Psychology & Society, 2u11, vol.

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PBILIP BYLANB
0niveisity 0f 0lstei
BANIEL B0B0SZEK
0niveisity 0f 0lstei
KRZYSZT0F KIELKIEWICZ
All Ballows College

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The piesent papei piesents a psycho-histoiical analysis of Auolf Bitlei with iefeience to
multiple psychological theoiies which attempts to biiefly eluciuate the contiibuting
peisonality anu psychosocial uevelopmental factois that likely contiibuteu to the
uevelopment of seveie psychopathology. It is aigueu that it is highly piobable Auolf
Bitlei suffeieu fiom a multituue of seveie psychological uisoiueis incluuing paianoiu
schizophienia anu naicissistic peisonality uisoiuei. It is hopeu that piesenting such a
piofile of Auolf Bitlei's peisonality anu psychopathology will be helpful in
unueistanuing what motivateu his hoiiific acts.

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The name Auolf Bitlei is associateu with an image of mauman in commanu; a man of
incompiehensible "evil" who was uiiectly iesponsible foi the unimaginable suffeiing
anu ueath of millions upon millions of innocent people. The atiocities committeu by the
Thiiu Reich, anu the uiiect iole of Auolf Bitlei in the Final Solution, appeai to be wiuely
iegaiueu as both the most impoitant event, anu most impoitant peison, iespectively, in
woilu histoiy in mouein times. A stuuy conuucteu by Liu et al. (2uuS) of moie than
2,uuu paiticipants fiom twelve cultuially uistinct nations founu that Woilu Wai II was
iepoiteu to be the single most impoitant histoiical event of the last 1,uuu yeais in each
of the twelve cultuial samples, while eleven of the twelve samples iegaiueu Auolf Bitlei
as the most influential figuie in woilu histoiy in the same time fiame.
Although many scholais have uevoteu enoimous effoits in an attempt to unueistanu
anu explain the actions of Auolf Bitlei anu collectively the people who paiticipateu in
the Final Solution, theie is an establisheu tiauition that aigues that puising such
unueistanuings can anu shoulu be consiueieu futile, anu moieovei, obscene anu
immoial (see Rosenbaum, 1998 foi a moie uetaileu uiscussion on this issue). 0n the
othei hanu, many scholais who have sought to pioviue an unueistanuing of Bitlei's
actions have ietieateu into the comfoiting anu falsely consoling aims of uesciibing
Bitlei as meiely "evil". As stateu by Aaion T. Beck (1999) in his cognitive account of the
atiocities of the Bolocaust, "the assignment of the label "evil" to explain the actions of
Psychology & Society, 2u11, vol. 4 (2), S8 - 6S "$
the Nazis anu theii suppoiteis uoes little to fuithei the unueistanuing of theii thinking
anu behavioui" (p. 176). We fully agiee with this statement anu hope in this papei to
pioviue a psychohistoiical peispective of the chaiactei of Auolf Bitlei uiawing on
multiple psychological theoiies (peisonality theoiies, psychopathological theoiies, anu
psychoanalytic theoiies) in the hopes not of excusing Bitlei's actions oi of mitigating his
iesponsibility, but iathei to pioviue a cogent fiamewoik foi unueistanuing how the
inteinal psychological piocesses coulu have leu Bitlei to commit the atiocities that he
uiu.
As such, this aiticle will not focus on any biogiaphical account of Bitlei's life as to uo so
woulu be beyonu the scope of this papei anu many fine accounts of gieat uetail have
been publisheu elsewheie, but insteau this aiticle shall focus on the psychological
featuies of Auolf Bitlei so that a moie coheient unueistanuing of what may have
motivateu Auolf Bitlei can be asceitaineu.
! #$%&'(.0./%,+& !88-(.&'
Psychoanalytic peispectives uominateu the fielu of psychology in the 19Su's anu 194u's,
paiticulaily in mainlanu Euiope, anu unsuipiisingly many influential figuies in the
uevelopment of psychoanalysis pioviueu psychological accounts of Bitlei's chaiactei.
Peihaps the fiist account of Bitlei's peisonality was uevelopeu by Cail }ung in 19S9 (see
Ncuuiie & Bull, 1977). }ung hau met Bitlei in Beilin at a meeting wheie the Italian
fascist uictatoi Nussolini was also piesent. }ung uesciibeu Bitlei as inhuman anu
sexless; a man who was uiiven so immensely with a singulai puipose of establishing the
Thiiu Reich. }ung believeu that Bitlei was so uiiven in this puisuit in oiuei to
compensate foi all of the peiceiveu thieats he felt existeu to ueimany, anu the histoiical
insults the ueiman nation hau enuuieu in its histoiy.
0tilizing available infoimation up until 194S, Langei (194S1972) believeu Bitlei to be
a neuiotic inuiviuual boiueiing on the psychotic. Be aigueu that Bitlei hau a stiong
messiah complex, exhibiteu significant masochistic tenuencies anu sexual peiveisions,
anu was veiy likely a homosexual. Fuitheimoie, Langei believeu Bitlei uisplayeu many
schizophienic symptoms anu pioposeu at that time that the most likely outcome woulu
be suiciue.
Continuing the psychoanalytic peispective, Fiomm (197S) chaiacteiiseu Bitlei as "a
nonsexual neciophilous chaiactei anu (a) malignant aggiessoi". Fiomm believeu that
Bitlei possesseu a uysfunctional "anal" chaiactei which gave iise to intense naicissism,
uestiuctiveness, anu a piofounu inability to ielate to otheis. Fiomm believeu these
psychological tenuencies uevelopeu in eaily infancy uue to an uniesolveu stage of
psychosexual uevelopment, howevei they weie gieatly exaggeiateu uue to tiaumatic
life events such as his ielationship with his fathei. 0f couise, Fiomm aigueu that Bitlei
woulu have possesseu no conscious awaieness of his peisonality ueficiencies anu
theiefoie blameu many authoiity figuies such as teacheis, his fathei, anu society foi his
eaily life failings. The cential component of Fiomm's aigument centieu on Bitlei failing
to successfully iesolve his 0euipal complex. Fiomm's thinking was that Bitlei
tiansfeiieu his incestuous 0euipal uesiies anu feeling foi his mothei onto the homelanu
of ueimany, anu his unconscious uesiie to eiauicate his unloving fathei was tiansfeiieu
collectively to the }ews.
Psychology & Society, 2u11, vol. 4 (2), S8 - 6S %&
The psychoanalytic theoiies piesenteu aie extiaoiuinaiily pioblematic given the
pseuuoscientific natuie of psychoanalysis theiefoie we tuin oui attention in the
iemainuei of this papei to moie scientific peispectives of Bitlei's peisonality.
! :3;3/(8<30,./ !88-(.&'
In the fiist chaptei of his autobiogiaphy !"#$ &'()*, wiitten in piison in 1924 at the
age of thiity-five, Bitlei uesciibeu his paients as mouels of tiauitional ueiman values:
+!, *'-."/ 0'1 ' 23-#*34 5#6#4 1"/6'$-7 (, (8-."/ 9#6#$9 '44 ."/ :"#$9 -8 -." .831".8427 '$2
2"68-"2 ':86" '44 -8 31 5.#42/"$ #$ "-"/$'47 486#$9 5'/";+ Like so much of !"#$ &'()*7 the
poitiait of his paients is a paitial fabiication. Be loveu his mothei ueeply, but he feaieu
his fathei. Theie is abunuant eviuence of his feelings towaius his fathei. Be tolu his
secietaiy Chiisti Schioeuei, <= 2#2$>- 486" (, *'-."/7 :3- = 0'1 '44 -." (8/" '*/'#2 8* .#(;
?" .'2 -'$-/3(1 '$2 #(("2#'-"4, :"5'(" ).,1#5'44, 6#84"$-; !, )88/ (8-."/ 08342
'40',1 :" 6"/, 15'/"2 *8/ (";@ (Baman, 1999: p. 18). This paiental style was uefineu by
Baumiinu (1991) as an authoiitaiian style. Such a paienting style is chaiacteiizeu by
iigiuity, obeuience without questions, anu physical punishment. Reseaich suggests that
authoiitaiian paienting style is closely ielateu to the uevelopment of aggiessive
peisonality anu antisocial behavioui (Blitstein et al, 2uuS; Ruchkin, 2uu2) which can be
cleaily obseiveu in Bitlei's latei life. Bitlei also tolu his lawyei Bans Fiank about his
fathei's heavy uiinking: <A6"$ '1 ' -"$B-8B-0"46" ,"'/ 8427 = .'2 -8 -'C" (, *'-."/ .8("
*/8( -." :'/; D.'- 0'1 -." (81- .8//#:4" 1.'(" = .'6" "6"/ *"4-; E. F/'$C7 0.'- ' 2"6#4
'458.84 #1G =- /"'44, 0'1 6#' (, *'-."/ B -." (81- .8//#:4" "$"(, 8* (, ,83-.;@ (Baman,
1999: p. 12).
Bis mothei moie than compensateu foi whatevei affection the Bitlei chiluien misseu in
theii fathei. Accoiuing to the uesciiption given by hei }ewish uoctoi, Euuaiu Bloch,
Klaia Bitlei was a simple, mouest, kinuly woman; She was also submissive, ietiiing, anu
a pious Catholic. Bei fiist thiee chiluien all uieu in infancy within weeks of one anothei
in 1878 anu hei fifth chilu Eumunu uieu at age six in 19uu. Bei soiiows coulu only have
been compounueu by life with hei iiascible, unfeeling, anu alcoholic husbanu. Young
Auolf auoieu hei. Bi. Bloch latei wiote that his love foi his mothei was his most stiiking
featuie: <H.#4" ." 0'1 $8- ' I(8-."/>1 :8,> #$ -." 313'4 1"$1"7 = .'6" $"6"/ 0#-$"11"2 '
5481"/ '--'5.("$-;@ (Keishaw, 1999: p. 12). Bowevei, this statement is inconsistent with
Bowlby's (1969) attachment theoiy anu auuitional ieseaich in psychology which
suggests that inuiviuuals with a histoiy of positive eaily attachments with motheis tenu
to have longei anu moie satisfying ielationships (Nausoui et al, 2uu8). Noieovei, it
coulu be suggesteu that (baseu on Bitlei's lack of any positive ielationships) his
avoiuant anu anxious attachment to his authoiitaiian fathei was the most significant
anu uefining attachment ielationship in uevelopment of his peisonality.
Bitlei was uesciibeu as a tioubleu auolescent who tenueu to finu iefuge in a woilu of
fantasy. Bistoiians iefei to Bitlei's typical peisonality tiaits as impulsive, egocentiic,
colu, aggiessive, unempathic, anu tough-minueu. This uesciiption tenus to fit well into
Eysenck's (1977) theoiy of peisonality which postulates that such chaiacteiistics aie
inuicative of a high level of Psychoticism. Eysenck's theoiy states that when inuiviuuals
with high levels of Psychoticism aie put unuei gieat stiess, the piobability of
ueveloping a functional psychosis incieases (Eysenck, 1997). In his moie iecent woik,
Eysenck (1998) suggests that psychoticism is also baseu on the coitical aiousal level in
the cential neivous system, anu subsequently is linkeu to conuitionability anu
Psychology & Society, 2u11, vol. 4 (2), S8 - 6S %'
conscience uevelopment. Impulsivity woulu be the ciucial tiait in the link between
conuitionability anu peisonality. Theiefoie, highly psychotic inuiviuuals, just like
extiaveits, have a low level of coitical aiousal, anu aie less easy to conuition anu moie
pione to ueveloping antisocial peisonality uisoiueis (Eysenck, 1998; uuujonsson,
1997).
! #$%&'(8.,'(/(9+&./ !88-(.&'
Recently effoits have been maue to unueistanu Auolf Bitlei's psychopathology using an
innovative empiiical methouology. Cooliuge, Bavis, anu Segal (2uu7) employeu an
"infoimant-iating" methou of investigation wheieby five expeits on Auolf Bitlei weie
askeu to complete a infoimant-iepoit assessment of peisonality, clinical
psychopathology, anu neuiological uisoiueis baseu upon ciiteiia laiu out in the
J#'9$81-#5 '$2 K-'-#1-#5'4 !'$3'4 8* !"$-'4 J#18/2"/17 F83/-. A2#-#8$ (BSN-Iv: Ameiican
Psychiatiic Association, 1994). Klonsky, 0ltmanns, anu Tuikheimei (2uu2) caiiieu out a
meta-analysis of 17 infoimant-iating stuuies anu theii iesults uemonstiateu that theie
is a moueiate uegiee of association between self-iepoit anu infoimant-iepoit iatings.
Noieovei, infoimant-iatings uisplay a high inteiiatei ieliability, as was the case with
the stuuy of Cooliuge et al. (2uu7) (meuian i = .72). This methouology theiefoie seems
to be both piactical anu useful in ueteimining impoitant peisonality anu
psychopathological featuies of inuiviuuals who foi a vaiiety of ieasons cannot submit
self-iepoit assessments oi unueigo clinical inteiviews.
Finuings fiom the Cooliuge et al. (2uu7) stuuy suggesteu that Bitlei suffeieu fiom a
multituue of Axis I anu Axis II uisoiueis. Theie was a consensus among the expeit
iatteis that Bitlei ieacheu the ciiteiion thiesholu foi a iange of peisonality uisoiueis
incluuing paianoiu, antisocial, naicissistic, anu sauistic peisonality uisoiueis; the
featuies of which aie all consistent with uetaileu iepoits of his auult life. With iegaiu to
the Axis I uisoiueis, the consensus piofile ievealeu that Bitlei piobably suffeieu fiom
Posttiaumatic Stiess Bisoiuei (PTSB), Psychotic Thinking, anu Schizophienia-Paianoiu
Type. The BSN-Iv (APA, 2uuu) symptom piofile foi Paianoiu Schizophienia seems to
uesciibe Bitlei's peisonality featuies extiemely well. The BSN-Iv lists symptoms such
as a pieoccupation with one oi moie peisecutoiy oi gianuiose uelusions which aie
geneially canteieu on a single coheient theme. Auuitionally paianoiu schizophienia
tenus to be associateu with anxiety, angei, aloofness, anu aigumentativeness.
Fuitheimoie, peisecutoiy uelusions in combination with uelusions of gianuiosity anu
feelings of angei pieuispose inuiviuuals to violence, while peisecutoiy themes can leave
an inuiviuual susceptible to suiciual behavioui. Inuiviuuals suffeiing fiom paianoiu
schizophienia veiy often exhibit a pationizing anu supeiioi mannei in inteipeisonal
situations. The occuiience of paianoiu schizophienia uoes not uisqualify the inuiviuual
fiom successful functioning in uaily life, as the BSN-Iv inuicates that paianoiu
schizophienics can uisplay few, if any, cognitive impaiiments anu can function
extiemely well in inuepenuent living anu in occupational settings.
A key featuie foi the uiagnosis of paianoiu schizophienia is the occuiience of uelusions
oi hallucinations. 0n Novembei 1u
th
1918 an extiemely impoitant event in the
uevelopment of Bitlei's political iueologies came about as he was hospitalizeu in
Pasewalk following an inciuent in which Bitlei was exposeu to a mustaiu gas attack
uuiing Woilu Wai I. In !"#$ &'()* (192S, p. 2u4-2u6), Bitlei uesciibes how a pastoi
came to the hospital wheie he was iecupeiating anu infoimeu him of ueimany's
Psychology & Society, 2u11, vol. 4 (2), S8 - 6S %(
capitulation which was suie to leau to "uiie oppiession". Bitlei ieacteu to the news with
the belief that ueimany's shameful uefeat must be blameu on the }ews, anu he thus
iesolveu to entei politics to combat the }ewish thieats to ueimany. Bitlei believeu that
the iesolutions he came to while at Pasewalk weie biought to him in a vision sent fiom
uou (see Langei, 1942197S; Rosenbaum, 1998). Such a hallucination anu iesulting
uelusional belief is chaiacteiistic of schizophienia.
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Nany attempts have been maue to unueistanu Auolf Bitlei anu what coulu have leu a
human being to commit atiocities of such gianu anu epic piopoitions. Too often many
of these attempts have sought explanation anu unueistanuing thiough the non-
explanatoiy conclusion that Bitlei was meiely "evil". 0theis have chosen to simply
ignoie the question anu wiite-off his actions as beyonu unueistanuing. Such evasions
aie ueeply unscientific anu unsatisfactoiy. We have attempteu in this papei to pioviue a
psychological-histoiical analysis of Auolf Bitlei fiom a vaiiety of peisonality anu
psychopathological peispectives. This ieview suggests that Bitlei was a human being
afflicteu with a vaiiety of ueeply uestiuctive psychological uisoiueis which weie
expeiienceu in combination anu leu to the uevelopment of a chaiactei so uistuibeu that
the beliefs anu behaviouis he exhibiteu aie easily compiehenuible. What is moie
inteiesting is how such a ueeply uistuibeu human being was capable of attaining such
powei anu exeiting such influence ovei so many inuiviuuals, the vast majoiity of whom
weie not afflicteu with any kinu of psychological pathology yet committeu acts of such
hoiioi.

6313-30&3$
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!A5*B6 C>BD6!#*>EF

Philip Bylanu is cuiiently a PhB stuuent at the 0niveisity of 0lstei, 0niteu Kinguom. Bis
cuiient ieseaich is in counselling anu abnoimal psychology. Email hylanu-
pSemail.ulstei.ac.uk

Baniel Bouuszek is cuiiently a PhB stuuent at the 0niveisity of 0lstei, 0niteu Kinguom.
Bis cuiient ieseaich is in ciiminal psychology. Email bouusek-uemail.ulstei.ac.uk

Kizysztof Kielkiewicz is cuiiently a PhB stuuent at the All Ballows College, Republic of
Iielanu. Bis cuiient ieseaich is in humanities. Email kkielkiewiczgmail.com