Indian Journal of Geosciences, Volume 66, No. 4 October - December, 2012; pp.

213-224

Late Quaternary climatic vicissitudes as deciphered from study of lacustrine sediments of Sambhar Lake, Rajasthan, India
Pralay Mukherjee1*and Prabal Rakshit2
and Database Division, Geological Survey of India, Central Headquarters, 27, J. L. Nehru Road, Kolkata- 700 016, India with Geological Survey of India. Present address: 13/46, Malviya Nagar, Jaipur 302 017, India *Corresponding author. E-mail: pralaymukherjee@gmail.com
2Formerly 1Geodata

Abstract: The Sambhar salt lake is one of the exclusive ephemeral endorheic saline basins in Rajasthan having considerable thickness of Quaternary deposits and is one of the premier salt- producing areas of Rajasthan. The Quaternary sedimentology of Sambhar Lake has been studied with the aid of hand auger drilling to understand palaeoclimatic changes in and around Sambhar Lake. A dense network of relict drainage around Sambhar reflects abundant supply of water and sediments during wetter phases. Gradual drying up of the drainage took place in response to climate change. The Sambhar playa core sediments indicate variation in major oxide composition (in certain geochemical variants) through vertical geological sections commensurate with climate change in late Holocene period. Palynofloral assemblage has also been proved helpful in deciphering palaeoclimate. The sedimentary unit lying at the bottom of the studied sedimentary package comprises predominantly blackish siltclay which have yielded high percentage of pollen varieties depicting sub-humid limnic condition where as the successive younger unit shows a change in lithofacies represented by greyish, greenish fine to very fine sand and silt comprising a fair percentage of anemophilous pollen considered to be transported from far off distances possibly under arid condition. The evidence of desiccation of the lake ecosystem is manifested by the presence of low algal and fungal spore in the upper part of the sedimentary sequence. So a change in climatic condition is however postulated from the study of Quaternary lacustrine sediments. Keywords: Sambhar Lake, lacustrine sediment, chemical environment, spore-pollen studies

Introduction
The Sambhar salt lake is one of the exclusive saline basins in Rajasthan having considerable thickness of Quaternary deposits and is one of the premier salt-producing areas of the state. It lies about 80 km WNW of Jaipur City in Rajasthan. It is a shallow saline ephemeral lake occasionally flooded during rainy season. The Sambhar Lake basin is bounded to the northwest and west by the 500-m-high Aravalli hills of Early to Middle Proterozoic age. The maximum relief in the area is 524 m above m. s. l., in the hill northeast of Nawa City. The basement below the lake floor is made up of schists of Delhi Supergroup. The Sambhar is an elliptical and shallow lake, with the maximum length of 22.5 km running ESEWNW. The width of the lake ranges from 3.2 km to 11.2 km (Sinha

and Raymahashay, 2000). The total catchment area of the lake is 7560 sq. km, most of which lies to the north and northeast (Sinha et al., 2004). The lake occupies an area of about 225 sq. km and the average depth of water is about 1 m and the maximum depth is about 3 m in peak rainy season. Sambhar Lake is fed by two major rivers namely, Mendha and Rupangarh, flowing from NNE and SSW directions respectively (Fig. 1). Many other small streams debouch from the Aravalli hills and then disappear in the sand cover. The Mendha River, the largest feeder stream, originates from the catchment in the northeast of the lake, then flows southwest and enters the lake from the north forming a small delta at the mouth. The river drains an area of about 3600 sq. km, most of which is a sandy, undulating plain, delineated in the north, west and east by residual Aravalli outcrops. River Rupangarh originates from the south near

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270 05

270 00

260 55

260 500 74 45

740 50

740 55

750 00

750 05

750 10

750 15

Fig. 1. Schematic map of Sambhar Lake exhibiting auger drill hole locations along N50W-S50E trend line (AB).

Ajmer City and flows NE to enter the lake from the south draining a hilly area of about 625 sq. km (Sinha and Raymahashay, op. cit.). In spite of a large catchment area, the Sambhar Lake presently receives very little runoff partly due to present climatic conditions and partly due to human interferences, e.g. small check dams along the rivers and canalization of lake water to reservoirs for salt production. The surface of the Sambhar Lake sometime dries out completely in summer revealing an efflorescent crust. This crust essentially consists of halite and calcite with minor amounts of dolomite, sylvite, etc. (Sinha and Raymahashay, 2004) The Sambhar Lake and adjoining area attracted attention of several workers through ages not only because of its position within Aravalli gaps (Basu et al., 1986) but also for its salinity problem (Sinha and Raymahashay, 2000) and other geological and geomorphological problems. Mishra (1974) carried out Quaternary geological mapping in Sambhar Lake area on large scale. Sen and Ramlingam (1976) mapped the area and

delineated different lithounits namely feldspathic quartzites, conglomerates, phyllites and mica schist of Precambrian age. Das Sarma and Sural (1988) delineated neotectonic features, viz. sags, pull-apart basins, etc. A broad account on the late Quaternary climatic environment, based on pollen analysis of the lacustrine sediments was carried out by Singh et al. (1974). Sundaram and Pareek (1994) and Sundaram et al. (1996) carried out work on morphostratigraphy of Sambhar Lake. An attempt covering the geochemical history of Didwana Lake was earlier made by Wasson et al. in 1984. The main emphasis of the present work was in retrieving the late Pleistocene-Holocene climate record from the study of lacustrine sediments. To fulfill the objective, hand auger drilling was carried out in the Sambhar Lake and sediment samples were collected for geoscientific studies. This paper uses an integrated approach of morphostratigraphy, geochemical and palynological study to reveal the palaeoclimatological condition of the Sambhar Lake and adjoining region.

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215

Geomorphology of Sambhar Lake and Adjoining Area

Geomorphologically, the area is characterised by diverse landforms which are the products of depositional and erosional processes. The depositional landforms are formed by the fluvial, lacustrine and aeolian agencies. The erosional landforms are carved out of Precambrian rocks. Hogbacks are the structural landforms occurring as linear sharp-crested hill ridges, trending NNE-SSW, and having symmetric sloping flanks. Mainly these hogbacks are found in the northern part of Sambhar Lake. Residual hills and pediments are the denudational landforms. Residual hills or hillocks occur as isolated hills outcropping either within the pediment tract or within the aeolian country. The pediment is characterised by undulatory plain with far and few residual hills and are marked by weathered regolith. Pediments are at places covered by thin veneer of aeolian sand. It appears as discrete landform occupying areas in south and southwestern part of Sambhar Lake. Pediplain is vastly stretched in the southern part of Sambhar Lake. This is the coalesced part of adjacent pediment region. The depositional landforms belong to lacustrine, fluvial and aeolian origin characterised by distinctive form attributes. The configuration of the present lake is traceable on aerial photographs by its distinctive dark grey tone reflecting the presence of water-saturated sediments. It has ESE-WNW trend which changes to E-W in the eastern part and it is characterised by subrectangular shape. The Sambhar is an elliptical and shallow lake, with the maximum length of 22.5 km. The width of the lake ranges from 3.2 km to 11.2 km. The total area occupied by the lake is about 225 sq. km and its R. L. is 360 m (Sinha and Raymahashay, op. cit.). Evidences of former lakeshore line about 1-2 m above the present lake level can be traced in the eastern and southwestern part of the lake. This is demarcated in the aerial photographs by lighter tone and it is salt enriched also. The shallow saltenriched linear depression was found in the southern part of the present-day lake. It is bounded by pediplain. Discrete calcrete bodies were marked in this depression (Mukherjee, 2012). Sambhar Lake is fed by four ephemeral rivers viz. Mendha, Rupangarh, Khandel and Kharia. Mendha and

Rupangarh rivers debouching in the northeast and southwest periphery of the lake respectively are the chief source of water while other streams rejuvenate only during flash floods. Terrace deposits are also located in Mendha and Rupangarh rivers at their confluence with Sambhar Lake (Sundaram and Pareek, 1994). The aeolian landforms delineated in the area are longitudinal dunes, obstacle dunes, etc. The longitudinal dunes are the linear dunes, ENE-WSW to E-W-trending with nearly symmetrical slopes on either side. These dunes vary in height from 5 m to 20 m from natural surface level and laterally extend in length from 100 m to 500 m. These dunes occur in the northern and northeastern parts where as obstacle dunes occur mainly in the eastern part of Sambhar Lake (Mukherjee, 2012).

Geology of Sambhar Lake and Adjoining Area

The Precambrian rocks are mainly the metasedimentaries comprising quartzo-feldspathic rocks with interbands of mica schist and phyllites which occur as linear structural ridges and as isolated residual hills. These metasedimentaries also occur in the low-relief areas such as pediplain country. The oldest rocks of the area are of schists and gneisses of the Sand Mata Complex belonging to Bhilwara Supergroup (Mishra, 1974; Gupta et al., 1997), exposed around Barjan, Naka- ki Dhani and Batliya. The rocks exposed in the linear ridges and hills comprise interbedded sequences of quartzite, micaceous quartzite, feldspathic quartzite, conglomerate, limestone, calc-gneiss and garnetiferous mica-schist which are included in the Ajmer Formation of the Ajabgarh Group. The albitite zone (Ray, 1972 and 1990) marks a narrow NESW- trending patch also passes through Sambhar and adjoining area. The Quaternary deposits comprise fluvial, lacustrine and aeolian sediments arranged in a morphostratigraphic sequence based on lithological assemblages, pedogenesis and geomorphological assemblages. Sundaram and Pareek (1994) marked five fluvial, four lacustrine and two aeolian facies each of which is characterised by distinctive litho-assemblages, pedological association and geomorphological expression. In the course of study, two fluvial facies were marked; one occurs at the terraces of Mendha and Rupangarh rivers and are characterised by the development of loamy brown soil. The other facies is developed over the present-day flood

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plain deposits of Mendha and Rupangarh rivers with the absence of any soil association. Two lacustrine facies are also marked during the present study. The palaeoshore facies is occurring as discrete fine silty unit with occurrences of harder calcretized unit (Sundaram and Pareek op. cit. and Mukherjee, op. cit.). The other lacustrine facies comprise subcrop lithounits of the present lake and playa surface consisting of siliciclastic muds, silt enriched with salts. They occur as whitish, greyish white, brownish sandy silt and black clay. There are two aeolian facies which essentially consist of very fine to fine grained quartzose sediments. The oldest aeolian facies is represented by longitudinal dune, sand mounds. They are characterised by incipient calcareous nodules mainly as specks of carbonates and small fragments of kankars. The younger aeolian facies are observed as loose incoherent mobile sand without any trace of soil. This facies is represented here as obstacle dunes. As a part of the work a generalised Quaternary stratigraphy of the area has been delineated on the basis of field relationship. The generalised Quaternary morphostratigraphic succession is as follows:
Litho association Fine sand Fine sand to silty clay Calcrete/ calcareous kankars Coarse to medium sand with diffused calcrete Gritty coarse sand ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Unconformity~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Hills, ridges of granite, basic rock Precambrian Environment of Deposition Aeolian Fluvial/ Lacustrine Fluvial Age Quaternary

change and Sambhar Lake is not also an exception. Accumulation rates in lakes are frequently high, so lake sediments are the source of potential high-resolution records of past climate. Lake sediments are made up of two basic components: allochthonous material, originating from outside the lake basin and autochthonous material, produced within the lake itself. Allochthonous material is transported to lakes by rivers and streams, overland flow, aeolian activity, and (in some cases) through subsurface drainage. It is made up of varying amounts of fluvial or aeolian clastic sediments, dissolved salts, terrestrial micro and macro organisms and pollen. Autochthonous material is either biogenic in origin or it may result from inorganic precipitation within the water column (often as a consequence of seasonally varying biological productivity that can significantly alter the water chemistry). Both allochthonous and autochthonous material can be useful in palaeoclimatic reconstruction (Bradley, 1999). In this context some hand auger drill cores from the Sambhar Lake were studied and significant climate change was noticed in terms of sediment variation, colour, texture, spore-pollen content, etc. Five hand auger drilling (Fig. 1) were done on the present-day Sambhar Lake surface and its fringe areas for collection of sediment samples for spore-pollen, chemical and XRF analyses. They are numbered as AD-8 to AD-12 from NW- SE (Map op. cit.) The maximum depth of auger drill holes varied from 1.1 m (maximum depth near lake margin at AD-12) to 3.7 m (maximum depth in the central part of lake at AD-8). The minimum depth drilled is at AD-12 (1.1 m) and the maximum depth punctured on the lake surface was 3.7 m (AD-8). The lake sediments were sampled to know their sporepollen content, which may give clues to the possible climatic change. Fence diagram was prepared from the data obtained

Study of Lacustrine Sedimentary Package of Sambhar

Lakes accumulate sediments from their surrounding environment and thus sediment cores recovered from lakes can provide a record of environmental as well as palaeoclimatic

from the present-day Sambhar Lake sediments (Fig. 2). The auger drill holes were put along the traverse line N50WS50E in the central part of the Sambhar Lake. Variation in the sediments was noticed from the periphery to the central part of the lake, with the appearance and disappearance of certain sedimentary units.

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217

Fig. 2. Fence diagram along N50 W-S50 E trend line (AB).

The variations in terms of colour and grain size were noticed in each core sample (Fig. 2). The top most surface in every drill hole comprises whitish brown silty sand. This unit varies in depth in adjacent drill holes from as low as 0.2 m in AD-11 upto 0.9 m in AD-12. Just below this unit greenish silt/ clay horizon appears and this unit varies in thickness from 0.2 m (in AD-10) to 1.1 m (in AD-8); this unit is absent in the peripheral region of the lake, probably indicating a lensoid body thickening towards southeastern part of the lake. In

AD-12, medium grained semi- consolidated whitish sand appears below the whitish brown silty sand horizon. Subsequently below the greenish silt/ clay unit, dark brown clay horizon appears. This horizon is more pronounced in the northwestern margin of the lake and maximum thickness of this horizon punctured in AD-11 is 0.5 m and minimum thickness is 0.2 m at AD-10. It is also not a laterally continuous body and this unit is pinched out in the southeastern part of the lake and is not encountered in AD-8. Interestingly at AD-

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12, medium grained whitish sand appears below whitish brown silty sand unit. Just below the deep/ chocolate-brown clay horizon, blackish grey silty clay appears. This unit is laterally continuous and is found in every bore hole (AD-8 to AD-11). This unit varies in thickness from 0.4 m (minimum; at AD-8) upto 0.8 m (maximum; at AD-9). The last unit encountered in

the drill holes is black clay horizon. This unit is continuous laterally as well as vertically. The chemical analysis data of the sediment samples show the vertical variation of the major elements of the core sediments (Fig. 3). The variation in sediment chemistry in Sambhar Lake may relate to the study carried out in the Jeju Island, South

Fig. 3. Vertical variation of major elements in Sambhar Lake core sediments (AD-8 to AD-11).

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219

Korea (Lee et al., 2008). The concentration of Fe2O3 and Al2O3 show an increasing trend in the upward direction from a depth of around 200 cm. Above this depth, Al2O3, Fe2O3, CaO, Na2O concentrations in the upper part increase abruptly as compared to those in the lower part. On the other hand, the concentration of alkali metal such as K2O slightly increases in the upper part. One single run of the lake sediment has been analysed by Differential Thermal Analyzer for clay species identification. The Differential Thermal Analysis data show presence of >50% montmorillonite (Table 1) which is an indicator of aridity in the assemblage (Mukherjee, 2012). The assemblage montmorillonite> illite> kaolinite often depicts arid-semi arid climatic regime as established in Sierra Nevada area (Birkeland, 1969). Here halite is also present in the sediment package (Table 1). Halite is an indicator of aridity (Wardlaw and Schwerdtner, 1966; Roberts and Spencer, 1995; Roberts et al., 1997). The data suggests the upper 4-m sediments of Sambhar Lake might have been deposited during arid- semi arid condition. Pollen is the other most widely studied component of lake sediments. Plant microfossils can be especially helpful in corroborating climatic reconstructions based on pollen.

There was a comprehensive study carried out by Singh et al. in 1974 and 1990, revealing pollen zonation in Thar Desert. They identified following ecologically sensitive pollen zones: (i) Artemisia, a component of the >50 cm annual rainfall regime (ii) Calligonum, which grows preferably along the stabilised dunes (iii) Oldenlandia is indicative of higher precipitation and is found in the sub-humid and humid regions of northwest India (iv) Typha, a fresh-water swamp taxon (v) Syzygium cumini is indicative of > 850 mm of average annual rainfall. On the basis of the known pollen record it is possible to have a qualitative idea of past climate. The palynological study here reveals dominance of herbaceous and shrubby vegetation in the lower part of the lacustrine unit (mainly in the black clay part). High percentage

Table 1. Differential Thermal Analytical Results of Sambhar Lake sediments, Rajasthan, India
Sample No. Weight (in mg) 9D 38.603 TG Weight loss (%) 21.3 DTA Peak identified i) 91 ii) 581 (ocelcius) iii) 792 Montmorillonite Calcite/ Dolomite, Analcime/ Leucite, Halite Analcime/ Leucite, Calcite/Dolomite Analcime/ Leucite, Calcite/ Dolomite Calcite/ Dolomite, Analcime/ Leucite, Halite Analcime /Leucite, Calcite/ Dolomite Calcite/ Dolomite, Analcime/ Leucite, Halite Analcime/ Leucite, Calcite/ Dolomite Analcime/ Leucite, Calcite/ Dolomite > 50% Phases Detected (10-30)%

9E

51.924

17.4

113

588

782

Montmorillonite

9G

40.249

26.0

89

574

801

Montmorillonite

9I

43.418

22.3

97

587

789

Montmorillonite

9J

33.986

24.9

87

616

756

Montmorillonite

9K

31.936

25.5

75

641

790

Montmorillonite

11D

42.269

20.7

102

598

725

Montmorillonite

11E

35.240

22.8

77

634

779

Montmorillonite

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of Artemisia followed by abundant Oldenlandia, Asteraceae, Poaceae and Cyperaceae was recorded (Fig. 4). High percentage of black graminaceous cuticular fragments (Fig. 5) of slender and lath-shape along with the abundance of algal spores indicate

limnic conditions during this period. High percentage of fungal spores with abundance of Artemisia together is suggestive of moist climatic conditions. In the upper part of the sediment samples, the results show appearance of fairly good percentage

Fig. 4. Occurrences of spore and pollens in Sambhar Lake core sediments. Legends (Light Microscopic Photographs) All scale=10 m 1. Artemisia parviflora, 2&3. Artemisia spp., 4. Cannabis, 5. Xeromphis, 6. Cassia, 7&8 Oldenlandia, 9&10 Solanum, 11. Prosopis, 12. Rubiaceae, 13. Chenopodiaceae, 14. Bignoniaceae, 15. Tuiumfetta, 16. Citrullus, 17. Asteraceae, 18. Rubiaceae, 19&20. Clematis.

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Fig. 5. Occurrences pollens and plant microfossils in Sambhar Lake core sediments. Legends (Light Microscopic Photographs) All scale=10 m 1. Cyperaceae, 2. Poaceae, 3. Pinus, 4. Grass cuticle showing phytolith, 5. Black lathe-shaped graminaceous cuticle (BUD), 6. Algal mass with a spore, 7-10. Fungal spores.

of Pinus pollen perhaps transported from the far off distances, suggesting highly arid conditions which favored transportation of winged and other anemophilous pollen in general. Moistureladen atmosphere generally do not favour long transport of anemophilous pollen. Overall low count in pollen spores shows deterioration in climatic conditions which changed from cold and moist to dry and arid conditions. Highly reduced or

negligible rainfall/precipitation could be the cause of low vegetation. Desiccation of the lake ecosystem is evident by low algal and fungal spore along with the low pollen count. The pollen study is often proved helpful in deciphering past climatic condition that prevailed in the area. Plant microfossils (Fig. 5) can be especially helpful in corroborating

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Pralay Mukherjee and Prabal Rakshit / Indian Journal of Geosciences, 66(4): 213-224 Table 2. Spore pollen distribution pattern (vertical) in the Sambhar Lake core sediments Unit

Oldenlandia

Algal Fungal Percentage Climatic

Asteraceae

Cyperacae

Artemisia

Spore

Spore

of total pollen count

phases

1 3 4

Poaceae

Pinus

6 7 8

vegetation reconstructions based on pollen. The spore-pollen distribution in the sediment of Sambhar Lake is furnished in Table 2. The palynological study shows prevalence of herb and shrub-like vegetation in the lower part of the lacustrine unit (mainly in the black clay part). High percentage of Artemisia followed by abundant Oldenlandia, Asteraceae, Poaceae and Cyperaceae was noticed. High percentage of black graminaceous cuticular fragments along with the profusion of algal spores is indicative of limnic conditions present in the lower part of lacustrine sediments. High percentages of spores of fungi indicate moist climatic conditions. Plenty of Artemisia is suggestive of cold and moist/ humid climatic conditions. In the upper part of the sediment samples, the results show emergence of quite good percentage of Pinus pollen possibly transported from far off distances, suggesting highly arid conditions which favoured transportation of winged pollen and other anemophilous pollen in general. Moisture-laden/ humid atmosphere generally do not favour long transport of anemophilous pollen. Overall low count in pollen-spores suggests decline in climatic conditions which changed from cold and moist to dry and arid. Desiccation of the lake ecosystem is evident from low algal and fungal spore along with the low pollen count.

The character of the inorganic (clastic) sediments transported to lake can also provide useful palaeoenvironmental information, based on sediment grain size variations and through interpretation of such data, changes in the depositional environment can be supplemented. The chemical data of major oxides (variation of Al2O3, Fe2O3, MgO, Na2O, K2O, etc.) also give clue regarding paleoenvironmental changes in lacustrine environment (Cohen, 2003). These parameters have also been plotted (Fig. 3) and interpreted. The physical appearance of these entire sedimentation units and chemical data reflect climate change in the latest Quaternary period. The lowermost black clay unit suggests a closed oxygen-deficient system where no influx of sediment or water was available from outside. In this anoxic condition, the lake turned to a boggy/ marshy environment.

Conclusion
The entire sedimentary package of Sambhar Lake shows an overall fining upward sequence with variation from fine black clay to silt at the bottom followed gradually upward by fine to medium sand. This entire sedimentary unit is capped by the few centimetres- to decimetre- thick fine sand which is thought to have been deposited at a very later stage or may be the product of anthropogenic disturbances.

Cold and Moist

Arid

Dry and

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Geomorphic analysis particularly the palaeodrainage reconstruction of the Sambhar region indicates much stronger fluvial activity in the past. Gradual drying of the drainage happened in response to climate change (Sinha et al., 2004). This is well evidenced from sections as observed in the Mendha and Palara rivers. In both the cases, there is a calcified pedosol unit at the lower part followed upward by the few decimetresthick fluvial sequence and then again followed upward by the aeolian sequence (Mukherjee, 2012). The Sambhar Lake core sediment indicates (variation in major oxide composition) climate change in latest Holocene period. Chemical evolution of the lake followed a series of palaeo-hydrological changes induced by climate fluctuation. The palynological study of the auger drill core sediment samples was carried out to know the variation of spore-pollen content of the lake. The study depicts dominance of herbaceous and shrubs-like vegetation in the lower part of the lacustrine sequence (predominantly in the black clay part). Considerable percentage of Artemisia and profuse Oldenlandia, Asteraceae, Poaceae and Cyperaceae are present. High percentage of black graminaceous cuticular fragments along with the abundance of algal spores are indicative of limnic conditions that existed in the lower part of the sedimentary package. High percentages of fungal spores indicate moist climatic conditions. Plenty of Artemisia associated with spores of fungi is suggestive of cold and moist/ humid climate conditions (Yuzhen et al., 2005). In the upper part of the sediment sequence, spore-pollen content in samples shows good percentage of Pinus pollen possibly transported from far off distances. This may suggests arid condition which favoured transportation of winged pollen and other anemophilous pollen (pollen distributed by wind) in general. Moisture-laden/ humid atmosphere generally does not support long transportation of pollens of anemophilous affinity. Overall low count of pollen-spore in the upper part of the core sediments suggests decline in climatic condition that changed from cold and moist to dry and arid. Desiccation of the lake ecosystem is evident from low algal and fungal spore along with the low pollen count. The chemical analysis data of the sediment samples exhibit vertical variation of the major elements of the core sediments. The concentration of Fe2O3 and Al2O3 shows an increasing trend in the upward direction from a depth of around

200 cm. Across this depth, Al2O3, Fe2O3, CaO, Na2O, K2O concentrations in the upper part (1- 1.2 m from ground level) increase abruptly. Below this, in the lower part, the concentration decreases. The change in concentration of major oxides from lower part to upper part indicates deposition of sediments from terrestrial sources (Cohen, 2003). The sediments may be transported by fluvial or aeolian agencies, but if we corroborate the data with field observation and palynological study, then it suggests that the sediments were deposited under arid to semiarid condition. There might be infrequent incidence of fluvial deluge which are mainly responsible for the presence of terrestrial elements in the form of oxides in the sedimentary column.

References
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