Vitamin C determination of Brussel Sprouts Aim The aim of this experiment was to determine the amount of vitamin C present

in 100 g sprouts, using both the dye and fluorimetric method and to compare the results against the pack value for these sprouts (Sainsburys baby button frozen sprouts). Method See laboratory handbook. Results The dye method (using DCPIP) To determine the amount of ascorbic acid equivalent to 1 ml of dye: Sample titre blank titre Standard titre blank titre To determine the amount of ascorbic acid present in an aliquot of extract: mg of ascorbic acid/aliquot = Sample titre blank titre Standard titre blank titre X std am. of ascorbic acid in soln (1 mg/ml)

To determine the amount of ascorbic acid in 100 g of sprouts: mg of ascorbic acid/aliquot x total vol of extract x 100 vol of aliquot (5 ml) wt of sprouts The fluorimetric method Similarly, to determine the amount of ascorbic acid present in an aliquot of extract, the following equation was employed: mg of ascorbic acid/aliquot = test sample 2(T2) test sample blank 2(TB2) x test standard 2(S2) test standard blank 2(SB2) std am of ascorbic acid solution extracted from aliquot (2 ml) vol of aliquot (10 ml) To determine the amount of ascorbic acid in 100 g of sprouts: mg of ascorbic acid/aliquot x total vol of extract x 100 wt of sprouts

Table showing data collected from both dye and fluorimetric method (amount of vit C (mg)/100 g sprouts) Group 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Dye method (mg vit C / 100g sprouts) 76 69 73 69 60 73 65 63 54 53 46 52 Fluorimetric method (mg vit C / 100g sprouts) 62 86 144 36 74 90 79 101 60 56 43 44

Group results measuring the amount of vitamin C in 100g Brussle Sprouts

Vitamin C (mg)/100g sprouts 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 Group no. Fluorimetric method (mg vit C / 100g sprouts) Dye method (mg vit C / 100g sprouts)

The mean value for the dye method was 62.75 mg of vit C/100g sprouts and for the fluorimetric method 72.91mg/100g sprouts. Both results are within the range of the pack value, which is 69mg vit C/100g sprouts. Compared to each other, it can be seen that the mean value for the fluorimetric method is slightly higher than the mean for the dye method, which is expected, considering the fact that the dye method only measures the reduced form of vitamin C, ascorbic acid. The fluorimetric method measures both ascorbic acid and preformed dehydro ascorbic acid present in the sprouts. The difference in the values obtained by the two methods (72.91-62.75 = 10.16 mg) may be taken as the content of DHAA present in the Brussle Sprouts.

According to the Report of the Panel on Dietary Reference Values of the Committee on Medical Aspects of Food Policy, the recommended nutrient intake value of vitamin C for both men and women is 40mg/day, the equivalent of 57.97g, approximately 60g of Brussel Sprouts/day. Discussion Vitamin C is widely distributed in fruits and vegetables, occurring as both ascorbic acid and DHAA. With regard to fruits, guava, howthorn berries, rose hips and strawberries are among the highest sources of vitamin C (>90mg/100g). Some of them however are not widely available and for this reason intake of citrus fruits (oranges, lemons, grapefruits) is encouraged and considered to be a good daily source of vitamin C (between 40-50mg vit C/100g). Vegetables on the other hand are also rich sources of vitamin C: broccoli, colland greens, kale, parsley and pepper contain more than 100mg/100g and others such as cabbage, cauliflower and spinach have vitamin C content between 30 and 90mg/100g. Naturally, the amount of vitamin C present in cabbage and cauliflower is close to that of brussel sprouts (around 60mg/100g), as they are all part of the same family: Brassica oleracea. Storage and cooking are two of the main reasons why vitamin C contents decrease dramatically in foods. The conversion of ascorbic acid to DHAA and the further oxidation of the latter occur in the presence of O2 and are further enhanced by heat. For instance, apples and cabbage stored for winter can lose up to 50% of their original vitamin C content, while boiling potatoes accounts for a loss of 40% in the vitamin C content. Vitamin C is an essential nutrient in our diet, considering its impact on metabolic functions and the effects it has on health. Vitamin C as ascorbic acid is well known for the antioxidant properties, owing to its ability to react with free radicals; in this respect, ascorbic acid appears to be able to regenerate the metabolically active form of the lipid antioxidant vitamin E. Nevertheless, ascorbic acid can also exhibit pro-oxidant properties in the presence of oxygen and metal ions, particularly Fe3+ and Cu2+. Vitamin C is also known to prevent scurvy (minimum requirement of 10mg/day), aid wound healing, enhance immune functions and even prevent cardiovascular disease. Unless there is a shortage of fruits and vegetables or an overall food supply, scurvy is quite uncommon in populations. Theres no evidence as to how much vitamin C is too much, but high intakes of grams/day have been associated with diarrhea and high production of oxalate, hence of kidney stones, but only in small groups. On the odder hand, sudden cessation of high vitamin C intakes can lead to scurvy, through enhanced turnover. References 1. Department of Health. (1994). Vitamin C. Report on Health and Social Subjects 41 Dietary Reference Values for Food Energy and Nutrients for the United Kingdom (1st ed., pp. 117-121). London: Department of Health. (Original work published 1991) 2. Combs, F.G., Jr. (1998). Vitamin C. The Vitamins Fundamental Aspects in Nutrition and Health (2nd ed., pp. 246-270). London: Academic Press Limited. (Original work published 1992) 3. Mann,J., & Truswell, A.S. (2007). Vitamins C and E. Essentials of human nutrition (3rd ed., pp. 204-205). London, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press. (Original work published 1998) 4. Tee, E.S, Young, S.I., Ho, S.K., Mizura, S.S (1988, Sepetember 27). Determination of Vitamin C in Fresh Fruits and Vegetables Using the Dye-titration and Microfluorometric Methods. Journal of human nutrition, 11(1), 39-44. Retrieved from http://psasir.upm.edu.my/

Iodine value and saponification of fats and oils Aim The aim of this experiment was firstly to determine the iodine value of two fats: butter and coconut oil and two oils: sunflower and olive oil, thus to check the unsaturation level of fatty acids in each fat and oil. Secondly, to measure the average chain length of these fatty acids, the saponification value was calculated. Method As per laboratory handbook. Students were divided into 12 groups as follows: 3 groups calculated the saponification and iodine value for sunflower oil, 3 for olive oil, 3 for coconut oil and 3 for butter. When conducting the practical on iodine value, the 5 ml of solvent were measured and added using a pipette, unlike the rest of the liquids, measured with cylinders. Therefore, the pipetting technique might have influenced the accuracy of results. Results Table showing group iodine and saponification values for sunflower, olive, coconut oil and butter
Fat / Oil IV (Determined) 112 121 108 83 82 78 21 16 2 2 5 IV (Expected) 125 - 136 SV (Determined) 143 177 217 227 216 204 163 162 165 123 129 SV (Expected) 188 - 194

Sunflower Oil

Olive Oil

75 - 94

182 - 196

Butter

25 - 42

233 - 240

Coconut Oil

6 - 11

245 - 265

According to the Iodine Values in the table above, the most unsaturated of the four compounds examined is sunflower oil and coconut oil is the most saturated. Iodine values between 0 and 70 are indicating that the substance analysed is a fat; therefore butter and coconut oil are fats. Iodine values above 70 indicate the presence of oils: sunflower oil and olive oil are oils, rather than fats. Looking at the expected saponification values for the four substances, sunflower oil has the lowest values; therefore it is contains long chain polyunsaturated FAs. Butter and coconut oil have the highest saponification values, thus they contain short chain saturated FAs.

The results determined during the practical for the iodine values are slightly lower than the ones expected, with the exception of olive oil, which is between the ranges. The saponification values for olive oil determined during the practical are slightly higher than the ones expected, with an average difference of 20 units. The saponification values determined for the other substances: sunflower oil, coconut oil and butter are considerably lower than the ones expected (with a difference of at least 40 units). In the case of coconut oil however, only two measurements were made for both iodine and saponification values, which justifies the inaccuracy of results to some extent. Discussion The main fatty acids found in sunflower oil are: linoleic acid (71.7%), oleic acid (15.9%), palmitic acid (5.8%) and stearic acid (3.9%). Linoleic acid (a long chain polyunsaturated FA) is one of the essential fatty acids in the diet, important for maintaining the function of cellular membranes and especially for participating in the regulation of cholesterol metabolism (transport, breakdown and excretion). They are also regarded as a dietary requirement in infants (breastmilk contains this long chain fatty acid, required for rapid brain development). The main fatty acid present in olive oil is oleic acid (65-80%), followed by linoleic(6-25%) and palmitic acid(5-12%). Oleic acid is a long chain monounsaturated fatty acid, with a role in promoting cellular growth and helping with joint problems. Some studies suggest that oleic acid may also help to maintain bone health and prevent calcium loss by promoting the absorption of nutrients in the body. Similar to linoleic acid, oleic acid also reduces LDL cholesterol and prevents to some degree the development of chronic heart disease. Both coconut oil and butter contain saturated fatty acids: the main fatty acid in coconut oil is lauric acid(44-52%), a medium chain saturated fatty acid and the main saturated fatty acids in butter are: myristic acid(19.8%), palmitic(15.2%) and stearic acid(14.9%). Nevertheless, the main fatty acid in butter is a monounsaturated one: oleic acid (31.9%). Individual saturated fatty acids (SFA) have different effects on the concentration of LDL cholesterol: lauric ,myristic and palmitic acids were found to increase LDL cholesterol whereas stearic acid has no effect . Some studies also suggest that replacing saturated FAs with PUFA and even MUFAs decreases LDL and even HDL cholesterol, among other benefits on health.

Based on the above-mentioned findings, among the 4 substances analysed during the practical, sunflower oil is the most beneficial to health, whereas coconut oil should be consumed in moderation, given its high concentration of saturated fatty acids. Heating and frying in particular have negative effects on both oil and food to be cooked. There are 5 phases of frying and thus oil deterioration: induction, peroxide formation, peroxide decomposition, polymerization and degradation, based on the chemical reactions that occur during frying. Chemical changes that occur during the last stage include: increased free fatty acids, carbonyl compounds, high molecular weight products and decreased unsaturation and essential fatty acid composition. References: 1. Department of Health. (1994). Fat. Report on Health and Social Subjects 41 Dietary Reference Values for Food Energy and Nutrients for the United Kingdom (1st ed., pp. 39-55). London: Department of Health. (Original work published 1991) 2. Mann,J., & Truswell, A.S. (2007). Fats and oils. Essentials of human nutrition (3rd ed., pp. 370372). London, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press. (Original work published 1998) 3. K, W. (1999). Impact of High-Temperature Food Processing on Fats and Oils. Impact of Processing on Food Safety Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology, 459, 67-77. Retrieved from http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007 4. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations . (2010). Summary of conclusions and dietary recommendations on total fat and fatty acids. Fats and fatty acids in human nutrition Report of an expert consultation (1st ed., pp. 10-21). Rome, Italy: Author. (Original work published 2008) 5. Kala, AL., Joshi, V., Gurudutt, K.N (2012, August). Effect of heating oils and fats in containers of different materials on their trans fatty acid content. Journal of the science of food and agriculture, 92(11), 2227-2233

Moisture and ash analysis of plain white flour Aim The aim of this practical was to determine the moisture content of plain white flour, more specifically the g of water present in 100 g food sample and to perform an ash analysis on this flour, to determine the amount of mineral elements in the food sample left when all the organic matter was burnt off. Method As per laboratory handbook. Results The moisture content of the white flour sample was calculated as 12,5 g of moisture in 100g flour; the ash content was found to be 0.78% (i.e 0.78g ash/100g flour) The value obtained for the moisture content: 12.5% is within the range of British milled flour, which is 13-15.5%. The moisture content of flour is given by that of wheat waiting to be milled and that of evaporative loss that occurs during milling. The ash content of white flour is proof of the separation quality between the starchy endosperm of the grain and the enveloping skins. In UK, this value usually falls between 0.42% (considering the flour was milled to 72% extraction) and 0.72% (if the flour was milled to 85% extraction). The value obtained during the experiment was 0.78% ash, which is slightly higher than the above-mentioned parameters; since more mineral matter started to be added to flour in UK, ash content ceased to be a quality control test and so 0.78%ash content is an acceptable value. Discussion By force of law, for the past few years, white and brown flour have been fortified with minerals such as calcium and iron and vitamins: thiamin and niacin. Nothing is added to wholemeal flour, as the latter is made of whole meal grains and already contains these vitamins and minerals. To ensure that vulnerable groups have enough calcium in their diet, calcium carbonate is added to all white and brown flour. (Bread and flour products account for 20% of UKs dietary calcium intake). The amounts of minerals and vitamins vary according to the 3 types of flours, but wholemeal flour has the highest values (3.9 mg/100 g iron, 0.47mg/100g thiamin and 5.7mg/100 g niacin) and therefore is the best source of nutrients among the three. The amounts of vitamins and minerals added to plain white and brown flour are slightly smaller: 2.1-3.2mg/100g iron, 0.32-0.39mg/100g thiamin and 1.7-4mg/100g niacin. As it contains considerably more vitamins and minerals than white and brown flour, the ash content of wholemeal flour is slightly higher than the one milled to 85%extraction, i.e >1.5%. For the same reason, ash content of brown flour is slightly higher than for plain white flour.

With regard to storage conditions, all flour should be stored in its original packaging in a cool dry place and should not be mixed with the old flour. Wholemeal flour has a smaller shelf life (3 months) compared to white flour: six months, due to the fact that the oils from the bran can become rancid with time. All flour should be kept away from moisture, to prevent the development of psocids. References: 1. Herschdoerfer,S.M (1978). Flour and bread. Quality Control in the Food Industry Volume 2 (1st ed., pp. 201-210). London, United Kingdom: Academic Press Limited 2. Food Standards Agency. (2008, June ). The Bread and Flour Regulations Guidance Notes Retrieved November 10, 2013, fromhttp://www.food.gov.uk/multimedia/pdfs/breadflourguide.pdf 3. E.B. Bennion,A.J. Bent,G.S.T. Bamford (1997). Flour specification. The Technology of Cakemaking (6th ed., pp. 5-12). London, United Kingdom: Chapman & Hall. (Original work published 1930) 4. Grain Information Service. (2013). Vitamins and Minerals. Retrieved November 10, 2013, from http://www.graininformationservice.co.uk/content/1/58/vitamins-and-minerals.html