( S23$-)-'*')!# P#!,*& ', R2&&'! ..................................................................................3: T!"#$ 3-13% S*$!5 P!-!5$*$-& +( S23$-)-'*')!# P#!,*& ', C4',! ..................................................................................3: T!"#$ 3-14% A9!'#!"'#'*; F!)*+- <=> 1972-1974.......................32 T!"#$ 3-1 % A9!'#!"'#'*; F!)*+- <=> 1977-1997.......................32 T!"#$ 3-16% A9!'#!"'#'*; F!)*+- <=> ', 19 4............................32 T!"#$ -17% S*$!5 )+,.'*'+,& (+- )+!#-('-$. 3#!,*& ', EPRI 3-+/-!5.....................................................................39 T!"#$ -17% E9+#2*'+, +( F+2- G$,$-!*'+,& +( F$--'*') S*$$#&. .42 T!"#$ -19% N+5',!# C4$5')!# C+53+&'*'+,& +( F$--'*') S*$$#& (+- B+'#$-&...................................................................4 T!"#$ -2:% N+5',!# C4$5')!# C+53+&'*'+,& +( A2&*$,'*') S*$$#& (+- B+'#$- <0*=>.................................................47 T!"#$ -21% C!,.'.!*$ M!*$-'!#& (+- A.9!,)$. S23$-)-'*')!# P#!,*& (+- V!-'+2& S*$!5 C+,.'*'+,&.............................49 T!"#$ -22% A33#')!*'+, +( N$0 T2,/&*$,-B$!-',/ S*$$#& ', E2-+3$!, P+0$- S*!*'+,&............................................. 4 T!"#$ -23% C4$5')!# C+53+&'*'+,& +( A##+;& )+,&'.$-$. (+S*$!5 T2-"',$& <', 0$'/4* 3$-)$,*>..............................73 T!"#$ -24% M!*$-'!#& S$#$)*'+, (+- *4$ H'/4-P-$&&2-$ S*$!5 T2-"',$.......................................................................73 T!"#$ -2 % R!,?',/ !,. D$9$#+35$,* E((+-* N$$.$. (+M!*$-'!#& (+- T2-"',$&.................................................7 T!"#$ 6-26% A9!'#!"'#'*; +( S23$-)-'*')!# P#!,*&....................1:9 T!"#$ 6-27% C;)#$ C+,.'*'+,& (+- *4$ C+!# F'-$. P#!,* O3*'+,& ................................................................................11: T!"#$ 6-27% P-+@'5!*$ A,!#;&'& (+- D+5$&*') C+!#...............111 T!"#$ 6-29% T;3')!# U#*'5!*$ A,!#;&'& <!& -$)$'9$. "!&'&> (+D+5$&*') C+!#...........................................................111 T!"#$ 6-3:%C+55+, A5"'$,* C+,.'*'+,&.............................112 T!"#$ 6-31% T2-"',$ P$-(+-5!,)$ E&*'5!*$& <D+5$&*') C+!#A 1::= MCR>...............................................................113 T!"#$ 6-32% P#!,* P$-(+-5!,)$ E&*'5!*$& 2&',/ D+5$&*') C+!# <LHV "!&'&A 1::= MCR>..............................................113
PA(E 7 +. 2<6
T!"#$ 6-33% P#!,* P$-(+-5!,)$ E&*'5!*$& 2&',/ .+5$&*') C+!# <HHV "!&'&A 1::= MCR>.............................................113 T!"#$ 6-34% C+!#A A&4 B 6!*$- C+,&253*'+,CP-+.2)*'+, E&*'5!*$& <-$#$9!,* 2,'* &'D$A 1::= MCR>...................114 T!"#$ 7-3 % L',$-23 +( LSB 0'*4 CSB S*-2)*2-$....................133 T!"#$ 1:-36% A5"'$,* A'- E2!#'*; S*!,.!-.&........................147 T!"#$ 1:-37% F#2$ G!& E5'&&'+, S*!,.!-.&..........................147 T!"#$ 1:-37% 6!&*$0!*$- S*!,.!-.&...................................149 T!"#$ 1:-39% N+'&$ S*!,.!-.&.............................................1 : T!"#$ 1:-4:% CO2 E5'&&'+, E&*'5!*$& <1::= MCR>...............1 : T!"#$ 1:-41% CO2 E5'&&'+, R$.2)*'+, = E&*'5!*$& R$#!*'9$ *+ B!&$ S2")-'*')!# P#!,* <1::= MCR>.............................1 : T!"#$ 1:-42% NO@ E5'&&'+, L'5'*& (+- N$0 C+!# F'-$. P+0$S*!*'+,&....................................................................1 2 T!"#$ 1:-43% SO@ E5'&&'+, L'5'*& (+- N$0 C+!# F'-$. P+0$S*!*'+,&....................................................................1 2 T!"#$ 1:-44% P!-*')2#!*$ E5'&&'+, L'5'*& (+- N$0 C+!# F'-$. P+0$- S*!*'+,&..........................................................1 3 T!"#$ 11-4 % P#!,* C4!-!)*$-'&*')&......................................1 7 T!"#$ 11-46% P#!,* $F2'35$,* )!3'*!# )+&*& 3$- 2,'*............1 7 T!"#$ 11-47% O*4$- C!3'*!# C+&*&........................................1 9 T!"#$ 11-47% C!3'*!# !,. S3$)'(') C!3'*!# C+&* (+- E!)4 U,'* S'D$ ................................................................................1 9 T!"#$ 11-49% C!3'*!# !,. S3$)'(') C!3'*!# C+&* (+- *0+ 2,'*&. 16: T!"#$ 11- :% OBM C+&*& G F'@$. !,. V!-'!"#$ (+- E!)4 U,'* S'D$ ................................................................................16: !IS* +. .I(U-ES F'/2-$ 2-1% E((')'$,); P$-(+-5!,)$ ', G$-5!,; TPS..............16 F'/2-$ 2-2% 6+-#.0'.$ I,*-+.2)$ S23$-)-'*')!# T$)4,+#+/;.....21 F'/2-$ 3-3% C!3!)'*; +( SC B USC P+0$- P#!,*& 6+-#.0'.$.....27 F'/2-$ -4% I53-+9$5$,* ', 4$!* -!*$ <$((')'$,);> !)4'$9$. "; ',)-$!&',/ &*$!5 *$53$-!*2-$ !,. &',/#$ !,. .+2"#$ );)#$& A )+53!-$. *+ *4$ "!&$ )!&$ +( 3 HCC179 ?/C)52. ..................................................................................37 F'/2-$ - % H'&*+-') $9+#!*'+, +( 5!*$-'!#& ', *$-5& +( ',)-$!&',/ )-$$3 -23*2-$ &*-$,/*4................................42 F'/2-$ -6% E9+#2*'+, +( ($--'*') &*$$#& (+- "+'#$-....................44
PA(E < +. 2<6
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-7% E9!#2!*'+, +( !2*4$,*') &*$$#& (+- "+'#$-..............49
F'/2-$ -7% C+53!-'&+, +( !##+0!"#$ &*-$&& +( ($--'*') &*$$#& (+"+'#$- ......................................................................... 2 F'/2-$ -9% C+53!-'&+, +( !##+0!"#$ &*-$&&$& !,. &$)*'+,!# 9'$0 +( 5!', &*$!5 3'3$& .$&'/,$. !* 7:HC !,. 6::HC 3 F'/2-$ -1:% C+&* +( P-22A P-91 !,. P-122 &*$$#& 4$!.$5!*$-'!#& !& ! (2,)*'+, +( *$53$-!*2-$ !* 316 ?/C)52 &*$!5 3-$&&2-$........................................................... 3 F'/2-$ -11% C+53!-'&+, +( !##+0!"#$ &*-$&&$& 17C--17N' !,. 1 C- &*$$#&................................................................. 6 F'/2-$ -12% C+53!-'&+, +( !##+0!"#$ &*-$&&$& (+- !2&*$,'*') !##+;& )+,*!',',/ 5+-$ *4!, 2:= C-.............................. 7 F'/2-$ -13% A##+0!"#$ 5$*!# *$53$-!*2-$& !* )+,&*!,* !##+0!"#$ &*-$&& +( :: ?/C)52 <7?&'> !& ! (2,)*'+, +( )4-+5'25 )+,*$,* (+- 9!-'+2& !##+;&............................. 7 F'/2-$ -14% R$#!*'+,&4'3 "$*0$$, 4+*-)+--+&'+, 0$'/4* #+&& !,. *$53$-!*2-$ (+- ($--'*') &*$$#&............................... 7 F'/2-$ -1 % R$#!*'+,&4'3 "$*0$$, 4+*-)+--+&'+, 0$'/4* #+&& !,. )4-+5'25 )+,*$,* (+- 9!-'+2& !##+;&...................... 9 F'/2-$ -16% C+53!-'&+, +( ('-$ &'.$ )+--+&'+, -$&'&*!,)$ +( 9!-'+2& !##+;&..............................................................6: F'/2-$ -17% C+--+&'+, +( &*$$#& )+,*!',',/ :. -17= C- 2,.$F$S )+,*!',',/ .$3+&'*& ', +@'.'D',/ (#2$ /!&................64 F'/2-$ -17% M!*$-'!#& D$9$#+35$,* S*!/$& !,. R$#!*$. S*$!5 P!-!5$*$-& L'5'*&.......................................................66 F'/2-$ -19% P#+* +( C-$$3 R23*2-$ S*-$&& V$-&2& L!-&+,-M'##$P!-!5$*$-..................................................................69 F'/2-$ 6-2:% C4!-* P-$&$,*& H'/4$- E((')'$,);.......................9: F'/2-$ 7-21% S*!,.!-. *0+ 2,'* #!;+2*................................116 F'/2-$ 7-22% T4-$$ .'5$,&'+,!# 5+.$# +( 3'3$ #!;+2* ..........117 F'/2-$ 7-23% T2-"',$ 4!##...................................................117 F'/2-$ 7-24% L+,/'*2.',!# S$)*'+,!# 9'$0............................117 F'/2-$ 7-2 % P#+* !##+)!*'+,...............................................117 F'/2-$ 7-26% C+,&*!,* P-$&&2-$ P-+/-!5 (+- C-E T;3$..........12: F'/2-$ 7-27% C+,&*!,* P-$&&2-$ D'!/-!5 +( C-E T;3$...........12: F'/2-$ 7-27% S#'.',/ <V!-'!"#$> P-$&&2-$ P-+/-!5 (+- C-E T;3$ ................................................................................121 F'/2-$ 7-29%F2-,!)$ C+,('/2-!*'+,.....................................121 F'/2-$ 7-3:% B!&') P-',)'3#$ +( S3'-!#-0!## F2-,!)$..............122
PA(E 8 +. 2<6
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612 61: 616 61; 617 61< 633 #/ or +ver Coal .ired Supercritical Po&er Plants since 2@97 /orld&ide 633 #/ or +ver Supercritical Po&er Plants in $apan 633 #/ or +ver Supercritical Po&er Plants in (ermany 633 #/ or +ver Supercritical Po&er Plants in -ussia 633 #/ or +ver Supercritical Po&er Plants in China 633 #/ or +ver Supercritical Po&er Plants in +ther Countries
PA(E 9 +. 2<6
I%*-+'UC*I+%
PA(E @ +. 2<6
I%*-+'UC*I+% ASSI(%#E%* A%' +B$EC*I0ES Assignment

*he primary purpose of the study is to assess &hether supercritical thermal plant technology is a proven and mature commercial technology and &hether modern supercritical po&er plants installed in India &ill have a robust availability and reliability1
+b4ectives
*he ob4ective of the study is to provide a comprehensive report regarding supercritical technology specifically in the conteAt of setting up supercritical thermal po&er plants in India1 *he report shall include =ualitative and =uantitative analysis of the issues and ris s involved &hich &ould assist the o&ner in ta ing an appropriate investment decision regarding setting up a supercritical po&er plant at a suitable location in India1 *he study &ill address the follo&ing issues1 21 Evaluation of the current state of supercritical technology &ith respect to typical range of steam pressure and temperature and efficiency of plant1 :1 'esign related issues that differentiate supercritical technology from sub?critical technology such as sliding pressure versus constant pressure) feed &ater =uality) startup time and ramp?up rates1 61 Adaptability of technology to Indian conditions1 Effect of use of Indian coal on cost and performance1 ;1 +perational issues) brea do&ns) outages in Indian conditions) availability of spares1 71 Suggest range of parameters to be adopted for proposed plant1 Provide assessment of design areas re=uiring focus during manufacture and installation of plant and eAecution of pro4ect1 <1 #aterials of constructionF availability in India1 81 Availability of plants from Indian and foreign manufacturers 91 Ability of supercritical technology in meeting Indian environmental regulations and /orld Ban norms1
APP-+ACH A%' #E*H+'+!+(5 'ata Collection

*he eAperience of supercritical thermal po&er plants in India is limited1 /hile &or in various stages is in progress at a fe& supercritical plants) none of them has been commissioned as yet1 Supercritical technology) ho&ever) has been an established technology in (ermany) -ussia and eastern bloc countries) $apan) China and U1S1A1
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'ata shall be collected for supercritical plants under construction in India1 Information about proposed supercritical plants &ill be collected) also) to the eAtent it is available1 Information about plants in other countries &ill be obtained from conference papers) internet) published literature and from our parent company in (ermany1
Choice of supercritical technology

*he evolution of supercritical technology &orld&ide and the driving forces contributing to its adoption &ill be described1 *he reasons for developers in India no& preferring supercritical technology for the establishment of large capacity po&er plants in preference to the currently prevalent sub?critical technology &ill be analysed1
'esign Issues
*he current state of supercritical technology &ith respect to typical range of steam temperature) pressure and efficiency of the po&er bloc &ill be studied1 *he impact of plant design data and operating parameters of the plant on design margin of various plant auAiliaries &ill be assessed1 *ypical design related issues that differentiate supercritical technology from subcritical technology such as sliding pressure versus constant pressure) feed &ater =uality) startup time and ramp?up rates &ill be studied specifically1 *he progressive improvement in materials of construction of supercritical plants to bring greater stability and increase operational efficiency &ill be studied1
Implementation Issues
EAperience of construction of supercritical po&er plants in India is limited and problems li ely to arise during construction need to assessed beforehand1 Some issues such as &elding of special materials are li ely to arise on account of special design of e=uipment1 *ransport of heavy e=uipment from manufacturerGs &or shops to plant site re=uires proper route survey and handling facilities at points of transfer1 -e=uirements of s illed manpo&er during construction period &ill be assessed to enable its availability in time1
+perational Issues
*he data collected and information gathered from different sources &ill be analysed for availability and reliability achieved and for brea do&ns and outages suffered by supercritical plants during their operation1 *he causes of brea do&ns and outages as also) causes of poor performance regarding availability &ill be sought from the data gathered and &ays to mitigate them &ill be suggested1 +ther problems faced in maintenance and operation such as lac of eAperienced personnel) problems of spares and availability of eAperienced contractors for maintaining large supercritical po&er stations &ill be studied1
Environment Issues
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+ne of the main driving forces for the development) acceptability and encouragement of supercritical technology has been its potential for reduction of green house gases1 Compatibility of supercritical technology &ith and its ability to conform to the Indian environmental regulations and the /orld Ban norms as applicable to thermal po&er plants &ill be studied1 *he benefits of the proposed supercritical plants in terms of saving in coal consumption and reduction in carbon?di?oAide emissions &ill be evaluated1 *he possibility of the pro4ect obtaining credits under the Clean 'evelopment #echanism CC'#D &ill be eAplored in general terms1
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'evelopment of Simulation #odels

*he actual operating data available for supercritical plants being limited) simulation models &ill be employed to obtain operating results under different operating parameters1
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E0+!U*I+% +. *ECH%+!+(5
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E0+!U*I+% +. *ECH%+!+(5 %EE' .+- I%C-EASI%( E..ICIE%C5

*he demand for energy is closely related to economic gro&th and standard of living1 Currently) demand for all global energy is increasing at an average rate of approAimately :H per annum1 *he gro&th rate in India is higher and &as about ; percent during the previous plan period even &ith serious constraints of generation capacity1 Electricity generated from coal currently accounts for about ;3 per cent of the electricity generated &orld&ide and about 76H in India1 As coal is a relatively more abundant fuel resource in India) it is li ely to remain a dominant fuel for electricity generation in future also1 *he Integrated Energy Plan developed by Planning Commission also considers that coal is li ely to be the primary energy source for the electricity sector in the foreseeable future1 *he main argument advanced against coal fired thermal po&er generation is the large amount of carbon?di?oAide CC+:D emissions produced by them &hich contribute in a large measure to greenhouse effect and global &arming1 C+ : emissions can be lo&ered by improving the efficiency of coal fired po&er plants1 Increasing the temperature and pressure in a steam turbine increases the efficiency of the -an ine steam cycle used in po&er generation) in other &ords it decreases the amount of fossil fuel consumed and the emissions generated1 A one percent increase in efficiency leads to reduction of emission of C+: by :17 per cent1 .or an 933 #/ coal based unit) the 2H increase in efficiency &ould lead to a life time reduction in C+: emission of approAimately one million tones1 *here has been a gradual evolution in the increase in steam parameters used in coal fired plants1 Steam parameters have been raised from 93 g>cm: for 73 #/ plants to 283 g>cm: for 733 #/ units1 Supercritical units use higher steam parameters of :;3 g>cm:1 ISupercriticalI is a thermodynamic eApression describing the state of a substance &here there is no clear distinction bet&een the li=uid and the gaseous phase Ci1e1 it behaves as a homogenous fluidD1 /ater reaches this state at a pressure above ::2 bar1 *he &ater?steam cycle is sub?critical up to an operating pressure of around 2@3 bar in the evaporator part of the boiler1 *his means) that there is a non? homogeneous miAture of &ater and steam in the evaporator part of the boiler1 In this case a drum?type boiler is used because the steam needs to be separated from &ater in the drum before it is superheated and led into the turbine1 Above an operating pressure of ::2 bar) the cycle is supercritical1 *he cycle medium is a single phase fluid &ith homogeneous properties and there is no need to separate steam from &ater in a drum1 +nce?through boilers are therefore used in supercritical cycles1 *he classification for the coal fired plants &ith increasing steam parameters is sho&n in the table belo&1 *able :?2" Classification for Coal .ired Plants #ain Steam #ain Steam Unit size Pressure *emperature 733 #/ 2<< bar 769JC
Sub?critical
-eheat Steam *emperature 769JC
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!o& supercritical Ultra supercritical Advanced supercritical
<<3 #/ 933 #/ 2333 #/
:;8 bar :83 bar :@7 bar
769JC 7<7JC <33JC
7<7JC 7@6JC <33JC
Comparative efficiencies for typical steam parameters and temperatures are depicted in diagram belo&1 /hile plant efficiencies of sub?critical plants in India are still around 6:H) modern sub critical cycles have attained efficiencies close to ;3H C!H0 basisD1 Current supercritical coal fired po&er plants have efficiencies above ;7H C!H0 basisD1 It is thus) obvious that the supercritical CSCD and ultra?supercritical CUSCD coal fired po&er plant technology is one of the ma4or options for high?efficiency) lo&?emissions po&er generation *he gradual evolution of increasing efficiencies of coal fired thermal po&er plants in (ermany is depicted in the diagram belo&1
.igure :?2" Efficiency Performance in (ermany *PS
Supercritical po&er plants using once through boilers can maintain higher efficiency at rather lo& loads as compared to sub?critical plants11 Conventional drum?type boilers in sub?critical plants have bigger material re=uirements because of the thic ?&all drums) and also the &ater>steam inventory1 A Committee &as set up by the Central Electricity Authority in :336 to recommend the neAt higher unit size for coal fired thermal po&er stations1 *he Committee felt that &ith the progressive increase in installed capacity) higher share of thermal generation and large pea to off pea ratios) bac ing do&n) and cyclic operation of thermal units &ould become imminent1 Super critical thermal units offer better operational profile in such an environment1 *he Committee recommended that the neAt higher units size adopted in the country should be from 933 to 2333 #/1 *he steam parameters of :;< ? :73 g>cm:) and higher steam temperatures of 7<9KC to 7@6 KC may be adopted depending upon site specific techno?economics for deriving maAimum efficiency gains from higher size units1
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'E0E!+P#E%* +. SUPE-C-I*ICA! *ECH%+!+(5 *echnology evolution in U1S1A1

*he first supercritical units) 687#/ 'ra elo& C and 2:7#/ Philo plants1 &ere put into commercial operation in UL and USA in the year 2@781 In 2@7@) the famous Eddystone 2 plant o&ned and operated by the Philadelphia Electric Co1 &as commissioned in U1S1A1 It &as designed for <73K>7<7K>7<7KC>67219 g>cm: steam conditions but due to serious mechanical and metallurgical problems) it &as later do&n?rated to <37K>7<7K>7<7KC>663169 g>cm :1 #ost of the problems &ere due to the use of austenitic steels for thic section components operating at high temperatures1 *hese steels have lo& thermal conductivity and high thermal eApansion resulting in high thermal stresses and fatigue crac ing1 *hese problems reduced the availability of the then operating supercritical plants leading to ne& investments in developed countries flo&ing bac to sub?critical plants &ith live steam conditions of about 773JC>29617; g>cm:1 229 supercritical plants &ere built in U1S1A1 during 2@<8 to 2@8< &ith maAimum unit capacity of 2633 #/1 .urther installation of SC plants &as slo&ed due to their lo& availability1 Environment concerns for green house emissions dominated in 2@83s causing oil and gas combined cycle units to be substituted for coal fired units1 %uclear po&er stations &ere also) established but later nuclear generation &ent out of favour completely on account of some ma4or accidents to nuclear plants such as that of *hree #ile Island in 2@8@ and of Chernobyl in 2@9<1 *he energy crisis in the mid?2@83s and conse=uent sharp rise in fuel prices) ho&ever) re indled interest in the development of more efficient coal based po&er plants1 Problems of materials suitable for high temperatures and pressures also) &ere solved gradually and availability of supercritical plants converged to and then became higher than that of comparable sub?critical ones1 /ith improvements in pollution control e=uipment in 2@@3s) ne& supercritical plants have been constructed &ith capacities of 733 to 933 #/ and more than 2@3 supercritical plants &ere in operation in U1S1A1 by :33;1 *he evolution of coal fired thermal po&er plant technology in U1S1A1 over the years is sho&n belo&" 2@:; .irst reheat generating unit M Philo Plant 2@;2 .irst very high pressure C:)633 psiD natural circulation generating unit M *&in Branch Plant 2@;@ .irst high pressure high temperature combination C:)333 psi , 2373 . main steam , 2)333 . reheatD M *&in Branch Plant 2@73 .irst heat rate belo& 23)333 Btu> /h M Philip Spom Plant 2@78 .irst supercritical pressure steam C;)733 psiD and super?high temperature steam C2)273 .D and double reheat M Philo Plant 2@<3 .irst heat rate belo& @)333 Btu> /h M Church -iver Plant
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2@<< .irst control room simulator to train plant operating personnel M Cardinal Plant 2@<2 .irst application of sliding pressure techni=ue on supercritical pressure generating units ? (en1 $ames # (avin Plant :333 to :339 Installation of advanced steam path turbine components on <33 #/) 933 #/ and 2)633 #/ units :322 Planned startup ne& <33 #/ pulverized coal plant using 6)933 psi>2)233 .>2)2:7 . steam cycle &ith 9)@33 Btu> /h heat rate CHH0D *he 'epartment of Energy C'+ED of U1S1A1 proposed three po&er generation initiatives namely 0ision :2) .uture?(en and Clean Coal Po&er to promote increases in po&er generating plants efficiencies and decreases in emissions1 *he 0ision :2 initiative has the goal of achieving 8):33 $> /h heat rate for coal fired po&er plants1 *his is proposed to be achieved in t&o ma4or steps) <87JC live steam temperature by year :323 C nNO;7?73HD and 8<3JC by year :3:3 C<)333?8):33 $> /h nNO73?<3HD1 *he final live steam temperature and pressure goal is 8<3JC and 6@6 g>cm: by the year :3:3
*echnology evolution in Europe and $apan

'evelopment of supercritical coal fired units in Europe started late mainly after 2@@3 and has been confined to (ermany) Italy) 'enmar and Holland1 Early units &ere designed for :7;1@: g>cm:>7;3JC>7;3JC1 Steam temperatures &ere raised to meet higher environment protection re=uirements1 *he sliding pressure design &as incorporated into supercritical design in &hich pressure is reduced &ith load1 *his allo&s the maintenance of relatively constant first stage turbine temperature reducing stress on components in the unit and providing higher availability1 A number of the units &ere operated in daily Start?Stop mode and had a good control capability for load change1 +riginally) the supercritical technology of $apan &as from USA) and in order to have the capability of partial load operation and 'aily Start?Stop C'SSD operation) the technology of sliding pressure from Europe &as incorporated into the po&er plant design1 After many years of -esearch , 'evelopment studies and improvements) the thermal efficiency and availability of supercritical plants &as improved to match those of sub?critical units1 $apan is) no&) a leading manufacturer of po&er generating e=uipment for unit capacities of 833 #/ and 2333 #/ as standard products1 Coal?fired po&er generation in $apan is operated &ith a total efficiency rate of ;3H or more) the highest rate in the &orld1 *he historical development of increases in operating pressures and temperatures for supercritical plants in (ermany) 'enmar and $apan are sho&n in table belo&1 Country (ermany 5ear 2@@7 2@@@ Pr C g>cm:D :@31<3 :87163 *emp KC 7;7 >7<3 793 ><33
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'enmar $apan
2@@2 2@@8 2@@2 2@@7 :333
:7;1@: :@7183 :63197 :63197 :63197
7;3 >7;3 793 > 793 > 793 769 > 7<< 7<< > 7@6 7@6 > 7@6
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1.1.1
*echnology evolution in China
About 83H of ChinaPs total energy consumption comes from coal and the country still has huge reserves1 Burning it) ho&ever) has severely damaged the environment for Chinese people themselves and people in surrounding countries1 In northern China) cities li e Bei4ing and Shenyang have some of the highest readings for total suspended particulates and S+: in the &orld) &ith coal burning being a ma4or source of this pollution1 In southern China) large areas have gro&ing acid rain problems1 Coal based po&er generation in China started &ith small lo& efficiency units and more than 9)333 units of less than :33 #/ are in operation *he first 633 #/ sub?critical unit &as commissioned in 2@9: and first <33 #/ sub?critical unit in 2@9@1 *o reduce emission of pollutants) China started using supercritical and ultra supercritical technologies in its thermal po&er plants1 ChinaPs first 2)333#/ ultra?supercritical po&er plant is located at 5uhuan on the coast of East ChinaPs Qhe4iang Province1 Units 2 and : &ent on line in :33<) and units 6 and ; in :3381 /ith all units &or ing) the plant generates :: billion /h of electricity a year1 *he plant is operated by China Huaneng (roup) ChinaPs largest po&er producer1 It is claimed that 5uhuan Units 2 and : are the &orldPs cleanest) most efficient and most advanced ultra? supercritical units
'evelopment of supercritical technology in India

*he average efficiency of coal based po&er plants in India is very lo& being in the range of :8M6;H1 Increases in unit size have been done to increase efficiency and reduce green house gas emissions1 Bharat Heavy Electricals !td) CBHE!D) the Indian manufacturer of large po&er plants has commissioned about 267 plants of capacities :33M:73 #/ and about :7 units of 733 #/1 *he first supercritical plant of capacity 6B<<3 #/ is under construction at Sipat &ith South Lorean technology1 Another SC plant C6B<<3D at Barh is under construction A number of supercritical and ultra?supercritical plants in the public sector) private sector and 4oint sector are in different phases of development1 'etails are given in Section 6 of this report1
'evelopment prospects
/ith coal regaining its dominant position for po&er generation and &ith increasing environment consciousness) emphasis &orld&ide is shifting to supercritical and ultra?supercritical po&er plants1 #ore than <33 SC,USC po&er plants Cstatus :33;D) &ith total capacity above 633 (/) &ere operating or &ere under construction mainly in USA) $apan) China) Europe) -ussia) Lorea and other countries1 *he greatest concentration of SC po&er plants is in -ussia and in the former Eastern bloc countries) &here more than :;3 are in service providing about ;3H of all electricity needs those countries1 An important problem faced by po&er generation systems is the substantial difference bet&een pea load and base load1 *hermal stations have to adapt to fre=uent load changes and even shift operation1 *he steam boilers are re=uired to have fast load?follo&ing capability) &hich includes t&o characteristics" 2D ability for fast startup from different conditions) and :D ability to handle sharp changes in load1 Supercritical once?through boilers) because of the absence of a drum and other thic ?&alled parts) re=uire 27 to
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:3 percent less time for cold startups than conventional boilers1 Using full>partial flo& separators) modern once?through SC boilers also are capable of very fast load changes) typically 6 to ; percent per minute) and even 7 percent per minute &hen using an advanced control system1 -egarding availability and reliability) previous studies of the coal fired sub? critical and supercritical plants had revealed that conventional sub?critical boilers have had better reliability during their first 23 years of operation1 After 23 years) the average outage time caused by the pressure parts of SC units had leveled off at less than 733 hours>year Crepresenting about @; percent availabilityD &hich is comparable to figures for sub?critical plants1 Availability of older SC units) &hen used for base load duty) is as good as sub?critical units1 *he average annual availability factor for all 633 #/ units in the former Soviet Union from 2@@3 to 2@@7 &as @7 to @8 percent) &hich &as some&hat higher than SC po&er plant availability in the United States and (ermany) &here the best units had availability factors of @; to @8 percent1 Present generation supercritical plants) ho&ever) have availability comparable to that of sub?critical plants1 *he chart belo& indicates that more and more ne& plants &orld&ide are li ely to introduce supercritical technology1
.igure :?:" /orld&ide Introduce Supercritical *echnology
'evelopment of alloys suitable for use in supercritical and ultra? supercritical boilers is a ma4or challenge for supercritical technology1 Some materials for supercritical and ultra? supercritical boilers have been identified already1 A remaining ma4or challenge is the selection or development of candidate alloys suitable for use in the USC steam turbines1 Another important aspects is the role of pressure on steam?side oAidation1 It is no& no&n that most of the efficiency gains in higher capacity supercritical and ultra?supercritical plants result from increased temperature and not from increased pressure1
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As a result) material re=uirements) in terms of high temperature strength and steam?side oAidation) could lead to the use of lo&er pressures to ma e the supercritical and ultra? supercritical turbines more economical) and yet be beneficial in terms of efficiency increases1 #anufacturers of high efficiency thermal po&er plants are underta ing intensive research &or continuously for developing ne& materials for different components of the plants to &ithstand the increasing temperatures and pressures re=uired for efficiency enhancement1 'evelopment of materials for different components of supercritical plants is dealt &ith in detail in Section 7 of this report1
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P+PU!A*I+% +. SUPE-C-I*ICA! P!A%*S
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P+PU!A*I+% +. SUPE-C-I*ICA! P!A%*S P-+P+SE' A%' U%'E- C+%S*-UC*I+% SUPE-C-I*ICA! P!A%*S I% I%'IA
*he details of Ultra mega Po&er Plants C;333 #/ eachD other supercritical plants under construction and those proposed are given in *able 6?2) 6?: and 6?6 belo&" S1 %o1 2 : 6 ; 7 < 8 *able 6?:" !ist of Ultra #ega Po&er Pro4ects in India Unit %ame>!ocation of %o1 of capacity Utility *hermal Po&er Station units Cin #/D U#PP) #undra 7 933 #>s1 *ata Po&er !imited U#PP) Sasan < <<3 #>s1 -eliance Po&er !imited U#PP) Lrishnapatnam 7 933 #>s1 -eliance Po&er !imited U#PP) *ilaiya 7 933 #>s1 -eliance Po&er !imited +rissa) U#PP 7 933 ? Chhatisgarh) U#PP 7 933 ? U#PP) *amil %adu 7 933 ? *able 6?6" !ist of Under Construction Supercritical *hermal Po&er Stations in India %ame>!ocation of %o1 of Unit capacity Utility *hermal Po&er Station units Cin #/D Hissar : <<3 #>s1 HP(C! $ha44ar : <<3 #>s1 HP(C! *al&andi Sabo : <<3 #>s1 PSEB #undra) Lutch : <<3 #>s1 Adani Po&er !imited #e4a I0) Uttar Pradesh : <<3 #>s1 %*PC $oint 0enture Sipat?I) Bilaspur 6 <<3 #>s1 %*PC !imited %e& %abinagar) Bihar 6 <<3 #>s1 %*PC $oint venture Lrishnapatnam 6 933 #>s1 AP(E%C+ Sholapur *hermal Po&er : <<3 #>s1 %*PC plant) #aharashtra Barh Super *hermal 6 <<3 #>s1 %*PC !imited Po&er Station -aghunathpur?II) /est : <<3 #>s1 '0C Bengal (idderbaha Station?I) : <<3 #>s1 PSEB Pun4ab Sahapur *hermal Po&er : <<3 #>s1 S*PC! Company !imited $e&argi Po&er Company : <<3 #>s1 Po&er Company of Larnata a !imited of Larnata a Company !imited
S1 %o1 2 : 6 ; 7 < 8 9 @ 23 22 2: 26 2;
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S1 %o1 2 : 6 ; 7 < 8 9 @ 23 22 2: 26 2; 27 2< 28 29 2@ :3
*able 6?;" !ist of Proposed Supercritical Po&er Stations in India %ame>!ocation of %o1 of Unit capacity Utility *hermal Po&er Station units Cin #/D 'hen nal) +rissa : <<3 #>s1 !anco Infratech !imited Pussurar -egion) 6 <<3 #>s1 Infrastructure -aigarh) Chhatisgarh !easing , .inancial Services !td1 Chutru region of 6 <<3 #>s1 Infrastructure $har hand !easing , financial Services !td1 Chandil region of 6 <<3 #>s1 Infrastructure $har hand !easing , financial Services !td1 Bade 'umarpali) : <<3 #>s1 Athena -aigarh) Chhatisgarh Chattisgarh Po&er Private !imited (ondia) #aharashtra 6 <<3 #>s1 Adani Po&er #aharashtra Private !imited East (odavari) La inda : <<3 #>s1 Spectrum Po&er (eneration !imited Sinnar) %asi ) : <<3 #>s1 .ama Po&er #aharashtra Company !imited %agapattinam) *amil : <<3 #>s1 PE! Po&er %adu !imited %andgaon pet) ; <<3 #>s1 Sophia Po&er Amravati) #aharashtra Company !imited *amnar -aigarh) : <<3 #>s1 +pelina .inance Chhatisgarh and Investment !imited *amnar -aigarh) : <<3 #>s1 $indal Po&er Chhatisgarh !imited !athur) #aharashtra : <<3 #>s1 Amravati *hermal Po&er !imited #achillipatnam) Andhra : <<3 #>s1 *hermal Pradesh Po&ertech Corporation CID !imited (opuvanipalem) 6 <<3 #>s1 %agar4una Lrishna) Andhra Pradesh Construction Company !imited Simar *hermal Po&er : 933 #>s1 $S/ Energy Plant) $unagarh) (u4arat !imited Salaboni *hermal Po&er : 933 #>s1 $S/ Energy Plant) Paschim !imited #idnapore1 #anappad) *uticorin) : <<3 #>s1 Ind?Bharat Po&er *amil %adu C#adrasD !imited #udnra) Lutch) (u4arat 6 <<3 #>s1 Adani Po&er !imited Sompeta) 'ri a ulam) 6 <<3 #>s1 %agar4una Andhra Pradesh Construction
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S1 %o1 :2 :: :6 :; :7 :< :8 :9 :@ 63 62
%ame>!ocation of *hermal Po&er Station Central India Po&er) Phase?II) #aharashtra *anda EApansion) Uttar Pradesh Lat&a) /est Bengal Ba resh&ar) EAtension Pro4ect Loradi EAtension Pro4ect) #aharashtra East Coast) Andhra Pradesh %S! Po&er) *amil %adu #ara anam) *amil %adu 'arlipali) +rissa !ara) Chhatisgarh Ludgi) Larnata a
%o1 of units 2 : : 2 : : : ; ; 7 6
Unit capacity Cin #/D <<9 <<3 <<3 <<3 <<3 <<3 <<3 933 933 933 <<3
Utility Company !imited #>s1 Central India Po&er Company Private !imited #>s1 %*PC !imited #>s1 /BP'C! #>s1 /BP'C! #>s1 #ahagenco #>s1 East Coast Energy #>s1 %S! Po&er Private !imited #>s1 %*PC !imited #>s1 %*PC !imited #>s1 %*PC !imited #>s1 %*PC !imited $0 &ith #>s1 PCL!
SUPE-C-I*ICA! P!A%*S I% +*HE- C+U%*-IES

#ore than <33 SC,USC po&er plants) &ith total capacity above 633 (/) &ere operating or &ere under construction in :33; mainly in Europe) South Africa) USA) $apan) China and -ussia1 Around 283 units have been commissioned in USA) about 233 in $apan) and more than <3 in Europe1 *he greatest concentration of SC po&er plants is in -ussia and in the former Eastern bloc countries) &here more than :;3 are in service providing about ;3H of all electricity needs in those countries1 C.igure 6?6D1
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'ESI(%) I%S*A!!A*I+% , +PE-A*I+% +. SUPE-C-I*ICA! P+/E- P!A%*S .igure 6?6" Capacity of SC , USC Po&er Plants /orld&ide
Advanced SC designs can no& be found at several Asian po&er plants) &hich are currently under construction in the PeoplePs -epublic of China) South Lorea and *ai&an &ith the capacity in range of :7 (/1 Emerging interest in advanced SC coal fired po&er plants has fueled development of ne&) cutting? edge technologies1 Po&er plants &ith record?brea ing steam parameters approaching or eAceeding levels of 633 g>cm: and <33KC have been commissioned in the last decade or are under construction in 'enmar ) (ermany and $apan1 *his is) ho&ever) not the case for the traditional developers of SC technology li e -ussia and the USA1 In these t&o countries no further ma4or gro&th of SC technology has been seen in the last decade1 #ost of the 283 US SC po&er plants &ith combined installed capacity above 238 (/ came on?line prior to 2@931
Ultra?Supercritical *echnology
Increasing the temperature and pressure in a steam turbine increases the efficiency of the -an ine steam cycle used in po&er generationF in other &ords it decreases the amount of fossil fuel consumed and the emissions generated per / of electricity generated1
Status in the /orld

+peration data of 786 units has been collected and tabulated as follo&s1 *he data relates to the year :33;1 *able 6?7" Supercritical Po&er Plants in the /orld
Country>-egion $apan USA (ermany -ussia China +ther?Countries Units 2:3 283 :9 <8 6: 27< #/ 88)@33 238)333 28):9< :@)863 2@)933 79)8::
*he data cover most of principal po&er plants in the &orld &ith supercritical steam conditions &ith capacities of 633 #/ or more as sho&n in AnneAure? 6121 Actual status for the adoption of Supercritical Po&er *echnology in ma4or countries is sho&n belo&"
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CaD
$apan
*he first supercritical unit Anegas i Unit %o1 2 of *o yo Electric Po&er Co1 had started operation in 2@<81 Since then) supercritical po&er plants &ith 2:3 units aggregating to 88)@33 #/ output have been constructed and &ere operating successfully till :33;1 *he unit capacity increased to 673) 733) <33) 833) 2333 #/ step by step and reached 2373 #/ in the *achibana&an unit no1 2,: of Electric Po&er 'evelopment Co1 $apan1 *he installed capacity of each electric po&er company in $apan is as follo&s" *able 6?<" Supercritical Po&er Plants of each Electric Po&er Co1 Utility *otal Units *otal Capacity C#/D Ho aido Electric Po&er Co1 ; :)333 *oho u Electric Po&er Co1 9 7)<33 *o yo Electric Po&er Co1 :7 29)873 Chubu Electric Po&er Co1 2@ 2:)@33 Lansai Electric Po&er Co1 :: 2:)633 Ho uri u Electric Po&er Co1 < 6);33 Chugo u Electric Po&er Co1 8 ;);33 Shi o u Electric Po&er Co1 7 :)373 Lyushu Electric Po&er Co) 2: <)@33 Electric Po&er 'evelopment Co1 9 <);33 $oban Lyodo Po&er Co1 : 2):33 Soma Lyodo Po&er Co1 : :)333 *otal 2:3 88)@33 Steam parameters and the numbers of installation of supercritical po&er plant in $apan are sho&n as follo&s" *able 6?8" Steam Parameters of Supercritical Plants in $apan %o1 or Steam Parameters 5ear Units : #SP:;< g>cm #S*766>-S*769KC :2 2@<9?2@97 #SP:;< g>cm: #S*769>-S*7<<KC #SP:;< g>cm #S*7<<>-S*7<<KC #SP:;< g>cm: #S*7<<>-S*7@6KC #SP:;< g>cm #S*7@6?<33 > -S* 7@6?<23KC
: :
87 7 < 26
2@<8?2@@6 2@@2?2@@8 2@@;?:33: 2@@8?:33;
#ost advanced steam condition po&er plants) namely) Ultra Supercritical Pressure Po&er Plants eAceeding steam temperature 7@6KC have already been operated in $apan and their typical units are sho&n belo&F *able 6?9" Advanced Supercritical Plants in $apan Station 5ear Unit Capacity C#/D Steam Parameters #tsuura : 2@@8 2)333 :;< g>cm: 7@6>7@6KC Haramachi : 2@@9 2)333 :73 g>cm: <33><33KC #isumi 2 2@@9 2)333 :73 g>cm: <33><33KC *achibana&an 2,: :333>:332 2)373>2)373 :73 g>cm: <33><23KC
PA(E :9 +. 2<6
Supercritical thermal po&er plants in $apan are summarized in AnneAure?61:1
CbD
USA
Both subcritical CdrumD type and supercritical Conce?throughD type units &ere in operation from 2@<3 to 2@931 Subse=uently there &as a shift to subcritical units o&ing to lo&er availability and other problems &ith supercritical plants1 #ost of the 283 supercritical units of 633#/ or over) &ere put into operation in 2@83s or earlier) ; units in 2@93s and only 2 unit in 2@@3s1 *ypical steam parameters in USA are as follo&s1 *able 6?@" Steam Parameters of Supercritical Plants in USA :;< g>cm: 769>769KC 22< units :6; g>cm: 769>769KC :;< g>cm 769>7<<KC :;< g>cm: 7<<>7<<KC 6:7 g>cm <;@>7<<KC
: :
22 units ;3 units : units 2 units
CcD
(ermany
(ermany is an advanced country is supercritical technology and has a lot of supercritical thermal po&er plants1 Supercritical po&er plants &ith :9 units C28):9< #/D &ere constructed bet&een 2@<@ and :3321 *he unit capacity increase to 633 #/ in 2@<@ and achieved 2)333 #/ in :3321 Steam parameters of #SP:93 g>cm: and #S*793KC > -S*<33KC &ere achieved in :333 &hile they &ere #SP:63 g>cm: and #S*76:KC >-S*766KC in 2@<@1 Steam parameters and the numbers of installation of supercritical po&er plants in (ermany are sho&n in *able 6?@ belo&1 *able 6?23" Steam Parameters of Supercritical Steam Parameters #SP:63?:@9 g>cm: #S* 7:8?768>-S* 766?7;6KC #SP:;6?:78 g>cm: #S* 7;:>-S* 7<<KC #SP:73?:<< g>cm: #S* 7;2?788>-S* 793?799KC #SP:<3?:93 g>cm: #S* 787?793>-S* <33KC Plants in (ermany %o1 of Units 5ear 26 2@<@?2@9@ 8 2@@6?2@@8 < 2@@:?:332 : 2@@@?:333
Advanced supercritical plants in (ermany are listed in *able 6?23 belo&1 *able 6?22" Advanced Supercritical Plants in (ermany Capacity 5ear in Utility Steam Parameter C#/D +peration #S* C g>cm:D A #S* CKCD > -S*
PA(E :@ +. 2<6
BeAbach : !ippendorf -?S %iedderaussem L .rimmcrdorf
873 :A@63 @93 2333
CKCD :<3A787><33 :<7A773>79: :93A793><33 :73A788>799
2@@@ 2@@@?:333 :333 :332
Supercritical thermal po&er plants in (ermany are summarized in AnneAure 616
CdD
-ussia
Supercritical po&er plants &ith <8 units aggregating to :@)863#/ &ere constructed bet&een 2@<; and 2@@<1 Steam parameters and the numbers of installation of supercritical po&er plants in -ussia are sho&n in *able 6?221 *able 6?2:" Steam Parameters of Supercritical Plants in -ussia Steam Parameters %o1 of Units 5ear : #SP:;3 g>cm #S*7;3>-S*7;+KC <7 2@<@?2@@< #SP:77 g>cm: #S*7;7>-E*7;7KC 2 2@@< #SP:77 g>cm: #S*7<7>-S*787KC 2 2@<9 Supercritical thermal po&er plants in -ussia are summarized in AnneAure 61;1
CeD
China
China has constructed supercritical po&er plants &ith progressive increase since 2@@7) and the total installed capacity had reached 6: units &ith thermal output of 2@)933 #/ in :33<1 .urthermore) po&er plants &ith 68 units and capacity :6)933 #/ have been under construction after :33<1 Steam parameters and number of units of supercritical plants in China are sho&n in *able 6?2: belo&1 *able 6?26" Steam Parameters of Supercritical Plants in China Steam Parameters %o1 of Units 5ear #SP:;< g>cm: #S*7;3>-S* 7;3KC 7 2@@@?:33< #SP:;< g>cm: #S*76S>-S* 7<<KC 26 2@@8?:33< : #SP:;< g>cm #S*7<<>-S* 7<<KC 2: :33;?:33< #SP:7@ g>cm: #S*<33>-S* <33KC : :33< Supercritical thermal po&er plants in China are summarized in AnneAure 617
CfD
+ther Countries
Supercritical thermal po&er plants &ith total 27< units aggregating to 79)8:3 #/ capacity in :: countries> areas such as the 'enmar ) %etherlands) Britain) Italy) U raine) Uzbe istan) South Lorea and *ai&an have been constructed and are operating successfully1 Supercritical thermal po&er plants in +ther Countries are summarized in AnneAure 61<1
PA(E 63 +. 2<6
It is seen that) large number of supercritical plants &ith 77: units aggregating to 63@)933 #/ capacity have been constructed and put in operation in Europe) USA) $apan and China since 2@<3s1 Supercritical technology is no& established in almost all the countries in the &orld and the technology can be estimated as a proven technology in the po&er sector1
PA(E 62 +. 2<6
C:D Availability of Supercritical Plants Availability of supercritical plants is analyzed and evaluated by utilizing the public reports>data issued by EP-ICUSAD) 0(B C(ermanyD) $EPIC C$apanD and .EPC C$apanD as follo&s1 CaD EP-I -eport *he data belo& sho&s the comparison of supercritical and subcritical coal?fired unit performance on Availability .actor for several size ranges from 2@9: to 2@9;1 *able 6?2;" Availability .actor CHD 2@9:?2@9; Size -ange C#/D 633?6@@ ;33?;@@ 733?7@@ <33?8@@ Subcritical 8<17 881; 8<16 8917 Supercritical <;1; 8;1< 8619 8;1: 933R 881: 871<
In2@9:?2@9;) supercritical units had lo&er availability factor than subcritical units of the order of a fe& percentage points1 CbD 0(B -eport *he data belo& sho&s the comparison of supercritical and subcritical performance regarding Availability .actor from 2@99 to 2@@81 5ear Subcritical Supercritical *able 6?27" Availability .actor CHD 2@99 2@9@ 2@@3 2@@2 2@@: 2@@6 9;1: 9:17 9;12 9;1@ 9;17 9:13 931: 8;1@ 9;1: 971: 9812 9@19 2@99?2@@8 2@@; 2@@7 2@@< 2@@8 99?@8 9619 9618 9<1< 9917 9;1; 9613 9;18 8@17 @316 9;13
Availability of supercritical units &as almost e=ual to that of subcritical units from 2@99 to 2@@81 In 2@@8) availability factor of supercritical unit &as superior to that of subcritical unit1 CcD $EPIC>.EPC 'ata $EPIC > .EPC collected the data on the availability factor of subcritical > supercritical coal?fired po&er plants of $apan in 2@@;1 *hese are summarized in *able 6?271
*able 6?2<" Availability .actor CHD in 2@7; -ated +utput Availability .actor %os1 of Unit C#/D CHD CAverageD Subcritical 2: :73?673 961; Supercritical :3 <33?2)333 9912 According to these data) supercritical units had higher availability than subcritical units by ;18 percentage points1 *he detailed availability data for subcritical and supercritical plants in $apan) available in $?P+/E- &as compiled and evaluated1 In this survey) no significant difference in availability bet&een subcritical and supercritical plants in recent years &as noticed1
PA(E 6: +. 2<6
It is apparent from the availability data for supercritical units installed &orld&ide) that supercritical units cannot be differentiated from conventional subcritical units &ith respect to unit availability1
PA(E 66 +. 2<6
A0AI!ABI!I*5 +. #A%U.AC*U-ES +. SUPE-C-I*ICA! P!A%*S
PA(E 6; +. 2<6
A0AI!ABI!I*5 +. #A%U.AC*U-E-S SUPE-C-I*ICA! P!A%*S 21: SUPE-C-I*ICA! P!A%* #A%U.AC*U-E-S I% I%'IA

At present) Bharat Heavy Electricals !td1 CBHE!D is the only manufacturer of supercritical thermal po&er plants in India1 BHE! has *echnical Collaboration Agreement &ith Alstom) .rance for the manufacture of Sonce through boilersT of both single pass and t&o pass designs used in supercritical plants1 *he agreement provides for transfer no& ho& from Alstom to BHE!1 BHE!) also) has *echnical Collaboration Agreement &ith Siemens) (ermany for the complete range of Steam *urbines and (enerators1 BHE! &ill be able to manufacture large unit rating machines of Siemens design under their agreement1 BHE! is implementing capacity addition at its Hard&ar plant for Steam turbine and (enerator and at *richy plant for Boilers to augment its manufacturing capacity for thermal units of eAisting range as also supercritical sets of 933 #/ and 2)333 #/1 In addition to BHE!) !arsen , *oubro !td C!,*D has Cooperation Agreement &ith #itsubishi Heavy Industries !td1 C#HID) $apan for transfer of technology for supercritical boilers1 Under the agreement) #HI &ill transfer design and engineering no&?ho& to !,* &ho &ill initially manufacture part of the boiler in India and increase indigenous content in a phased manner1 In addition to the above t&o) fe& other companies are planning to setup manufacturing plant in India1 *heir proposed commissioning capabilities are sho&n in table belo&"
C!3!"'#'*;
PA(E 67 +. 2<6
216
&orld1
SUPE-C-I*ICA! P!A%*) #A%U.AC*U-E- +U*SI'E I%'IA
*here are a number of large manufacturers of supercritical plants in the
*he main manufacturers are" Siemens A() (ermany Alstom SA) .rance #itsubishi Heavy Industries !td1) $apan *echnoprom EAport) -ussia 'oosan Heavy Industries) Lorea Babcoc Hitachi) $apan Ishi a&a4ima Harima Heavy Industries CIHID) $apan *oshiba Corporation) $apan Hitachi !td) $apan Harbin Po&er) China 'ong .ang Electric) China Shanghai Electric Corporation) China Hitachi !td) $apan (eneral Electric Po&er System) U1S1A) Ansaldo Energia) Italy
21;
'E!I0E-5 PE-I+'S
#anufacturing capabilities for supercritical plants are available in India presently &ith t&o manufacturers1 #anufacturing capabilities for supercritical and ultra? supercritical plants are available) ho&ever) &ith a large number of manufacturers in other countries and some of them have some manufacturing or commercial presence in India already1 Choice of a manufacturer suitable to meet specific re=uirements of any developer at an economical price is available1 *he main problem) at present) is the comparatively long delivery period on account of the order boo s of most of the manufacturers being full already1 Shorter delivery periods are li ely to invite higher prices and a balance has to be arrived at bet&een the benefits of early commissioning as against those of lesser initial capital cost1
PA(E 6< +. 2<6
SPECIA! #A*E-IA!S .+- SUPE-C-I*ICA! P!A%*S
PA(E 68 +. 2<6
SPECIA! #A*E-IA!S .+- SUPE-C-I*ICA! P!A%*S B+I!EBasic boiler design criteria guidance to be followed for the boiler as follows for utilizing the Indian erosive high ash content coal as follows.
#aterials for Boilers in Ultra Supercritical Po&er Plants

Improving the efficiency of pulverised coal CPCD po&er plants) by increasing the temperature and pressure of the &or ing fluid CsteamD has been pursued for many decades1 .igure 7?2 illustrates the improvements in heat rate that can be achieved by increasing steam temperature and pressure by use of advanced steam conditions1
.igure 7?;" Improvement in heat rate CefficiencyD achieved by increasing steam temperature and single and double cycles ) compared to the base case of 767KC>29@ g>cm:1
Eddystone 2 po&er plant in USA commissioned in 2@7@ &as one of the first supercritical plant designed to operate under steam conditions of 6;< g>cm :
PA(E 69 +. 2<6
and <73>7<7>7<7JC C2:33>2373>2373J.D1 *he plant has been operational since 2@7@ but has operated under rated conditions of 663 g>cm: and <37JC for most of its service life) because of mechanical and metallurgical problems1 #ost of the problems &ere due to the use of austenitic steels for heavy section components operating at high temperatures1 *hese steels have lo& thermal conductivity and high thermal eApansion resulting in high thermal stresses and fatigue crac ing1 *hese problems and the general lo& availability of many supercritical plant due to IteethingI problems temporarily dampened utility interest in building super or ultra supercritical plants and conse=uently most utilities reverted bac to plants &ith sub?critical conditions of about 7:7JC and 286 g>cm:1 EP-I initiated a study of the development of more economic coal?fired po&er plants in 2@891 A number of research and development activities &as initiated involving US) $apanese and European manufacturers1 *hese activities focused on developing further the eAisting high?temperature?resistant ferritic? martensitic @HCr and 2:HCr#o0 steels for the production of rotors) casings and chests) pipes and headers capable of operating at inlet steam temperatures of up to <73JC1 +ne of the early conclusions from this pro4ect &as that the construction of a plant &ith a 7@6JC> 62< g>cm :steam condition &ould be feasible &ith only minor evolutionary improvements in materials technology1 *his has proved to be correct as evidenced by the spate of po&er plants built in $apan and Europe over the last decade1 In $apan) nearly 2< plants) most of them &ith typical main steam temperature of about 7@6JC and pressure of :;7 g>cm: are operational1 In Europe) nearly a dozen plants are operational &ith main steam temperature> pressure or 796JC C2393J.D>6371@2 g>cm: C;:33 psiD1 An improvement in thermal efficiency of the plant not only reduces the operating costs but also reduces the release of S+:) %+A and C+: emissions1 *he latter is very significant in vie& of die &orld?&ide agreements to reduce C+: emissions by :323 and the fact that a 2H increase in efficiency of an 933 #/ machine &ould lead to a life?lime reduction in C+: approaching one million tones1 *hese environmental factors have provided an added incentive to building SC , USC plants in recent years1 Intense -,' efforts have been carried out in $apan) USA and Europe to evolve materials suitable for temperatures of 7@6JC and beyond1 In each case) a phased approach &as adopted1 In USA) the phases of development &ere defined as sho&n in *able 7?2) &here the temperatures given are for the main steam and first and second reheats1 *able 7?28" Steam conditions for coal?fired plants in EP-I program EP-I Program Pressure *emperature Phase g>cm: JC 3 ::1:2 7<<>7<<>7<< 2 ::1:2 7@6>7@6>7@6 2B ::1:2 <:3><:3><:3 : :;16@ <;@><;@><;@ *he Phase 3 conditions &ere considered to be achievable &ith the state?of? the?art technology in 2@89 &hile the Phase 2 conditions &ere considered to be achievable &ith only minor improvements1 *he technology needed for phase : &as considered &ell beyond reach and hence) an intermediate goal
PA(E 6@ +. 2<6
of <:3?<63JC 637 g>cm: &as introduced1 .or convenience) this Phase may be referred to as phase IB1 Although the material developments .or Phase : have not been fully achieved) technology eAists today that &ill enable building plants that can meet Phase IB conditions1 *his has been made possible by the development of highly creep resistant @ to l:HCr ferritic steels1 EP-I performed revie& of materials technology for ultra supercritical po&er plants1 *he results of the revie& sho& that high strength ferritic @?2:Cr steels for use in thic section components are no& commercially available for temperatures up to <:3JC1 Initial data on t&o eAperimental 2:Cr ferritic steels indicate that they may be capable of providing long term service up to <73JC1 Advanced austenitic stainless steels for use in super? and reheater tubing are available for service temperatures up to <73JC and possibly 833JC1 %one of these steels have been approved by the AS#E Boiler Code (roup so far1 Higher strength materials are needed for upper &ater &alls of boilers &ith steam pressure above :;7 g>cm:1 A high strength :?2>:HCr steel AS#E code approved alloy *?:6 is the preferred candidate material for this application1
Boiler #aterials -e=uirements

*he ey components &hose performance is critical for supercritical and ultra supercritical plants are high?pressure steam piping and headers) superheater tubing and &ater&all tubing1 All of them have to meet creep strength re=uirements1 In addition) pipes and headers) being heavy section components) are sub4ect to fatigue induced by thermal stresses1 .erritic>martensitic steels arc preferred because of their lo&er coefficient of thermal eApansion and higher thermal conductivity compared to austenitic steels1 #any of the early problems in the SC , USC plants &ere traceable to the use of austenitic steels &hich &ere highly prone to thermal fatigue1 -esearch during the last decade has) therefore) focused on developing cost? effective) high?strength ferritic steels that could be used in place of austenitic steels1 *his has resulted in development of ferritic steels capable of operating at metal temperatures up to <:3JC) &ith good &eldability and fracture toughness1 Superheater and reheater CSH>-HD tubing application calls for high creep strength) thermal fatigue strength) &eldability) resistance lo fireside corrosion>erosion and resistance to steamside oAidation and spallation1 *hermal fatigue resistance as &ell as cost considerations &ould dictate the use of ferritic>martensitic steels1 Unfortunately) the strongest of these steels &hich can be used up to metal temperature of <:3JC purely from a creep strength point of vie& are still limited by fireside corrosion to metal temperature of 7@6JC1 *his corresponds to a steam temperature of about 7<7JC since SH>-H metal temperature can eAceed the steam temperature by as much as :9JC1 EAcessive corrosion of ferritic steels caused by li=uid iron? al ali sulfates in the lube deposits is an acute concern) &here high sulfur corrosive coals are used more fre=uently than else&here1 *herefore high strength ferritic stainless steels such as *?@2 are infre=uently used1 *he standard practice is to use *?:: for the lo&er temperatures and SS63;H or SS6;8 for the highest temperatures1 /ith respect to &ater&all tubing) the concern is t&ofold1 High supercritical pressures and the use of high heat release furnaces &ill increase the
PA(E ;3 +. 2<6
&ater&all temperatures to the point that easily &eldablc lo& alloy steels such as *?226 C21:7Cr) 317#oD have insufficient creep strength1 Higher strength steels such as *?@2 are available) but re=uire post&eld heat treatments1 *he second concern is corrosion1 -ecent results in on boilers retrofitted &ith lo& %+A burner systems indicate that the present lo& alloy steels can suffer from eAcessive corrosion) as high as : mm>yr1 /eldable high strength alloys clad or overlaid &ith high Cr alloys have to be utilized to reduce or eliminate eAcessive corrosion1
Historical Evolution of Steels

#asuyama has presented an eAcellent historical perspective on the development of steels for po&er plants as sho&n in .igure 7?:1 *he figure sho&s 237h creep rupture strength at <33JC C222:J.D by year of development1 *hey classify the ferritic steel development in terms of four generations as sho&n in *able 7?:1
PA(E ;2 +. 2<6
.igure 7?7" Historic evolation of materials in terms of increasing creep rupture strength
*able 7?29" Evolution of .our (enerations of .erritic Steels

(eneration 5ears Alloy #odifications Strength 237 hr Creep -upture Achieved g>cm: <2219: EAample Alloys #aAimum #etal Use *emp1 JC 7<7
2@<3?83
Addition of #o or %b) 0 to simple 2:Cr and @Cr #o steels
E# 2:) HC#@#) H*@) *empaloy .@1H*@2
: 6 ;
2@83?97 2@97?@7
+ptimization of C) %b10 Partial substitution of / *or #o
232@182 2;:81<3 29671;9
HC#I:1*@2) HC#:S P?@:) P?2:: CHC#I:A) %.<2<D %.I:1SA0EI:
7@6 <:3 <73
Emerging Increase of / and addition of Co
In the field of austenitic steels) efforts &ere made from the 2@83s to the early 2@93s to improve conventional l9Cr?9%i series steels originally developed as corrosion resistant materials for chemical use) mainly &ith respect to their creep strength1 Another goal pursued from the 2@93s to the
PA(E ;: +. 2<6
early 2@@3s &as to improve the creep strength of conventional :3?:7Cr series steels having superior oAidation and corrosion resistance1
Evolution of .erritic Steels

.erritic sled developments are mostly aimed at their use for thic section pipes and headers1 *able 7?6 sho&s the chemical compositions of ferritic steels for po&er boilers1 *he systematic evolution of these steels has been thoroughly revie&ed by #asuyama) as sho&n in .igure 7?61 Among the @HCr steels fully commercialized) the P@2 steel has the highest allo&able stress and has been eAtensively used all over the &orld as a material for headers and steam pipes in ultra supercritical plants operating at steam temperatures up to 7@6JC1 Alloy %.<I< CP?@:D) developed by substituting part of the #o in P@2 by /) has an even higher allo&able stress and can be operated up to steam temperatures of <:3JC1 E@22 is a European alloy similar in composition to %.<I< &ith similar capabilities1 Beyond <:3JC) the @HCr steels become limited by oAidation resistance and 2:HCr steel and austenitic steels have to be used1
PA(E ;6 +. 2<6
678 g>cm:
R0 :1:7Cr?2#o R#o AS#E *:: CS*BA:;D R#o R0 R% @Cr?2#o AS#E *@ CS*BA:<D
237h Creep -upture Strength at <33JC .irst (eneration Second *hird (eneration (eneration <2: g>cm: 23:3 g>cm: 2;:9 g>cm:
:1:7Cr?2#o0 :1:7Cr?21<#0%b
.ourth (eneration 2967 g>cm:
@Cr?:#o HC#@# CS*BA :8
HC#:S CAS#E *:6 S*BA:;$2D
@Cr? :#o0%b E#2: C%.A ;@:26D R0 R%b 01%b +ptimize d @Cr? 2#o0%b AS#E *@2 CS*BA:9D R#o R/
E @22 @Cr?317 #o? 219/0%b
@Cr? 2#o0%b *empaloy .?@
R#o 2:Cr AISI ;23 2:Cr?317#o R#o Rv R/ 2:Cr?2#ov H*@2 C'I%B:3C r #o02:2D 2:Cr? 2#o/0 H*@ C'I%B:3C r #o02:2D ?C R/ R%b ?#o R/ RCu 2:Cr?2#o? 2/0%b
%.<2< CAS#E *@: S*BA:@D 2:Cr?317#o? 219/0%b
R/ RCo 2:Cr?/Co? %i0%b
*B2:
R/ RCo
%.2:
2:Cr?317#o? : /Cu0%b HC#2:A CAS#E *2:: SUS;;23$6*BD
2:Cr? /Co0%b
HC#2: CSUS;23$ :*BD
.igure 7?<" Evolution of ferritic steels for boiler
PA(E ;; +. 2<6
*able 7?2@" %ominal Chemical Compositions of .erritic Steels for Boilers

Specification Chemical position Com #ass HD #anufacturers
2?2>; Cr :Cr
@Cr
Steels *22 #.IH .:: SC#:S *empaloy .?:/ *@ HC#@# *@2 E@22 H*@2 H*@ *empaloy .2:# HC#I: *B2: HC#2:A %.2: SA0E 2:
AS#E $2S *22 *:: *:6 *@ U *@I S*BA:; S*BA:;$2 S*BA:< S*BA:8 S*BA:9
C 3127 312: 312: 313<
Si 317 ?? 316 31:
#n 31;7 ?? 31;7 31;7 31;7 31;7 31;7 3172 31<3 31<3
Cr 21:7 21:7 :1:7 :1:7 :13 @13 613 613
#o 317 213 213 312 31< 213 :13 213
/ ?? ?? ?? 21< 213 ?? ?? 31@ ?? 3)7 318 213 219 :13 :1< 613
Co ?? ?? ?? ?? ?? ?? ?? ?? ?? ?? ?? ? ?? :17 613
0 ?? 31:3 ?? 31:7 31:7 ?? ?? 31:3 31:3 31:7 31:7
%b ?? 3138 ?? 3137 3137 ?? ?? 3139 313< ?? ??
B ?? ?? ?? 31336 ?? ??
% ?? ?? ?? ?? ?? ?? ?? 3137 313< ?? ??
+thers ?? ?? ?? ??
%ippon Steel Sumitomo %LL 0allourec?#annesman Sumitomo 0allourec?#annesman Sumitomo 0allourec #annesman 0allourcc #annesman %LL
312: 31< 3138 316 3123 31;
?? 319%i 31:7%i 317%i 317%i
2:Cr
312: 31: C'I%A:3Cr#o02:2D 31:3 31; C'I% A :3 Cr #o/0 31:3 31; 2:2D SUS;23$:* B ?? SUS;23$6* B ?? ?? 3123 316 3139 3137 3122 312 3139 31: 3123 316
613 31@; 2:13 213 2:13 213 2:13 318
?? ??
3177 3173 31<3 3173 31:3
2:13 213 2:13 3173 2:13 31; 2213 31: 2213 ??
31:7 31:3 3):3 31:3 31:3
3137 3137 3137 3138 3138
3136 3163 3137 31336 313< 3133; 3137 ?? 313;
?? 312%i 213Cu ?? 3138*a) 313;%d Sumitomo %ippon Steel Sumitomo
?? *2:: ?? ??
E3;3> -EP+-* boben
PA(E ;7 +. 2<6
V'ESI(%) I%S*A!!A*I+% , +PE-A*I+% +. SUPE-C-I*ICA! P+/E- P!A%*S
Among the l:HCr steels) H*@2 has been &idely used for tubing) headers and piping in Europe1 Use of the steel in $apan and US has been limited due to its poor &eldability1 HC#2: is an improved version of H*@2 &ith 2H / and 2H #o) having a dupleA structure of 7?ferrite and tempered martensite &ith improved &eldability and creep strength1 .urther increases in creep strength by substituting more of the #o &ith / and addition or Cu has resulted in alloy HC#2:A CP?2::D) &hich can be used for header and piping up to <:3JC ? *&o alloys %.2: and SA0E2: having an even higher creep strength than HC#I:A are in the developmental stage1 %.2: contains :17HCo) :1<H/ and slightly higher B compared to HC#2:A1 SA0E2: contains 6H Co) 6H /) and minor amounts of *a and %b1 *hese latter elements contribute to strengthening by producing fine and stable nitride precipitates1 HC#:S C*?:6D) a lo& carbon :? 2>;321</ steel &ith 0 and #b) is a cost?effective steel &ith higher creep strength than *::1 Because of its eAcellent &eldability &ithout pre? or post? &eld heat treatment it is a good candidate for &ater&all tubing1 *he role of alloying elements in development of the ferritic steels has been eAtensively investigated1 / and #o and Co are primarily solid solution strengthened1 0 and %b contribute to precipitation strengthening by forming fine and coherent precipitation of #CC) %DB carbonitrides in the ferritc matriA1 0anadium also precipitates as 0% during tempering or during creep1 *he t&o elements arc more effective in combination at levels of about 31:7H0 and 3137H%b1 Chromium contributes to solid solution strength as &ell as to oAidation and corrosion resistance1 %ic el improves the toughness but at the eApense of creep strength1 Partial replacement of %i by Cu helps stabilize the creep strength1 Carbon is re=uired to form fine carbide precipitates but the amount needs to be optimized for good &eldability1 Atom probe results have sho&n that boron enters the structure of #:6C< and boron segregates to #:6C< ? matriA interface1 It has also been suggested that boron helps reduce coarsening of #:6C< and that boron also assists in nucleation of 0%) the mechanism of Slatent creep resistance1 Cobalt is an austenite stabilizer and developers of %.I: suggest that is &hy they used cobalt additions1 Cobalt is no&n to delay recovery on tempering of martensitic steels1 Cobalt also promotes nucleation of finer secondary carbides on tempering1 *his is attributed both to its effect on recovery and its effect on the activity of carbon1 Cobalt also slo&s coarsening of alloy carbides in secondary hardening steels1 *his &as suggested to be the result of cobalt increasing the activity of carbon and cobalt not being soluble in alloy carbides1 -esults of Hida a suggest that Co has a positive effect on creep rupture stress1
Evolution of Austenitic Steels

Austenitic steels are candidates primarily in the finishing stages of superheater>reheater tubing) &here) oAidation resistance and fireside corrosion become important in addition to creep strength1 .rom a creep strength point of vie&) *@2 is limited to 7<7JC steam Cmetal 7@6JCD and %.<2<) HC#2:A and E@22 arc limited lo 7@6JC steam Cmetal <:3JCD1 Even the strongest ferritic steel today is limited to 7@6JC Cmetal temperatureD from an oAidation point of vie&1 At temperatures above these) austenitic steels are re=uired1 Hence there has been considerable development &ith respect to austenitic stainless steels1 In actual practice) in SS63;# and SS6;8 are &idely
E3;3> -EP+-*>#A-CH :33@
PA(E ;< +. 2<6
V'ESI(%) I%S*A!!A*I+% , +PE-A*I+% +. SUPE-C-I*ICA! P+/E- P!A%*S
used the U1S1 instead of *?@2 in superheater applications) mainly because they are easier to &eld) &hile the cost difference is relatively small1
E3;3> -EP+-*>#A-CH :33@
PA(E ;8 +. 2<6
*able 7?; lists the compositions of various stainless steels for SH>-H lube applications1 *able 7?:3" %ominal Chemical Compositions of Austenitic Steels for Boiler C&tHD
Specifications AS#E $IS C Si 29Cr?9%i *P63;H SUS63;H*B 3139 31< Super 63;H SUS63;$IH* B 3123 31: *P6:2H SUS6:2H*B 3139 31< *empaloy A?2 SUS6:2$IH* B 312: 31< *P62<H SUS62<H*B 3139 31< *P6;8H SUS*P6;8H *B 3139 31< *P6;8 H.( 3139 31< 27Cr?27%i 28?l;Cu#o 312: 317 Esshete 2:73 312: 317 *empaloy A?: 312: 31< :3?:SCr *P623 SUS623*B 3139 31< *P623%b% SUS623$2*B 313< 31; %.838N 3139 319 Alloy 933H %C.933H*B 3136 319 *empaloy A?6N SUS63@$;H* B 3137 31; %.83@N SUS623$:*B 3127 317 SA0E:7N 3123 312 HighCr?High %i C-63AN 313< 316 H-</N 3139 31; Inconel <28 31;3 Inconel <82NN 3137 ?? N %ot AS#E code approved1 NN !o& strength material for use in co?eAtruded tubing1 .or &eld overlays1 #n 21< 319 21< 21< 21< 21< 21< 318 <13 21< 21< 21: 213 21: 217 213 213 31: 21: 31; ?? %i 913 @13 2313 2313 2:13 2313 2313 2;13 2313 2;13 :313 :313 6713 6:13 2713 :713 2913 7313 ;613 7;13 7217 Cr 2913 2913 2913 2913 2<13 2913 2913 2<13 2713 2713 :713 :713 :213 :213 ::13 :313 :613 6313 :613 ::13 ;613 #o ?? ?? ?? ?? :17 ? ? :13 213 21< ? ? 217 ? ? 217 ? :13 ? 917 ?? / ?? ?? ?? ?? ?? ? ? ?? 31: ?? ?? ?? ?? ? ? ?? 217 ? <13 ? ?? 0 ?? ?? ?? ?? ?? ?? ? ? 213 ?? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?? ? ? ?? %b ?? 31;3 ?? 3123 ? 319 319 31; ? 31:; ? 31;7 3): ? 3)8 31: 31;7 ?? 3129 ??
??
*i ?? ?? 317 +1+S ?? ? ? 316 313< 3)23 ? ? 312 317 ? 312 ? 31: 3129 ? ??
B ?? ?? ?? ?? ?? ? ?? 3133< ?? ?? ? ? ? ? 3133: ? ? ?? 31336 ? ??
+thers ? 613Cu) 3123% ? ? 11 ? ? 6?3Cu
31:% ? 31;A2 3127% 613Cu1 31:% 3136Qr 2:17Co1 21:A2 ??
I%8: C;;HCr?bal %iD is the matching &eld &ire
E3;3> -EP+-*>#A-CH :33@
PA(E ;9 +. 2<6
W'ESI(%) I%S*A!!A*I+% , +PE-A*I+% +. SUPE-C-I*ICA! P+/E- P!A%*S
*he austenitic steels fall into four categories" l7Cr) 29Cr) :3?:7Cr and higher Cr stainless steels1 *he various stages in the evolution of these steels have consisted of initially adding *i and %b to stabilize the steels from a corrosion point of vie&) then reducing the *i and %b content CunderslabilizingD lo promote creep strength rather than corrosion) follo&ed by Cu additions for increased precipitation strengthening by fine precipitation of a Cu rich phase1 .urther trends have included austenite stabilization using 31:H nitrogen and / addition for solid solution strengthening1 *his development se=uence is illustrated in .igure 7?;1
.igure 7?8" Evaluation of authentic steels for boiler
*able 7?:2" Candidate #aterials for Advanced Supercritical Plants for 0arious Steam Conditions
Component Phase 3 62< g>cm: 7<7>7<7>7<7JC C2373>2373>2373J.D Phase 2 62< g>cm: 7@6>7@6>7@6JC 2373>2373>2373J.D Phase IB 62< g>cm: <:3><:3><:3JC 2373>2373>2373J.D Phase : 62< g>cm: <73><73><7+JC 2373>2373>2373J.D
Headers>steam pipes .inishing SH non? corrosive Corrosive
P::) HC#:S CP:6D P@!P@:1P2::) E@22 P@2) P@:) P2:: *@2) 63;H) 6;8 *P6;8 H.( Super 63; H>P?l ::N 623%b%CH-6CD 6I+%b%CH-6CD SS6;8>I%8:NN .inishing -H Same as SH Same as SH /ater &all !o&er C steel *ll)*I:) *:: *:6 &all Upper &all *22) *2:) *:: CHC#2:D Clad &ith alloy .or lo& %+A Boilers containing X:3H Cr Same as Phase 3 R High S coal or chromized
P@:)PI:: E@22) SA0E 2:R %.2:R %.I:) SA0E 2: %.83@ Super 63; H %.83@ Inconel <28 6I3%b%CH-6CD Cr63A Super63;H>I%8:NN %. 83@>2%8:NN Same as SH Same as SH Same as Phase 2 Same as Phase 2 Same as Phase 3 Same as Phase 3
E3;3> -EP+-*>Boben Anto C
PA(E ;@ +. 2<6
High strength ferritic alloys &ith @HCr arc suitable for steam piping and headers) but may suffer eAcessive fire side oAidation1 l:Cr steels may be suitable) but further testing is needed1
NN I%8: C;;Cr) bal %iD &eld overlay for corrosion protection

R
'evelopmental Alloy
Choice of #aterials for Headers and Steam Pipes

.erritic steels for thic section applications at various temperatures are sho&n in *able 7?71 #aterial?property re=uirements for headers and steam pipes are li ely to be similar) and hence they have been grouped together1 Some minor differences eAist &hich may affect material selection1 *he steam temperature is li ely to be much more uniform in steam pipes) but sub4ect to time?dependent and location?dependent fluctuations in headers1 Hence) the thermal?fatigue?strength re=uirements are greater for headers than for steam pipes1 Self?&eight?induced stresses are less important for headers than for steam pipes) permitting heavier?&all construction and an attendant higher temperature>pressure capability for a given material &hen used in headers1 An important difference is that headers have many &elded attachments to inlet stub tubes from reheaters and superheaters and intersections of outlet nozzles connecting pipe&or 1 'epending on the selection of materials for the superheater>reheater tubes and the header piping) dissimilar?metal &elded 4oints may be re=uired1 *he integrity of such austenitic?to?ferritic &elds) &hen @ to l:HCr steels form the ferritic components) needs to be more thoroughly investigated1 Headers and pipes have traditionally been made from lo& alloy steels such as P22 and P::1 Even in conventional boilers) such headers can fail due to thermal fatigue crac ing) caused by cycling1 A common failure mode is the crac ing of the ligaments bet&een the tube boreholes1 *he use of higher temperatures and pressures can only increase the problem1 Previous attempts lo use austenitic steels have not been successful due to high thermal eApansion of these steels1 Several candidate ferritic steels have emerged succeeding the P22 and P:: steels) &hich are capable of operation up lo 7@6JC1 *hese include H*@) H*@2) HC#@#) HC#2: and P@21 Alloys H*@ and H*@2 are &ell?established steels &ith an eAtensive stress?rupture database &hich eAceeds 237 h at temperatures in the range 733 to <33JC for all product forms1 *here is also eAtensive operating eAperience CX:3 yearsD in (ermany) Belgium) Holland) South Africa) and Scandinavia for steam temperatures up to 7;3JC C2333J.D and some limited eAperience on a fe& small units &ith steam temperatures from 7<3 to 793JC1 *his eAperience generally has been satisfactory1 'ifficulties have1 ho&ever) been reported during fabrication and particularly during &elding and post?&eld heal treatment1 *his arises because the relatively high carbon content of the steel C31:HD and the correspondingly lo& #s temperature promote the possibility of austenite retention after &elding) high residual stresses) and crac ing prior to and during stress relief1 It is reported that these problems have been overcome by careful control of preheat treatment and post &eld heat treatment bac ed up by vigorous =uality control1 'ifficulties have also been reported &hen the material has been given inade=uate solution heal treatment1 'ue lo these concerns) these
PA(E 73 +. 2<6
alloys have not found much favor in the United Slates) the United Lingdom) or $apan1 Alloys &ith improved &eldability characteristics) such as HC#2:# have been ade=uately characterized for tubing and large?diameter) thic ?&all pipes1 /ith regard to the @Cr?:#o steel CHC#@#D) the feasibility of fabrication of large?diameter) Chic ?&all piping and application to in?plant header and main steam piping &as first demonstrated in 2@971 *he practical use of this material has been easy because its simple composition lends fabricability and &eldability comparable to those of lo&?alloy steels1 *he toughness of large? diameter pipes has been found to be over 23: g>cm : C;<3 ft?lb>in1:D at 3JC C6:J.D1 Allo&able stresses arc comparable to those for the H*@ alloy) but lo&er than those for P@21 Service eAperience of nearly :7 years has accumulated since the alloy &as developed &ith about :333 tons having been produced specifically for SH>-H lubes and steam pipes1 *he modified @Cr alloy) P@2) appears to be =uite superior to H*@) H*?@2 and lo HC#@# in terms of creep?rupture strength and is) thus) the most promising candidate for use in header and steam piping for temperatures up to 7@7JC CI233J.D1 +ne of the early applications &as by the Chubu Electric Po&er Company CLa&agoe Po&er Station) Units 2 and :D for 7<7JC CI373J.D steam conditions as headers and steam pipes1 A ma4ority of the recent European supercritical plants have utilized P@2 as main steam and reheat piping1 %umerous retrofit applications have also been carried out for headers>steam pipes1 *he alloy &as approved by the AS#E Boiler Code Committee for various uses bet&een 2@96 and 2@9< as *) P) .?@21 Since that time) the alloy has found applications &orld&ide and is available from many sources) since the composition is not proprietary1 It is especially popular in Europe) &here it proved superior in creep strength as &ell as &eldability) compared lo the &ell? no&n H*@I steel) used in supercritical boilers1 *he high creep strength of grade @2 steel is due to small additions of 0) %b and nitrogen) &hich lead to the precipitation of #:6C< carbides and C%b) 0D carbonitrides) in addition to solution strengthening by #o1 0ery eAtensive studies &ere made &orld &ide to evaluate the suitability of P?@2 for heavy section components1 *hese included manufacturing studies) &elding trials) both similar and dissimilar) bending trials) both hot and cold) and various mechanical tests) on both virgin and aged samples1 *he net result of all these tests is that P?@2 is no& the preferred heavy section material for supercritical boilers &orld&ide1 Ho&ever) most designers feel the use of P?@2 &ill probably be limited to steam conditions of about 7@6JC>:7;1@: g>cm:1 *his is especially the case in Europe) &here the allo&able creep strength is :7;1@: about 23H lo&er than in $apan and the U1S1 -ecent development in $apan has indicated that the creep strength of @?2:Cr1 #o) 0) %b steels can be raised by about 63H through partial substitution of #o by /1 *his has spa&ned another round of intensive alloy development and evaluation &orld&ide1 *&o of these steels) a @Cr steel developed by %ippon Steel %.<I< CP?@:D and a 2:Cr steel HC#I:A developed by Sumitomo metals CP?2::D have been approved for use in boiler heavy section components by AS#E1 Another / containing steel E?@22 is in an advanced stage of development in Europe1 *he allo&able strength of the ne& steels at <33JC is about :7H higher than that of P?@21 *hus these steels should allo& steam temperatures up to <:3JC and pressures up to 6;8 g>cm:1
PA(E 72 +. 2<6
.igure 7?7 sho&s a plot of the allo&able stress at various temperatures for ferritic steels1 *he figure clearly sho&s the enormous advances in the materials technology &hich have been made in the last :3 years1 Especially at the higher temperatures) the most advanced steels sho& allo&able stresses that arc nearly :17 to 6 times that of the &or horse steel in conventional plants) i1e1) :?2>;Cr?l#o steel CP::D1 *he layering of the alloys into the different generations described earlier is also evident1 HC#2:A CP2::D) %.<2< CP@:D and E@22 emerge as the three highest strength alloys suitable for ultra supercritical plants up to <:3JC) follo&ed by *@2) HC#2:) E#I:1 HC#@# and H*@2 suitable for intermediate temperatures up to 7@6JC follo&ed by *:: for use up to 7<7JC1 %.2P: and SA0E2: are still developmental but are eApected to meet the Phase : goals1 *his rationale has been incorporated in the materials selection sho&n in *able?71<1
.igure 7?9" Comparison of allo&able stress of ferritic steels for boiler An interesting fact is that application of the ne& steels may actually result in a capital cost reduction1 .igure 7?7 sho&s the allo&able design stresses and a comparison of the relative &all thic nesses at various temperatures1 At any given temperature) higher allo&able stresses for a material permit design of thinner &all headers>pipes1 *his not only reduces thermal stresses) but also reduces cost1 .rom .igure 7?<) section thic nesses and materials costs can be calculated as a function of temperature and pressure1 .igure 7?8 sho&s the results for a pressure of 62< g>cm:1 *he cost of using high strength steel becomes lo&er than that of P?:: steel at about 7:3JC1 *he cost of using the / containing steel is lo&er than that of P?@2 above about 773JC1 *hese relations do not change very much &ith decreasing pressure do&n to :36 g>cm:1 Actual fabricated and installed cost differences should be even larger
PA(E 7: +. 2<6
as the thinner pipes need less &elding and arc easier to install1 .e&er supports are needed thus reducing costs further1
.igure 7?@" Comparison of allo&able stresses and sectional vie& of main steam pipes designed at 783KC and <33KC
European po&er stations using the most advanced steels %.<2< CP@:D) HC#2:A CPI::D and E@22 are sho&n in *able 7?::1
.igure 7?23" Cost of P?::) P?@2 and P?2:: steels header materials as a function of temperature at 62< g>cm: steam pressure
PA(E 76 +. 2<6
*able 7?::" Application of %e& *ungsten?Bearing Steels in European Po&er Stations

Po&er Station 0est raft Unit 6 #aterial (rade P@:C%.<2<D Size I' :;3 A 6@ Component Straight Pipe#ain Steam Header Induct1 BendHot -eheat Induct1 Bend#ain Steam Induct1 Bend#ain Steam Header Superheater Steam !oop Steam !oop Steam Conditions JC> Installation g>cm: 7<3>:7;1@: 2@@: 79:>:@7182 7<3>82169 7;3>:2812@ 79:>:@7182 7;7>7; <73 <73>29617; <73>29617; 2@@< 2@@< 2@@< 2@@< 2@@8 2@@9 2@@9 2@@9
%ord4yllands?vacr ct P@: C%.<2<D P2:: I' 2<3A;7 CHC#2:AD Sch opau Unit B E@2I I' 773 A :; Staudinger Unit 2 S aerbac Unit 6 (L1 Liel 0E/ /estfalen /estfalen E@II E@22 P@: E@22 E@22 P@: I' :32A:: I' :63 A <3 I' ;93 A :9 +'6$19A; I' 27@ A :8 I' 27@A:8
*here is considerable interest in using these alloys for outlet headers and main steam and reheat pipe &or 1 .ull?scale headers have been being installed in a ;27#/ supercritical plant under consideration by the 'anish utility) E!SA#1 Headers using P@: and P2:: have been constructed and installed1 *&o of the headers &ill be tested under accelerated high? temperature conditions in a high?pressure cell operated by #itsubishi Heavy Industries1 Some additional design considerations in applying the advanced steels are as follo&s" 21 *he high temperature strength of the advanced alloys) e1g1 %.<2<) HC#2:A and E@II CP?@:) P?2::) E@22D is essentially the same as that of austenitic alloys1 But oAidation resistance is less than that of austenitic alloys1 *his parameter of advanced @ to 2:Cr alloys must be more fully evaluated prior to application to high temperature parts1 :1 Post &eld heal treatment CP/H*D is al&ays re=uired for &elded 4oints of advanced @ to 2: Cr alloys to ensure minimal stress and optimal ductility1 'esign must allo& to reduce field heat treatment as much as possible to eep production and P/H* costs minimal1 61 In the &eldment of dissimilar alloys) material selection must be based on consideration of P/H* temperature1 .or eAample) the @Cr?l#o alloy and ICr?317#o steel &ould not be acceptable material for the 4oints in a longitudinal directionF measures must be ta en to consider the behavior of &elded 4oint creep rupture strength1 ;1 It is the apparent susceptibility of ferritic steel &elds to *ype I0 crac ing) &hich occurs at the edges of line grained HAQ material ad4acent to unaffected parent material1 Susceptibility to this has been clearly demonstrated for l>:Cr#o0) :?l>;Cr?I#o and @Cr?I#o C*@2D steels1 Safety margins of 23 to :3H are sometimes adopted to provide for this problem1 Since the problem in girth &elds is primarily associated &ith bending stresses) the problem can be overcome by proper plant design and maintenance1 *his issue has therefore been generally glossed over1
Choice of #aterials for Superheater>-eheater *ubes

E3;3> -EP+-*>Boben Anto C PA(E 7; +. 2<6
*he superheater tubes in the boiler are li ely lo undergo the most severe service conditions and must meet stringent re=uirements &ith respect to fire? side corrosion) streamside oAidation) creep rupture strength and fabric ability1 In addition) they must be cost?effective1 Based on these issues candidate materials for various steam conditioning have been summarised in *able 7?71 *he rationale for these selections is discussed in the follo&ing sections1
Creep -upture Strength

In terms of creep rupture strength) application of ferritic steels for tubes follo& the same logic as for the headers>pipes discussed earlier1 *hus) tubes made of *:: should be limited to steam temperature of 769JC1 Alloys *@2) HC#2:) E#2:1 HC#@# and H*@2 are limited lo steam temperature of 7<7KC) Alloys *?@:) P?2:: and E@22 limited to steam temperature of 7@6JC1 Under corrosive conditions ho&ever) even the best ferritic steel may be limited to 7<6JC temperature and austenitic steels arc needed1 Although the creep resistance of @Cr steels is ade=uate for use at 7@6JC) there is considerable doubt about their fireside oAidation resistance1 *hus 2:Cr steels) such as P2:: are preferred1 In practice) the high Cr) high strength ferritics have found little use in the U1S1 because of perceived &elding problems1 *?::) SS63;22 and SS6;8 are the steels most commonly used in supercritical boilers C6733 psiD in the USA1 .or convenience) austenitic steels can be classified as those containing less than :3H Cr and those containing more than :3H Cr1 Alloy modifications based on the 29Cr?9%i steels) such as *P63;H) 62<H) 6;822 and *empaloy A? l) and alloys &ith lo&er chromium and higher nic el contents) such as 28?2; Cu#o steel) Esshete 2:73) and *empaloy A:) fall into the classification of steels &ith less than :3H Cr1 *he allo&able tensile stresses for steels in this class are compared in .igure 7?91 *empaloy A2) Esshete 2:73) and 28?2; Cu#o steel are found to offer ma4or improvements over the 633 series stainless steels1 It has been reported that grain?size modifications of AISI type 6;8H stainless steel can in some instances lead to rupture properties some&hat better than those of *empaloy A?21
PA(E 77 +. 2<6
.igure 7?22" Comparison of allo&able stresses 29Cr?29%i and 27Cr steels
Several high?crcep?strength alloys containing more than :3H Cr) such as %.838) %.83@) and H-6C) have been developed) and offer lo&?cost alternatives to Incoloy 933 for use in the temperature range from <73 to 833JC C2:33 to 2:@3J.D1 A comparison of the AS#E Code allo&able stresses for the high?chromium alloys is sho&n in .igure 7?@1 Clearly) %.83@ and H-6C are leading candidates for use in the highest?temperature applications1 *he latter steel &as approved for use in boilers by AS#E as SS623%b%1 *he highest creep strength is achieved in Inconel <28) &hich contains ::H Cr) but it is also li ely to be the most eApensive alloy to use) due to its high %i content1
PA(E 7< +. 2<6
.igure 7?2:" Comparison of allo&able stresses for austenitic alloys containing more than :3H Cr1
A comparison of allo&able temperatures at a constant allo&able stress of 733 g>cm:) as a function of chromium content) is sho&n in .igure 7?231 /ith increasing chromium) a discontinuity is seen in the allo&able metal temperatures of austenitic steels) rising about 73JC C@3C.D above those of ferritic steels1 In terms of increasing temperature capability) stable austenitic alloys offer the highest capability) follo&ed by melaslable austenitic steels) and then by ferritic steels1 *he fully enhanced) stable austenitic alloys are clearly capable of operating under phase : steam conditions C<73JC) or 2:33J.D1
PA(E 78 +. 2<6
.igure 7?26" Allo&able metal temperatures at constant allo&able stress of 733 g>cm: C8 siD as a function of chromium content for various alloys
.igure 7?2;" -elationship bet&een hot?corrosion &eight loss and temperature for ferritic steels
PA(E 79 +. 2<6
.ire?side Corrosion
.ireside corrosion results from the presence of molten sodium?potassium?iron trisulfates1 Because resistance to fireside corrosion increases &ith chromium content) the @ to 2:H Cr ferritic steels are more resistant than the :?2>;Cr? l#o steels currently used1 *he 2:H Cr in turn steel sho&s belter corrosion resistance than :?2>;H Cr steel and @H Cr steel) as sho&n in .igure 7?221 Stainless steels and other supcralloys containing up to 63H Cr represent a further improvement1 Increasing the chromium content beyond 63H results in a saturation effect on the corrosion resistance at least in the laboratory) as sho&n in .igure 7?2:1 .or practical purposes) &hen corrosive conditions are present) line distinctions bet&een ferritic steels may be academic) and it is usually necessary to use austenitic steels containing chromium in eAcess of :3H1
.igure 7?27" -elationship bet&een hot?corrosion &eight loss and chromium content for various alloys
A ran ing of the performance of various austenitic alloys in the presence of trisulfates has been provided by +htomo on the basis of short?term laboratory tests Csee .igure 7?26D1 *he plots or &eight loss versus temperature eAhibit a bell?shape curve1 At temperatures belo& <33JC C2223J.D1 corrosion is believed to be lo& because the trisulfate eAists in solid form1 Above 873JC CI693J.D) corrosion rates arc once again lo&) as the trisulfates vaporize1 *he &orst corrosion problem is in the range <33 lo 873JC C2223 to I693J.D1 *he data indicate that the high?chromium alloys such as type 623 stainless steel and Incoloy 933H arc superior to the other alloys tested and that Inconel <82 C%i?73CrD or its matching &eld metal I%8: is virtually immune to attac 1 !o&er?chromium stainless steels) such as type 62<H) type 6:2H) and Esshete 2:73) sho& considerable susceptibility to attac 1 *he alloy most susceptible
PA(E 7@ +. 2<6
to attac seems to be the 28?2; Cu#o alloy used in the Eddystone 2 plant1 -esults of field probe studies confirm the follo&ing ran ing of alloys in increasing order of corrosion resistance" *@2) HC#2:) type 6;8 stainless steel) Incoloy 933) and Inconel <821 In addition to alloy selection) other SfiAesGG to minimize fire?side corrosion) such as shielding of the tubes may also be applied) if economical1
.igure 7?2<" Comparison of fire side corrosion resistance of various alloys
*est carried out in U1S1A indicate that substantial superheater corrosion can occur) especially in high strength austenitic alloys &ith a lo& chromium content1 .or most coals) high strength modified Alloy 933 type alloys such as %.83@) &ill probably have sufficient corrosion resistance) &hile for more corrosive coals modified SS623 type alloys) e1g1 H-6C) should given an eAtra margin of safety1 It is of interest to note here that a *?@2 sample eAposed in the lo& sulfur coal fueled boiler had a corrosion loss similar to SS 6;8) &hich is considerably less than that of SS 63; and 28?l;Cu#o1 A probable reason is that scales and deposits usually adhere tight to ferritic>martensitic steels) but spall readily from all austenitic steels1 Based on the favorable results from the air?cooled probes in one of the plants) the SS63;# reheater) &hich suffered from severe al ali sulfate corrosion &as replaced by one made from SS623 %b% CH-6CD1 *est sections of other alloys &ere built into the reheater and carefully monitored1 It &as found thai 623%b% CH-6CD &as a satisfactory material for @3H of the reheater) &ith less than 31:7 mm>yr C23 mils>yrD corrosion1 Ho&ever in one area) about 23 tubes &ide and 23 ft C6mD high) corrosion rates ranged from 317 ? 21:7 mm>yr C:3? 73 mils>yrD1 Here the corrosion resistance of SS623 &as about the same as that of SS6;8 and alloy 933H1 +nly a Cr?%i steel CCr63AD &ith 63H Cr had significantly lo&er corrosion rate) ranging from 312:7 ? 317 mm>yr C7 ? :3 mils>yrD1 Il is concluded that increasing the Cr content of the alloy from 29?
PA(E <3 +. 2<6
:3H to :6?:7H &ill significantly increase corrosion resistance) &hen the corrosivity of the deposits is moderate) i1e1 Y 317 mm>yr C:3 mils>yr for 29?9 stainless steelsD1 .or more corrosive conditions) co?eAtruded tubes or &eld overlay claddings containing at least ;3H Cr are strongly recommended1
Steam?side oAidation
Steam?side oAidation of tubes and eAfoliation of the oAide scale and its solid? particle erosion damage to the turbine are &ell no&n1 *his problem is eApected to be more severe in advanced steam plants) because the much higher steam temperatures employed are li ely to cause more rapid formation of oAide scale1 0ery limited data are available regarding the steam?side scale?gro&th characteristics of the fcrritic tubing alloys1 In a study by Sumitomo #etal Industries) the oAide gro&th in steam for alloys *:: C:?2;Cr?I#oD) *@) HC#@#) and the modified @Cr?l#o C*@2D &ere compared based on 733 hr tests1 -esults sho&ed the superiority of the *@2 alloy over the other alloys1 #asuyama compared alloys HC#I:) HC#@#) 6:2H) and 6;8H in field tests in the temperature range 773 to <:7JCC23:3 to 2277I.D over a period of one year1 Samples &ere inserted in the tertiary and secondary superheaters and re heaters1 .rom the results) it &as concluded that the resistance to steam oAidation of HC#2: is superior to those of 6:2H and HC#@# and comparable to that of fine?grained 6;8H for eAposure to the high?temperature region of the reheater1 Subse=uent monitoring over a period of three years has borne out these conclusions1 In addition to the inherent resistance of HC#I:# steel to steam?side oAidation) #asuyama suggests that the tendency to&ard eAfoliation or oAide scale &ould also be less for this alloy than for austenitic steels1 Additional improvements in @ to 2:H Cr steels may be possible by eAtending the chromizing and chromate conversion treatmentsC63D that currently arc applied to lo&er?alloy steels1 (rain refinement during heat treatment has been sho&n to be clearly beneficial as &ell1 Internal shot blasting is also no&n to improve the steam oAidation resistance of 633 series stainless steels by enhancing chromium diffusion1 Il is therefore anticipated that these steels &ould be used in the fine?grain and shot?peened conditions1
Summary of SH>-H *ube?#aterial Status

Based on the discussion so far recommendations for materials selection have been made1 .or phase 3 steam conditions) alloys *@2) HC#2:#) and AISI type 63; stainless steel are viable candidates for superheater and reheater tubing) provided that fire?side corrosion is not a ma4or problem1 Under mildly corrosive conditions) 623%b% stainless steel may be the most cost?effective option1 .or severe corrosion cladding) SS63; &ith I%8: C;;HCrD is recommended1 .or intermediate?temperature applications corresponding to phase I steam conditions C7@7JC) or 2233J.D) *empaloy A?l and type 6;8 fine?grained stainless steel are deemed to be ade=uate in the absence of corrosive conditions1 Under mildly corrosive conditions) 623%b# stainless steel may offer the best combinations of creep strength and corrosion resistance1 .or severe corrosion) cladding &ith I%8: is recommended1
PA(E <2 +. 2<6
.or phase 2B i1e1 <:3JC conditions Super 63;H) *empaloy AAI) Esshele 2:73 and 28?2; Cu#o may be acceptable under non?corrosive conditions1 .or mildly corrosive conditions alloys &ith :3?:7H Cr such as H-6C1 and %.83@ &ill have the best combination of creep strength and corrosion resistance1 .or severe corrosion) cladding &ith I% 8 : is again recommended1 .or the highest?temperature application corresponding lo phase : steam conditions C<73><73JC1 or 2:33>2:33J.D1 the creep strength re=uirements are met by Inconel <28) 28?2; Cu#o steel) Esshete 2:73 and %.83@1 Among these alloys) 28?2; Cu#o steel and Esshele 2:73 have inade=uate corrosion resistance and &ill have to be clad &ith corrosion?resistant claddings of Inconel <82 If corrosive conditions are present1 %.83@ and C-63A may be used &ithout any corrosion protection for mildly corrosive conditions) but &ill re=uire cladding &ith I%8: for severely corrosive conditions1
PA(E <: +. 2<6
Choice of #aterials for /ater&alls #etal *emperature Concerns

*his issue has been discussed recently by Blum1 In boilers operating at <:7JC>6:< g>cm:) maAimum mid&all temperatures can be as high as 733? 7:7JC) depending on magnetite deposits at the inside of the tube1 *his means that the creep resistance of standard lo& alloy ferritic steels such as *?l 2 is not ade=uate1 +riginally *?@2 steel &as the only suitable substitute1 Under the C+S* program it &as demonstrated that this material can be fabricated into &ater&alls1 Ho&ever a post&eld heat treatment is re=uired) &hich is difficult to do in the field1 *&o steels containing :17 and 2:CrH respectively developed by Sumitomo and #ill are more promising in that they do not re=uire preheat or post&eld heat treatment1 Both steels have creep strength in the same range as *?@2 and W use similar precipitation strengthening mechanisms1 Especially the :17HCr steel appears promising for this application1 It also has recently been approved by the AS#E Boiler Code Committee as *?:61 *est panels are no& in service in various boilers1
/ater&all Corrosion Concerns

-ecent reductions in %+A emissions) mandated by the Environmental Protection Agency in the USA have led to the introduction of deeply staged combustion systems) in &hich the air>fuel ratio is significantly less than 2) and additional combustion air is added above the burners via overfire air ports1 Several boilers in the USA retrofitted &ith such systems have reported severe corrosion of lo& alloy steel &ater&alls) &ith metal losses in the 2?6 mm>yr C;3?2:3 mil>yrD range1 Supercritical units are generally more severely affected than subcritical units and severe corrosion is generally limited to coals &ith more than 2HS1 Ho&ever above 2HS there is no strict correlation bet&een S and corrosion rate1 *he highest corrosion losses are found in regions &here H:S rich substiochiometric flue gas miAes &ith air from the overfire air ports1 !aboratory studies indicate that the high corrosion rates cannot be eAplained by the presence of H:S and C+ in the flue gas alone1 /or by Lung has sho&n that corrosion rales in gas miAtures) actually found in boilers) containing 733? 2733 pm H:S and 7?23H C+) are generally less than 317 mm>yr C:3 mils>yrD at ;73JC1 #ore recently it &as sho&n that the presence of .eS deposits can greatly increase the corrosion rate) but only under alternating oAidizing>reducing conditions or oAidizing conditions alone1 .igure 7?28 sho&s corrosion losses of a lo& alloy steel) *?@2 and SS?63; in the presence of .eS containing deposits and a gas miAture containing 2H oAygen1 Although the corrosion rates arc probably artificially high) because of the short duration of the test) it is clearly demonstrated that lo& alloy steels &ill corrode =uite rapidly in the presence of .eS deposits and an oAidizing gas1 *he tests further sho& that claddings or &eld overlays containing at least 29 and preferably more than :3H Cr are needed to assure acceptably lo& corrosion rates1
PA(E <6 +. 2<6
.igure 7?28" Corrosion of steels containing 317?29H Cr under .eS containing deposits in oAidizing flue gas
Summary
*here has been eAtensive development in the strengthening of @ to 2:H ferritic steels resulting in temperature>pressure capabilities &ell over the conventional frame&or of 769JC 28; g>cm: for the steam1 %early t&o dozen plants have been commissioned &orld&ide &ith main steam temperatures of 797 to <33JC and pressures of :;7?637 g>cm:1 Specific materials developments &ith respect to ey components are as follo&s" .or heavy section components such as pipes and headers1 minimising thermal fatigue has been a ma4or driver in addition to achieving high creep strength1 .or this reason) alloy development has focussed on ferritic steels containing @?2:H Cr1 +ptimisation of C) %b) #o and 0 and partial substitution of / for %b in the @?2:H Cr fcrrtitic steels has resulted in three ne& alloys HC#2:A) %.<2< and E@22 CP@:) P2:: and E@22D capable of operating up to <:3KC at steam pressures up to 6;8 g>cm :1 Beyond <:3KC oAidation resistance may become an additional limiting factor) especially for the @H containing steels1 A ne&er class of 2:H Cr alloys %.2: and SA0E 2:) containing cobalt and additional / is being evaluated for possible <73KC CI:33K.D application1 It appears from preliminary results that austenitic steels or %ic el alloys &ould be needed for temperatures eAceeding <73KC1 .or SH>-H tubes steam side oAidation resistance) and fireside corrosion resistance are ma4or drivers in addition to creep resistance1 .urthermore) tube metal temperatures often eAceed the steam temperature by as much as
PA(E <; +. 2<6
:9JC It is unli ely that any of ferritic steels can be used in the finishing stages of SH>-H circuits at steam temperatures eAceeding 7<7JC1 Austenitic steels need to be used at these higher temperatures1 'epending on the corrosivity of the coal used) higher Cr steels or clad steels may be re=uired1 .or <:3JC application1 Super 63;H) *empalloy AA2) Esheat 2:73 and 28 C/?#+ are acceptable under non corrosive conditions &hile :3?:7H Cr alloys such as H-6C) %.83@ and cladding &ith 2%8: are recommended for more corrosive conditions1 Several candidate alloys Inconcl <28) %.83@ and Cr63A and alloys clad &ith Inconcl <82 C73H CrD arc available for use at <73JC1 .or upper &ater&all sections) t&o ne& steels containing :17 and 2:H Cr no&n as HC#:C*:6D and HC# 2: respectively are very promising in terms of creep strength and &eldability1 *hey are suitable for use in the range of 7@7?<73JC steam conditions purely from a creep strength point of vie&1 /hen fireside corrosion in lo& %+A boilers is an issue) these alloys &ill have to be clad or &eld overlaid &ith alloys containing more than 29?:3HCr1 Several boiler materials &ith improved mechanical properties have been developed recently) and ne& materials still in the -,' stages &ill enable higher ultra?supercritical steam cycles than are today commercially available1 #ost materials development is being conducted under national or internationally coordinated programs including the A+ 833 > CE#*ES 833 program funded by the European Commission) and the US Ultra?Supercritical #aterials Consortium sponsored by the US 'epartment of Energy1
PA(E <7 +. 2<6
#aterials 'evelopment Stages M and -elated Steam Parameter !imits
.igure 7?29" #aterials 'evelopment Stages and -elated Steam Parameters !imits
E3;3> -EP+-*>boben anto c
PA(E << +. 2<6
PA(E <8 +. 2<6
*U-BI%E #aterials for *urbines in Ultra Supercritical Po&er Plants

*he re=uirements for advanced steam turbine materials include commercial or near? commercial availability) sufficient strength) steam oAidation resistance and temperature capability at <73?873JC) appropriate physical properties Cie1 thermal eApansion and conductivityD for the part>component being considered) fabric ability) and acceptable cost1 /hile there is some debate as to the actual upper temperature limit of commercial advanced @?2:Cr ferritic>martensitic steels) it does appear that for temperatures of <:7?<73JC or above) they do not have ade=uate strength or steam oAidation resistance) and must be replaced by alloys &ith more performance and reliability at higher temperatures1
#aterials for Casings and Shells

Steam turbine casings are typically large structures) &ith compleA shapes that must provide the pressure containment for the steam turbine1 Because turbine casing components are massive) their cost has a strong impact on the overall cost of the turbine1 *he materials used currently for inner and outer casings are the 2?:Cr#o steels) usually as castings1 *he temperature limit of these alloys in this application is approAimately 7<<JC) mainly due to their resistance to steam oAidation1 .or higher temperatures) cast @Cr?2#o0%b alloys are considered to be ade=uate in terms of strength capabilities to 7@6JC) &hile the 2:Cr steels in either cast or forged form currently appear to be limited to <:3JC) assuming acceptable steam oAidation resistance1 Casings made of cast martensitic>ferritic steels must still be heat?treated and tempered to produce the best combination of high temperature strength and ductile?to?brittle transition temperature C'B**D behavior at lo& temperature1 In terms of strength) the neAt step up in cast alloys for casings logically &ould be an austenitic stainless steel" cast 62< &as used in Eddystone1 Ho&ever) problems eAperienced &ith that?cast stainless steel) such as thermal fatigue crac ing) led the industry to discontinue use of such alloys in steam turbines1 -ecent modifications to cast 6;8H CC.9CD stainless steel have resulted in development of a ne& steel) C.9C? Plus developed by +-%! and Caterpillar) &ith creep strength better than %.83@ and Super63;H) and close to that of the %i?based superalloy <281*he possibility of using an austenitic stainless steel in significantly thinner sections Cdue both to better castability and much better strengthD has the potential for reducing thermal fatigue sensitivity compared to earlier cast stainless steels1 *his ne& properties data suggest this class of alloys should be reconsidered for steam turbines1
PA(E <9 +. 2<6
!#P CCO:3D .igure 7?2@" Plot of Creep -upture Stress 0ersus !arson?#iller Parameter
Plot of creep rupture stress versus !arson?#iller Parameter C!#PD for cast C.9C?Plus steel) and various &rought alloys including *P6;8H.( and Super 63;H stainless steels) %.83@ stainless alloy) and superalloy <281 *he upper aAis reflects eAtrapolation to use temperature for rupture life of I33)333h1
E3;3> -EP+-*>boben anto c PA(E <@ +. 2<6
*he C.9C?PZus steel &as developed based on a uni=ue Iengineered microstructureI method to be have a stable austenite matriA phase Cfree of delta ferriteD for resistance to the aging?induced sigma phase embrittlement that plagues standard C.9C steel1 *he high temperature creep strength of C.9C?Plus steel is based on stable nano?scale dispersions of %bC &ithin the grains1 C.9C?Plus steel also has much higher creep? rupture ductility Cdespite its higher strengthD due to the lac of sigma or other embrittling precipitate phases1 C.9C?Plus also has outstanding fatigue and thermal fatigue resistance1 *hese properties are achieved in the as?cast condition &ithout the need for any additional heat?treatments) &hich is a benefit for large castings1 C.9C? Plus also has good castability) and in $uly :33;) #etal*e International used it to cast a large gas turbine end?cover component C<)833 lbD of this ne& steel1 Steam oAidation behavior of C.9C?PIus steel is much better than @?2:Cr martensitic>ferritic steel <73CC and should be comparable to other austenitic stainless steels and alloys to about 833JC or slightly higher temperatures1 .or the highest temperatures) %i?based alloys &ill be re=uired) and the =uestion &ill be &hether ade=uate strengthening can be developed in solid?solution strengthened cast alloys) or &hether age?hardenable &rought alloys &ill be needed1 *he candidate alloys chosen for evaluation by the European A'833 program included both .e?based superalloys and %i?base alloys" 277) :63) :<6) <28) <:7) 83<) 829) @32) and /aspaloy1 *here are strong incentives to minimize the temperature re=uirement for the outer shell components by design) and to improve the =uality of large 2:?Cr martensitic>ferritic and austenitic stainless steel castings1 *here is considerable eAperience in producing castings of Inconel <:7 and) in the European programs) data &ere generated from trial castings of both Inconel alloys <28 and <:71 A step?bloc casting geometry &as used for the prototypical component) and a full?scale valve chest &as cast in alloy <281 Considerable eAperience also eAists for large forgings of alloys such as I% 83< and 829) and long?term creep data are available for the &rought forms of alloys such as <28) <:7 and Haynes :631 +nly a modified version of <28 CCCA<28D) and the ne& alloy) Inconel 8;3) appear to meet the strength and creep?rupture criteria for the 8<3JC goal of the U1S1 USC steam boiler program1 *he ma4or materials needs are for %i?based alloys for operation at 8<3JC &ith CiD ade=uate creep rupture strengthF CiiD ability to cast them into the re=uired size and shape) and to inspect for defectsF and CiiiD ability to perform initial fabrication &elding Con cast or &rought forms) including dissimilar metal &eldsD) and to ma e repair &elds on aged material1 Considerable eAperimental effort to generate data is re=uired) and &ill involve the development of rupture) creep) and rupture ductility relationships for these materials1
#aterials for Bolting

*he ma4or re=uirements for bolting materials are high resistance to stress relaAation Cageing characteristicsD at temperatures that can range up to the maAimum steam temperature eAperienced by the casing for the hot gas pathF thermal eApansion characteristics compatible &ith those of the structure to be boltedF and lo& notch sensitivity1 *here is a &ide range of alloys available for this application) and the specific alloy selection depends for the most part on the criteria used by each manufacturer1 In current usage) ferritic steels Cvariants of type ;:: steelD are used up to approAimately 7<<JC) and the %i?base %imonic alloys are typically used for higher temperatures1 Based on &orld?&ide eAperience) %imonic 93A and a fe& proprietary alloys Csuch as -efractaloy :<D appear to be good candidates for temperatures up to
E3;3> -EP+-*>boben anto c PA(E 83 +. 2<6
7@6JC1 .or the bolting needs to 8:3JC in the1 European program) and to 8<3JC in the U1S1 USC Steam Program) %i?based alloys &ill be re=uired1 +verall) for bolting) the choice of materials appears to be relatively straightfor&ard1 *here do not appear to be significant manufacturing issues) since these alloys are available as bar stoc
#aterials for -otors>discs

*he HP rotor>discs &ill have to handle the highest steam conditions) so that a %i?based alloy &ill be re=uired for temperatures greater than <:3JCF a mitigating factor is that this component may be relatively small Cdepending on the overall steam turbine designD1 *he IP rotor handles steam at the maAimum system temperature) but at reduced pressure1 *he strength re=uirement may be relaAed compared to the HP rotor) but the issue of oAidation in steam remains1 #aterials selection for this component may be a critical issue because of its size1 .or maAimum overall efficiency) it &ould be desirable also to increase the temperature of the steam entering the lo&?pressure C!PD rotor1 *his component &ill re=uire a %iCr#o0 steel of the type in current use) but &hich is li ely to be susceptible to temper embrittlement in this application CX62<JCD1 -esort may be made to cooling of this rotor) or to alloy modification1 Alternatively) metallurgical processing changes may be introduced to reduce the susceptibility to temperature embrittlement Cby reducing the levels of P) Sn) #n) SiD1 *he alloys most commonly used for steam turbine rotors and>or discs are the Cr#o0/%b% steels) &hich can vary in chromium content from 2?26H depending on the preference of individual manufacturers1 *hese alloys are &idely used up to a temperature limit of about 7<<JC) and the higher?/) lo&er?%b and ?C versions are capable of 7@6JC1 *he issues for alloys for higher?temperature use are similar to those for materials for steam piping1 0ersions of these ferritic steels) based on the advanced @?2:H Cr compositions) are already in service at steam temperatures of <33JC) and it is eApected that they &ill be usable to approAimately <:3JC Cand possibly <73JCD1 %i? based alloys &ill be re=uired for the higher temperatures) and candidates include Inconel alloys <28) <:7) and the ne& 8;3 and 829Plus alloys) and Haynes :631 EAcept for 8;3 and 829Plus) these alloys are approved by the AS#E Boiler and Pressure 0essel Code Cnot re=uired for rotorsD) so that a significant design database eAists for them) but more compleA mechanical data) such as creep?fatigue and thermal?fatigue) is needed1 *he main issues for rotors>discs concern manufacturing) especially the capability to produce large castings and forgings1 /ith modern secondary steel ma ing practices) such as ladle furnaces) electroslag remelting to control freezing segregation) and control of the sulfur and phosphorus levels in the alloy) very large rotors no& can be produced) but eAperience is related mostly to Cr?#o?0 alloys Cused in current 7;2? 7<<JC plantsD) and for 2: Cr alloys Cneeded for advanced steam cycles to <:3JCD1 A further ma4or issue) depending on the design approach used) is the need for developing the techni=ues re=uired for ma ing dissimilar metal &elds &hen %i?based alloys are used for the HP turbine and the lo&er alloy>ferritic steels used for the IP turbine1
#aterials for Blading

*he current supercritical steam plants in the U1S1 typically use vanes and blades made from 2: Cr ferritic steels such as type ;::) or proprietary alloys of similar composition1
E3;3> -EP+-*>boben anto c PA(E 82 +. 2<6
.or higher temperatures there is available a &ide choice of &rought %i?based alloys) for &hich a substantial design database eAists from their application in gas turbines1 *he choice of blading material &ill depend on CiD the?temperature?of?the rotor) hence on the thermal eApansion characteristics of the component material) and CiiD the size and shape of the blade) &hich &ill be designed using computational fluid dynamics modeling1 Steam?compatibility data for these materials &ill be re=uired1 -ecent research data on moisture effects on oAidation suggest that it &ill be important to have higher?Cr levels in these alloys to avoid preferential internal attac in steam1 Consideration needs to be given to the problem of solid particle erosion from entrained particles of oAide scale that may eAfoliate from the superheater and reheater tubing1 /hile this problem may not be greater in USC turbines than problems encountered in current steam turbines) it &ill be prudent to ensure that erosion?mitigating coatings technology is available and compatible &ith ne& high?temperature blading materials1
Summary
Chemical composition of alloys considered for steam turbines is given in *able 7?81 Summary of materials considered suitable for different components of high pressure steam turbines in given *able 7?91 *he issues regarding materials and manufacturing resulting from the need for turbines to operate under ultra?supercritical steam conditions are summarized in *able 7?@) &hich attempts to provide a simple ran ing of the level of effort needed to provide materials choices for three target steam temperatures) <:3) 833) and 8<3JC1 In the *able) the level of effort re=uired is given a numerical rating) from 2?7) &here P7P suggests that considerable research and development &ill be needed) &hile a ran ing of P2P indicates that most of the capability re=uired is already available1
-ole of o&ner of plant

*he development of materials for fabrication and manufacture of different components of supercritical po&er plants described in this section indicates that material technology for these plants has matured and stabilised1 *he problems faced in the early years of development of SC technology &ere) mostly) material related and led to lo& availability of early SC plants established in USA as compared to sub?critical plants due to higher planned and unplanned outages of SC plants1 /ith development of suitable materials to ta e care of higher pressures) higher temperature and higher re=uirement of creep strength) availabilities of both type of plants later converged and no& availabilities of SC plants are better than those of sub?critical plants of similar capacity1 'ifferent manufacturers) ho&ever) may use different materials for the same components depending upon their eAperience) availability of materials and economic considerations1 *he purchaser of the plant is not in a position to specify the materials to be used nor is he in a position to do so1 *he purchaser has to specify the ambient conditions) the =uality of coals) re=uirements of sliding pressure and ramp?up rates grid code and conditions minimum acceptable efficiency and any other desired operating parameters1 *he purchaser has to depend) then) upon the manufacturer to design his plant accordingly for &hich he &ill offer performance guarantees1
PA(E 8: +. 2<6
*able 7?:6" Chemical Compositions of Alloys considered for Steam *urbines Cin &eight percentD
Alloy .e %i C Co Cr %b #o / *i A2
*@: *ype ;:: *2:: %imonic @32 A:9< *ype 62< *ype 6;8H %.83@2 Haynes2:32 -efraclaloy :< C.9C C.9C?P2US: %277 Haynes :63 Hastelloy B CCA<I8 Inconel <:7 Inconel 8;3 I%83< I%829 Allvac 829Plus I%@6@ %imonic 93A %imonic 237 %imonic 227 %imonic :<6 U833 U823 U8:3 /aspaloy
Bal Bal Bal Bal Bal Bal Bal Bal Bal Bal Bal Bal Bal 6 2917 318 6 : ;3 29 23 U 7 2 U 2 2 U U :
31; 318 316 ;:17 :< 22?2; 23 :7 6: 6< 23 2:17 :3 Bal Bal Bal Bal Bal Bal Bal Bal Bal Bal Bal Bal Bal Bal Bal Bal Bal
312 31:: 312 313; 3137 313< 3139 312 3137 3136 3139 312 3127 312 312 313< 3137 3138 3136 313; 313:7 3127 312 31: 31: 313< 3127 3138 3132 3138
U U U 2 U U U U U 2@ U U :3 7 217 2: U :3 317 U @ 2@ : :3 27 :3 2917 27 2;18 2;
@ 2: 2: 2:17 27 2<?29 29 :2 :7 29 2@17 2@ :2 :: :: :: :: :; 2< 2@ 2817 :: :3 27 27 :3 27 IS 2< :3
312 U 3137 U U U 319 316 318 U 3197 319 U U U U ; : U 7 71; 2 U U U? U U U U U
317 2 31; < 2 :?6 U 217 : 6 U 316 6 : @ @ @ 317 317 6 :18 U U 7 ; < 71: 6 6 ;
219 2 : U U U U U U U U U :17 2; 31< U 31: U U U 2 : U U U U U 217 21:7 U
U U U 6 U U U1 U U :1< U U U U U 31; 31: : : 2 318 618 6 : ; : 617 7 7 6
U U U 316 : U U U? U U U U U 316 U 21: 31: 2 31: 317 217 21@ : ; 7 317 ;1:7 :17 :17 2
1- contains X312 % 2- contains additions of #n and %
*able 7?:;" #aterials Selection for the High?Pressure Steam *urbine

Component Casings>Shells CvalvesF steam chestsF nozzle boAF cylindersD Bolting 7<<JC Cr#o0 CcastD 23Cr#o0%b <:3JC @?23HCrC/D 2:Cr/CCoD Cr#o/0%b% 833JC C.9C?Plus CCA<28 Inconel <:7 8<3JC CCA<28 Inconel 8;3 C.9C?Plus C[D
-otors>'iscs
I% 829 %imonic :<6 ;:: @?2:HCr#o0 %imonic 237 @?2:HCr#o0 A:9< %imonic 227 %imonic 93A I%829 /aspaloy I%829 I%829 Allvac829Plus 2Cr#o0 @?2:HCr/Co CCA<28 2:Cr#o0%b% 2:Cr#o/0%b% Inconel <:7 :<%iCr#o0227 Haynes :63
U833 U823 U8:3 %imonic 237 %imonic 227 CCA<28 Inconel 8;3
PA(E 86 +. 2<6
'ESI(%) I%S*A!!A*I+% , +PE-A*I+% +. SUPE-C-I*ICA! P+/E- P!A%*S 0anes>Blades Piping ;:: 23Cr#o0%b% P:: @?2:HCr/Co P@: Inconel 8;3 /rought %i? base CCA<28 /rought %i? base Inconel 8;3
PA(E 8; +. 2<6
*able 7?:7" -an ing and 'evelopment Effort %eeded for #aterials for *urbines
Component Casing Bolting -otors>'iscs 0anes>Blades #aterials #anufacturin g #aterials #anufacturin g #aterials #anufacturin g #aterials #anufacturin g Steam *emperature) JC <:3 833 8<3 6 ; 7 6 7 7 2 2 6 ; 6 6 6 2 6 ; ; ; 6 2 7 ; ; ; #a4or Issues 'esign dataF improved alloys Cost vs &roughtF process control 'esign dataF design procedures 'esign dataF &eldability #elting and fabrication Improved austeniticsF %i?base alloys .orging process CmodelingD
PA(E 87 +. 2<6
+PE-A*I+%A! .!EBIBI!I*5 A%' PE-.+-#A%CE +. SUPE-C-I*ICA! P!A%*S
PA(E 8< +. 2<6
+PE-A*I+%A! .!EBIBI!I*5 A%' PE-.+-#A%CE +. SUPE-C-I*ICA! P!A%*S +PE-A*I+%A! .!EBIBI!I*5 +. SUPE-C-I*ICA! P!A%*S Start?up fleAibility in supercritical boilers
Po&er systems are sub4ect to &ide diurnal as &ell as seasonal variations in demand1 *here is a substantial difference in the pea demand and the base load1 *he magnitude of variations is such that they cannot be ta en care of entirely by the hydroelectric or gas fired po&er plants in the system and coal fired plants ) also have to face fre=uent shut do&ns1 It is) therefore) important that coal fired plants have a lo& start up time and the capability to build up to the designed load conditions in a short time i1e1 a short ramp up time1 +nce through boilers used in supercritical plants are better e=uipped to cater to these fre=uent load changes in the system1 In the supercritical cycle) &ater converts to steam in the evaporator itself and thus steam flo& is al&ays available in super heaters1 *his leads to assured steam flo&) better heat transfer and better control of super heater metal temperature1 *hese factors reduce the limitation of firing rate in boiler and thus reduce the time re=uired to reach the re=uired parameters1 Shorter start?up times lead to lo&er start?up losses1 +nce through boilers used in supercritical plants can ad4ust to fre=uent load variations &hich could go up to as much as 23H per minute as against about 6H per minute for drum type boilers used in sub?critical plants1 Some supercritical po&er plants are re=uired to operate in t&o shift operation depending upon demand in the system1 /ith higher steam parameters in supercritical boilers) steam eAtraction) also) is high giving higher regenerative heater output and higher temperature of condensate leading to improvement in efficiency1 *he transition from the re?circulation mode to the pure once M through operation) if re=uired) is fully automatic for supercritical boilers1 *he sliding pressure operating mode thus enables load gradients of 7H to 23H per minute for the steam turbine over the load range from 63H to 233H as the temperatures remain mostly constant over load changes in this range1 *hermal stresses are also prevented1
PA(E 88 +. 2<6
Shorter start?up times

Start?up is classified as cold) &arm or hot depending upon the period for &hich the boiler remains shut?do&n1 Hot start up /arm start up Cold start up ? after to : hours shut?do&n ? after 9 hours shutdo&n ? after 6< hours shut do&n
*he comparative start up times for supercritical and sub?critical boilers are given in table belo&1 *ype of start Hot start up /arm start up Cold start up Supercritical : hours 9 hours 6< hours Sub?critical : hours 2: hours 7: hours
*he system usually follo&ed in start up is diagrammatically depicted belo& &hich lists the important steps to be follo&ed in the operation1 *he different operating cycle and efficiency achieved &ere listed belo&
PA(E 89 +. 2<6
*he advantages and area &ise attention as follo&s
Standard riffled tubes? re=uire high mass fluA to safely pass through critical pressure) S+*T Characteristic -esults
PA(E 8@ +. 2<6
Comparison of pressure part &eight bet&een '-U#) #ulti pass ) spiral and vertical tube &all for the same capacity
*echnological impact on +peration and #aintenance
PA(E 93 +. 2<6
PA(E 92 +. 2<6
PA(E 9: +. 2<6
+perating parameter comparison for the subcritical and supercritical plants and reduction in co: emission due to the increase in efficiency1
The trend of efficiency improvement in Indian power sector as follows
PA(E 96 +. 2<6
+ne of the Start up systems follo&ed in sho&n belo&
PA(E 9; +. 2<6
*ypical start up curves for cold) &arm and cold start ups for supercritical and sub? critical plants in (ermany as available &ith in India are given belo&1 It &ill be seen for all the three types of start ups) higher temperatures and pressures are attained &ithin the same period in supercritical boilers as compared to sub?critical ones indicating better ramp up rates1
PA(E 97 +. 2<6
Start Up Curve for Cold Start /e normally due to cold start up &hen the shutdo&n period crosses the ;9 hours and all e=uipments in cold conditions In the graph belo& &e have symmetrically eAplained the mainsteam parameters that is mainsteam pressure) temperature and flo& tobe maintained during the rolling and ramp up period &ith time has sho&n1 /e have described the &arm start as &ell as hot start condition belo& *he time ta en to build the pressure and temperature and ramp up already plotted as per our supercritical plant at Parent company
PA(E 9< +. 2<6
Start Up Curve for /arm Start
PA(E 98 +. 2<6
Start Up Curve for Hot Start Hot Start Up Curve
.leAibility for !oad Changes

*he sliding pressure operating mode enables a better load gradient and the load can easily be raised from 63 H to 83 as temperature remains mostly constant1 *his fleAibility can be seen from the start up curves &hich indicate faster change in the steam parameters faster1 *his enables convenient operation of the station in t&o shifts1 +ne of the optional design allo&s a circulating pumps and the scheme as follo&s1 In this case of lo& load the circulation can be achieved either by a circulating pump or by bypassing some part to the condensate flash tan and inturn send to condenser
PA(E 99 +. 2<6
.uel fleAibility
Supercritical boilers are able to operate efficiently &ith all types of furnaces li e front) opposed) corner) four &all) arch firing &ith slag type or dry ash removal1
/ater Chemistry
/ater chemistry had presented problems in early stages of supercritical development1 *hese problems basically related to the use of the de MoAygenated all volatileCA0*D cycle chemistry1 *he solution to these problems &as combination of a condensate polishing unit &ith oAygenated treatment &hich is) no&) a &ell proven procedure1 .urther) once through boilers do not have a blo& do&n &hich has a positive effect on &ater balance of the plant &ith less condensate needing to be fed into the &ater steam cycle and less &aste &ater to be disposed off1 233H polishing unit is incorporated &ith high =uality &ater used
Higher efficiency
0ery high plant efficiencies upto ;9H Cbased on HH0D are achievable as compared to lo&er unit capacity of sub?critical plants C67H ? 68HD1 *his is represented in the .igure <?21
PA(E 9@ +. 2<6
.igure <?:3" Chart Presents Higher Efficiency

Note: The above efficiencies are based on UHV
PA(E @3 +. 2<6
<1218 P-+B!E#S .ACE' B5 SUPE-C-I*ICA! P!A%*S I% I%'IA
I#PAC* +. .I-I%(
I%'IA% C+A! +% A0AI!ABI!I*5 +. SUPE- A%' U!*-A SUPE- C-I*ICA! B+I!E-S *he state?&ise distribution of coal resources in India is as follo&s" State Andhra Pradesh Arunachal Pradesh Assam Bihar Chhattisgarh $har hand #adhya Pradesh #aharashtra #eghalaya %agaland +rissa Uttar Pradesh /est Bengal *otal Coal -esources in #illion *onnes Proved Indicated Inferred *otal 9;36 <279 :79; 282;7 62 ;3 2@ @3 627 :8 6; 68< 3 3 2<3 2<3 @783 :8;66 ;;6@ ;2;;: 6<2;9 62;22 <66@ 869@9 87<7 @:79 :@67 2@879 ;<76 :;6: 2@@: @388 228 ;2 632 ;7@ ; 2 27 :3 2<@22 638@6 2;:@7 <2@@@ 8<< :@< 3 23<: 22696 2298@ ;776 :8927 @79<< 22@8<@ 68<<< :76632
%on?co ing Coal used available in India is classified into seven grades as follo&s1
seful !eat "alue Gr a #%cal&%g$ de ( B 34ceeding ,2-34ceeding 2,-- but not ,2-' 34ceeding 060- but not 2,-: 34ceeding 02-- but e4ceeding e4ceeding # !"$
'orresponding Gross 'alorific "alue G'" (sh) * +oisture ) #%cal& %g$ #at 2) at #,-) .! / 0-1 '$ 5ot e4ceeding 16.2 16., to 27.8 34ceeding ,020 34ceeding ,-06 but not e4ceeding ,020 moisture level$
27.6 to 28.,
34ceeding 2269 but not e4ceeding. ,-06
28.9 to 70.-
34ceeding 2-86 but not

PA(E @2 +. 2<6
not 0603
e4ceeding
34ceeding 2269
34ceeding 77,- but not 02-e4ceeding
70.1 to 0-.-
34ceeding 0720 but not e4ceeding 2-86
34ceeding 20-- but not 77,e4ceeding
0-.1 to 09.-
34ceeding 78,2 but not e4ceeding. 0720
34ceeding 17-- but not 20-e4ceeding
09.1 to 22.-
34ceeding 7117 but not e4ceeding 78,2
Generally Grade G coal is available for thermal power plants.

*he =uality of coal available from domestic sources compares very unfavourably &ith the =uality of coals imported from other countries such as Australia) Indonesia or South Africa1 Comparative analysis of coal available from Singrauli mines in India and #ount Arthur coal from Australia is given in *able brlo&1
Typical Proximate Analyses for Singrauli and

Singrauli Coal2 6;173 :3133 @177 ;3133 73133
ount Arthur !oals

#ount Arthur Coal: 72173 66133 6173 2:133 73133
Item .iAed carbon 0olatile matter #oisture Ash (rindability indeA
Unit H H H H H(I
PA(E @: +. 2<6
Cal Higher heating value CHH0D g Higher heating value CHH0D !o&er heating value C!H0D %otes" #$> g #$> g 27167 2;17: :<1;< :716: > 6)<<813@ <)6:3133
2 Average data based on typical analysis of run of mine design coal from
Singrauli coal fields1
: *ypical analysis of steam coal from #ount Arthur) Australia1 'ata sourced
from Chapter 8 of S#cClos eyGs Big Coal Boo :33:T1
*ypical Ultimate Analyses Cas received basisD for Singrauli and #ount Arthur Coals is given in table belo&1 *ypical Ultimate Analyses Cas received basisD for Singrauli and #ount Arthur Coals Item Carbon +Aygen Sulphur Hydrogen %itrogen /ater Ash Sum of all constituents %otes" Unit H H H H H H H H Singrauli Coal 69183 91<8 3173 :1<2 3187 @169 6@16@ 233133
2
#ount Arthur Coal: <@1:@ 91:3 3183 ;1<6 21<@ 6173 221@@ 233133
2 Average data based on typical analysis of run of mine design coal from
Singrauli coal fields1
PA(E @6 +. 2<6
*ypical ultimate analysis Cdry basisD of steam coal from #ount Arthur) Australia sourced from Chapter 8 of S#cClos eyGs Big Coal Boo :33:T1 *his data &as manipulated to determine the typical ultimate analysis Cas received basisD1
As seen from data presented above) imported coal has higher (C0 and contains lo& ash &ith lo& silica in the ash1 *herefore there is lo&er erosion of the boiler tubes than &ith Indian coals) &hich have high ash and high silica1 Ho&ever) the ash fusion temperature of imported coals is lo&er than Indian coals) and this can lead to clin er formation in the SH>-H sections causing higher outages1 *he estimation of outage in supercritical boilers for imported coal is given in the table belo&1 Po&er plant outage factors have been derived from boiler>turbine manufacturers planned outage figures and forced outage figures are based on estimates from data of eAisting plants in India using imported coal1 Estimate of Po&er Plant +utage .actors &ith imported coal Planned 5ear .orced Availabil outages s H H H 2 : 6 ; 7 < 8 9 @ 23 22 2: 26 2; 27 2< 28
;12 ;12 <19 ;12 ;12 <19 ;12 ;12 2:16 ;12 ;12 <19 ;12 ;12 <19 ;12 ;12
717 ;1; 616 ;1; 717 616 ;1; 717 616 ;1; 717 616 ;1; 717 616 ;1; 717
@31; @217 9@1@ @217 @31; 9@1@ @217 @31; 9;1; @217 @31; 9@1@ @217 @31; 9@1@ @217 @31;
PA(E @; +. 2<6
5ear s 29 2@ :3 :2 :: :6 :; :7
Planned outages H 2:16 ;12 ;12 <19 ;12 ;12 <19 ;12
.orced H 616 717 717 <13 <1< 812 91: @1@
Availabil H 9;1; @31; @31; 981: 9@16 9919 9713 9<13
P-+"#$5& !&&+)'!*$. 0'*4 ('-',/ I,.'!, )+!# !-$% Indian coal typically has higher moisture content1 *his can lead to lo&er boiler efficiencies than &ith imported coal1 !o& volatile matter in Indian coal leads to high?unburnt carbon loses1 !o& boiler efficiency due to lo& C0 and high ash content in Indian coals High ash and coal handling costs and milling po&er lead to high auAiliary po&er consumption High ash and high silica in the coal leads to higher erosion1 *hough lo&er flue gas velocities and provision of shielding plates can reduce erosion) it leads to higher capital costs for the boiler Ho&ever) Indian coals have also some advantages1 *hey are" !o& sulphur) therefore do not need .lue (as 'esulphurisation High ash fusion temperature therefore cause less slagging and clin er formation in the boiler Indian ambient conditions High ambient temperature leads to higher cooling &ater temperature reducing the achievable condenser vacuum to a maAimum of 3126 bar1 *his in turn leads to a higher steam consumption and a poorer turbine heat rate1 High relative humidity leads to more losses in cooling to&er
"ased on #ndian coal characteristics$ the outages are estimated as follows.

E3;3> -EP+-*>boben anto c PA(E @7 +. 2<6
Estimate of Po&er Plant +utage .actors &ith Indian Coal 5ear s 2 : 6 ; 7 < 8 9 @ 23 22 2: 26 2; 27 2< 28 29 2@ :3 :2 :: :6 :; :7 Planned H ;12 ;12 <19 ;12 ;12 <19 ;12 ;12 2:16 ;12 ;12 <19 ;12 ;12 <19 ;12 ;12 2:16 ;12 ;12 <19 ;12 ;12 <19 ;12 .orce H ;169 6172 :1<6 6172 ;169 :1<6 6172 ;169 :1<6 6172 ;169 :1<6 6172 ;169 :1<6 6172 ;169 :1<6 ;169 ;169 ;19: 71:< 7183 <179 819@ Availabilit H @217: @:16@ @3178 @:16@ @217: @3178 @:16@ @217: 97138 @:16@ @217: @3178 @:16@ @217: @3178 @:16@ @217: 97138 @217: @217: 99169 @31<; @31:3 9<1<: 99132
+ther operational problems

units installed &ere designed for constant range1 .or start?up) constant pressure
*he original supercritical and across the entire operation boilers load
pressure operation) i1e1 the boiler operates at full load pressure from start?up re=uire a start?up bypass system) &hich is compleA in
configuration and operation compared &ith the ne& sliding pressure Benson boilers1 As a result) the start?up time for constant pressure boilers is longer
E3;3> -EP+-*>boben anto c PA(E @< +. 2<6
and the plant minimum load must be pressure units1 In addition) the load
ept higher than ramp rate of
for
the
sliding
constant pressure
operation is restricted because of the limit in temperature change rate in HP CHigh PressureD turbine during a load change1 *he start?up valves on constant pressure boilers have to &ithstand larger pressure higher maintenance1 Severe slagging on the &ater&alls as &ell as the coils has been one of the ma4or issues in older coal?fired boilers constructed during the 2@<3s and 2@83s1 *his &as primarily because the furnaces of those plants &ere relatively small in volume1 Since then) the furnace size has been continuously revie&ed for better performance) and larger sizes have been used for recently constructed units1 Appropriate furnace dimensions including plan area) height and volume must be provided to reduce slagging potential) regardless of &hether the boiler is to be designed as sub?critical) supercritical) %C or once? through type1 *hese causes of common problems faced in earlier supercritical boilers and counter measures employed in ne& supercritical boilers belo&1 are given in table differentials during bypass operation) &hich leads to erosion damage and hence the re=uirement for more fre=uent valve
2: M
PA(E @8 +. 2<6
Table Causes and countermeasures of experienced problems Causes Countermeasures Issues experienced in older (As applied in supercritical units new supercritical units) Er osion of start-up High differential pressure due!liding to pressure operation" valves constant pressure operation simplified start-up and complicated start-up s stem" and low load s stem recirculation s stem# $ong start-up times Complicated start-up s stem !liding pressure operation" and operation (ramping simplified start-up operation re%uired" s stem" and low load difficult establishing metal recirculation s stem# matching condition" etc#) $ow ramp rates !liding pressure operation# Turbine thermal stresses caused temperature change in H& turbine during load changing (due to constant pressure operation) High minimum stable ' pass operation ( pressure Application of low load operating load ramp-up operation re%uired recirculation s stem !lagging )ndersi*ed furnace and +esign of ade%uate plane area inade%uate coverage b heat release rate and soot blower s stem furnace height" without division walls# &rovision of ade%uate s stem of soot blowing devices and,or water blowers# /x genated water treatment Circumferential crac-ing of .etal temperature rise due to (/0T)# water wall tubes inner scale deposit and fire &rotective surface in side wastage combustion *one of furnace for high 12ulphur coal" e#g# thermal spra or weld overla # 3re%uent acid cleaning Inappropriate water chemistr Application of /0T $ower efficienc than High air lea-age due to Tight seal construction# !ingle expected pressuri*ed furnace# reheat s stem with high 4H spra in5ection re%uired steam temperature and due to complications of 4H temperature control b steam temperature control parallel damper gas in the double reheat c cle biasing# configuration# $ow availabilit All the above All the above
<121@ Improvements>upgradations made in plants to mitigate the problems *he Hitachi?%a a *hermal Po&er Station Unit %o12 C2)333 #/D of the *o yo Electric Po&er Company C*EPC+D) has been ta en as an eAample to demonstrate the manner in &hich manufacturers have tried to mitigate the problems faced by earlier supercritical plants1 *he %a a plant uses a SBensonT
E3;3> -EP+-*>boben anto c PA(E @9 +. 2<6
type
boiler
&hich &as designed and
built
by Babcoc ?
Hitachi L1 L1 CBHL is the latest supercritical coal?fired utility plant to commence commercial operation in $apan1 State?of?the?art technologies such as high pressure) high temperature steam parameters of 6<93 psig >C<3;KC><3:KCDand HitachiGs advanced burner system for lo& %+A combustion &ere integrated into the ne& design1 .leAible sliding pressure operation) advanced steam temperature control methods) and sophisticated computer control technologies ma e this unit an ideal plant for load demand follo&ing applications1 *he sliding pressure supercritical Benson boiler technology has been fully established and has mar edly surpassed drum type boilers in the areas of efficiency) fleAibility in operation and availability) as proven by over23 years operating eAperience in $apan1 Since the start?up period) the Hitachi?%a a boiler has been operating &ith stable and reliable performance parameters for both steady load and dynamic load operation modes1 *he main features of the boiler are summarized as follo&s1 S#'.',/ 3-$&&2-$ +3$-!*'+, As the nuclear po&er has become the primary source for base load generation in $apan) coal?fired po&er plant e=uipment suppliers &ere challenged to design ne& supercritical coal?fired units &ith fleAibility for fre=uent load cycling1 By adopting the sliding pressure operation &ith lo&er boiler pressures at partial loads) the plant heat rate can be improved at partial loads due to 2D improvement of high pressure CHPD turbine efficiency) :D reduced auAiliary po&er consumption by boiler feed pumps) and 6D higher steam temperature at the HP turbine outlet1 In addition to the plant efficiency advantages) there are other benefits such as reduction in start?up time) increase in ramp rate and reduced erosion of bypass valves1 S3'-!# 6!*$-0!## .or sliding pressure boilers) maintaining uniform fluid conditions during lo& load > lo& pressure operation becomes critical to reduce the potential of tube damage caused by high metal temperatures1 *he lo&er part of the Hitachi?%a a boiler furnace is arranged in a spiral configuration such that the fluid path &raps around the boiler as it travels up the furnace1 A comparison of fluid temperature distribution bet&een the conventional vertical &all and the spiral &ater&all is sho&n in .igure 71 As a result of the uniform &ater&all fluid temperature profile that is achieved across the full range of boiler loads) the spiral &ater&all system does not re=uire any flo& ad4usting devices to be installed at the furnace inlet1
PA(E @@ +. 2<6

%ater %all &utlet 'luid Temp.
(eat 'lux
3$/03$/0
3$/0
3$/0
')46E4! ')46E4!
')46E4! ')46E4 !
')46E4! ')46E4 !
')46E4!
')&*T
S#+,
),A)
S#+,
')&*T
S#+,
),A)
S#+,
-ertical Type %ater %all
Spiral Type %ater %all
3igure 7
3luid Temperature profile comparison for 0ater 0all T pe
-8-
PA(E 233 +. 2<6
S*$!5 S$3!-!*+As the Hitachi?%a a boiler is a Benson type unit) a steam separator and a separator drain tan &ater at &ere installed to separate the steam and the the furnace outlet during a lo&?load recirculation operation1 *his
design is different from that of a conventional %C boiler) for &hich a steam drum is installed to separate the &ater from the steam under all operating loads1 *he steam drum is designed to have sufficient &ater storage capacity) and usually contains complicated internal parts) such as steam cyclones) scrubbers) internal feed pipes) and baffles1 Because of the compleA internals) steam drums re=uire a large amount of maintenance &or during outage periods1 Ho&ever) the steam separator design of a Benson boiler is simple in configuration and has no internal) therefore significantly less maintenance &or is re=uired1 B+'#$- &*!-*-23 &;&*$5& *he Hitachi?%a a Boiler includes fully automatic start?up systems such as the turbine bypass system and the lo& load recirculation system1 *he turbine bypass system &as designed to minimize the start?up time by controlling the main steam pressure and temperature before turbine rolling) and enabling the steam to flo& through the superheater sections at a short time after light?off1 *he lo&?load recirculation system &as designed to recover residual heat during start?up by circulation of the un?evaporated &ater from the furnace bac to the economizer inlet) &hich also can assist in reducing start?up time1 As this system is automatically operated) the start? up process is as simple as &ith a natural circulation C%CD boiler1 *able : sho&s a comparison of the start?up systems bet&eem a %C boiler) a constant pressure once?through boiler and a sliding pressure Benson type boiler Cthe Hitachi?%a a boilerD1
-2-
Table 9 6C 'oiler 3low diagram

#P1/P 23r y S0( T4)"#*, (P T 4 ) " ),(,AT,) # * , 53r y S0( ),(,AT,) 63r y S0( !AG, % AT,) % A//
Comparison of !tart-up ! stems T p ic aC l o n s ta n &t re s s u re / p e ra tio n / nc e Th ro u h g ' o ile r

3ryS0( 567 S0( 577 3ryS0( 572 575S0( 5:5 !AG, '/AS( TA*; !AG, AT,) % A// !&*+,*S,) +,A,) AT&) 557 A// ,!&*& #.,) ,!&*& #.,) (.P.(,AT, ) /.P.(,AT,) ,) (.P.(,AT,) "'P !P AT,) % A// 2<6 "!P "/&% % AT,) % A// 2<7 STA)T 4P !P 5:7 !&*+,*S,) S,PA)AT&) +)A#* TA*;!&*+,*S,) 576 578 ),(,AT,) 579 ),(,AT,) yS0( 278 (P T4)"#*, #P1/P T4)"#*, yS0( T4)"#*, 26< yS0( ),(,AT,) ),(,AT,) (P T4)"#*, #P1/P
'enson 'oiler
+,A,) AT&) "'P
,!&*& #.,) ,A,) AT&) % AT,) % A// !P
+ ,)
,!&*& #., ) ,!&*& #.,)
/.P.(,AT,)
(.P.(,AT,)/.P.(,AT,) (.P.(,AT,)
/.P.(,AT,)
,!&*& #.,) "'P
!tart-up s stem
b pass 6ot installed 4e%uired for Installed for steam /peration of : .aintaining furnacetemp and press control drain valves is (T' b pass) minimum flow necessar to: Heat recover to H& and deaerator establish turbine heater $ow load 6ot re%uired 4e%uired through flash tanrecirculation .aintaining : 4amping (shift from s stem recirculation mode to once furnace minimum through mode" flow Automatic smooth temperature dip is shift operation from inevitable) recirculation mode to Continuous once through mode recirculation mode - +irect heat recover operation is impossible to economi*er inlet Continuous recirculation !tart-up pressure Atmosphere 3ull pressure Atmosphere (;7<<psig) at furnace during cold start
-1-
M!', !,. R$4$!* &*$!5 *$53$-!*2-$ )+,*-+#& As the Hitachi?%a a boiler &as to be designed to fire coals &ith a &ide range of combustion and slagging properties) the steam temperature control system &as designed to maintain rated temperature in varying heat absorption profiles and load levels1 *he primary parameter for the steam temperature control is the ratio of a furnace &ater flo& to a fuel input1 *his simple and effective temperature control method cannot be used &ith an %C boiler as its &ater flo& in the furnace is driven by a natural additional bet&een each circulation phenomenon1 .or main steam controllability) superheater attemperators &ere installed maintain a rated
superheater sectionsto
temperature steadily &hen firing different types of coals &ith variant combustion properties1 .or the outlet reheater steam temperature C-S*D control) a gas flo& biasing system &ith a parallel damper &as adopted to maintain a rated steam temperature over a &ide load range &ithout the help of &ater spray attemperators) &hich &ere installed for emergency1 .or the Hitachi?%a a boiler) a bac pass heating surface arrangement has been optimized for improved controllability of -S*1 In .igure <) -S* fluctuations during a load ramp from 73H to 233H are sho&n for an older unit Cprevious designD installed &ith a gas recirculation system and the Hitachi? %a a boiler Cno gas recirculation systemD1 *he results sho& that fluctuations in -S* for the Hitachi?%a a boiler &ere ept to a minimal level similar to the older unit) and &ithout use of the reheater spray attemperator1 *hese provisions for steam temperature control in the Hitachi?%a a boiler help the po&er bloc to achieve a lo&er heat rate1
- =< -
4eheater !uperheater
Evaporator Econo mi *er
Percent of (eating Surface !ontrolled by +amper
Parallel Gas +amper @ Gas )ecirculation
Parallel Gas +amper &nly
<97 2=0 2=0min m 97= i n 97=
677= op enin +amper opening degree degree >)eheater >)eheater side? s g ide?
/oad +emand
er outlet emperatur e )eheater heat outlet steam temperature am t )e st e 27min. <7min. *o *o)eheater )eheater Spray Spray
997 >o!?
Previous +esign with Gas )ecirculation
(itachiA*aBa *o.6 without Gas )ecirculation
.igure < -eheater +utlet Steam *emperature .luctuation during !oad Change
A.9!,)$. )+,*-+# &;&*$5& *he latest developments in plant distributed control systems have led to a highly automated operation from boiler light?off to shutdo&n1 Advanced dynamic control from computerized calculation algorithms for the main control functions Ce1g1 steam temperature controlD have been developed such that recently installed boilers can be controlled &ith reduced operator action1
High availability
As stated earlier) the rapid introduction of very large plants in the USA in the early 2@83s had created problems of their availability due to their forced outages1 .eedbac from other operators Cin $apan) Europe and -ussiaD for plants installed later &as) ho&ever) positive1 /ith sustained improvements in plant design and materials of construction) the average availability of supercritical plants is) no&) e=ual to or even higher than that of comparable sub?critical plants as sho&n in *able belo&)1 *able <?:<" Availability of Supercritical Plants Subcritical H Super critical H Availability time ratio Available capacity factor Planned outage period Unplanned outage period 9618 9:1< 71< 2219 9;12 9:1@ <1: 231@
Improved cost effectiveness

*he life cycle costs of supercritical coal fired po&er plants are lo&er than those of the sub critical po&er plants1 Current designs of supercritical po&er plants have installation costs that are only :H higher than those of subcritical plants1 .uel costs are considerably lo&er due to the increased efficiency and operating costs are at the same level as subcritical plants1 Specific installation cost i1e1 the cost per mega&att C#/D decreases &ith increased plant size1 .or countries li e India and China) unit ratings from 733 #/ to @33 #/ are possible due to their large electrical grids1 *he specific coal consumption of calorific value :7 #$> g can be reduced from :@;1@ to :9616 g> /h by increasing steam parameter from 2<8 bar>769>769JC to :73 bar>7<<> 7<<JC1 *his corresponds to an annual reduction in coal consumption of 22<)333 tonnes in Unit capacity range of <33 to 833 #/1 *he material eApenditure in a :73 bar +%CE *H-+U(H boiler yields a cost advantage over the evaporator system of a 2<8?bar drum boiler1 Ho&ever) this advantage is offset in part by the higher manufacturing and erection and assembly cost and by additional cost of feed pump1 Ho&ever) &ith latest design of vertical?tube &ater &alls and an adapted start?up system) the investment costs for a +%CE *H-+U(H boiler still comes out lo&er than those for a drum type boiler1
<1212: -eliability
'ue to high steam parameters) there &as initially lo&er availability of the supercritical plants1 Ho&ever) &ith improvements in production technology for the components and &elding procedures) this gap no longer eAists and availabilities for subcritical and supercritical plants have converged1 +ur analysis on the technical details at the Herne supercritical plant is that there have been hardly any boiler tube failures1 Availability details to sho& this convergence over time are given belo&"
E3;3> -EP+-* Boben Anto C
PA(E 23@ +. 2<6
As can be seen from the above chart) the availability figures have converged for subcritical and supercritical plants by the 2@@3s1
+PE-A*I+%A! PE-.+-#A%CE +. SUPE-C-I*ICA! P!A%*S Assumptions for Plant Parameters

*he steam cycle parameters and unit sizes used for performing the thermodynamic modelling for coal fired plant options under Indian conditions are given belo&1 *able <?:8" Cycle Conditions for the Coal .ired Plant +ptions
Plant *ype Subcritical !o& supercritical High supercritical Unit size 733 #/ <<3 #/ 933 #/ #ain Steam Pressure 2<< bar :;8 bar :83 bar #ain Steam *emperature 769JC 769JC 7<7JC -eheat Steam *emperature 769JC 7<7JC 7@6JC
*hese steam cycle conditions and unit sizes represent the typical conditions that are available to be deployed in the Indian mar et1 *he follo&ing assumptions regarding the boiler) turbine) and common auAiliaries have been considered" Boiler -adiation losses Unburnt carbon losses Unaccounted losses M domestic coal
31:;H 21: H 3197H
Boiler efficiency is assumed constant across all technologies but different for each coal type1 In actual practice) there &ould be a lo&er efficiency in
PA(E 223 +. 2<6
subcritical plants due to blo& do&n1 Ho&ever as performance guarantee figures have been used in the model) blo& do&n has been ta en as zero1 Condensing Steam *urbine Condenser average vacuum (enerator efficiency 3126 bar a @@17H
In all cases 6 HP heaters and ; !P heaters have been considered &ith a final temperature of :83 JC and motor?driven boiler feed pumps It is assumed that there are no steam cycle ma e up losses since the performance guarantee conditions have been ta en as the basis of comparison &ith the modelling results1 %o degradation of the gross heat rate is assumed in the first year1 *he auAiliary po&er considered as 817 to 913 H for plants burning indigenous coal1 An average cooling &ater temperature of 66JC has been considered1 %atural draft cooling to&ers and ma e up has been considered to replace losses due to blo& do&n and lea age in the cooling &ater cycle1 *he performance modelling results are sho&n in *ables <?< to <?@1
Coal Analysis
Singrauli coal from India has been considered1 *he typical proAimate and ultimate analysis Cas received basisD for the Singrauli coal are given in *able <?6 and *able <?; respectively1 *able <?:9" ProAimate Analysis for 'omestic Coal Item .iAed carbon 0olatile matter #oisture Ash (rindability indeA Higher heating value CHH0D Higher heating value CHH0D !o&er heating value C!H0D Unit H H H H H(I Cal> g #$> g #$> g Singrauli Coal 6;173 :3133 @177 ;3133 73133 6<<813@ 27167 2;17:
*able <?:@" *ypical Ultimate Analysis Cas received basisD for 'omestic Coal Item Carbon Unit H Singrauli Coal 69183
PA(E 222 +. 2<6
Item +Aygen Sulphur Hydrogen %itrogen /ater Ash *otal
Unit H H H H H H H
Singrauli Coal 91<8 3173 :1<2 3187 @169 6@16@ 233133
Ambient Conditions
*he selection of design ambient conditions &as based upon the metrological conditions at site sho&n belo&1 *able <?63"Common Ambient Conditions
Item #ean daily maAimum temperature C$anuaryD #ean daily minimum temperature C$anuaryD #ean daily maAimum temperature C#ayD #ean daily minimum temperature C#ayD Average -H during morning Average -H during evening Site elevation Unit JC JC JC JC H H # Site Conditions :;16 912 ;:13 :719 <<H ;@H :93
+n the basis of the information presented above) the follo&ing common design site ambient conditions &ere selected for modelling the performance of the coal fired plant options" Ambient dry bulb temperature " 6713JC Ambient relative humidity " <313H Ambient atmospheric pressure " 31@93: bar1
Performance #odelling -esults

/ith the above steam cycle parameters and for unit sizes chosen) modelling and simulation studies have been carried out1 *he simulation covered the follo&ing" (ross heat rate &ith lo&er Heating 0alue C!H0D of coal) and high Heating 0alue CHH0D of coal %et heat rate &ith lo&er Heating 0alue C!H0D of coal) and high Heating 0alue CHH0D of coal (ross efficiency &ith lo&er Heating 0alue C!H0D of coal) and high Heating 0alue CHH0D of coal %et efficiency &ith lo&er Heating 0alue C!H0D of coal) and high Heating 0alue CHH0D of coal AuAiliary po&er consumption .uel consumption
PA(E 22: +. 2<6
Ash production /ater consumption Ccirculating &ater ma eup) auAiliary circulating &ater ma eupD
In addition) the results of Ebsilon models for the boiler &ere verified by manual calculations according to international codes CBS :997D using the heat loss method1 .or the turbine) the gross heat rates &ere calculated and crosschec ed &ith figures from eAisting sub critical) lo& supercritical and high supercritical plants in India1 #anufacturersG data &ere used to cross chec the ultra?supercritical figures as also using manual calculations using AS#E P*C <D .or each of the po&er plant options) the results presented are on the basis of a single gross output unit operating at 233H #C- at the design ambient conditions1 *able?<?< sho&s the turbine performance estimates for coal fired po&er plant and is applicable for domestic coals1 *able?<18 and *able?<19 sho& the plant performance of coal fired po&er plant options for domestic coal) and based on either !o&er Heating 0alue C!H0D or Higher Heating 0alue CHH0D1 *able?<1@ sho&s the coal) ash and &ater consumption or production estimates for the three coal fired po&er plant for domestic coal1 *able <?62" *urbine Performance Estimates C'omestic Coal) 233H #C-D
Item *urbine gross output Unit auAiliary po&er *urbine net output *urbine gross heat rate Average efficiency turbine gross Unit #/ #/ #/ cal> /h H ($>h Base Subcritical 733 ;3 ;<3 2@:3 ;;18@ ;123 Base Supercritical <<3 7:19 <381: 29<3 ;<1:; 61@: High Supercritical 933 <3 8;3 29:3 ;81:7 618@
Boiler steam duty
*able <?6:" Plant Performance Estimates using 'omestic Coal C!H0 basis) 233H #C-D
Item Boiler efficiency) !H0 Unit coal burn) !H0 Unit gross heat rate) !H0 Unit gross efficiency) !H0 Unit net heat rate) !H0 Unit net efficiency) !H0 Unit H Lg> &h cal> /h H cal> /h H Base Subcritical @:17 317@8 :3871<9 ;21;6 ::7<128 6912: Base Supercritical @:173 31789 :323192 ;:182 :2971<< 6@167 High Supercritical @:173 317<< 2@<8198 ;6182 :2:812 ;31;6
*able <?66" Plant Performance Estimates using domestic Coal CHH0 basis) 233H #C-D
Item Boiler efficiency) HH0 Unit H Base Subcritical 9819 Base Supercritical 9819 High Supercritical 9819
PA(E 226 +. 2<6

Item Unit coal burn) HH0 Unit gross heat rate) HH0 Unit gross efficiency) HH0 Unit net heat rate) HH0 Unit net efficiency) HH0 Unit Lg> &h cal> /h H cal> /h H Base Subcritical 317@8 :29<18@ 6@166 :68<1@; 6<129 Base Supercritical 31789 :2291;7 ;31< :63:1<< 68167 High Supercritical 317<< :38:19@ ;21;@ ::;31@8 69169
*able <?6;" Coal) Ash , /ater Consumption>Production Estimates Crelevant unit size) 233H #C-D
Item Base Subcritical Base Supercritical High S u p e r c ri ti c a l Unit coal consumption CSingrauli coalD Unit ash production CSingrauli coalD C/ ma eup AC/ ma eup :@918; 2281<8 2273 6@16 69:13: 2731;9 26@<178 ;81<9 ;7613@ 2891;8 279@1:; 7;1:;
*he impact of efficiency in Indian conditions and Indian coal conditions? &e can eApect a deduction of @H
PA(E 22; +. 2<6
'ESI(% ISSUES
PA(E 227 +. 2<6
'ESI(% ISSUES !A5+U* A%' C!EA-A%CES Plant !ayout

*he main considerations in deciding plant layout are" *here should be enough space for the placement of different components in configurations decided by technical considerations1 Enough space should be available for handling) placement and removal of heavy and large size e=uipments1 Convenient access for emergency services li e fire?fighting should be provided1 Provision must be made for statutory re=uirements li e green belt1 In case of uneven land) the layout should conform to the topography re=uiring minimum grading and levelling1 As the precise location of the proposed plant has not been decided as yet1 *he plant layout proposed belo& is based on typical size and configuration of main pro4ect components for a supercritical plant1 Sizing and area allocated for different sub systems is sho&n belo&) ta ing the standard design features1 Standard t&o unit layout is sho&n in figure belo&1
.igure 8?:2" Standard t&o unit layout
PA(E 22< +. 2<6
Pipe !ayout
Pipe layout can be created utilizing a 6 dimensional model as sho&n belo&1
.igure 8?::" *hree dimensional model of pipe layout
Engineering of turbine hall is sho&n belo&"
.igure 8?:6" *urbine hall
*ypical !ongitudinal Sectional 0ie&
PA(E 228 +. 2<6
*ypical longitudinal sectional vie& of lo&er supercritical plant is sho&n in .igure 8?; belo&"
.igure 8?:;" !ongitudinal Sectional vie&
*ypical plot allocation for such a plant is sho&n belo&"
.igure 8?:7" Plot allocation
PA(E 229 +. 2<6
B+I!E- C+%.I(U-A*I+% A%' *ECH%ICA! .EA*U-ES

*he choice of boiler type is governed by the operational re=uirements of generation &hich include substantial variations in load and =uic start up times1
*&o path>*o&er type

.urnace configuration for the boiler is derived from each plant manufacturerPs characteristicsF t&o path types is favoured in $apan &hile to&er type is favoured in Europe1 %o significant difference is observed in the adaptability of the t&o types to different types of coal as the boiler design can be ad4usted in accordance &ith coal characteristics such as the abrasiveness of ash1
Constant Pressure > Sliding C0ariableD Pressure *ype

Supercritical boilers can be classified in t&o basic design categories according to their operating pressure regimes1 .or units designed for constant pressure operation) supercritical pressures are maintained in both furnace &alls and superheater over the normal operating range1 *his type is suitable for the base load mode thermal po&er plant1 +n the other hand) for units designed for full sliding CvariableD pressure) the furnace &alls and superheater pressures may vary &ith load) including operation at subcritical pressure1 *his type is desirable for the middle load mode thermal po&er plant &hich operates under system load variations1 Pressure program and fluid diagram of both types of constant pressure and sliding CvariableD are sho&n in .igure 8?<) 8?8 and .igure 8?9) 8?@ respectively1 Boiler manufacturers have developed their o&n fluid circulation systems) and C?E type system has been adopted for this report as a typical eAample1 Constant pressure circulation system consists of the recirculating pump) &ater separator and associated valves as sho&n in .igure 8?< and 8?81 *he fluid system is ept as high as the rated pressure from the initial stage to full load1 *he re=uired minimum &ater flo& is maintained by running of recirculating pump and lo& pressure steam from separator is led to steam turbine for &arming1 /ith subse=uent rise of turbine load) recirculating pump is stopped and once through operation starts1 Sliding CvariableD pressure type is e=uipped &ith recirculating pump) &ater separator) drains system and associated valves as sho&n in .igure 8?91 .or start up and lo& load operation belo& 63H) of maAimum load the unit utilizes pump recirculation system to provide an ade=uate mass flo& through the furnace &all tubes1 *he once through design for supercritical boilers eliminates the boiler throttling valves and adopts a full sliding CvariableD pressure approach C.igure 8?@D1 *he furnace &alls are allo&ed to enter the subcritical pressure range along &ith the superheater circuits by using the spiral structure of &ater &all
PA(E 22@ +. 2<6
tube or rifled tube for vertical &ater &all1 Supercritical pressure operation begins in the higher load range1
.igure 8?:<" Constant Pressure Program for C?E *ype
.igure 8?:8" Constant Pressure 'iagram of C?E *ype
PA(E 2:3 +. 2<6
.igure 8?:9" Sliding C0ariableD Pressure Program for C?E *ype
.igure 8?:@".urnace Configuration
PA(E 2:2 +. 2<6
.igure 8?63" Basic Principle of Spiral?&all .urnace
Spiral *ype
Spiral Cplain>bare tubeD &all and vertical Crifled>ribbed tubeD &all types are in use1 *ype both furnace configurations are sho&n in .igure 8?231 *he principal concern &ith a sliding CvariableD?pressure supercritical pressure design is the re=uirement for once?through operation1 *he mass flo& in the furnace?&all tubes must be sufficiently high to avoid overheating or departure from nucleate boiling C'%BD &hile generating steam at subcritical pressures) and to avoid eAcessive metal temperatures and uneven steam outlet temperatures &hen operating at supercritical pressure at higher boiler loads1 *o accomplish these ob4ectives) the spiral?&all design has evolved1 *he principle of the spiral? or helical?&ail furnace is to increase the mass flo& per tube by reducing the number of tubes needed to envelop the furnace &ithout increasing the spacing bet&een the tubes1 *his is done by arranging the tubes at an angle and spiraling them around the furnace1 .or instance) the number of tubes re=uired to cover the furnace &all can be reduced to one half by putting the tubes at a 63 degree angle C.igure 8?22D1 *he centerline spacing or pitch CPD is made the same as on a vertical &all to prevent fin overheating1 Additionally) by spiraling around the furnace) every tube is part of all the &alls) &hich means that each tube acts as a heat integrator around the four &alls of the combustion chamber1 *he spiral?&all concept thus addresses t&o ma4or challenges of the full?sliding CvariableD pressure supercritical pressure boiler" Achieving the re=uired mass flo&s to avoid overheating and eAcessive metal temperatures by reducing the number of tube circuits #inimizing differences in tube?to?tube heat absorption by eAposing each tube to all four furnace &alls
Spiral?&all furnaces have been in operation in Europe and $apan for many years and have given satisfactory performance1 As an alternative to the spiral?&all design for larger?size steam generators) some manufacturers offer a tangentially fired unit &ith vertical &alls consisting of rifled tubes for ease of fabrication) erection) and maintenance1 A stable fireball is formed in the center of the furnace &ith tangential firing) &ith essentially e=ual distribution of the lateral heat absorption on all furnace
PA(E 2:: +. 2<6
&alls1 /ith this design unbalances are minimized and lateral heat?absorption patterns are predictable over the entire load range1
*UBE !A5+U*
*ypical tube layout is depicted belo&"
.igure 8?62" *ube layout
B.P , HP B5 PASS S5S*E#

Special features to be incorporated in the design to improve the reliability include M HP by pass &ith safety function) condensate preheating and 6 N 73 H B.P etc1 sho&n belo&"
PA(E 2:6 +. 2<6
.igure 8?6:" HP bypass
.igure 8?66" 0ertical and spiral type boilers
PA(E 2:; +. 2<6
.igure 8?6;" *ubing in +nce through and 'rum type boilers
*he heat transfer and temperature range of operation in different sections is sho&n in the diagram belo&1
.igure 8?67" Heat transfer and temperature range
PA(E 2:7 +. 2<6
*he heat transfer in vertical and spiral type boilers is depicted in .igure belo&1
.igure 8?6<" Heat transfer in vertical and spiral type boilers
I#P-+0E#E%* I% C+#BUS*I+% S5S*E#

An important concern in combustion system is %+A reduction1 An innovative concept of in?flame %+A reduction) is the development of %-: burner) having strengthened the high temperature reducing flame to achieve eAtremely lo& %+A emissions in addition to improved combustion efficiency1 *his enables a small amount of eAcess air at the economizer outlet C27HD &hen firing various inds of imported coal1 *he %+A reduction principle is sho&n in .igure 8?281 Another feature of the combustion system is the large capacity roller?type pulverizers C#PS633D &ith rotating classifiers) &hich improve pulverized coal finenesses1 *hese combustion system technologies contribute substantially to significantly higher boiler efficiency1
PA(E 2:< +. 2<6
.igure 8?68" .rame Structure of Hitachi %-: Burners
A third generation burner C%-6D) &hich enhances the reaction of in?flame %+A reduction) has been developed in response to needs for higher efficiency and lo&er %+A combustion1 *he performance of the %-6 burner has been verified at the In oo *hermal Po&er Station Unit %o16 of Imatran 0oima +y CI0+D) .inland1 It &as confirmed that the %-6 burner had approAimately :7H lo&er %+A level at the same UBC Cunburned carbonD level) than the current %-: burner1 *he %-6 burner e=uipped boiler is no& in the construction stage and &ill be in commercial operation in :3361 *he above descriptions relate to component design as available in published documents1 'ifferent manufactures adopt designs &hich differ in detail1 *he choice of different materials for different components has to satisfy the design parameters and availability of materials) in turn) imposes limits on units performance1
+PE-A*I+% I% I%'IA% C+%'I*I+%S

Increased operating pressure for SC boilers increases the medium temperature and increased regenerative feed heating increases the inlet temperature to economizer1 *his leads to high eAit flue gas temperature from economizer1 Indian coal does not have much sulphur) so normally .(' for flue
PA(E 2:8 +. 2<6
gas cleaning is not re=uired1 EAit flue gas temp can be lo&er C2:7 degD to gain the boiler efficiency1 Indian coal has high ash content and lo& calorific value1 In order to restrict the flue gas velocity and attain re=uired heat transfer) furnace area &ill be larger1 *his &ill help in reducing the %+A and limit the operational furnace temperature &ithin limits of ash fusion temperature1 'ue to high pressure operation) material thic ness has to be more1 Steam piping material also changes due to the elevated operating temperature and pressure1 Super heater and reheater tube metal temperature in final section increases &ith the high operating parameters1 *his &ill lead to high temperature corrosion and steam side oAidation &hich to be considered has in material selection1 High thic ness re=uirement due to high pressure operation leads higher to gradient across the &alls1 %e& materials have been developed to achieve?greater long term rupture strength and lo&er oAide film gro&th inside surface in high temperature zone1 #aterials li e *@2>P@2 have high creep strength compared to earlier ferritic steels1 !o&er thic ness of tubes has resulted in design for higher strength to meet transient temperature changes1 Better materials li e * @:>P@: having creep rupture strength :3 to 63H higher at <33 deg C) &ill facilitate raising the steam temperature1 Even in sub critical boilers in India *@2 is being used in super heaters) restricting the metal temperature to <33 deg in place of earlier 783 deg in *::1 Use of *?@: increases the operation margin and reliability1 *:6 >*:; have higher creep strength compared to *::? Some manufacturers have already started using it for evaporator &alls1 #aterials used in /alsum po&er plant in (ermany enable it to operate to achieve high net efficiency1 *his is achieved as follo&s" Steam temperature upto <:3JC are possible &ith ne& materials adopted at /alssum
PA(E 2:9 +. 2<6
Special alloys P@2) P@: and 0#2:SHC have been eAtensively used to ensure efficiency at high pressures and temperatures 0#2:SHC &as used for the first time in this plant
Creep behaviour of these ne& materials is superior
*he materials used in /alsum boiler are sho&n in diagram belo&1
.igure 8?69" #aterials of Boiler
E!EC*-+?S*A*IC P-ECIPI*A*+- CESPD

ESP is an important auAiliary to the boiler1 Ash properties effect precipitator sizing as sho&n in table belo&"
#I!!S
%e& modified mill &ith dynamic classifiers for better fineness control is sho&n in figure belo&1
PA(E 2:@ +. 2<6
.igure 8?6@" #odified mill
'ESI(% .EA*U-ES +. *U-BI%ES

*urbine design features are developed to &or for 633 bar pressure and <33 deg &ith size to accommodate the high pressure and temperature1 *he design ta es care of the metallurgical re=uirement of the selected material to &ithstand high operating parameters to ensure fleAibility in operation and reduce overhauling fre=uency1
1.2.7.0.2.,.9.812 81: 816 81;
PA(E 263 +. 2<6
817 81< 818 819 81@ #aterials for High *emperature

@Cr ? 2#o forged steel is applied to the valves and the leading steam pipes &hich are eAposed to <33KC steam and 2:Cr cast steel is applied to the internal casing of IP %o121 Cr?#o?0?B cast steel is used for the HP internal casing1 2:Cr rotor and blade material for the HP and the IP turbine are also applied1
#aterials for High *emperature

%e& design criteria are applied along &ith the high temperature materials described belo&1 CaD +verlay &elding for the bearings *he overlay method is applied to the main bearings instead of the usual sleeve method1 CbD Steam cooling technology *he structural &elding bet&een @Cr?2#o forged leading pipes and the Cr?#o?0 casted outer casing are cooled by lo& temperature steam1 *he cooling affect is confirmed by analysis and actual operation1 CcD High efficiency nozzle An Advanced 0orteA %ozzle CA0%D is used to improve turbine efficiency for all the stages eAcept for the first stage1 *he ne& technologies as applied for <33KC class high temperature plant) are sho&n in .igure 8?:31
PA(E 262 +. 2<6
.igure 8?;3" *he ne& technology of the High Supercritical Steam turbine CHP , IP SectionsD
Continuous Cover Blade CCCBD

*he last stage blade of a steam turbine is one of the most important components to determine the overall turbine performance and reliability) because it generates about 23 H of the entire output and is operated at severe centrifugal forces1 *he longer last stage blade yields higher velocity) larger centrifugal force and a lo&er natural fre=uency) so a highly advanced design technology is re=uired to develop the last stage blade from the standpoint of performance) strength and vibrational characteristics1 Hitachi has been developing long blades and adopting the CCB structure) having a high rigidity and dampening effect at the specified rotational velocity) and incorporates the latest aerodynamic blade profile based on three?dimensional stage flo& analysis1 .igure 8?:2 sho&s blade structure concept for CCB1 *able 8?2 sho&s the line?up of current last stage blades &ith the CCB structure) &hich performed the rotational test1
.igure 8?;2" Continuous Cover Blade CCCBD Structure
PA(E 26: +. 2<6
*able 8?67" !ine?up of !SB &ith CSB Structure -otational Speed 6<33 rpm 6333 rpm 2933 rpm !ast Stage Blade !ength :< in1) 6617 in1) ;3 in1) ;< in1 :< in1) 6617 in1) ;6in1 ;9 in1
*andem?Compound High Supercritical S*(

*he correlation bet&een unit output and turbine eAhaust annulus area is sho&n in .igure 8?::1 *he tandem?compound four?flo& type &ith *i?alloy ;3? inch or ;<?inch last stage blades C*C;.?;3 or *C;.?;<D and improved high strength 2:Cr steel ;6?inch last stage blade C*C;.?;6D can be applied to <3Hz and 73Hz operation respectively1 *he described machines are based on 677< psig M <33KC advanced steam condition design1 .igure 8?:6 sho&s the sectional arrangement of *C;.?;3) high supercritical steam turbine for <3 Hz use1 .igure 8?:; sho&s the sectional arrangement of *C;.?;6) high supercritical steam turbine for 73 Hz use1 *he tandem?compound high supercritical plant generator design has been completed1 *he design of the large?diameter rotor &as verified by performing tests using an actual section sized model of the <3Hz machines) &hich sustains greater centrifugal forces compared to the 73Hz machines1 *he strength against fatigue caused by the start?stop operation and eAtended running &as evaluated to verify reliability1 In addition) an improved ductility high?strength shaft material &as developed to further enhance the design1
PA(E 266 +. 2<6
.igure 8?;:" Correlation bet&een Unit +utput and *urbine EAhaust Annulus Area
.igure 8?;6" Sectional Arrangement of *C;.?;3 high supercritical Steam *urbine for <3 Hz use
PA(E 26; +. 2<6
.igure 8?;;" Sectional Arrangement of *C;.?;6 high supercritical Steam *urbine for 73 Hz use
#A*U-I*5 +. SUPE-C-I*ICA! *ECH%+!+(5 8.6.1-.2312

*he design features stated in this section indicate the development of e=uipment of supercritical po&er plant by manufactures to ta e care of the concerns of the o&ners1 *hese concerns typically include high efficiency) economic operation) ability to adopt in a fast manner to changes in load and =uic start up1 'evelopment of sliding pressure operation can ta e care of load changes from 233H to 63H and load changes upto 23H per months can be ta en care of1 Similarly high ran up rates involving short start up times are not a problem no&1 Another concern related to feed &ater chemistry &hich &as related to the use of the de?oAygenerated all volatile CA0*D chemistry in early super critical boilers1 *he solution to these problems &as a combination of the condensate polishing unit &ith oAy generated treatment1 'ifferent manufactures adopt designs) &hich are basically similar in concept but differ in details1 *hese details could be due to availability of materials and technology as &ell as their o&n evolution of manufacturing practices1 *he o&ner > developer needs to state his re=uirements &ith precision and in detail and then depend upon manufactureGs performance guarantees1
PA(E 267 +. 2<6
I#P!E#E%*A*I+% ISSUES
I#P!E#E%*A*I+% ISSUES I%*-+'UC*I+%

EAisting coal fired po&er plants in India are all based on subcritical technology Cpressure up to 2<9 g>cm: and temperature of 769JCD1 Supercritical technology has been advanced in India only &ithin this decade1 *echnology and implementation issues relevant to the deployment of supercritical or advanced supercritical PC po&er plants in India are discussed in this section1
*ECH%+!+(5 ISSUES
Supercritical boiler technology has matured to a point such that the technical ris s associated &ith supercritical boilers are no& similar to those of subcritical boilers1 Ho&ever) as supercritical boilers are designed for higher steam temperatures and pressures than subcritical boilers and also operate using a once?through evaporator) designers and o&ners have to be a&are of certain issues in order to reduce technical ris s to an acceptable level1 *hese include"
<
/ater&all crac ing
PA(E 26< +. 2<6
<
<
%egative flo& characteristic Slagging1
*here is no reason to believe that all of these ris s &ill appear in every pro4ect1 Ho&ever) there remain some ris s that should be addressed during design and operation of the plant
/ater&all Crac ing

*hermal fatigue crac ing of &ater&all tubes is believed to be the leading cause of tube failures in supercritical boilers1 It is not clear &hy supercritical boilers are more susceptible to this type of crac ing than subcritical boilers) ho&ever possible reasons include higher metal temperatures and the use of lo& alloy steel1 *hermal fatigue crac ing is caused by the combined action of elevated metal temperatures and thermal cycling1 Elevated metal temperatures may be caused by the gro&th of internal tube deposits) high heat fluA) deterioration of fluid?side cooling or eAternal fireside coatings1 Slagging and shedding) Scot blo&ing) &ater cleaning or other factors may cause thermal cycling1 .ireside corrosion is also believed to be a contributing factor to thermal fatigue crac ing1 *he use of oAygenated &ater treatment may reduce the ris of &ater&all crac ing1 *his phenomenon is currently under investigation by various organizations and supercritical plant o&ners and operators should be a&are of this problem) &hich represents a potential ris to plant availability1
%egative .lo& Characteristic

#ost modem supercritical boilers operate using sliding pressure1 /hen the boiler is operating at part?load the pressure is subcritical and the furnace acts as a once through evaporator1 *his design re=uires a high mass fluA through the tubes to avoid departure from nucleate boiling C'%BD and subse=uent overheating of the tube metal1 A high mass fluA design has an undesirable feature referred to as a negative flo& characteristic1 *his feature causes tubes that eAperience higher than average heating to dra& lo&er than average fluid flo&1 Subcritical boilers that operate using natural circulation have a positive flo& characteristic &hereby tubes that eAperience higher than average heating tend to dra& higher than average fluid flo&1 If the furnace heal fluA distribution is non?uniform due to slagging or other factors) the negative flo& characteristic can lead to a non?uniform fluid temperature profile and high fluid temperatures at the outlet of the
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&ater&alls1 *his can result in possible overheating of tubes in the upper furnace) '%B at high heat fluA areas and differential thermal eApansion of the &ater&alls1 Some supercritical boiler suppliers are no& offering lo& mass fluA designs &ith internally rifled tubing to overcome this problem1
Slagging
Supercritical boilers are typically designed &ith a spiral tube configuration in the furnace to produce a high fluid mass fluA in the tubes1 *he spiral configuration re=uires the tubes to be installed at an inclined angle typically bet&een 23 to 27 degrees from the horizontal1 *he inclination of the tubes is thought to increase the propensity of slag and clin er to form on the &ater&alls compared to vertical tubing) &hich is typically used in subcritical boilers1 *he higher fireside metal temperatures of supercritical boilers may also contribute to increased slagging1 *he ris issues stated above are observed in some supercritical plants1 *here are over <33 such plants operating around the &orld1 In order to mitigate these ris s) the follo&ing aspects need to be considered in the design and operation of the plant" < < < < use of oAygenated &ater chemistry use of non?slagging coal in the boiler selection of coal to avoid fire?side corrosion consider rifled furnace tubes and possibly vertical tube furnaces &ith rifled tubing1
/elding of Special #aterials

*he development of special steels and alloys to ensure technically sound and safe operation of the plant has been dealt &ith in detail in Section 71 *he ma4or components are manufactured at the &or s of the manufacturer &ho have developed the materials either themselves or can procure them in the mar et1 Ho&ever) substantial fabrication &or is re=uired to be done at the site of the pro4ect and this involves &elding of different pieces and components1 /elding of dis?similar pieces i1e1 t&o pieces fabricated out of different materials is a difficult process) in itself1 *he difficulty increases &hen the metals) out of &hich the pieces to be &elded are fabricated) are ne&ly
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developed and not conventional1 *he best alternative) if available) &ill be to avoid the necessity of &elding pieces of dis?similar metals1 *his may) ho&ever) not be possible and special &elding techni=ues re=uired for such 4obs &ill need to be learnt at the &or shops of original e=uipment manufacturers1 Special &elding e=uipment &ill need to be procured by the EPC> %on?EPC contractor responsible for implementation1
*ube Spacing to Handle Indian Coal

It is no&n that Indian coal has high ash content and lo&er calorific value as compared to coals available in other countries such as Australia and South Africa1 *he designs of supercritical boilers developed by foreign manufacturers are based on the superior type of coals and have to be adopted to suit Indian coals1 *he tubing has to ensure that steam parameters re=uired for the supercritical steam cycle are maintained1 *he materials used for fabrication of tubing &ill affect their diameter and spacing1 Ultimately) it is the responsibility of the manufacturer to design and fabricate tubing for the most efficient operation of the steam generator1
Height of Structure
It &ill be convenient and economical to restrict the height of the boiler structure1 *he height of the boiler &ill be governed) ho&ever) by design considerations1 *he height of the smo e stac considerations1 CChimneyD is governed by environmental
+*HE- ISSUES ASS+CIA*E' /I*H 'EP!+5#E%* +. SC *ECH%+!+(5 I% I%'IA *ransportation of #a4or E=uipment
*he transportation re=uirement &ill depend on the fact &hether the ma4or e=uipment is imported or is indigenous1 *he imported e=uipment &ill re=uire facilities at a port close to pro4ect site and thereafter transport by rail or road1 -oute survey including load bearing capacity of bridges involved Crail or roadD &ill need to be determined and carriers designed accordingly1
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#aterial Handling
#aterial handling involves handling of e=uipment received from manufacturers and suppliers for erection and commissioning and of consumables including coal and fuel1 #aterial handling involves lifting and handling of heavy pieces including assembly of boiler) steam turbine and generator1 *he heaviest single piece for a 933 #/ plant &ill be the generator &eighing about :87 tonnes1 In addition to overhead cranes) use of modern erection techni=ues li e 4ac and &inch system should be considered for lifting of &ater &all) tube bundles) reheater and economizer panels1 *he coal handling system should be designed for the coal available1 *he
milling system) conveyors etc should be designed accordingly1 *he ash handling system should be designed for the ultimate ob4ective of Sno ashT to be disposed of beyond the plant boundary1 Storage of coal and fuel oil should be provided for1
(rid Code
*he plant should operate as a base load station in order to ensure efficient operation1 *his may not be possible at all times on account of fluctuations in po&er demand in the system of &hich the plant is a part1 It might be necessary under lo& demand conditions in the region to bac do&n the unit>units to partial load or even shut do&n the plant1 In vie& of these grid conditions) the boiler procured for the plant should be capable of fast adaptation to load changes from 233H to say 63H1 It should be capable) also) of fast start ups and high ramp up rates1 Provision of these capabilities could result in increase in the initial price of e=uipment but &ould be unavoidable under grid conditions li ely to prevail over the near future1
S illed #anpo&er
As mentioned earlier) there is enough eAperience and s ill available for the erection and commissioning of coal based po&er plants upto 733 #/ capability1 *he erection and commissioning of a <<3 #/> 933 #/ supercritical plant &ill not be different materially1 Ho&ever) it is advisable that some senior technical persons &ho &ill actually be incharge of erection and commissioning of the supercritical plant are trained at such plants already under construction in India as also in other countries1
Coal Euality and Boiler Performance

Coal properties affect PC plant beat rates and boiler size1 Indian coal is no&n as lo& grade &ith high ash content Cas high as ;7HD1 *herefore) the furnace and the pulverizes need to be designed to &or satisfactorily for this high ash coal) Sub?bituminous fuels generally have al aline ashes &ith lo& ash softening temperatures) &hich re=uire large PC furnaces1 *his is primarily because the PC furnace heat transfer area must be increased in order to
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reduce furnace eAit gas temperature as the ash softening temperature drops) and thereby prevent slagging of the convective pass1 *he gas velocity needs to be lo& in the convective pass of the boiler) &hich &ill re=uire an increased area of the bac pass of the boiler1 *he pulveriser throughput needs to be higher as the same boiler &ill handle a significantly larger =uantity of coal for the same po&er output &hen compared &ith an imported high?grade coal1 *he boiler efficiency is eApected to reduce due to the lo&er calorific value of the coal1 Indian coal &ould re=uire increased soot blo&ers in the boiler and fre=uent soot blo&ing during operation1 *he ash plant capacities should be appropriately designed to handle the large =uantity of ash generated from the boiler1 *he =uartz content in Indian coals is high1 *he use of Indian coals shall re=uire fre=uent maintenance of the pulverisers1 A better option could be to blend these coals &ith an imported coal1 *he advantage of using Indian coal is that the sulphur content is lo& &hich avoids the use of .(' plants1 *he choice of fabric filter or electrostatic precipitator &ill depend upon the type of coal to be used Ci1e1 Indian coal or imported coal or a blend of bothD) and the particulate emission limits for plant1 .ireside corrosion may not be an issue &ith the Indian coal as the sulphur content is very lo& C317HD1 Although corrosion can happen due to other chemicals in coal Ceg chlorineD) this may not be an issue for this type of coal1
Environmental Benefits
India has large coal deposits and the country has virtually no other option but to use this large coal resource for electricity generation1 India classifies is a host country for C'# development but does not have a legally binding cap for its C+: or e=uivalent emissions under the Lyoto Protocol1 India is a member of the Asia?Pacific Partnership on Clean 'evelopment and Climate) popularly no&n as AP<) &hich is another international forum for climate change1 +ther countries in this forum are China) $apan) -epublic of Lorea) Australia and the United States1 *he vision statement of this forum says" I*he Partners have come together voluntarily to advance clean development and climate ob4ectives) recognizing that development and poverty eradication are urgent and overriding goals internationally1 By building on the foundation of eAisting bilateral and multilateral initiatives) the Partners &ill enhance cooperation to meet both our increased energy needs and associated challenges) including those related to air pollution) energy security) and greenhouse gas intensities) in accordance &ith national circumstances1 *he Partners recognize that national efforts &ill also be important in meeting the Partnerships shared vision1I India has therefore committed to &or ing together &ith other countries to reduce greenhouse gas emissions1 *he deployment of supercritical technology may be seen as an essential step in reducing greenhouse gas emissions1
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Socio?economic Benefits
A large number of supercritical plants are being considered by many agencies as mentioned in Section 61 It is eApected that ne& manufacturing plants &ill be built and plants of Indian manufacturers li e BHE! and !,* eApanded in near future to facilitate fabrication of these plants1 *his &ill obviously lead to ne& investment opportunities and 4ob opportunities1 %e& 4ob opportunities &ill also be created during construction of these plants1 A ne& technology often means ne& 4ob opportunities1 *he manufacturers of these plants in other countries are eApected to ma e licensing arrangements &ith the eAisting Indian companies or engage Indian companies or consultants for design purposes1 *his &ill potentially increase ne& 4ob opportunities for Indian technologists and engineers1
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+PE-A*I+% A%' #AI%*E%A%CE ISSUES
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+PE-A*I+% A%' #AI%*E%A%CE ISSUES SUPE- C-I*ICA! *ECH%+!+(5 I% I%'IA% A#BIE%* C+%'I*I+%S and I%'IA% C+A!S
*here are a number of issues pertaining to Indian ambient conditions and Indian coals1 Indian ambient conditions are different from those of other countries and the heat rates achieved there may not be achieved under Indian conditions1 *he Indian coals have higher moisture content) have lo& calorific value and have high ash content1 *he ash also has a high silica content giving it a higher abrasive character1 *he ambient conditions are the same for sub critical or supercritical plants and therefore the differential improvement in heat rate bet&een the t&o technologies shall remain the same in India as else&here1 *he techno? economic viability of supercritical and ultra supercritical technology is not altered under different ambient conditions in India and in other countries1 /ith respect to Indian coal) there is some drop in efficiency due to higher moisture content and due to a higher re=uirement of auAiliary consumption1 *here &ould also be a higher capital cost due to larger furnace size re=uired and lo&er flue gas velocities1 In addition there are technology ris s associated &ith use of imported coal also1 Imported coal generally has high sulphur content1 *hough the current regulations as for only the provision of space for .(' in the plant layout) &ith increasing use of imported high sulphur coals) .(' may become a regulatory re=uirement1 Secondly) the international coal costs are also li ely to go up in the future if the oil prices go up1 +n the other hand if the Indian plants have captive coal mines the cost of coal &ould remain largely stable1 *hus) the ris s &ith imported coals are higher than &ith Indian coal1 *he ris s &ith Indian coal and possible remedial measures that can be ta en are given belo&1 CiD Indian coal typically has higher moisture content) lo& C0 and high ash content1 *his can lead to lo&er boiler efficiencies than &ith imported coal1 -emedial #easures" High furnace volume) better boiler tube materials &ith more design margins Smart soot blo&ing system and online performance optimization soft&are CiiD !o& volatile matter in Indian coal leads to high?unburnt carbon loses1 -emedial #easure are" Higher capacity milling system to achieve better fineness and more retention time in the boiler1 Higher capacity of boiler in Indian condition to meet more steam consumption due to lo& vacuum in Indian ambient condition
CiiiD
Higher erosion of the boiler tubes due to high ash content and =uartz particles in the ash -emedial measures are" !o&er flue gas velocities to reduce erosions Better shielding of the tubes and other erosion prone areas High capacity <3H capacity for HP>!P by pass to deal &ith grid fluctuations
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+PE-A*I+% A%' #AI%*E%A%CE ISSUES .+- SUPE- A%' U!*-A SUPEC-I*ICA! *ECH%+!+(5 I% I%'IA 'esign and manufacture of components for supercritical coal fired plants in developing countries
*he issues regarding use of supercritical and ultra supercritical technology are as follo&s" *he ability of the Indian electricity sector to absorb ne& supercritical and ultra supercritical technology1 *he availability of s ill set to set?up such plants1 *he ability of the plant personnel to operate and maintain such plants1 *he availability of spares etc1) in the Indian mar et1 *he techno economic viability of such plants given that under Indian ambient conditions) the heat rate and efficiency figures &ould be lo&er than those obtaining abroad1 *he techno?economic viability of such plants in India ta ing into consideration higher capital costs and lo&er efficiencies if Indian coal is used1 *he Indian electricity sector has matured over the years1 *he teething troubles and the stabilization period re=uired are no longer as significant as they &ere earlier1 *he <<3 #/ unit sizes are eApected to stabilize much =uic er than the lo&er capacity units1 *he Indian manufacturers are also able to adapt the technology received from others to suit Indian conditions1 Significant adaptations have been carried out in boiler designs and the milling systems to address the problems &ith Indian coal1 .urther) the Indian mar et today has much more depth in terms of manufacture of components and use of ne&er materials1 Special steels are also being manufactured in India and therefore there is much more eAperience available in the country to absorb ne& technology than earlier1 *he other reason to believe that supercritical and ultra supercritical technology can be absorbed reasonably =uic ly is that India has already chosen to introduce sufficient number of such plants1 *his means that there &ould be sufficiently large number of units to build up the re=uisite manufacturing and support infrastructure1 *herefore) introduction of super critical units does not introduce any ma4or technology ris 1
Availability of contractor for maintenance

Supercritical and ultra supercritical technologies introduce only a small number of special components re=uiring specific s ills for maintenance1 By and large +,# operations for the supercritical and ultra supercritical plants are the same as for sub critical plants1 #aintenance persons are familiar &ith ne& materials used in supercritical plants as they are already in use in Indian plants1 *he operational fleAibility &ith super critical technology is more than for subcritical units and should pose no ma4or problems1 *herefore) the ability of the Indian electricity sector to absorb supercritical and ultra supercritical technology should pose no ma4or hurdle for its introduction1 Ho&ever) as a necessary measure) it is important to provide eAtensive training to the plant personnel using similar facilities abroad and also using training simulators1
Availability of Critical Spare) *ools and *ac les in India
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%o ma4or problems can be foreseen on this count1 (iven the number of such plants and pro4ects to be set up) the availability of critical spares) tools and tac les are unli ely to be a constraint on the introduction of supercritical ultra supercritical technology in India1
Status of super and ultra super critical boiler manufacturers > suppliers
In terms of local manufacturing capability) BHE! and !,* in India are entering into supercritical technology1 BHE! has obvious core strength in po&er plant manufacture and should be able to absorb ne& technology =uite easily1 Its collaboration &ith Siemens for the turbines can be easily scaled up to cover supercritical technology1 It is also tying up &ith Alstom for the boiler technology1 Similarly !,*) &hich has &or ed on the po&er plant cycle for some time including nuclear po&er plants) has an eAtensive eAperience of engineering) fabrication and installing of such e=uipment1 /ith their collaboration &ith #itsubishi Heavy Industries C#HID) ! , * &ill provide a second manufacturer of supercritical and ultra supercritical plants1 Apart from this) ma4or international companies such as ABB) Alstom) (E) *PE) S oda and 'oosan are also active in India1 *hey are involved in supply of boilers and turbines to the Indian mar et1 Chinese companies such as Harbin) 'ongfeng and Shanghai Electric are also active in India1 *herefore) apart from the t&o Indian companies) &ho have manufacturing presence in supercritical plants) there are also other manufacturers of supercritical plants &ho are active in India and also have some manufacturing presence1
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E%0I-+%#E%* ISSUES
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E%0I-+%#E%* ISSUES I%*-+'UC*I+%

*he prescribed environmental standards and guidelines for pollution control measures are described belo&1
I%'IA% S*A%'A-'S Ambient Air Euality Standards

#inistry of Environment , .orests C#oE.D) (overnment of India) have) established the %ational Ambient Air Euality Standards for the various categories) &hich are follo&ed by State Pollution Control Boards1 *hese are given in the follo&ing *able" *able 23?6<" Ambient Air Euality Standards *ime , &eighted average Pollutants Industrial area C\g>m6D Annual average 93 93 6<3 :; hours 2:3 2:3 733 -esidential area , other areas C\g>m6D Annual :; hours ?average <3 93 <3 93 2;3 :33 Sensitive area C\g>m6D Annual average 27 27 83
%&
S3: %+A SP#
:; hours 63 63 233
(Source: Air Prevention & Control of Pollution Act. I !" #t. A$ril "". "
Since *hermal Po&er Station falls in the category of industrial area) the standards follo&ed for industrial category &ill be applicable to the plant1
.lue (as Emission Standards

*he present emission standards prescribe Particulate #atter emission limits and stac height criteria in coal?fired thermal po&er stations in India1 *able 23?: height and particulate matter provides the prescribed standards for stac values of S3: and %+A are prescribed1 *able 23?68" .lue (as Emission Standards Parameter Standard Sulphur dioAide CS+:D Stac Height limit in meter 733 #/ and above :87 :33 #/>:I3 #/ and above to less ::3 than 733 #/ !ess than :33 #/>:23 #/ H O 2; CED316 /here E is emission rate of S+: in g>hr) and H is slac height in meters1
emission applicable to thermal po&er plants1 Ho&ever) no specific emission
21
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:1
Parameter Particulate #atter CP#D (eneration capacity :23 #/ or more (eneration capacity less than :23 #/
Standard mg>m % Cconcentration not to eAceedD 273

6
673
th
(Source: ". 'PA Notification ().S.*. +%, ('&- dated ./ Au0ust " ,. 'PA Notification (S.2.!('&- dated .rd 3anuar4 " ! 1&
/1
/aste&ater Euality Standards

*he &aste&ater discharge norms pertain to the use of the respective sourceCsD of discharge1 *able 23?6 provides the &aste&ater =uality standards applicable to thermal po&er plants1 *able 23?69" /aste&ater Standards Concentration not to Source Parameter eAceed) Cmg>lD Suspended Solids 233 +il , (rease :3 Boiler blo& do&n Copper CtotalD 213 Iron CtotalD 213 .ree available Chlorine 317 Qinc 213 Cooling to&er Chromium CtotalD 31: blo& do&n Phosphate 713 +ther corrosion inhibiting !imit to be established on material case by case basis pH <17?917 Ash Pond Suspended Solid 233 Effluent +il , (rease :3
(Source: 'PA Notification (S.2. !%% ('&- dated "
th
Nove5ber " !6"&
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%oise Standards
*able 23?; provides the noise level standards applicable to thermal po&er plants1 Since thermal po&er plant site falls in the category of industrial area) the standards follo&ed for industrial category &ill be applicable in the po&er plant premises1 *able 23?6@" %oise Standards Category 'ay *ime CdBD %ight *ime CdBD Industry Commercial -esidence Silence 87 <7 77 73
th
83 77 ;7 ;3
(Source: 'PA Notification ()a7ette- dated "% 8ebruar4 ,///1&
E#ISSI+%S -ESU!*S C+: Emissions -esults

*he C+: emission estimates for the three coal fired po&er plant options for domestic coal are presented belo&1 *he figures given in the table are based on the conversion of all the carbon in the coal to C+: during the combustion process1 *able 23?;3" C+: Emission Estimates C233H #C-D
Item C+: emission rate C'omestic coalD (ross C+: emission intensity C'omestic coalD %et C+: emission intensity C'omestic coalD Unit t>h g>#/h g>#/h Base Subcritical ;:7 973 @3; Base Supercritical ;3< 92: 9<; High Supercritical 6@3 88@ 9:@
*he C+: emission reduction percentage estimates relative to the base subcritical plant as compared to the high efficiency coal fired plant options considered in this report are presented belo&1 *able 23?;2" C+: Emission -eduction H Estimates -elative to Base Subcritical Plant C233H #C-D
Coal .ired Plant +ption Base subcritical Base supercritical High supercritical C+: Emission -eduction Compared to the Base Subcritical Plant CHD 313H ;1;H 916H
+ther Emission -esults

*he follo&ing emissions are discussed" %+A emissions S+A emissions Particulate emissions .or each of these types of emissions) the follo&ing information is discussed" production of the emission control technologies to reduce the emission
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licence limits for the emission
*he emissions listed above are by?products of the fuel and gas cycle) &hich is largely independent of the steam cycle1 As such) the emission performance of subcritical) supercritical and advanced supercritical po&er plants is comparable &hen measured as a function of fuel consumption1 Ho&ever) as subcritical plants are less efficient than supercritical and advanced supercritical po&er plants) the emissions generated per unit of electrical energy produced is greater in the case of the subcritical plant than that for the supercritical and advanced supercritical po&er plants1
%itrogen oAides Emissions

+Aides of nitrogen C%+AD are a by?product of the combustion of coal in air1 *he production of %+A is dependent on the type of burners installed) eAcess air conditions) and the furnace flame temperature1 *he follo&ing technologies can be used to minimize the production or emission of %+A emissions" lo& %+A burners C!%BD over?fire air C+.AD flue gas recirculation C.(-D selective catalytic reduction CSC-D selective non?catalytic reduction CS%C-D *he %+A emission limits set by (overnments) or organizations around the &orld for ne& coal fired po&er stations vary1 *he %+A emission limits for ne& coal fired po&er stations are presented belo&1 *ypical control technologies that could be employed to comply &ith the stated emission limits are also included in table belo&1
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*able 23?;:" %+A Emission !imits for %e& Coal .ired Po&er Stations
-egion or +rganisation /orld Ban India European Union S+A Emission !imit 873 mg>m at <H +: dry basis %o limits at present :33 M 733 mg>%m6 at <H +:
6
Control *echnology !%B and +.A !%B !%B) +.A and SC-
!%B +.A SC-
" " "
!o& %+A Burner +ver .ire Air Selective Catalytic -eduction
Sulphur oAides Emissions

S+A is a by?product of the combustion of the sulphur in the coal1 *he =uantity of S+A produced during combustion is directly proportional to the =uantity of sulphur in the fuel entering the furnace1 It is possible to minimize the emission of S+A emissions through pre?treatment of the coal or post? treatment of the flue gases1 *he follo&ing technologies can be used to minimize the production or emission of S+A emissions" selection of lo& sulphur coals flue gas desulphurization C.('D *he sulphur content of the domestic coal considered in this study is 317H1 *he amount of S+A emissions produced by these coals &ithout post? treatment of the flue gases is estimated as 2)993 mg>%m 6 at <H +: dry basis for domestic coal1 *he S+A emission limits set by (overnments) or organizations around the &orld for ne& coal fired po&er stations vary1 *he S+A emission for ne& coal fired po&er stations by region or organization are presented belo&1 *ypical control technologies that could be employed to comply &ith the stated emission limits are also included in table belo&1 *able 23?;6" S+A Emission !imits for %e& Coal .ired Po&er Stations
-egion or +rganisation /orld Ban S+A Emission !imit 31:3 t>d>#/ of capacity for the first 733 #/ 3123 t>d>#/ of capacity for the each mega&att of capacity above 733 #/1 additional Control *echnology !o& sulphur coal and .(' Cas re=uiredD
*he concentration of S+: in the flue gas should not eAceed :)333 mg>m6 at <H +: dry basis1 #aAimum emission level of 733 t>d Construction of t&o or more separate plants in the same airshed to circumvent the maAimum emission level of 733 t>d is not acceptable1
European Union India
:33 M ;33 mg>%m6 at <H +: %o limits at present
!o& sulphur coal and .(' !o& sulphur coal
Particulate Emissions
Particulates are non?combustible mineral particles that enter the furnace in the fuel stream and leave the furnace entrained in the flue gas Cfly ashD1 *he =uantity of particulate emissions produced is related to the ash content of the coal1 Particulate emissions have been proven to be successfully controlled by
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the use of both electrostatic precipitators and fabric filters1 Electrostatic precipitators can provide collection efficiencies up to @@17H but are highly dependent on the electrical resistivity of the fly ash1 !o& sulphur coals and coals &ith high silica> alumina compositions generally result in fly ash &ith a high electrical resistivity that reduces collection efficiency1 .abric filters are capable of achieving particle collection efficiencies of up to @@1@7H1 *he particulate emission limits set by governments or organizations around the &orld for ne& coal fired po&er stations vary1 *he particulate emission for ne& coal fired po&er stations are presented belo&1 *ypical control technologies that could be employed to comply &ith the stated emission limits are also included in table belo&1 *able 23?;;" Particulate Emission !imits for %e& Coal .ired Po&er Stations
-egion or +rganisation /orld Ban European Union India Particulate Emission !imit 73 mg>%m6 63 mg>%m6 at <H +: 273 mg>%m6 Control *echnology .abric filter .abric filter Electrostatic precipitator) or fabric filter
APP!ICABI!I*5 +. S*A%'A-'S A%' C+#P!IA%CE

*he proposed supercritical pro4ect &ill need to comply &ith prescribed standards as described belo&" *he domestic coal fired thermal po&er plants are normally designed at subcritical technology and operate at 66H thermal efficiency1 As the Supercritical *echnology Pro4ect shall be provided &ith Supercritical boiler &ith higher thermal efficiency C;31:HD) the coal consumption and the greenhouse gas emission per / generation &ill be reduced1 As for as discharge of particulate matters CP#D is concerned) the pro4ect &ill be re=uired to meet the limit of 233 mg>m6% as per Charter on Corporate -esponsibility for Environmental Protection &hich is an agreement signed bet&een the related authorities including the Po&er and Environment #inistries1 *he installation of an electrostatic precipitator C&ith dust collection efficiency of @@19 9 or moreD) &ill be able to reduce the P# at the ESP outlet to a maAimum of 233 mg>m6%1 -egarding S+: discharge) a :87m high stac per unit &ill be installed as per
statutory re=uirement1 Besides) lo& sulfur coal &ill be mainly used in this Pro4ect1 *he sulphur content is about 316H to 317H) representing S+: emission in this case of ;33?833 ppm Caverage valuesD) &hich is not high1 *here is no proposal for the installation of .lue?gas 'esulphurization C.('D plant for S+ :
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removalF ho&ever) ade=uate space &ill be provided behind the stac for future stricter control measures1 -egarding %+A discharge) coal usually contains 2H to 6H of % and results in %+A emissions of 733?933 ppm Caverage valuesD1 *he actual % content of the ma4or coal used in the Pro4ect is about 2H1 #easures to improve combustion process including !o& %+A burners &ill be able to reduce the %+A emission to around ;33 ppm1 /et bottom ash disposal to the eAiting ash pond and dry fly ash collection>storage &ill be adopted in ash handling system1 *he fly ash &ill be reused for ma ing ash bric s and aggregates) and also for cement manufacturing1 Plant effluent from Clarification plant , 'emineralizing C'#D plant &ill be treated in &aste &ater treatment system and discharged after meeting the stipulated norms1 *he treated &aste &ater &ill be re?circulated and reused as much as possible1 Coal Storage yard) /ater Spray sprin ler system &ill be installed for suppressing the coal?dust from the coal storage>handling areas1
C'# ISSUES #ethodology

*his C'# pro4ect benefits envisage a coal plant that is more efficient and thus emits less greenhouse gas emissions as compared to a conventional plant1 Coal plants come in various categories) such as subcritical) supercritical and ultra supercritical1 *his pro4ect shall be a ne& Cnot?yet?builtD coal plant that &ould normally be constructed by the developer according to a less efficient but chapter technology is accordance &ith the developerGs financial capabilities1 *he incentive of C'#) shall enable the developer to build a more efficient po&er plant instead1 Clear and transparent documentation shall be furnished to establish that in the absence of a C'# pro4ect) the less efficient plant &ould be constructed1 *he ey measure to compare more and less efficient plants &ill be overall
efficiency1 *ypical coal plants range from 67?;7H efficiency) as measured on an energy C4ouleD basis1 In other &ords) if a po&er plant is 68H efficient) only 68H of the 4oules contained in the coal fuel end up producing useful 4oules
PA(E 27; +. 2<6
&orth of electricity1 *he rest of the 4oules are lost in the fuel combustion and electricity generation process1 *his pro4ect &ould ta e a po&er plant that &ould have been only 68H efficient and build a plant instead that is ;3H efficient &ith C'# benefit contribution1 /hile the efficiencies of older po&er plants in developing countries are still around 67?6<H lo&er heating value C!H0D) modem subcritical cycles have attained efficiencies close to ;3H C!H0D1 .urther improvement in efficiency can be achieved by using supercritical steam conditions1 *hese plants can have efficiencies above ;7H C!H0D1 Coal?fired po&er stations using IsupercriticalI boilers produce hotter steam to run the turbines" around <33JC compared to around 7;3JC in an older technology plant1 Supercritical plants ma e more efficient use of the energy created by coalPs combustion) so less carbon is emitted U around 7?27H less than the average coal plant per unit of electricity generated1
Applicability Conditions
*he methodology &hich &ill render a ne& coal fired plant eligible for obtaining C'# benefits &ill need to establish that the ne& coal plant &ould be built normally using a conventional technology) &hich is standard in the country1 /ith the incentive of C'#) a more efficient coal plant &ould be built instead Ceg" instead of a subcritical plant) a supercritical or ultra supercritical plant &ill be constructedD1 If construction of a coal plant using standard technology has not commenced) it shall be made clear that a ne&) standard? efficiency coal plant &ould be built in that location1 *his can be confirmed through clear and transparent documentation) such as utility eApansion>investment plans) feasibility studies) licenses and approvals granted) po&er purchase agreements signed) financing>investment>loan process under&ay) etc1 *hese documents need to ma e clear that the po&er plant that &ould be built has the standard efficiency levelD1 A baseline efficiency should be clearly established through comparisons &ith other coal plants in the country1 *he Istandard efficiencyI coal plant and the ne&) more efficient plant should have the same capacity1 If a more efficient plant is built) &hich has a larger capacity) the overall emissions &ould be higher than if the plant &ere of the
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same size as the standard coal plant but emission per L/ of electricity generated shall be lo&er1
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C+S* I#P!ICA*I+% +. *ECH%+!+(5 I% I%'IA
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C+S* I#P!ICA*I+% +. *ECH%+!+(5 I% I%'IA 217 C+S* ES*I#A*E +. SUPE- C-I*ICA! P!A%*S I% I%'IA
*he tables belo& gives the cost implications of super critical plants in India1 *hey ta e into account the follo&ing" *he capital costs for supercritical and high super critical plants using Indian coals1 *he impact of higher auAiliary po&er consumption in Indian plants Slightly poorer heat rates due to higher ambient temperatures Some loss of efficiency in the boiler due to higher moisture content of Indian coals .or the purpose of computing the costs of subcritical) supercritical and high super critical units) the costs for each unit size have been scaled up using scaling factors1 /e have carried out study for cost comparison for using super critical technology on domestic coal1 *he tables belo& summarise the calculations for the above1 It might be noted that the costs computed here are based on prices of pro4ects already eAecuted or under eAecution1 *he prices ho&ever are sensitive to steel prices) both of &hich have seen sharp variations in recent times1 *here &ould be some increase in the capital cost of plants if Indian coals are used1 *he impact of Indian coals on the cost of the boiler is due to higher furnace size in order to burn lo&er calorific value fuel and also the need for lo&er flue gas velocities for preventing erosion1 *hough the manufacturers indicate that the price difference for using Indian coals is of the order of :17H) &e have used a slightly higher figure1 *he other additional costs for Indian coals are in the coal handling) milling and ash handling systems1 *hese have been addressed in the cost calculations based on our estimates1 *able 22?;7" Plant Characteristics
Indian Coal > Pithead site Steam cycle parameters Units Base Sub? critical 2<< 769 769 733 6< !o& super?critical :;8 769 7<7 <<3 ;9 High super?critical :;8 7<7 7@6 933 7:
Pressure bar #S* 'eg C -S* 'eg C Unit size #/ Construction and months start up time
*able 22?;<" Plant e=uipment capital costs per unit

Indian Coal > Pithead site Units Boiler , auAiliaries Steam turbine generator , auAiliaries Electrical E=uipment Plant control system Balance of plant -s1 million -s1 million -s1 million -s1 million -s1 million Base Sub?critical 9367 ;:98 22@@ :88 :;83 !o& super? critical 26973 <88: 289: ;;< 6;96 High super? critical :33:7 @@33 :;87 7;3 6@<3
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'ESI(%) I%S*A!!A*I+% , +PE-A*I+% +. SUPE-C-I*ICA! P+/E- P!A%*S Buildings , common -s1 million structures Site preparation) roads -s1 million and general infrastructure *otal -s1 million 2299 <2@ 2938< 2<:3 883 :98:6 2933 @@3 6@<@3
*able 22?;8" +ther Capital Costs

Indian Coal > Pithead site Units !and costs EPC contractor engineering , management C23HD Spares) tools , training Site accommodation Insurance C2HD +&nerPs engineer , approvals C:17HD +&nerPs contingency C:HD -s1 million -s1 million -s1 million -s1 million -s1 million -s1 million -s1 million Base Sub? critical :83 !o& super? critical 6<3 High super? critical 696
2938 ;7; 7;3 292 ;7: 6<:
:776 <2: 7;3 :98 829 787
6287 8:3 7;3 6@8 @@: 8@;
*able 22?;9" Capital and Specific Capital Cost for Each Unit Size
Indian Coal > Pithead site Units *otal Unit Cost *otal unit capital specific cost -s1 million -s1 million >#/ Base Sub? critical ::2;2 ;; !o& super? critical 6;6<9 7: High super? critical ;<<@318 79
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*able 22?;@" Capital and Specific Capital Cost for t&o units
Indian Coal > Pithead site Units Base Sub? !o& super? critical critical -s1 million ;2:<; <7226 ;2 ;@ High super? critical 9@867 7<
*otal Capital Cost Specific -s1million>#/ capital cost
*able 22?73" +,# Costs M .iAed and 0ariable for Each Unit Size
Indian Coal > Pithead site Units -s1 .iAed +,# Cost million >yr 0ariable +,# cost -s1>#/h Base Sub? critical <391; 22< !o& super? critical <@316 26< High super? critical 9;;1: 273198
21<
BASIS
Supercritical technology based po&er plants are not very common in India1 +nly t&o plants are in advanced stages of construction namely Barh C6A<<3 #/D and Sipat stage M I C6A<<3 #/D1 *he capital cost Cas approved by CEA and also mentioned in Central -egulatory Commissions order of +ct:7) 37D is given belo& and can be used as a benchmar for the proposed pro4ect1
Particulars Capacity Hard cost .oreign component CUS ] millionD 'omestic component C-s1 CroreD *otal Hard Cost eAcluding I'C and .C charges C-s1 Cr1D Hard cost C-s1 Crore> #/D I'C , .C .oreign component CUS] millionD 'omestic component C-s1 CroreD *otal pro4ect cost .oreign component CUS] millionD 'omestic component C-s1 CroreD *otal capital cost C-s1 crore D *otal capital cost C-s1 Crore>#/ D Sipat S*PS Stage M I 6 A <<3 #/ 9:8 C-s1 6727 CroresD 6893 8:@7 61<9 2<7 C-s1832 croresD 2328 @@: C-s1 ;:2< croresD ;8@8 @326 ;177 Barh S*PS 6 A <<3 #/ @37 C-s1 ;:39 croresD 638@ 8:98 61<9 2<< C-s1 883 croresD 236< 2383 C-s1 ;@88 croresD ;22< @3@6 ;17@
218 !I.E C5C!E C+S*S +. SUPE-C-I*ICA! C+A! .I-E' P+/EP!A%*S

*he life cycle costs of supercritical coal fired po&er plants are lo&er than those of subcritical plants1 Current designs of supercritical plants have installation costs that are only :H higher than those of subcritical plants1 .uel costs are considerably lo&er due to the increased efficiency and operating costs are at the same level as subcritical plants1 Specific installation cost i1e1 the cost per mega&att C#/D decreases &ith increased plant size1 .or countries li e India and China) unit ratings from 733#/ up to @33#/ are possible due to their large electrical grids1 In countries &ith smaller grids) unit sizes of 633#/ are more appropriate and the specific installation cost &ill be higher than that of larger plants1
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2 : 6 ; 7 < High?efficiency Supercritical *echnology Advance Boiler design *he supercritical difference Supercritical , Ultra supercritical *echnology Steam (enerator for the neAt generation of po&er Plant #aterial for Boilers in Ultra Supercritical Po&er Plant IndiaGs Ultra #ega Po&er Pro4ects eAploring Analysis of *echnological ris s associated &ith using Super and Ultra critical technology in India .easibility study report) Anpara E) :338 'efining the materials issues and research for ultra?supercritical steam turbines 'evelopment of gCr/ tube) pipe and forging for ultra supercritical po&er plant boilers Alstom Alstom Alstom Po&er(en Asia :33; Siemens A() Po&er (eneration (roup L&u Proceeding of :333 international $oint Po&er (eneration Conference #iami Beach) .lorida) $uly :6?:<):333 *he use of Carbon .inancing) #ott#acdonald Evoni Energy Services) India Electric Po&er 'evelopment Company !td1 %atural Energy *echnology !aboratory) #organto&n %ippon Steel) *echnical -eport
8 9 @ 2 3 2 2
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Paper On Super Critical Technology and Analysis For Indian Environment

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Analysis of Supercritical technology in Indian Environment and Utilizing Indian coal

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EVOLUTION OF TECHNOLOGY ..............................................14

POPULATION OF SUPERCRITICAL PLANTS .............................23

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OPERATIONAL FLEXIBILITY AND PERFORMANCE OF SUPERCRITICAL PLANTS...............................................76

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OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE ISSUES..............................143

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APP!ICABI!I*5 +. S*A%'A-'S A%' C+#P!IA%CE11111111111111111111111111111111111276 C'# ISSUES 11111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111127;

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APP-+ACH A%' #E*H+'+!+(5 'ata Collection

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Choice of supercritical technology

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'evelopment of Simulation #odels

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-eheat Steam *emperature 769JC

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!o& supercritical Ultra supercritical Advanced supercritical

<<3 #/ 933 #/ 2333 #/

:;8 bar :83 bar :@7 bar

769JC 7<7JC <33JC

7<7JC 7@6JC <33JC

.igure :?2" Efficiency Performance in (ermany *PS

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*echnology evolution in Europe and $apan

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