Lincoln, Abraham (12 Feb. 1809-15 Apr. 1865), sixteenth president of the United States, as born in !

ardin "o#nt$, %ent#&'$, the son of (ho)as *in&o+n and ,an&$ !an's, far)ers. (ho)as *in&o+n had &o)e to %ent#&'$ fro) -ir.inia ith his father Abraha) in 1/82. !e a&0#ired on+$ eno#.h +itera&$ to si.n his na)e b#t .ained )odest prosperit$ as a &arpenter and far)er on the %ent#&'$ frontier. !e )arried ,an&$ !an's, a+so i++iterate, in 1806. Abraha) as born in a +o. &abin on 1Sin'in. Sprin. Far)1 three )i+es so#th of !od.en2i++e. 3hen he as t o $ears o+d the fa)i+$ )o2ed to another far) on %nob "ree' abo#t se2en Abraham Lincoln, 1863. )i+es northeast of !od.en2i++e. 4n this far) of 250 Courtesy of the Library of Congress (LCUSZ62-13016 DLC). a&res (on+$ thirt$ of hi&h ere ti++ab+e) Abraha) +i2ed for fi2e $ears, he+ped his parents ith &hores, and +earned his A6"s b$ attendin. s&hoo+ for a fe ee's ith his o+der sister Sarah. 7n 8e&e)ber 1816 the *in&o+ns a.ain )o2ed, this ti)e to the ne +$ ad)itted state of 7ndiana. (he tradition that the *in&o+ns )o2ed be&a#se of dis+i'e of s+a2er$ )a$ ha2e so)e tr#th9 the$ be+on.ed to a 6aptist deno)ination that bro'e fro) the parent &h#r&h on the s+a2er$ iss#e. !o e2er, the )ain reason for the )o2e as (ho)as:s #n&ertaint$ of %ent#&'$ +and tit+es. 7ndiana offered se&#re tit+es s#r2e$ed #nder the ,orth est 4rdinan&e. (he *in&o+ns +i2ed in a r#de, three-sided she+ter on ;i.eon "ree' sixteen )i+es north of the 4hio <i2er. (here Abraha) +earned the #se of axe and p+o he+pin. his father &ar2e a ho#se and far) o#t of the hard ood forest. (he .ro in. $o#th a+so snat&hed a fe )ore )onths of s&hoo+in. in the t$pi&a+ one-roo) s&hoo+ho#ses of the frontier. 7n +ate 181/ or 1818 the *in&o+ns ere =oined b$ ,an&$:s a#nt >+i?abeth !an's Sparro and her h#sband, (ho)as Sparro , and Abraha):s &o#sin 8ennis !an's. 7n the fa++ of 1818 the Sparro s and ,an&$ !an's *in&o+n a++ died of 1)i+' si&',1 probab+$ &a#sed b$ drin'in. the )i+' of &o s that had .ra?ed on hite sna'eroot. After a $ear of ro#.h ho)e)a'in., (ho)as *in&o+n ret#rned to %ent#&'$, here on 2 8e&e)ber 1819 he ed the ido Sarah 6#sh @ohnston and bro#.ht her and her three &hi+dren to ;i.eon "ree'. !is step)other pro2ided the teena.e Abraha) ith )ore affe&tion and .#idan&e than his nat#ra+ )other or his father e2er did. 3ith a desire for +earnin. and a)bition for se+f-i)pro2e)ent, he de2o#red e2er$ boo' he &o#+d borro fro) the )ea.er +ibraries of friends and nei.hbors. (ho)as *in&o+n neither #nderstood nor en&o#ra.ed his son:s inte++e&t#a+ a)bition9 0#ite the &ontrar$, he &hastised Abraha):s 1+a?$1 preferen&e for readin. o2er or'in..

Abraha):s thin+$ 2ei+ed disdain for the +ife of a ba&' oods far)er do#bt+ess irritated his father. Abraha) in t#rn resented the re0#ire)ent of +a and &#sto) that an$ a.es he earned before he &a)e of a.e--b$ hirin. o#t to nei.hbors to sp+it rai+s, for exa)p+e--)#st be .i2en to his father. 4ne historian has s#..ested that Abraha) *in&o+n:s hatred of &hatte+ s+a2er$, hi&h denied to s+a2es the 1fr#its of their +abor,1 )a$ ha2e ori.inated in (ho)as *in&o+n:s expropriation of the teena.e Abraha):s earnin.s (6#r+in.a)e, pp. 5/-A2). 7n an$ e2ent, re+ations bet een Abraha) and his father .re in&reasin.+$ estran.ed. 3hen (ho)as +a$ d$in. in @an#ar$ 1851, he sent ord that he anted to sa$ .oodb$e to his son. Abraha) ref#sed to )a'e the ei.ht$)i+e trip, statin., 17f e &o#+d )eet no , it is do#btf#+ hether it o#+d not be )ore painf#+ than p+easant1 (6as+er, 2o+. 2, p. 9/). !e did not attend his father:s f#nera+. 7n 1828 *in&o+n and a friend too' a f+atboat +oaded ith far) prod#&e do n the 4hio and Bississippi ri2ers to ,e 4r+eans. !e repeated the experien&e in 1851. (hese trips idened his hori?ons and, b$ tradition, sho&'ed hi) ith the si.ht of )en and o)en bein. bo#.ht and so+d in the s+a2e )ar'ets of ,e 4r+eans. A+tho#.h he &a)e of a.e in 1850, he did not i))ediate+$ stri'e o#t on his o n. 4n&e )ore his father so+d the far) and set forth to .reener past#res, this ti)e in &entra+ 7++inois. After he+pin. his father &+ear +and, Abraha) hired o#t to sp+it rai+s for other far)ers, and he 'ept his earnin.s. 7n the s#))er of 1851 he sett+ed in ,e Sa+e), a 2i++a.e on the San.a)on <i2er b+#ff abo#t t ent$ )i+es north est of Sprin.fie+d.

Lincoln's Formative Years in New Salem, Illinois (1831-1837 *in&o+n:s six $ears in ,e Sa+e) ere a for)ati2e period. For a ti)e he drifted fro) one =ob to anotherC store &+er', )i++ hand, partner in a .enera+ store that fai+ed, post)aster, s#r2e$or. Six feet fo#r in&hes ta++ ith a +an'$, ra boned +oo', #nr#+$ &oarse b+a&' hair, a .re.ario#s persona+it$, and a pen&hant for te++in. h#)oro#s stories, *in&o+n )ade )an$ friends. A)on. the) ere @a&' Ar)stron. and his .an. of $o#n. to#.hs, 1the "+ar$ Dro2e bo$s.1 As the ne bo$ in to n ith a rep#tation for .reat ph$si&a+ stren.th, *in&o+n had to pro2e his )ett+e in a rest+in. )at&h ith Ar)stron.. 3innin. the )at&h, *in&o+n a+so on the +o$a+t$ of the "+ar$ Dro2e bo$s despite his ref#sa+ to parti&ipate in their drin'in. and he++-raisin.. 7n 1852 the Sa& and Fox 7ndians #nder "hief 6+a&' !a ' ret#rned to their an&estra+ ho)e+and in 7++inois, pre&ipitatin. the short-+i2ed 6+a&' !a ' 3ar. *in&o+n 2o+#nteered for the )i+itia and as e+e&ted &aptain of his &o)pan$, hi&h in&+#ded the "+ar$ Dro2e bo$s. (he$ sa no a&tion, b#t *in&o+n +ater re&a++ed his e+e&tion as

&aptain as the )ost .ratif$in. honor of his +ife. Another side of *in&o+n:s &o)p+ex persona+it$ as a deep+$ ref+e&ti2e, a+)ost broodin., 0#a+it$ that so)eti)es des&ended into serio#s depression. *in&o+n des&ribed this &ondition as 1the h$po,1 for h$po&hondria, as )edi&a+ s&ien&e then ter)ed it. (his re&#rrin. ai+)ent, &o#p+ed ith *in&o+n:s a+)ost )orbid fondness for 3i++ia) %nox:s +#.#brio#s poe) 1Borta+it$1 (182A) and his +ater se+f-reported drea)s in hi&h death fi.#red pro)inent+$, )a$ ha2e res#+ted fro) the deaths of +o2ed onesC his )other, his sister Sarah in &hi+dbirth in 18289 and Ann <#t+ed.e in 1855. *in&o+n )et <#t+ed.e at her father:s ta2ern in ,e Sa+e), here he boarded in 1855. (heir stor$ has ta'en on so )an$ +a$ers of )$th and anti)$th that the tr#th is i)possib+e to deter)ine. For ha+f a &ent#r$, #nti+ the 1990s, professiona+ historians dis&o#nted the notion of their +o2e and en.a.e)ent, b#t ne s&ho+arship re2i2ed the &redibi+it$ of a *in&o+n-<#t+ed.e ro)an&e (3a+sh, The Shadows Rise). 7n an$ e2ent, <#t+ed.e died in A#.#st 1855, probab+$ of t$phoid fe2er, and *in&o+n apparent+$ s#ffered a pro+on.ed spe++ of 1h$po1 after her death. 8#rin. the ,e Sa+e) $ears *in&o+n de2e+oped ne p#rpose and dire&tion. (he +o&a+ s&hoo+)aster, Bentor Draha), .#ided his st#d$ of )athe)ati&s and +iterat#re. *in&o+n =oined a debatin. so&iet$, and he a&0#ired a +ife+on. +o2e of 3i++ia) Sha'espeare and <obert 6#rns. !e a+so a&0#ired a passion for po+iti&s and in 1852 anno#n&ed his &andida&$ for the +e.is+at#re. A+tho#.h he fai+ed of e+e&tion, he re&ei2ed 92 per&ent of the 2ote in the ,e Sa+e) distri&t, here he as 'no n. 3hen he ran a.ain in 185A, he &a)pai.ned thro#.ho#t the &o#nt$ and on de&isi2e+$.

!lection to the Illinois Le"islat#re *in&o+n as a 3hi., a de2otee of !enr$ "+a$, ho) *in&o+n des&ribed as his 1bea# idea+ of a states)an.1 "+a$:s A)eri&an S$ste), ith its e)phasis on .o2ern)ent s#pport for ed#&ation, interna+ i)pro2e)ents, ban'in., and e&ono)i& de2e+op)ent to pro)ote .ro th and opport#nit$, attra&ted hi). 7n the +e.is+at#re *in&o+n &a)e #nder the in. of @ohn (. St#art, a Sprin.fie+d +a $er and 3hi. )inorit$ +eader in the ho#se. St#art en&o#ra.ed *in&o+n to st#d$ +a and .#ided hi) thro#.h Sir 3i++ia) 6+a&'stone:s Commentaries on the Laws of England (1/65-1/69) and other boo's hose )aster$ as ne&essar$ to pass the bar exa)ination in those da$s. 4n 9 Septe)ber 1856 *in&o+n obtained his +i&ense. 7n 185/ he )o2ed to Sprin.fie+d and be&a)e St#art:s partner. *in&o+n on ree+e&tion to the +e.is+at#re in 1856, 1858, and 18A0. !e be&a)e f+oor

+eader of the 3hi.s and a pro)inent )e)ber of the 1*on. ,ine,1 3hi. +e.is+ators fro) San.a)on "o#nt$ ho a2era.ed )ore than six feet in hei.ht. *e.is+ati2e +o.ro++in. enab+ed the *on. ,ine to .et the state &apita+ )o2ed fro) -anda+ia to Sprin.fie+d in 185/. 8#rin. the sa)e session *in&o+n and one &o++ea.#e fro) San.a)on "o#nt$ entered a protest a.ainst a reso+#tion passed o2er he+)in.+$ b$ the +e.is+at#re that deno#n&ed antis+a2er$ so&ieties in s#&h a a$ as to i)p+$ appro2a+ of s+a2er$. 8e&+arin. s+a2er$ to be 1fo#nded on both in=#sti&e and bad po+i&$,1 *in&o+n and his &o++ea.#e ne2erthe+ess &riti&i?ed the abo+itionists, hose do&trines tended 1rather to in&rease than to abate Es+a2er$:sF e2i+s1 (6as+er, 2o+. 1, pp. /A-/5). A+tho#.h i++ at ease ith o)en, *in&o+n in 1856 be.an a ha+f-hearted &o#rtship of Bar$ 4 ens, hose sister +i2ed in ,e Sa+e). A $ear +ater she bro'e off the re+ationship, to the probab+e re+ief of both parties. 7n 1859 *in&o+n )et Bar$ (odd (Bar$ (odd *in&o+n), ho had &o)e fro) %ent#&'$ to +i2e ith her )arried sister in

Abraham Lincoln, c. 1846-1847.Daguerreotype attribute to !i"ho#as $. Shepher . Courtesy of the Library of Congress (LCUSZC%-2%3&).

Sprin.fie+d. 8espite the &ontrast bet een the ed#&ated, &#+t#red, and so&ia++$ pro)inent da#.hter of a *exin.ton ban'er and the so&ia++$ a ' ard, ro#.h-he n son of an i++iterate far)er, Bar$ and Abraha) fe++ in +o2e and be&a)e en.a.ed in 18A0. 3hat happened next re)ains #n&ertain. *in&o+n see)s to ha2e de2e+oped do#bts abo#t his fitness for )arria.e and bro'e the en.a.e)ent. 7n @an#ar$ 18A1 he s#&&#)bed to the orst &ase of h$po he had $et experien&ed. 17 a) no the )ost )iserab+e )an +i2in.,1 he rote to St#art on 25 @an#ar$. 17f hat 7 fee+ ere e0#a++$ distrib#ted to the ho+e h#)an fa)i+$, there o#+d not be one &heerf#+ fa&e on earth1 (6as+er, 2o+. 1, p. 229).

After a series of t ists and t#rns, the &o#rtship re2i2ed. *in&o+n:s &+osest friend, @osh#a Speed, )arried in 18A29 Speed:s ass#ran&e that )atri)on$ as not so fri.htenin. after a++ see)s to ha2e en&o#ra.ed *in&o+n. 4n A ,o2e)ber 18A2 he and Bar$ ere ed. (he 0#a+it$ of their )arria.e has been )#&h debated. 7t prod#&ed fo#r sons. Bar$ shared Abraha):s +i2e+$ interest in p#b+i& affairs, he often so#.ht her ad2i&e, and she en&o#ra.ed his po+iti&a+ a)bition. 7n persona+it$, ho e2er, the$ ere in )an$ a$s opposites. !e as disor.ani?ed, &are+ess in dress, and indifferent to so&ia+ ni&eties9 she as 0#i&'-te)pered, so)eti)es shre ish, dressed expensi2e+$, and +i2ed b$ the stri&t de&or#) of -i&torian &on2entions. !e .ot a+on. ith a+)ost e2er$bod$9 she 0#arre+ed ith ser2ants, or')en, )er&hants, and so)e of *in&o+n:s friends. !e as absent fro) ho)e on the +e.a+ or po+iti&a+ &ir&#it for ee's at a ti)e, +ea2in. her to &ope ith the tria+s of ho#seho+d )ana.e)ent and &hi+d rearin.. !is )oodiness so)eti)es &+ashed ith her fits of te)per. 42er ti)e her )enta+ stabi+it$ be&a)e )ore fra.i+e.

A S#ccess$#l Law %ractice an& 'ne (erm in )on"ress (18*7-18*+ After retirin. fro) the +e.is+at#re in 18A1, *in&o+n de2oted )ost of his ti)e to his +a pra&ti&e. 7n 18A1 he for)ed a partnership ith Stephen (. *o.an, ho he+ped hi) be&o)e )ore thoro#.h and )eti&#+o#s in preparin. his &ases. (he Sprin.fie+d &o#rts sat on+$ a fe ee's a $ear, re0#irin. *in&o+n to ride the &ir&#it of &o#nt$ &o#rts thro#.ho#t &entra+ 7++inois for se2era+ )onths ea&h sprin. and fa++. Bost of his &ases in2o+2ed da)a.e to &rops b$ fora.in. +i2esto&', propert$ disp#tes, debts, and assa#+t and batter$, ith an o&&asiona+ )#rder tria+ to +i2en interest. 6$ the ti)e of his )arria.e *in&o+n as earnin. G1,200 a $ear, in&o)e e0#a+ to the .o2ernor:s sa+ar$. 7n 18AA he bo#.ht a ho#se in Sprin.fie+d--the on+$ ho)e he e2er o ned. 7n 18AA he a+so disso+2ed his partnership ith *o.an and for)ed a ne one ith 26-$ear-o+d3i++ia) !. !erndon, to ho) *in&o+n be&a)e a )entor.

*in&o+n:s a)bitions ere not f#+fi++ed b$ a s#&&essf#+ +a pra&ti&e. !e anted to r#n for "on.ress fro) this safe 3hi. distri&t, b#t the &on&entration of 3hi. hopef#+s in Sprin.fie+d )eant that he had to ait his t#rn #nder an infor)a+ one-ter) rotation s$ste). 3hen his t#rn &a)e in 18A6, *in&o+n on handi+$ o2er 8e)o&rati& &andidate ;eter "art ri.ht, a e++-'no n Bethodist &+er.$)an ho tried to )a'e an iss#e of *in&o+n:s non)e)bership in a &h#r&h (Bar$ +ater =oined Sprin.fie+d:s First ;resb$terian "h#r&h, hi&h Abraha) a+so o&&asiona++$ attended).
Abraham Lincoln, c. 1846-1847.Daguerreotype attribute to !i"ho#as $. Shepher . Courtesy of the Library of Congress (LCUSZC%-2%3&).

*in&o+n:s &on.ressiona+ ter) (18A/-18A9) as do)inated b$ &ontro2ersies o2er the Bexi&an 3ar. !e too' the standard 3hi. position that the ar had been pro2o'ed b$ ;resident @a)es %. ;o+'. 4n 22 8e&e)ber 18A/ *in&o+n introd#&ed 1spot reso+#tions1 &a++in. for infor)ation on the exa&t 1spot of soi+1 on hi&h Bexi&ans shed A)eri&an b+ood to start the ar, i)p+$in. that this spot as a&t#a++$ Bexi&an soi+. *in&o+n a+so 2oted se2era+ ti)es for the 3i+)ot ;ro2iso, de&+arin. that s+a2er$ sho#+d be prohibited in an$ territor$ a&0#ired fro) Bexi&o. 4n these iss#es *in&o+n sided ith the )a=orit$ in the 3hi. !o#se of <epresentati2es. 7n addition, *in&o+n introd#&ed a bi++ ( hi&h as b#ried in &o))ittee) for &o)pensated abo+ition of s+a2er$ in the 8istri&t of "o+#)bia if appro2ed b$ a )a=orit$ of the 8istri&t:s 2oters. *in&o+n:s opposition to the Bexi&an 3ar as not pop#+ar in 7++inois. 1Spott$ *in&o+n,1 =ibed 8e)o&rati& ne spapers, had &o))itted po+iti&a+ s#i&ide. 13hat an epitaphC :8ied of Spotted Fe2er: 1 ((ho)as, p. 120). 3hen *in&o+n &a)pai.ned in 18A8 for the 3hi. presidentia+ no)inee Ha&har$ (a$+or, the 1Spott$ *in&o+n1 +abe+ &a)e ba&' to ha#nt hi). (he 3hi. &andidate for "on.ress ho s#&&eeded *in&o+n #nder the rotation s$ste), his for)er partner Stephen (. *o.an, ent do n to defeat--perhaps be&a#se of 2oter ba&'+ash a.ainst the part$:s anti ar stan&e. (a$+or ne2erthe+ess on the presiden&$, b#t *in&o+n did not .et the patrona.e appoint)ent he expe&ted as &o))issioner of the Denera+ *and 4ffi&e. *in&o+n ret#rned to Sprin.fie+d disheartened ith po+iti&s and .a2e f#++ ti)e to his +a pra&ti&e. 8#rin. the 1850s he be&a)e one of the +eadin. +a $ers in the state. !is ann#a+ in&o)e rea&hed G5,000. (he b#rst of rai+road &onstr#&tion d#rin. the de&ade

.enerated a +ar.e &ase+oad. *in&o+n at 2ario#s ti)es represented rai+roads. 7n t o of his )ost i)portant &ases he on exe)ption of the 7++inois "entra+ fro) &o#nt$ taxation and s#&&essf#++$ defended the <o&' 7s+and fro) a s#it b$ a shippin. &o)pan$ hose stea)boat had hit the <o&' 7s+and:s brid.e o2er the Bississippi (the first s#&h brid.e e2er b#i+t). Iet it o#+d be )is+eadin. to des&ribe *in&o+n as a 1&orporation +a $er1 in the )odern sense of that ter), sin&e he opposed &orporations ith e0#a+ fre0#en&$. 7n one i)portant &ase he represented a s)a++ fir) in a patent infrin.e)ent s#it bro#.ht a.ainst it b$ the B&"or)i&' <eaper "o)pan$. *in&o+n &ontin#ed to ride the &ir&#it ea&h sprin. and fa++9 the .reat )a=orit$ of &ases hand+ed b$ *in&o+n and !erndon (so)e 200 ea&h $ear) &on&erned +o&a+ )atters of debt, e=e&t)ent, s+ander and +ibe+, trespass, fore&+os#re, di2or&e, and the +i'e.

(he ,ansas-Nebras-a Act an& Its !$$ect on Lincoln 7n 185A a seis)i& po+iti&a+ #phea2a+ o&&#rred that prope++ed *in&o+n ba&' into po+iti&s. (he %ansas-,ebras'a A&t, ra))ed thro#.h "on.ress #nder the +eadership of 7++inois senator Stephen A. 8o#.+as (an o+d a&0#aintan&e of *in&o+n and on&e a ri2a+ for Bar$ (odd:s affe&tions), re2o'ed the ban on s+a2er$ in the *o#isiana ;#r&hase territor$ north of 56J 50:. (his repea+ of a &r#&ia+ part of the Bisso#ri "o)pro)ise of 1820 opened %ansas (erritor$ to s+a2er$. 7t po+ari?ed the free and s+a2e states )ore sharp+$ than an$thin. e+se had done. 7t in&ited se2era+ $ears of &i2i+ ar bet een pros+a2er$ and antis+a2er$ for&es in %ansas, hi&h be&a)e a pre+#de to the nationa+ "i2i+ 3ar that er#pted se2en $ears +ater, and it .a2e birth to the <ep#b+i&an part$, hose prin&ipa+ p+an' as ex&+#sion of s+a2er$ fro) the territories. 6efore 185A *in&o+n had said +itt+e in p#b+i& abo#t s+a2er$, b#t d#rin. the next six $ears he de+i2ered an esti)ated 1/5 spee&hes hose 1&entra+ )essa.e1 as the ne&essit$ to ex&+#de s+a2er$ fro) the territories as a step to ard its #+ti)ate extin&tion e2er$ here (3a+do 3. 6raden, Abraham Lincoln: Public Speaker E1988F, pp. 55-56). (hat had been the p#rpose of the Fo#ndin. Fathers, *in&o+n be+ie2ed, hen the$ adopted the 8e&+aration of 7ndependen&e and ena&ted the ,orth est 4rdinan&e of 1/8/, barrin. s+a2er$ fro) )ost of the existin. territories9 that as h$ the$ did not )ention the ords 1s+a2e1 or 1s+a2er$1 in the "onstit#tion. 1(h#s, the thin. is hid a a$, in the &onstit#tion,1 said *in&o+n in 185A, 1=#st as an aff+i&ted )an hides a a$ a en or &an&er1 (6as+er, 2o+. 2, p. 2/A). 6$ openin. a++ of the *o#isiana ;#r&hase territor$ to s+a2er$, the %ansas-,ebras'a A&t had re2ersed the &o#rse of the Fo#ndin. Fathers. (hat as h$ *in&o+n as 1aro#sed,1 he +ater re&a++ed, 1as he had ne2er been before1 (6as+er, 2o+. A, p. 6/).

*in&o+n ran for the state +e.is+at#re and too' the st#)p for other 1anti-,ebras'a1 3hi.s. (he f#++est exposition of *in&o+n:s phi+osoph$ o&&#rred in a spee&h at ;eoria on 16 4&tober 185A. S+a2er$ as a 1)onstro#s in=#sti&e,1 he said, that 1depri2es o#r rep#b+i&an exa)p+e of its =#st inf+#en&e in the or+d--enab+es the ene)ies of free instit#tions, ith p+a#sibi+it$, to ta#nt #s as h$po&rites.1 3ith the %ansas-,ebras'a A&t, 1o#r rep#b+i&an robe is soi+ed, and trai+ed in the d#st. *et #s rep#rif$ it. . . . *et #s re-adopt the 8e&+aration of 7ndependen&e, and ith it, the pra&ti&es, and po+i&$, hi&h har)oni?e ith it1 (6as+er, 2o+. 2, pp. 2A/-85). (hese senti)ents ere *in&o+n:s +odestar for the rest of his +ife. (hat sa)e $ear a &oa+ition of anti-,ebras'a 3hi.s and 8e)o&rats, in&+#din. *in&o+n, appeared to ha2e .ained &ontro+ of the +e.is+at#re. (heir first tas' in Febr#ar$ 1855 as to e+e&t a U.S. senator, and *in&o+n resi.ned fro) the +e.is+at#re to be&o)e the 3hi. &andidate. (hro#.h six ba++ots he +ed other &andidates b#t fe++ short of a )a=orit$. (o pre2ent the e+e&tion of a re.#+ar 8e)o&rat, *in&o+n then thre his s#pport to *$)an (r#)b#++, an anti-,ebras'a 8e)o&rat, ho as e+e&ted on the tenth ba++ot. 8eep+$ disappointed, *in&o+n pi&'ed #p his +a pra&ti&e a.ain. 7n 1856 he he+ped fo#nd the <ep#b+i&an part$ in 7++inois. 3ith his spee&h at the ne part$:s state &on2ention in 6+oo)in.ton on 29 Ba$ (the fa)o#s 1+ost spee&h1--so &a++ed be&a#se ne spaper reporters ere s#pposed+$ so entran&ed b$ its e+o0#en&e that the$ ne.+e&ted to ta'e it do n), *in&o+n e)er.ed as the state:s <ep#b+i&an +eader. At the part$:s nationa+ &on2ention he re&ei2ed 110 2otes in a +osin. bid for the 2i&e presidentia+ no)ination. *in&o+n &a)pai.ned for the <ep#b+i&an ti&'et headed b$ @ohn ". FrK)ont, .i2in. )ore than fift$ spee&hes in a++ parts of 7++inois. !o e2er, hi+e FrK)ont on a p+#ra+it$ of the northern pop#+ar 2ote in the three-part$ &ontest, he +ost 7++inois and the other &r#&ia+ +o er ,orth states of ;enns$+2ania and 7ndiana, hi&h the 8e)o&rat, @a)es 6#&hanan, added to the So+id So#th to in the presiden&$.

(he Lincoln-.o#"las .ebates 6$ the ti)e Senator 8o#.+as &a)e #p for ree+e&tion in 1858, he had bro'en ith the 6#&hanan ad)inistration o2er the *e&o)pton &onstit#tion in %ansas and th#s appeared 2#+nerab+e to a <ep#b+i&an &ha++en.e. (he part$ no)inated *in&o+n (an a+)ost #npre&edented pro&ed#re in that ti)e, hen state +e.is+at#res e+e&ted U.S. senators), ho set the the)e for his &a)pai.n ith his fa)o#s 1!o#se 8i2ided1 spee&h at Sprin.fie+d on 16 @#ne 1858. 1 :A ho#se di2ided a.ainst itse+f &annot stand,: 1 said *in&o+n, 0#otin. the ords of @es#s re&orded in the Dospe+ of Bar'. 17

be+ie2e this .o2ern)ent &annot end#re, per)anent+$ ha+f slave and ha+f free. . . . 7t i++ be&o)e all one thin., or all the other.1 (he 8red S&ott de&ision in 185/ had +e.a+i?ed s+a2er$ in e2er$ territor$ on a prin&ip+e that *in&o+n feared o#+d +e.a+i?e it in e2er$ state as e++ if the so#thern-do)inated S#pre)e "o#rt had its a$. 6#t hen <ep#b+i&ans .ained nationa+ po er and had a &han&e to re&onstit#te the "o#rt, the$ o#+d ban s+a2er$ fro) the territories, th#s stif+in. its .ro th and p+a&in. it 1 here the p#b+i& )ind sha++ rest in the be+ief that it is in &o#rse of #+ti)ate extin&tion1 (6as+er, 2o+. 2, p. A61). *in&o+n &ha++en.ed 8o#.+as to a series of debates. 8o#.+as a&&epted, and the t o )et in se2en three-ho#r debates in e2er$ part of the state. 3h$ &o#+d the &o#ntr$ not &ontin#e to exist ha+f s+a2e and ha+f free as it had for se2ent$ $earsL as'ed 8o#.+as. *in&o+n:s ta+' abo#t the 1#+ti)ate extin&tion1 of s+a2er$ o#+d dri2e the So#th into se&ession. 8o#.+as a+so #pbraided *in&o+n for his a++e.ed be+ief in 1ne.ro e0#a+it$.1 Sensin. a innin. iss#e in 7++inois, 8o#.+as sho#ted 0#estions to the &ro dC 1Are $o# in fa2or of &onferrin. #pon the ne.ro the ri.hts and pri2i+e.es of &iti?enshipL1 6a&' o#+d &o)e the response, 1,o, ,oM1 18o $o# desire to t#rn this bea#tif#+ state into a free ne.ro &o+on$ (:no, no:) in order that hen Bisso#ri abo+ishes s+a2er$ she &an send one h#ndred tho#sand e)an&ipated s+a2es into 7++inois, to be&o)e &iti?ens and 2oters on an e0#a+it$ ith $o#rse+2esL (:,e2er,: :no:)1 (6as+er, 2o+. 5, p. 9). 8o#.+as:s de)a.o.#er$ p#t *in&o+n on the defensi2e. A 16+a&' <ep#b+i&an1 o#+d ha2e no &han&e of e+e&tion in 7++inois. *in&o+n rep+ied ith &a#tio#s denia+s that he fa2ored the 1so&ia+ and po+iti&a+ e0#a+it$1 of the ra&es, b#t he preferred the hi.her .ro#nd of prin&ip+e. (he prob+e) ith 8o#.+as as that he 1+oo's to no end of the instit#tion of s+a2er$,1 said *in&o+n. 1(hat is the iss#e that i++ &ontin#e in this &o#ntr$ hen these poor ton.#es of @#d.e 8o#.+as and )$se+f sha++ be si+ent1 (6as+er, 2o+. 5, p. 515). (he pop#+ar 2ote for <ep#b+i&an and 8e)o&rati& +e.is+ators as 2irt#a++$ e2en in 1858, b#t be&a#se apportion)ent fa2ored the 8e)o&rats, the$ on a )a=orit$ of seats and ree+e&ted 8o#.+as. *in&o+n on&e a.ain s a++o ed his disappoint)ent and &ontin#ed to spea' for <ep#b+i&an &andidates in the off-$ear e+e&tions of se2era+ )id estern states in 1859. 7n retrospe&t, *in&o+n as the rea+ inner of the *in&o+n-8o#.+as debates. !is fa)o#s 0#estion at Freeport for&ed 8o#.+as to en#n&iate the 1Freeport 8o&trine1 that sett+ers &o#+d 'eep s+a2er$ o#t of a territor$ despite the 8red S&ott de&ision b$ ref#sin. to ena&t and enfor&e a +o&a+ s+a2e &ode. (he Freeport 8o&trine f#rther a+ienated 8o#.+as fro) so#thern 8e)o&rats and 'ind+ed their de)and for a federa+ s+a2e &ode in the territories. (his iss#e sp+it the 8e)o&rati& part$ in 1860, 2irt#a++$ ass#rin. the e+e&tion

of a <ep#b+i&an president. (he nationa+ 2isibi+it$ a&hie2ed b$ *in&o+n in the debates &a#sed his na)e to be in&reasin.+$ )entioned as the possib+e <ep#b+i&an no)inee.

%re/arin" $or the %resi&enc0 3hi+e depre&atin. his 0#a+ifi&ations for the presiden&$, *in&o+n ad)itted pri2ate+$, 1(he taste is in )$ )o#th a +itt+e1 (6as+er, 2o+. A, p. A5). *in&o+n:s prospe&ts ere enhan&ed b$ the fa2orab+e i)pa&t of his spee&h on a +ar.e &ro d, in&+#din. se2era+ pro)inent eastern <ep#b+i&ans, at "ooper Union in ,e Ior' "it$ on 2/ Febr#ar$ 1860. 4n the basis of thoro#.h resear&h, *in&o+n exp+i&ated the para++e+s bet een the <ep#b+i&an position on s+a2er$ and that of the Fo#ndin. Fathers. !is s#&&ess at "ooper Union bro#.ht *in&o+n n#)ero#s in2itations to spea' in ,e >n.+and on his a$ to 2isit his o+dest son <obert (<obert (odd *in&o+n), ho had enro++ed at ;hi++ips >xeter A&ade)$ for a $ear of preparator$ or' before enterin. !ar2ard. *in&o+n #sed these o&&asions to fo&#s on hat has been &a++ed the 1free +abor ideo+o.$,1 hi&h as at the &ore of the <ep#b+i&an 2a+#e s$ste). A++ or' in a free so&iet$ as honorab+e. S+a2er$ de.raded )an#a+ +abor b$ e0#atin. it ith bonda.e. Free )en ho pra&ti&ed the 2irt#es of ind#str$, thrift, se+f-dis&ip+ine, and sobriet$ &o#+d &+i)b the +adder of s#&&ess. 17 a) not asha)ed to &onfess,1 *in&o+n said in ,e !a2en, 1that t ent$-fi2e $ears a.o 7 as a hired +aborer, )a#+in. rai+s, at or' on a f+at-boat--=#st hat )i.ht happen to an$ poor )an:s son.1 6#t in the free states an a)bitio#s )an 1&an better his &ondition1 be&a#se 1there is no s#&h thin. as a free)an bein. fata++$ fixed for +ife, in the &ondition of a hired +aborer.1 (he +a&' of hope, ener.$, and pro.ress in the s+a2e states, here )ost +aborers ere 1fata++$ fixed1 in the &ondition of s+a2er$, had )ade the United States a ho#se di2ided. <ep#b+i&ans anted to 'eep s+a2er$ o#t of the territories so that hite or'ers and far)ers &o#+d )o2e there to better their &ondition itho#t bein. 1de.raded . . . b$ for&ed ri2a+r$ ith ne.ro s+a2es.1 Boreo2er, said *in&o+n, 17 ant e2er$ )an to ha2e the &han&e--and 7 be+ie2e a b+a&' )an is entit+ed to it--in hi&h he can better his &ondition1 (6as+er, 2o+. A, pp. 2A259 2o+. 5, p. A/8). (he s$)bo+is) of *in&o+n, the 1poor )an:s son,1 2isitin. his o n son at ,e >n.+and:s )ost e+ite s&hoo+ as not +ost on his a#dien&es. *in&o+n ret#rned fro) his eastern to#r to find 7++inois friends )o#ntin. a &on&erted effort for his no)ination as president. As the 16 Ba$ openin. date approa&hed for the <ep#b+i&an ,ationa+ "on2ention in "hi&a.o (a fort#nate +o&ation for *in&o+n:s &a#se), &ir&#)stan&es &on2erted hi) fro) a fa2orite son to a serio#s &ontender. (he +eadin. &andidate as 3i++ia) !. Se ard of ,e Ior'. Se ard:s +on. and pro)inent p#b+i& &areer as a so#r&e of both stren.th and ea'ness. !is &hief +iabi+it$ as a rep#tation

as an antis+a2er$ radi&a+ ho &o#+d not &arr$ the &r#&ia+ +o er ,orth states of 7++inois, 7ndiana, and ;enns$+2ania that the <ep#b+i&ans had +ost in 1856. (ho#.h Se ard:s &#rrent position as in so)e respe&ts )ore &onser2ati2e than *in&o+n:s, he s#ffered fro) the i)a.e &reated b$ his !i.her *a spee&h of 1850 and 7rrepressib+e "onf+i&t spee&h of 1858. *in&o+n:s &a)pai.n )ana.ers or'ed fe2erish+$ to pers#ade de+e.ates that *in&o+n as )ore e+e&tab+e than Se ard and to +ine #p se&ond-&hoi&e &o))it)ents to *in&o+n fro) se2era+ states. *in&o+n:s pro)oters a+so s'i++f#++$ exp+oited the 1rai+-sp+itter1 i)a.e to i++#strate the part$:s free +abor the)e. (he strate.$ or'ed. Se ard +ed on the first ba++ot9 *in&o+n a+)ost &a#.ht #p on the se&ond and on on the third. (he ens#in. fo#r-part$ &a)pai.n as the )ost fatef#+ in A)eri&an histor$. (he 8e)o&rats sp+it into northern and so#thern parties, hi+e a re)nant of 3hi.s, )ost+$ fro) the border states, for)ed the "onstit#tiona+ Union part$. *in&o+n &arried e2er$ free state ex&ept ,e @erse$, hose e+e&tora+ 2otes he di2ided ith 8o#.+as, and thereb$ on the e+e&tion despite .arnerin. s+i.ht+$ +ess than A0 per&ent of the pop#+ar 2otes--no pop#+ar 2otes at a++ in ten so#thern states. Se2en of those states ena&ted ordinan&es of se&ession before *in&o+n:s ina#.#ration.

A .ivi&e& Nation 6et een the e+e&tion and his ina#.#ration, *in&o+n re)ained in Sprin.fie+d, p#ttin. to.ether an ad)inistration. !e )ade no p#b+i& state)ents despite pani&'$ ad2i&e that he sa$ so)ethin. to reass#re the So#th. !e as a+read$ on re&ord )an$ ti)es sa$in. that he had no &onstit#tiona+ po er and no intention to interfere ith s+a2er$ in the states here it existed. 17 &o#+d sa$ nothin. hi&h 7 ha2e not a+read$ said. . . . 7f 7 tho#.ht a repetition o#+d do an$ .ood 7 o#+d )a'e it1 (6as+er, 2o+. A, pp. 159-A0). *in&o+n .a2e pri2ate ass#ran&es to so#thern )oderates and Unionists of his p#rpose to .o no f#rther a.ainst s+a2er$ than the <ep#b+i&an p+atfor):s p+ed.e to 'eep it o#t of the territories. (o A+exander Stephens of Deor.ia, ho opposed se&ession #nti+ his state ent o#t, *in&o+n rote in 8e&e)ber that the s+a2e states had nothin. to fear, b#t he addedC 17 s#ppose, ho e2er, this does not )eet the &ase. Io# thin' s+a2er$ is right and o#.ht to be extended9 hi+e e thin' it is wrong and o#.ht to be restri&ted. (hat 7 s#ppose is the r#b1 (6as+er, 2o+. A, p. 160). 7t as indeed the r#b. So#therners had read *in&o+n:s !o#se 8i2ided spee&h, in hi&h he had said that restri&tion of s+a2er$ as a first step to ard 1#+ti)ate extin&tion.1 3hether #+ti)ate or i))inent, the de)ise of s+a2er$ portended b$ the So#th:s +oss of

the nationa+ .o2ern)ent to an antis+a2er$ part$ as the reason for se&ession. For )ost se&essionists there as no t#rnin. ba&'. ,e2erthe+ess, a host of &o)pro)ise proposa+s e)er.ed d#rin. the 1860-1861 session of "on.ress. (he )ost i)portant ere e)bodied in &onstit#tiona+ a)end)ents sponsored b$ Senator @ohn @. "rittenden of %ent#&'$. (he &enterpie&e of the "rittenden "o)pro)ise as a proposa+ to a++o s+a2er$ so#th of 56J 50: in a++ territories 1no he+d, or hereafter ac uired1 (ita+i&s added). S#&h a &o)pro)ise o#+d not on+$ ne.ate the &hief p+an' of the <ep#b+i&an p+atfor) b#t o#+d a+so step #p the dri2e to a&0#ire "#ba and other tropi&a+ territories s#itab+e for s+a2er$. Se ard ( ho) *in&o+n had desi.nated as se&retar$ of state) and so)e other <ep#b+i&ans see)ed prepared to ti+t to ard &o)pro)ise, b#t fro) Sprin.fie+d &a)e ad)onitions to stand fir). 1>ntertain no proposition for a &o)pro)ise in re.ard to the e!tension of s+a2er$,1 *in&o+n rote to Se ard and to other 'e$ <ep#b+i&an +eaders. 13e ha2e =#st &arried an e+e&tion on prin&ip+es fair+$ stated to the peop+e. . . . 7f e s#rrender, it is the end of #s. . . . A $ear i++ not pass, ti++ e sha++ ha2e to ta'e "#ba as a &ondition #pon hi&h the$ i++ sta$ in the Union1 (6as+er, 2o+. A, pp. 150, 1/2). (he "rittenden "o)pro)ise ent do n to defeat, b#t there is no reason to be+ie2e that the se2en se&eded states o#+d ha2e ret#rned e2en if it had passed. (hese states had sei?ed a++ federa+ propert$ ithin their borders ex&ept Fort ;i&'ens on an is+and off ;ensa&o+a and Fort S#)ter in "har+eston harbor. A )onth before "on.ress ad=o#rned (and before *in&o+n as ina#.#rated), de+e.ates fro) the se2en se&eded states )et at Bont.o)er$, A+aba)a, and for)ed the "onfederate States of A)eri&a. As he departed Sprin.fie+d for 3ashin.ton on 11 Febr#ar$ 1861, 1 ith a tas' before )e .reater than rested #pon 3ashin.ton,1 *in&o+n fa&ed the rea+it$ of a di2ided nation (6as+er, 2o+. A, p. 190).

Lincoln's Ina#"#ration (1811 *in&o+n:s ina#.#ra+ address offered both a s ord and an o+i2e bran&h. (he s ord as an #n&onditiona+ affir)ation of the i++e.a+it$ of se&ession and his intention to exe&#te the +a s in a++ states, to 1ho+d, o&&#p$ and possess1 federa+ propert$, and to 1&o++e&t the E&#sto)sF d#ties and i)posts.1 (he o+i2e bran&h as a reiteration of *in&o+n:s p+ed.e not 1to interfere ith s+a2er$ here it exists1 and to enfor&e the &onstit#tiona+ pro2ision for the ret#rn of f#.iti2e s+a2es. 3here2er 1in an$ interior +o&a+it$1 hosti+it$ to the federa+ .o2ern)ent as 1so .reat and so #ni2ersa+, as to pre2ent &o)petent resident &iti?ens fro) ho+din. the Federa+ offi&es,1 *in&o+n o#+d s#spend federa+ operations 1for the ti)e.1 7n an e+o0#ent peroration s#..ested b$ Se ard, *in&o+n

spo'e of the 1)$sti& &hords of )e)or$,1 hi&h he hoped o#+d 1$et s e++ the &hor#s of the Union, hen a.ain to#&hed, as s#re+$ the$ i++ be, b$ the better an.e+s of o#r nat#re1 (6as+er, 2o+. A, pp. 262-/1). *in&o+n hoped that his ina#.#ra+ address o#+d b#$ ti)e for passions to &oo+ in the So#th and enab+e the se2en states to 1re&onstr#&t1 the)se+2es ba&' into the Union. (his hope as fo#nded on an erroneo#s b#t ide+$ shared ass#)ption in the ,orth that a si+ent )a=orit$ of so#therners ere Unionists ho had been s ept a+on. b$ the passions of the )o)ent. 6#t ti)e as r#nnin. o#t. (he da$ after his ina#.#ration, *in&o+n +earned that Ba=or <obert Anderson, &o))ander of the besie.ed federa+ .arrison at Fort S#)ter in "har+eston harbor, had on+$ s#pp+ies eno#.h to +ast a fe )ore ee's. Fort S#)ter as the f+ash point of tension. "har+eston as pro#d of its rep#tation as the &rad+e of se&ession. 7nsistin. that a so2erei.n nation &o#+d not to+erate a forei.n fort in one of its harbors, "onfederate +eaders de)anded the transfer of Fort S#)ter to the "onfedera&$. For a )onth *in&o+n end#red s+eep+ess ni.hts and &onf+i&tin. ad2i&e on hat to do. (o .i2e it #p o#+d &onstit#te de fa&to if not de =#re re&o.nition of the "onfedera&$. 4n the other hand, it o#+d preser2e pea&e and 'eep the #pper So#th in the Union. 4n 15 Bar&h a )a=orit$ of the &abinet, ith Se ard as the stron.est 2oi&e, &o#nse+ed *in&o+n to $ie+d Fort S#)ter. *in&o+n exp+ored the possibi+it$ of p#++in. o#t in ret#rn for an ass#ran&e fro) -ir.inia that it o#+d re)ain in the Union. ;+a$in. an independent ro+e as the p#tati2e 1pre)ier1 of the ad)inistration, Se ard infor)ed "onfederate &o))issioners that *in&o+n o#+d ithdra the .arrison. 6$ the end of Bar&h, ho e2er, *in&o+n had )ade the opposite de&ision. !e +et Se ard 'no in no #n&ertain ter)s that he o#+d be pre)ier of his o n ad)inistration. A )a=orit$ of the &abinet no s#pported *in&o+n:s de&ision to res#pp+$ Fort S#)ter (as e++ as the +ess &ontro2ersia+ Fort ;i&'ens). (he prob+e) as ho to do it. (o send reinfor&e)ents prepared to shoot their a$ into the ba$ o#+d s#re+$ pro2o'e a ar that *in&o+n o#+d be b+a)ed for startin.. *in&o+n hit #pon an in.enio#s so+#tion. 7nstead of sendin. reinfor&e)ents, he o#+d send on+$ pro2isions--1food for h#n.r$ )en1--and he o#+d notif$ so#thern a#thorities in ad2an&e of his pea&ef#+ intention. 4n 6 Apri+ *in&o+n sent a )essa.e to the .o2ernor of So#th "aro+ina, 1An atte)pt i++ be )ade to s#pp+$ Fort S#)pter EsicF ith pro2isions on+$9 . . . no effort to thro in )en, ar)s, or a))#nition, i++ be )ade, itho#t f#rther noti&e, or in &ase of an atta&' #pon the Fort1 (6as+er, 2o+. A, p. 525).

)ivil 2ar

3ith this )essa.e *in&o+n in effe&t f+ipped a &oin and to+d "onfederate president @efferson 8a2is, 1!eads 7 in9 tai+s $o# +ose.1 7f the "onfederates a++o ed the s#pp+ies to pass, the A)eri&an f+a. o#+d &ontin#e to f+$ o2er Fort S#)ter as a s$)bo+ of so2erei.nt$. 7f the "onfederates atta&'ed the s#pp+$ ships or the fort, the$ o#+d s#ffer the on#s of startin. a ar and o#+d #nite a di2ided ,orth. 8a2is did not hesitate9 he ordered the "onfederate .#ns to fire on S#)ter. (he$ did so on 12 Apri+. And the ar &a)e. 4n 15 Apri+ *in&o+n &a++ed o#t /5,000 )i+itia to 0#e++ the rebe++ion, pro)ptin. fo#r )ore states to se&ede. 4n 19 Apri+ *in&o+n pro&+ai)ed a na2a+ b+o&'ade of the "onfederate &oast+ine. Fro) there the ar es&a+ated step b$ step on a s&a+e of 2io+en&e and destr#&tion ne2er drea)ed of b$ those ho fired the .#ns at S#)ter. 4n the Union side *in&o+n as the prin&ipa+ ar&hite&t of this es&a+ation. !e insisted on a po+i&$ of #n&onditiona+ s#rrender. So2erei.nt$, the &entra+ iss#e of the ar, as not ne.otiab+e. As *in&o+n p#t it +ate in the ar, 8a2is 1&annot 2o+#ntari+$ rea&&ept the Union9 e &annot 2o+#ntari+$ $ie+d it. 6et een hi) and #s the iss#e is distin&t, si)p+e, and inf+exib+e. 7t is an iss#e hi&h &an on+$ be tried b$ ar, and de&ided b$ 2i&tor$1 (6as+er, 2o+. 8, p. 151). 6e&a#se 1a++ e+se &hief+$ depends1 on 1the pro.ress of o#r ar)s,1 as *in&o+n said in 1865, he de2oted )ore attention to his d#ties as &o))ander in &hief than to an$ other f#n&tion of the presiden&$ and spent 2ast a)o#nts of ti)e in the 3ar 8epart)ent te+e.raph offi&e. !e borro ed boo's on )i+itar$ histor$ and strate.$ fro) the *ibrar$ of "on.ress and b#rned the )idni.ht oi+ )asterin. the). >+e2en ti)es he 2isited troops at the front in -ir.inia or Bar$+and. (he .reatest fr#strations he experien&ed ere the fai+#res of Union .enera+s to a&t ith the 2i.or and a..ressi2eness he expe&ted of the). ;erhaps one of the .reatest satisfa&tions he experien&ed as the #+ti)ate 2i&tor$ of &o))anders ho had risen to the top in +ar.e part be&a#se *in&o+n appre&iated their 2i.or and a..ressi2eness. 7n 1861 Union ar)ies a&hie2ed +i)ited b#t i)portant s#&&esses b$ .ainin. &ontro+ of Bar$+and, Bisso#ri, part of %ent#&'$, and a+so )#&h of estern -ir.inia, hi&h pa2ed the a$ for the +ater ad)ission of 3est -ir.inia as a ne state. Union na2a+ for&es .ained +od.)ents a+on. the So#th At+anti& &oast. 6#t in the $ear:s bi..est batt+e, at 6#++ <#n (Banassas), 21 @#+$ 1861, the Union s#ffered a dispiritin. defeat. *in&o+n then appointed 5A-$ear-o+d Deor.e 6. B&"+e++an &o))ander of the Ar)$ of the ;oto)a& and, fro) 1 ,o2e)ber, .enera+ in &hief of a++ Union ar)ies. B&"+e++an:s )inor 2i&tories in estern -ir.inia had .i2en hi) a ne spaper rep#tation as the 1Io#n. ,apo+eon.1 !e pro2ed to be a s#perb or.ani?er and trainer of so+diers b#t a defensi2e-)inded and &a#tio#s perfe&tionist in a&tion. !e repeated+$ exa..erated

ene)$ stren.th as an ex&#se for postponin. offensi2e operations. *in&o+n .re i)patient ith B&"+e++an:s ina&tion d#rin. the ei.ht )onths after he too' &o))and, hi+e <ep#b+i&ans in "on.ress .re s#spi&io#s that B&"+e++an, a 8e)o&rat, did not rea++$ ant to stri'e the 1rebe+s1 a hard b+o . 3hen B&"+e++an fina++$ be.an a .+a&ia+ ad2an&e #p the -ir.inia penins#+a to ard <i&h)ond in the sprin. of 1862, *in&o+n ad)onished hi) on 9 Apri+C 14n&e )ore +et )e te++ $o#, it is indispensab+e to "ou that $o# stri'e a b+o . . . . 7 ha2e ne2er ritten $o#, or spo'en to $o#, in .reater 'indness of fee+in. than no , nor ith a f#++er p#rpose to s#stain $o#. . . . #ut "ou must act1 (6as+er, 2o+. 5, p. 185). *in&o+n a+read$ had his e$e on a &o))ander ho had pro2ed he &o#+d a&t. !is na)e as U+$sses S. Drant, and he had &apt#red Forts !enr$ and 8one+son on the (ennessee and "#)ber+and ri2ers and then beat ba&' a "onfederate &o#nteroffensi2e in the b+ood$ batt+e of Shi+oh, 6-/ Apri+ 1862. 4ther Union for&es in the 3est a+so s&ored i)portant 2i&tories in the sprin. of 1862, &apt#rin. ,e 4r+eans and Be)phis and .ainin. &ontro+ of )ost of the Bississippi <i2er. 7n the >ast B&"+e++an fina++$ ad2an&ed to ithin fi2e )i+es of <i&h)ond b$ the end of Ba$. (he "onfedera&$ see)ed doo)ed. (hen the Union ar )a&hine ent into re2erse. 6$ Septe)ber 1862 "onfederate &o#nteroffensi2es in -ir.inia, (ennessee, and %ent#&'$ too' so#thern ar)ies a&ross the ;oto)a& into Bar$+and and a+)ost north to the 4hio <i2er. (his in2ersion st#nned the northern peop+e and &a#sed ho)e-front )ora+e to p+#))et, b#t *in&o+n did not fa+ter. !e iss#ed a ne &a++ for 2o+#nteers and de&+ared, 17 expe&t to )aintain this &ontest #nti+ s#&&essf#+, or ti++ 7 die, or a) &on0#ered, or )$ ter) expires, or "on.ress or the &o#ntr$ forsa'es )e1 (6as+er, 2o+. 5, p. 292). (he "onfederate tide ebbed after the +i)ited Union 2i&tories at Antieta) in Bar$+and on 1/ Septe)ber 1862 and ;err$2i++e in %ent#&'$ on 8 4&tober. 6#t the fai+#re of Union &o))anders to fo++o #p these 2i&tories &a#sed *in&o+n:s fr#stration to boi+ o2er. !e &o#+d not 1#nderstand h$ e &annot )ar&h as the ene)$ )ar&hes, +i2e as he +i2es, fi.ht as he fi.hts1 (Complete $orks of Abraham Lincoln, ed. @ohn D. ,i&o+a$ and @ohn !a$ E1905F, 2o+. 8, pp. 65-6A). 4n 2A 4&tober he rep+a&ed s+#..ish Denera+ 8on "ar+os 6#e++ ith 3i++ia) S. <ose&rans as &o))ander of the Ar)$ of the 4hio (rena)ed the Ar)$ of the "#)ber+and). A ee' +ater he re)o2ed B&"+e++an fro) &o))and of the Ar)$ of the ;oto)a&. B&"+e++an had 1the s+o s,1 the president to+d one of the .enera+:s s#pporters (>+bert 6. S)ith, %rancis Preston #lair E1980F, p. 528).

A (#rnin" %oint in the 2ar3 4rant's %romotion to 4eneral in )hie$ o$ All 5nion Armies (181* *in&o+n did not ha2e an$ better +#&' ith the next t o &o))anders of the Ar)$ of the ;oto)a&. A)brose 6#rnside +ost the disastro#s batt+e of Frederi&'sb#r., 15 8e&e)ber 1862, and his s#&&essor @oseph !oo'er f#)b+ed se2era+ opport#nities and +ost the batt+e of "han&e++ors2i++e, 1-5 Ba$ 1865. *in&o+n fina++$ fo#nd a .enera+ ho re)ained in &o))and of that ar)$ for the rest of the ar, Deor.e D. Beade, hose s'i++f#+ defensi2e ta&ti&s on the &r#&ia+ batt+e of Dett$sb#r., 1-5 @#+$ 1865. Beade .ra2e+$ disappointed *in&o+n, ho e2er, ith his fai+#re to fo++o #p that 2i&tor$ ith a 2i.oro#s effort to trap and destro$ <obert >. *ee:s Ar)$ of ,orthern -ir.inia before it &o#+d retreat a&ross the ;oto)a&. 1B$ dear .enera+, 7 do not be+ie2e $o# appre&iate the )a.nit#de of the )isfort#ne in2o+2ed in *ee:s es&ape,1 *in&o+n rote Beade on 1A @#+$. 1As it is, the ar i++ be pro+on.ed indefinite+$1 (6as+er, 2o+. 6, p. 528). Upon ref+e&tion, he did not send this +etter, b#t it expressed his senti)ents, sharpened b$ &ontrast ith his attit#de to ard Drant, ho had &apt#red -i&'sb#r. on A @#+$ 1865. Drant:s star had a+ternate+$ di))ed and bri.htened sin&e the sprin. of 1862. Unfo#nded r#)ors of ex&essi2e drin'in. and the appearan&e of ai)+ess f+o#nderin. in the ear+$ sta.es of the -i&'sb#r. &a)pai.n had .enerated )#&h &riti&is). *in&o+n ne2erthe+ess retained his faith in Drant. 17 thin' Drant has hard+$ a friend +eft, ex&ept )$se+f,1 said *in&o+n in the sprin. of 1865. 13hat 7 ant . . . is .enera+s ho i++ fi.ht batt+es and in 2i&tories. Drant has done this, and 7 propose to stand b$ hi)1 (She+b$ Foote, The Civil $ar: A &arrative, 2o+. 2C%redericksburg to 'eridian E1965F, p. 21/). Drant fo++o ed #p his 2i&tor$ at -i&'sb#r. b$ dri2in. the "onfederates a a$ fro) "hattanoo.a and into the )o#ntains of northern Deor.ia. "on.ress &reated the ran' of +ie#tenant .enera+ (+ast he+d b$ Deor.e 3ashin.ton). *in&o+n pro)oted Drant to this ran' in Bar&h 186A and )ade hi) .enera+ in &hief of a++ Union ar)ies. For the first ti)e *in&o+n had a &o))andin. .enera+ in ho) he had f#++ &onfiden&e, one ho &o#+d ta'e fro) his sho#+ders so)e of the b#rden of &onstant )i+itar$ o2ersi.ht. 4n the e2e of the )i+itar$ &a)pai.ns of 186A, *in&o+n rote DrantC 1(he parti&#+ars of $o#r p+ans 7 neither 'no , or see' to 'no . Io# are 2i.i+ant and se+fre+iant9 and p+eased ith this, 7 ish not to obtr#de an$ &onstraints or restraints #pon $o#1 (6as+er, 2o+. /, p. 52A). *in&o+n rote th#s be&a#se he and Drant sa e$e to e$e on )i+itar$ strate.$. 7n this ar the "onfederates had the ad2anta.e of fi.htin. on the strate.i& defensi2e ith interior +ines that enab+ed the) to shift reinfor&e)ents fro) ina&ti2e to a&ti2e fronts #n+ess the Union e)p+o$ed its s#perior n#)bers to atta&' on se2era+ fronts at on&e. *in&o+n .rasped this point better than )an$ of his .enera+s. As ear+$ as 15 @an#ar$ 1862 *in&o+n instr#&ted the hap+ess 6#e++, 17 state )$ .enera+ idea of this ar to be

that e ha2e greater n#)bers, and the ene)$ has the greater fa&i+it$ of &on&entratin. for&es #pon points of &o++ision9 that e )#st fai+, #n+ess e &an find so)e a$ of )a'in. our ad2anta.e an o2er)at&h for his9 and that this &an on+$ be done b$ )ena&in. hi) ith s#perior for&es at different points, at the same ti)e1 (6as+er, 2o+. 5, p. 98). Drant a.reed. !e de2ised si)#+taneo#s Union ad2an&es on se2era+ fronts to pre2ent "onfederates fro) shiftin. troops fro) one point to another. 7n the end this strate.$ on the ar.

%roblems with Internal Sec#rit0 An iss#e re+ated to )i+itar$ e2ents a+so absorbed )#&h of *in&o+n:s ti)eC interna+ se&#rit$. "onfederate s$)pathi?ers in the border states and anti ar a&ti2ists in the ,orth (the 1"opperheads1) &onstit#ted a 1fire in the rear1 that *in&o+n feared 1)ore than o#r )i+itar$ &han&es1 (>d ard *. ;ier&e, 'emoir and Letters of Charles Sumner, 2o+. A E1895F, p. 11A). >ar+$ in the ar he s#spended the pri2i+e.e of the rit of habeas &orp#s in +i)ited areas, hi&h he 'ept expandin. #nti+ a pro&+a)ation of 2A Septe)ber 1862 extended the s#spension to the ho+e &o#ntr$. 7n his &apa&it$ as a &ir&#it &o#rt =#d.e in Bar$+and, "hief @#sti&e <o.er 6. (ane$ had r#+ed in Ba$ 1861 that the president &o#+d not s#spend the rit itho#t &on.ressiona+ a#thori?ation (>x parte Berr$)an, 1/ Fed. "as. 1AA). *in&o+n disa.reed and exer&ised this po er before as e++ as after &on.ressiona+ a#thori?ation in Bar&h 1865. Under these s#spensions of the rit, Union offi&ia+s arrested and detained itho#t tria+ at +east 15,000 &i2i+ians d#rin. the ar, )ost+$ in the border states. Bi+itar$ &o#rts a+so tried se2era+ &i2i+ians, )ost notab+$ the "opperhead +eader, "+e)ent *. -a++andi.ha), for 1treasonab+e1 a&ti2ities. So)e of these arrests and tria+s, as in the &ase of -a++andi.ha), &a)e dan.ero#s+$ &+ose to infrin.in. First A)end)ent ri.hts. *in&o+n as e)barrassed b$ the -a++andi.ha) &ase, hi&h aro#sed a stor) of &riti&is). ,e2erthe+ess, he =#stified the detention of those ho #nder)ined the str#..+e for nationa+ s#r2i2a+. !e )ade his &ase in p#n.ent prose that e2er$one &o#+d #nderstand. 1Under &o2er of :*ibert$ of spee&h,: :*ibert$ of the press: and : (abeas Corpus,: 1 rote the president, the rebe+s 1hoped to 'eep on foot a)on.st #s a )ost effi&ient &orps of spies, infor)ers, s#pp+iers, and aiders and abettors of their &a#se.1 7f an$thin., he be+ie2ed he had arrested too fe rather than too )an$. 1B#st 7 shoot a si)p+e-)inded so+dier bo$ ho deserts, hi+e 7 )#st not to#&h a hair of a i+e$ E sicF a.itator ho ind#&es hi) to desertL . . . 7 thin' that in s#&h a &ase, to si+en&e the a.itator, and sa2e the bo$, is not on+$ &onstit#tiona+, b#t, itha+, a .reat )er&$1 (6as+er, 2o+. 6, pp. 265, 266-6/). S&ho+ars disa.ree abo#t *in&o+n:s re&ord on &i2i+ +iberties, b#t one thin. &an be said ith &ertaint$C &o)pared ith the enfor&e)ent of

espiona.e and sedition +a s in 3or+d 3ar 7 and the intern)ent of @apaneseA)eri&ans in 3or+d 3ar 77, the &#rtai+)ent of &i2i+ +iberties d#rin. the far .reater interna+ &risis of the "i2i+ 3ar see)s 0#ite )i+d. Another )atter bo#nd #p ith *in&o+n:s po ers as &o))ander in &hief, b#t in2o+2in. )an$ other &onsiderations as e++, as s+a2er$. *in&o+n:s de&ision in 1862 to iss#e an e)an&ipation pro&+a)ation freed hi)se+f as )#&h as it freed the s+a2es--freed hi) fro) the a.oni?in. &ontradi&tion bet een his antis+a2er$ &on2i&tions and his &onstit#tiona+ responsibi+ities. *in&o+n had said )an$ ti)es that he &onsidered s+a2er$ 1a so&ia+, )ora+, and po+iti&a+ ron.. . . . 7f s+a2er$ is not ron., nothin. is ron..1 Iet, he added, 17 ha2e ne2er #nderstood that the ;residen&$ &onferred #pon )e an #nrestri&ted ri.ht to a&t offi&ia++$ on this =#d.)ent and fee+in.1 (6as+er, 2o+. 5, p. 929 2o+. /, p. 281). (he "onstit#tion he s ore to preser2e, prote&t, and defend san&tioned s+a2er$ in states that anted it. Boreo2er, *in&o+n &on&ei2ed his pri)ar$ d#t$ to be preser2ation of the Union. 7n 1861 he be+ie2ed that to preser2e it he )#st )aintain the s#pport of 8e)o&rats and border state Unionists, ho o#+d be a+ienated b$ an$ )o2e to ard e)an&ipation. (hat is h$ he re2o'ed Denera+ FrK)ont:s )i+itar$ order freein. the s+a2es of "onfederate s$)pathi?ers in Bisso#ri. 7f he had +et FrK)ont:s order stand, *in&o+n exp+ained to a &riti&, it o#+d ha2e dri2en %ent#&'$ into se&ession. 1(o +ose %ent#&'$ is near+$ the sa)e as to +ose the ho+e .a)e. %ent#&'$ .one, e &an not ho+d Bisso#ri, nor, as 7 thin', Bar$+and1 (6as+er, 2o+. A, p. 552). For the next $ear *in&o+n adhered p#b+i&+$ to this position despite .ro in. press#re fro) his o n part$ to )o2e a.ainst s+a2er$. (o a po erf#+ e)an&ipation editoria+ b$!ora&e Dree+e$ in the ,e Ior' Tribune, *in&o+n rep+ied on 22 A#.#st 1862 ith a +etter p#b+ished in the TribuneC 1B$ para)o#nt ob=e&t in this str#..+e is to sa2e the Union, and is not either to sa2e or to destro$ s+a2er$. 7f 7 &o#+d sa2e the Union itho#t freein. an" s+a2e 7 o#+d do it9 and if 7 &o#+d sa2e it b$ freein. all the s+a2es 7 o#+d do it9 and if 7 &o#+d sa2e it b$ freein. so)e and +ea2in. others a+one 7 o#+d a+so do that1 (6as+er, 2o+. 5, pp. 588-89).

(he !manci/ation %roclamation *in&o+n had a+read$ drafted an e)an&ipation pro&+a)ation b#t as a aitin. a Union )i+itar$ 2i&tor$ to anno#n&e it. !is +etter to Dree+e$ as desi.ned to prepare the p#b+i&, espe&ia++$ &onser2ati2es, for the anno#n&e)ent b$ )a'in. it &+ear that freein. some of the s+a2es as ne&essar$ to a&hie2e his, and their, )ain .oa+ of preser2in. the Union.

>ar+ier in 1862 *in&o+n had tried to pers#ade border state Unionists to a&&ept an offer of federa+ &o)pensation for e)an&ipation in their states. (he$ ref#sed, hi+e Union )i+itar$ fort#nes too' a t#rn for the orse in the s#))er of 1862. 6$ then *in&o+n a.reed ith the <adi&a+ <ep#b+i&an ar.#)ent that a pro&+a)ation of e)an&ipation o#+d stri'e a b+o a.ainst the "onfederate e&ono)$ and ar effort that o#+d )ore than &o#nterba+an&e the da)a.e it )i.ht do b$ a+ienatin. 8e)o&rats and border state Unionists. S+a2es &onstit#ted the prin&ipa+ +abor for&e of the "onfedera&$. >s&aped s+a2es (+abe+ed 1&ontrabands1) had been &o)in. into Union +ines sin&e the o#tset of the ar9 an offi&ia+ pro&+a)ation of e)an&ipation o#+d a&&e+erate this pro&ess. 7n his &apa&it$ as &o))ander in &hief, *in&o+n be+ie2ed he had the &onstit#tiona+ po er to sei?e ene)$ propert$ (s+a2es) bein. #sed to a.e ar a.ainst the United States. 4n 22 Septe)ber 1862, fi2e da$s after the batt+e of Antieta), *in&o+n iss#ed a pre+i)inar$ pro&+a)ation, de&+arin. that a++ s+a2es in an$ state or part of a state sti++ in rebe++ion a.ainst the United States on 1 @an#ar$ 1865 1sha++ be then, then&efor ard, and fore2er free1 (6as+er, 2o+. 5, pp. A55-56). ,e Iear:s 8a$ &a)e, and *in&o+n iss#ed the >)an&ipation ;ro&+a)ation, hi&h exe)pted (ennessee and parts of *o#isiana and -ir.inia (as e++ as the s+a2e states that had re)ained in the Union), be&a#se the$ ere o&&#pied b$ Union for&es or dee)ed +o$a+ to the Union and therefore not s#b=e&t to the ar po ers #nder hi&h *in&o+n a&ted. 8espite &a2i+s that the >)an&ipation ;ro&+a)ation did not in and of itse+f free a sin.+e s+a2e, it did broaden northern ar ai)s to in&+#de e)an&ipation. Union ar)ies be&a)e ar)ies of +iberation. As a &oro++ar$ of the pro&+a)ation, the *in&o+n ad)inistration be.an re&r#itin. b+a&' so+diers and sai+ors, )ost+$ freed s+a2es--189,000 in a++ b$ the end of the ar. 7n A#.#st 1865 *in&o+n stated in a ide+$ p#b+ished +etter, 1(he e)an&ipation po+i&$, and the #se of &o+ored troops, &onstit#te the hea2iest b+o $et dea+t to the rebe++ion.1 <eferrin. to &riti&s of e)an&ipation and opponents of the ar, *in&o+n said pointed+$ that, hen the ar as on, 1there i++ be so)e b+a&' )en ho &an re)e)ber that, ith si+ent ton.#e, and &+en&hed teeth, and stead$ e$e, and e++-poised ba$onet, the$ ha2e he+ped )an'ind on to this .reat &ons#))ation9 hi+e, 7 fear, there i++ be so)e hite ones, #nab+e to for.et that, ith )a+i.nant heart, and de&eitf#+ spee&h, the$ ha2e stro2e to hinder it1 (6as+er, 2o+. 6, pp. A08-10). As a ar )eas#re the >)an&ipation ;ro&+a)ation o#+d &ease to ha2e an$ effe&t hen the ar as o2er. 3hi+e )an$ s+a2es o#+d ha2e .ained freedo), the instit#tion of s+a2er$ o#+d sti++ exist. (h#s *in&o+n and his part$ p+ed.ed to adopt a &onstit#tiona+ a)end)ent to abo+ish s+a2er$. Antis+a2er$ Unionists .ained &ontro+ of the state .o2ern)ents of Bar$+and and Bisso#ri and abo+ished s+a2er$ in those states. (he arti)e 1re&onstr#&tion1 .o2ern)ents in the o&&#pied parts of *o#isiana, Ar'ansas, and (ennessee did the sa)e. 3ith a s'i++f#+ #se of patrona.e and ar)-

t istin., *in&o+n n#rt#red these a&hie2e)ents.

6A New 7irth o$ Free&om6 *in&o+n did not +i2e to see the fina+ ratifi&ation of the (hirteenth A)end)ent. Iet the f#t#re shape of a disenthra++ed United States as &+ear eno#.h b$ 19 ,o2e)ber 1865 for *in&o+n to pro&+ai) 1a ne birth of freedo)1 in the brief address he de+i2ered at the &o))e)oration of a &e)eter$ at Dett$sb#r. for Union so+diers 'i++ed in the batt+e there. *in&o+n is best 'no n for his brief spee&h at Dett$sb#r., b#t on )an$ other o&&asions a+so he .a2e 2oi&e to the p#rpose for hi&h 560,000 northern so+diers .a2e their +i2es. 1(he &entra+ idea per2adin. this str#..+e,1 he said as ear+$ as 1861, 1is the ne&essit$ . . . of pro2in. that pop#+ar .o2ern)ent is not an abs#rdit$. 3e )#st sett+e this 0#estion no , hether in a free .o2ern)ent the )inorit$ ha2e the ri.ht to brea' #p the .o2ern)ent hene2er the$ &hoose. 7f e fai+ it i++ .o far to pro2e the in&apabi+it$ of the peop+e to .o2ern the)se+2es1 (($+er 8ennett, ed., Lincoln and the Civil $ar in the )iaries and Letters of *ohn (a" E1959F, pp. 19-20). Abraha) *in&o+n:s e+o0#en&e and states)anship ere .ro#nded in his s'i++s as a po+iti&ian. !e as not on+$ president and &o))ander in &hief b#t a+so +eader of his part$. So)e of the part$:s fra&tio#s )e)bers in the &abinet and "on.ress .a2e *in&o+n a+)ost as )an$ prob+e)s as fra&tio#s and in&o)petent .enera+s. Fo#r )e)bers of his &abinet had been his ri2a+s for the presidentia+ no)ination in 1860. So)e of the) as e++ as so)e &on.ressiona+ +eaders &ontin#ed to thin' of the)se+2es as better 0#a+ified for the presiden&$ than *in&o+n. Iet he estab+ished his )aster$ of both &abinet and "on.ress. !e .enera++$ deferred to &abinet )e)bers in their areas of responsibi+it$ and de+e.ated ad)inistrati2e a#thorit$ to the) to r#n their depart)ents. A+tho#.h he +istened to ad2i&e, *in&o+n )ade the )ost i)portant de&isions hi)se+fC on Fort S#)ter, on e)an&ipation, on appointin. or dis)issin. .enera+s, on <e&onstr#&tion. Se&retar$ of the (reas#r$ Sa+)on ;. "hase, ho tho#.ht of r#nnin. for president in 186A, &on2in&ed <ep#b+i&an senators that *in&o+n as too )#&h inf+#en&ed b$ Se&retar$ of State Se ard. At a +o point in the Union &a#se after the batt+e of Frederi&'sb#r. in 8e&e)ber 1862, the Senate <ep#b+i&an &a#&#s pressed *in&o+n to dis)iss Se ard. 7f he had 1&a2ed in1 (*in&o+n:s ords), he o#+d ha2e +ost &ontro+ of his o n ad)inistration. 7n an exhibition of po+iti&a+ 2irt#osit$, he &onfronted "hase and the senators in the presen&e of the &abinet and for&ed the) to ba&' do n. "hase offered his resi.nation, hi&h *in&o+n ref#sed to a&&ept, thereb$ 'eepin. both Se ard and "hase in the &abinet and )aintainin. the separation of exe&#ti2e and

&on.ressiona+ po ers. Another &ontest of po er and po+i&$ bet een *in&o+n and &on.ressiona+ <ep#b+i&ans o&&#rred in 186A o2er the iss#e of <e&onstr#&tion. *in&o+n &on&ei2ed of this pro&ess as pri)ari+$ an exe&#ti2e responsibi+it$, a part of his d#t$ as &o))ander in &hief to in the ar b$ 1re&onstr#&tin.1 so#thern states ba&' into the Union. 4n 8 8e&e)ber 1865 he iss#ed a 1;ro&+a)ation of A)nest$ and <e&onstr#&tion,1 offerin. pardons to )ost &ate.ories of "onfederates ho o#+d ta'e an oath of a++e.ian&e to the United States. 3hen the n#)ber of those pardoned in an$ state e0#a+ed 10 per&ent of the n#)ber of 2oters in 1860, *in&o+n a#thori?ed the) to for) a Union state .o2ern)ent, to hi&h he pro)ised exe&#ti2e re&o.nition. "on.ressiona+ +eaders, ho e2er, 2ie ed <e&onstr#&tion as a +e.is+ati2e pro&ess in hi&h "on.ress o#+d )andate the &onditions for restoration of states to the Union and read)ission of their representati2es to "on.ress. (he sho do n in this str#..+e &a)e in the s#))er of 186A, hen *in&o+n 'i++ed the 3ade-8a2is <e&onstr#&tion 6i++, hi&h as )ore strin.ent than his o n po+i&$, b$ a po&'et 2eto. (he bi++:s &osponsors, <epresentati2e!enr$ 3inter 8a2is and Senator 6en=a)in 3ade, there#pon iss#ed a b+isterin. 1Banifesto,1 &har.in. *in&o+n ith exe&#ti2e #s#rpation. (his i)bro.+io be&a)e entan.+ed ith *in&o+n:s &a)pai.n for ree+e&tion. (he part$:s nationa+ &on2ention had #nani)o#s+$ reno)inated hi), after an initia+ to'en 2ote for Drant b$ the Bisso#ri de+e.ation, on / @#ne. 6#t beneath this s#rfa&e #nani)it$ seethed hosti+it$ to *in&o+n b$ <ep#b+i&ans ho opposed hi) on <e&onstr#&tion. (he )ain iss#e in 186A, ho e2er, as not <e&onstr#&tion b#t the ar itse+f. Union offensi2es, espe&ia++$ in -ir.inia, bo..ed do n in a )orass of &arna.e that )ade 2i&tor$ appear )ore distant than e2er. 3ar eariness and defeatis) &orroded the i++ of northerners as the$ ree+ed fro) the sta..erin. &ost in +i2es. *in&o+n &a)e #nder i))ense press#re to open pea&e ne.otiations. Unoffi&ia+ en2o$s )et ith "onfederate a.ents in "anada and ith @efferson 8a2is at <i&h)ond in @#+$ to )a'e &+ear *in&o+n:s ter)s for pea&eC re#nion and e)an&ipation. 8a2is sp#rned these &onditions, insistin. on "onfederate independen&e, b#t so)eho northern 8e)o&rats &on2in&ed )#&h of the e+e&torate that on+$ *in&o+n:s re0#ire)ent of e)an&ipation b+o&'ed a pea&e sett+e)ent. *in&o+n ref#sed to ba&' do n. 1,o h#)an po er &an s#bd#e this rebe++ion itho#t #sin. the >)an&ipation +e2er as 7 ha2e done,1 he said. 6+a&' so+diers o#+d not &ontin#e fi.htin. for the Union if the$ tho#.ht the ,orth intended to 1betra$ the). . . . 7f the$ sta'e their +i2es for #s the$ )#st be pro)pted b$ the stron.est )oti2e . . . the pro)ise of freedo). And the pro)ise bein. )ade, )#st be 'ept1 (6as+er, 2o+. /, pp. 500, 50/).

3hen *in&o+n said this, he f#++$ expe&ted to +ose the e+e&tion. 4n 25 A#.#st he rote his fa)o#s 1b+ind )e)orand#)1 and re0#ired &abinet )e)bers to endorse it si.ht #nseenC 1(his )ornin., as for so)e da$s past, it see)s ex&eedin.+$ probab+e that this Ad)inistration i++ not be re-e+e&ted. (hen it i++ be )$ d#t$ to so &o-operate ith the ;resident e+e&t, as to sa2e the Union bet een the e+e&tion and the ina#.#ration9 as he i++ ha2e se&#red his e+e&tion on s#&h .ro#nd that he &an not possib+$ sa2e it after ards1 (6as+er, 2o+. /, p. 51A). A ee' +ater the 8e)o&rats no)inated B&"+e++an for president on a p+atfor) that branded the ar a fai+#re and de)anded an ar)isti&e and pea&e ne.otiations.

(ri#m/hant 8eelection in 181* (he ar did indeed see) a fai+#re. ( o da$s +ater, on 2 Septe)ber, &a)e a te+e.ra) fro) Denera+ 3i++ia) (. Sher)an, ho e2er, sa$in. 1At+anta is o#rs and fair+$ on.1 ,orthern opinion t#rned 180 de.rees a+)ost o2erni.ht. (hen &a)e ne s of spe&ta&#+ar )i+itar$ 2i&tories b$ Denera+ ;hi+ip Sheridan:s ar)$ in the Shenandoah -a++e$. *in&o+n:s tarnished rep#tation as &o))ander in &hief t#rned to +#ster. !e as tri#)phant+$ ree+e&ted in ,o2e)ber, &arr$in. e2er$ Union state ex&ept ,e @erse$, 8e+a are, and %ent#&'$. As Sher)an )ar&hed thro#.h Deor.ia and So#th "aro+ina, Union ar)ies ad2an&ed on other fronts, and Drant ti.htened the 2ise near <i&h)ond. (he end of the ar see)ed on+$ a )atter of ti)e. 7n his se&ond ina#.#ra+ address, on A Bar&h 1865, *in&o+n +oo'ed for ard to a pea&e 1 ith )a+i&e to ard none9 ith &harit$ for a++.1 !e a+so s#..ested that 1this terrib+e ar1 )a$ ha2e been Dod:s p#nish)ent of the ho+e nation for the ron. of s+a2er$. 1Fond+$ do e hope--fer2ent+$ do e pra$--that this )i.ht$ s&o#r.e of ar )a$ speedi+$ pass a a$,1 said *in&o+n. 1Iet, if Dod i++s that it &ontin#e, #nti+ a++ the ea+th pi+ed b$ the bond-)an:s t o h#ndred and fift$ $ears of #nre0#ited toi+ sha++ be s#n', and #nti+ e2er$ drop of b+ood dra n ith the +ash, sha++ be paid b$ another dra n ith the s ord, as as said three tho#sand $ears a.o, so sti++ it )#st be said :the =#d.)ents of the *ord, are tr#e and ri.hteo#s a+to.ether: 1 (6as+er, 2o+. 8, p. 555). 8#rin. the +ast inter of ar, *in&o+n and &on.ressiona+ <ep#b+i&ans &a)e &+oser to.ether on a post ar <e&onstr#&tion po+i&$. After *ee:s s#rrender at Appo)attox, *in&o+n spo'e to a +ar.e &ro d of &e+ebrants at the 3hite !o#se on 11 Apri+. !e hinted that his <e&onstr#&tion po+i&$ o#+d enfran&hise +iterate b+a&'s and b+a&' ar)$ 2eterans. 1(hat )eans ni..er &iti?enship,1 )#ttered a )e)ber of the &ro d, the a&tor @ohn 3i+'es 6ooth. 1,o , b$ Dod, 7:++ p#t hi) thro#.h. (hat is the +ast spee&h

he i++ e2er )a'e1 (3i++ia) !an&hett, The Lincoln 'urder Conspiracies E1985F, p. 5/). A nati2e of Bar$+and and an #nstab+e e.otist ho s#pported the "onfedera&$ and hated *in&o+n, 6ooth headed a shado $ &onspira&$ ith +in's to the "onfederate se&ret ser2i&e, hi&h had intended to 'idnap *in&o+n and ho+d hi) hosta.e in <i&h)ond. (he fa++ of <i&h)ond had r#ined that p+ot, so 6ooth de&ided to 'i++ the president. 3hi+e the *in&o+ns at&hed a &o)ed$ at Ford:s (heatre in 3ashin.ton, 8."., on 1A Apri+, 6ooth .ained entran&e to their box and shot *in&o+n in the head. *in&o+n died at /C22 the next )ornin..

Lincoln's Le"ac0 S&orned and ridi&#+ed b$ )an$ &riti&s d#rin. his presiden&$, *in&o+n be&a)e a )art$r and a+)ost a saint after his death. !is ords and deeds +i2ed after hi) and i++ be re2ered as +on. as there is a United States. 7ndeed, it see)s 0#ite +i'e+$ that itho#t his deter)ined +eadership the +nited States o#+d ha2e &eased to exist. Union 2i&tor$ in the "i2i+ 3ar reso+2ed t o f#nda)enta+, festerin. prob+e)s that had been +eft #nreso+2ed b$ the <e2o+#tion of 1//6 and the "onstit#tion of 1/89C hether this rep#b+i&, 1&on&ei2ed in *ibert$, and dedi&ated to the proposition that a++ )en are &reated e0#a+,1 o#+d 1+on. end#re1 or 1perish fro) the earth19 and hether the 1)onstro#s in=#sti&e1 of s+a2er$ o#+d &ontin#e to )o&' those idea+s of +ibert$. (he rep#b+i& end#red, and s+a2er$ perished. (hat is *in&o+n:s +e.a&$.

7iblio"ra/h0 (he prin&ipa+ &o++e&tion of *in&o+n:s papers is the <obert (odd *in&o+n "o++e&tion in the *ibrar$ of "on.ress. Bost of the 18,000 ite)s in this &o++e&tion are in&o)in. +etters. (he f#++est &o++e&tion of *in&o+n:s o n +etters, spee&hes, and other ritin.s is The Collected $orks of Abraham Lincoln, ed. <o$ ;. 6as+er (8 2o+s. and an index, 1955-1955), ith the addition of The Collected $orks of Abraham Lincoln: Supplement ,-./0,-12, ed. 6as+er (19/A). (he )ost i)portant of *in&o+n:s +etters and other ritin.s ha2e been se+e&ted b$ 8on >. Fehrenba&her and p#b+ished in t o 2o+#)es tit+ed Abraham Lincoln: Speeches and $ritings (1989). Another 2a+#ab+e se+e&tion of *in&o+n ritin.s is Lincoln on )emocrac", ed. Bario B. "#o)o and

!aro+d !o+?er (1990), hi&h has been trans+ated into se2era+ +an.#a.es. (he n#)ber of bio.raphies and other boo's abo#t *in&o+n is h#.e--far .reater than for an$ other fi.#re in A)eri&an histor$. *in&o+n:s +a partner 3i++ia) !erndon spent se2era+ $ears after *in&o+n:s death inter2ie in. peop+e ho had 'no n hi) and .atherin. other )ateria+ abo#t the first fift$ $ears of *in&o+n:s +ife. !erndon &o++aborated ith @esse 3. 3ei' to present this )ateria+ in (erndon3s Lincoln: The True Stor" of a 4reat Life (5 2o+s., 1889), hi&h has been reprinted in ho+e or in part in )an$ s#bse0#ent editions. !erndon:s a&&o#nt distorted so)e aspe&ts of *in&o+n:s +ife and a&&epted as tr#e so)e infor)ation that )a$ ha2e been apo&r$pha+. ,onethe+ess, a++ s#bse0#ent bio.raphers ere indebted to !erndon for )ost of hat e 'no abo#t *in&o+n:s ear+$ +ife. A $ear after the appearan&e of (erndon3s Lincoln, *in&o+n:s arti)e pri2ate se&retaries, @ohn D. ,i&o+a$ and @ohn !a$, p#b+ished a ten2o+#)e bio.raph$, Abraham Lincoln: A (istor", hi&h fo&#sed )ain+$ on the presidentia+ $ears. Unti+ the <obert (odd *in&o+n "o++e&tion as opened to the p#b+i& in 19A/, the ,i&o+a$ and !a$ bio.raph$ as the on+$ one based on f#++ a&&ess to *in&o+n:s papers. 6efore 19A/, ho e2er, other i)portant bio.raphies appearedC *ord "harn ood, Abraham Lincoln (191/), hi&h as notab+e for its s$)patheti& 6ritish perspe&ti2e9 A+bert @. 6e2erid.e, Abraham Lincoln ,-560,-2- (2 2o+s., 1928), hose a#thor died before he &o#+d &ontin#e the bio.raph$ into the ar $ears9 and "ar+ Sandb#r.,Abraham Lincoln: The Prairie 7ears (2 2o+s., 1926) and Abraham Lincoln: The $ar 7ears (A 2o+s., 1959), a po erf#+ e2o&ation of *in&o+n and his ti)es, hi&h, ho e2er, pi+es #p d#bio#s as e++ as a#thenti& e2iden&e in a )ixed prof#sion. (he f#++est s&ho+ar+$ bio.raph$, part of it ritten after the *in&o+n papers ere opened, is @a)es D. <anda++, Lincoln the President (A 2o+s., 19A5-1955), ith the fo#rth 2o+#)e &o)p+eted after <anda++:s death b$ <i&hard ,. "#rrent, ho has a+so ritten a 2o+#)e of in&isi2e essa$s, The Lincoln &obod" 8nows (1958). <anda++:s interpretation is )arred b$ a tenden&$ to s0#ee?e *in&o+n into a &onser2ati2e )o+d that fai+s to appre&iate the depth of his antis+a2er$ &on2i&tions. (he sa)e fa#+t is shared in part b$ 6en=a)in (ho)as:s one-2o+#)e bio.raph$ Abraham Lincoln (1952), b#t is &orre&ted b$ another readab+e one-2o+#)e bio.raph$, Stephen 6. 4ates, $ith 'alice toward &one: The Life of Abraham Lincoln (19//). (he best bio.raph$ ithin the &o2ers of a sin.+e 2o+#)e is 8a2id !erbert 8ona+d, Lincoln (1995). A &on&ise the)ati& bio.raph$ is Bar' >. ,ee+$, @r., The Last #est (ope of Earth: Abraham Lincoln and the Promise of America (1995). ,ee+$ has a+so ritten a &o)prehensi2e and 2a+#ab+e referen&e or', The Abraham Lincoln Enc"clopedia (1982), as e++ as The %ate of Libert": Abraham Lincoln and Civil Liberties (1991). 4ther 2a+#ab+e st#dies of spe&ifi& aspe&ts of *in&o+n:s +ife and &areer in&+#deC Dabor