Jared Diamond, Yali's Question (Prologue to Guns, Germs, and Steel, 1997)

*** WE ALL KNOW THAT HISTORY HAS PROCEEDED VERY differently for peoples fro different p!rts of t"e #lo$e% In t"e &'())) ye!rs sin*e t"e end of t"e l!st I*e A#e( so e p!rts of t"e +orld de,eloped liter!te ind-stri!l so*ieties +it" et!l tools( ot"er p!rts de,eloped only nonliter!te f!r in# so*ieties( !nd still ot"ers ret!ined so*ieties of "-nter. #!t"erers +it" stone tools% T"ose "istori*!l ine/-!lities "!,e *!st lon# s"!do+s on t"e odern +orld( $e*!-se t"e liter!te so*ieties +it" et!l tools "!,e *on/-ered or e0ter in!ted t"e ot"er so*ieties% W"ile t"ose differen*es *onstit-te t"e ost $!si* f!*t of +orld "istory( t"e re!sons for t"e re !in -n*ert!in !nd *ontro,ersi!l% T"is p-11lin# /-estion of t"eir ori#ins +!s posed to e 23 ye!rs !#o in ! si ple( person!l for % In 4-ly &562 I +!s +!l7in# !lon# ! $e!*" on t"e tropi*!l isl!nd of Ne+ 8-ine!( +"ere !s ! $iolo#ist I st-dy $ird e,ol-tion% I "!d !lre!dy "e!rd !$o-t ! re !r7!$le lo*!l politi*i!n n! ed Y!li( +"o +!s to-rin# t"e distri*t t"en% 9y *"!n*e( Y!li !nd I +ere +!l7in# in t"e s! e dire*tion on t"!t d!y( !nd "e o,ertoo7 e% We +!l7ed to#et"er for !n "o-r( t!l7in# d-rin# t"e +"ole ti e% Y!li r!di!ted *"!ris ! !nd ener#y% His eyes fl!s"ed in ! es eri1in# +!y% He t!l7ed *onfidently !$o-t "i self( $-t "e !lso !s7ed lots of pro$in# /-estions !nd listened intently% O-r *on,ers!tion $e#!n +it" ! s-$:e*t t"en on e,ery Ne+ 8-ine!n;s ind<t"e r!pid p!*e of politi*!l de,elop ents% P!p-! Ne+ 8-ine!( !s Y!li;s n!tion is no+ *!lled( +!s !t t"!t ti e still !d inistered $y A-str!li! !s ! !nd!te of t"e =nited N!tions( $-t independen*e +!s in t"e !ir% Y!li e0pl!ined to e "is role in #ettin# lo*!l people to prep!re for self. #o,ern ent% After ! +"ile( Y!li t-rned t"e *on,ers!tion !nd $e#!n to /-i1 e% He "!d ne,er $een o-tside Ne+ 8-ine! !nd "!d not $een ed-*!ted $eyond "i#" s*"ool( $-t "is *-riosity +!s ins!ti!$le% >irst( "e +!nted to 7no+ !$o-t y +or7 on Ne+ 8-ine! $irds ?in*l-din# "o+ -*" I #ot p!id for it@% I e0pl!ined to "i "o+ different #ro-ps of $irds "!d *oloni1ed Ne+ 8-ine! o,er t"e *o-rse of illions of ye!rs% He t"en !s7ed "o+ t"e !n*estors of "is o+n people "!d re!*"ed Ne+ 8-ine! o,er t"e l!st tens of t"o-s!nds of ye!rs( !nd "o+ +"ite E-rope!ns "!d *oloni1ed Ne+ 8-ine! +it"in t"e l!st 2)) ye!rs% T"e *on,ers!tion re !ined friendly( e,en t"o-#" t"e tension $et+een t"e t+o so*ieties t"!t Y!li !nd I represented +!s f! ili!r to $ot" of -s% T+o *ent-ries !#o( !ll Ne+ 8-ine!ns +ere still Ali,in# in t"e Stone A#e%B T"!t is( t"ey still -sed stone tools si il!r to t"ose s-perseded in E-rope $y et!l tools t"o-s!nds of ye!rs !#o( !nd t"ey d+elt in ,ill!#es not or#!ni1ed -nder !ny *entr!li1ed politi*!l !-t"ority% W"ites "!d !rri,ed( i posed *entr!li1ed #o,ern ent( !nd $ro-#"t !teri!l #oods +"ose ,!l-e Ne+ 8-ine!ns inst!ntly re*o#ni1ed( r!n#in# fro steel !0es( !t*"es( !nd edi*ines to *lot"in#( soft drin7s( !nd - $rell!s% In Ne+ 8-ine! !ll t"ese #oods +ere referred to *olle*ti,ely !s A*!r#o%B C!ny of t"e +"ite *oloni!lists openly despised Ne+ 8-ine!ns !s Apri iti,e%B E,en t"e le!st !$le of Ne+ 8-ine!;s +"ite A !sters(B !s t"ey +ere still *!lled in &562( en:oyed ! f!r "i#"er st!nd!rd of li,in# t"!n Ne+ 8-ine!ns( "i#"er e,en t"!n *"!ris !ti* politi*i!ns li7e Y!li% Yet Y!li "!d /-i11ed lots of +"ites !s "e +!s t"en /-i11in# e( !nd I "!d /-i11ed lots of Ne+ 8-ine!ns% He !nd I $ot" 7ne+ perfe*tly +ell t"!t Ne+ 8-ine!ns !re on t"e !,er!#e !t le!st !s s !rt !s E-rope!ns% All t"ose t"in#s -st "!,e $een on Y!li;s ind +"en( +it" yet !not"er penetr!tin# #l!n*e of "is fl!s"in# eyes( "e !s7ed e( AW"y is it t"!t yo- +"ite people de,eloped so -*" *!r#o !nd $ro-#"t it to Ne+ 8-ine!( $-t +e $l!*7 people "!d little *!r#o of o-r o+nDB It +!s ! si ple /-estion t"!t +ent to t"e "e!rt of life !s Y!li e0perien*ed it% Yes( t"ere still is ! "-#e differen*e $et+een t"e lifestyle of t"e !,er!#e Ne+ 8-ine!n !nd t"!t of t"e !,er!#e E-rope!n or A eri*!n% Co p!r!$le differen*es sep!r!te t"e lifestyles of ot"er peoples of t"e +orld !s +ell% T"ose "-#e disp!rities -st "!,e potent *!-ses t"!t one i#"t t"in7 +o-ld $e o$,io-s% Yet Y!li;s !pp!rently si ple /-estion is ! diffi*-lt one to !ns+er% I didn;t "!,e !n !ns+er t"en% Profession!l "istori!ns still dis!#ree !$o-t t"e sol-tionE ost !re no lon#er e,en !s7in# t"e /-estion% In t"e ye!rs sin*e Y!li !nd I "!d t"!t *on,ers!tion( I "!,e st-died !nd +ritten !$o-t ot"er !spe*ts of "- !n e,ol-tion( "istory( !nd l!n#-!#e% T"is $oo7( +ritten t+enty.fi,e ye!rs l!ter( !tte pts to !ns+er Y!li% Alt"o-#" Y!li;s /-estion *on*erned only t"e *ontr!stin# lifestyles of Ne+ 8-ine!ns !nd of E-rope!n +"ites( it *!n $e e0tended to ! l!r#er set of *ontr!sts +it"in t"e odern +orld% Peoples of E-r!si!n ori#in( espe*i!lly t"ose still li,in# in E-rope !nd e!stern Asi!( pl-s t"ose tr!nspl!nted to Nort" A eri*!( do in!te t"e odern +orld in +e!lt" !nd po+er% Ot"er peoples( in*l-din# ost Afri*!ns( "!,e t"ro+n off E-rope!n *oloni!l do in!tion $-t re !in f!r $e"ind in +e!lt" !nd po+er% Still ot"er peoples( s-*" !s t"e !$ori#in!l in"!$it!nts of A-str!li!( t"e A eri*!s( !nd so-t"ern ost Afri*!( !re no lon#er e,en !sters of t"eir o+n l!nds $-t "!,e $een de*i !ted( s-$:-#!ted( !nd in so e *!ses e,en e0ter in!ted $y E-rope!n *oloni!lists% T"-s( /-estions !$o-t ine/-!lity in t"e odern +orld *!n $e refor -l!ted !s follo+s% W"y did +e!lt" !nd po+er $e*o e distri$-ted !s t"ey no+ !re( r!t"er t"!n in so e ot"er +!yD >or inst!n*e( +"y +eren;t N!ti,e A eri*!ns( Afri*!ns( !nd A$ori#in!l A-str!li!ns t"e ones +"o de*i !ted( s-$:-#!ted( or e0ter in!ted E-rope!ns !nd Asi!nsD We *!n e!sily p-s" t"is /-estion $!*7 one step% As of t"e ye!r A%D% &3))( +"en E-rope;s +orld+ide *oloni!l e0p!nsion +!s :-st $e#innin#( peoples on different *ontinents !lre!dy differed #re!tly in te*"nolo#y !nd politi*!l or#!ni1!tion% C-*" of E-rope( Asi!( !nd Nort"

&

Afri*! +!s t"e site of et!l.e/-ipped st!tes or e pires( so e of t"e on t"e t"res"old of ind-stri!li1!tion% T+o N!ti,e A eri*!n peoples( t"e A1te*s !nd t"e In*!s( r-led o,er e pires +it" stone tools% P!rts of s-$.S!"!r!n Afri*! +ere di,ided ! on# s !ll st!tes or *"iefdo s +it" iron tools% Cost ot"er peoples<in*l-din# !ll t"ose of A-str!li! !nd Ne+ 8-ine!( !ny P!*ifi* isl!nds( -*" of t"e A eri*!s( !nd s !ll p!rts of s-$.S!"!r!n Afri*! < li,ed !s f!r in# tri$es or e,en still !s "-nter.#!t"erer $!nds -sin# stone tools% Of *o-rse( t"ose te*"nolo#i*!l !nd politi*!l differen*es !s of A%D% &3)) +ere t"e i edi!te *!-se of t"e odern +orld;s ine/-!lities% E pires +it" steel +e!pons +ere !$le to *on/-er or e0ter in!te tri$es +it" +e!pons of stone !nd +ood% Ho+( t"o-#"( did t"e +orld #et to $e t"e +!y it +!s in A%D% &3))D On*e !#!in( +e *!n e!sily p-s" t"is /-estion $!*7 one step f-rt"er( $y dr!+in# on +ritten "istories !nd !r*"!eolo#i*!l dis*o,eries% =ntil t"e end of t"e l!st I*e A#e( !ro-nd &&())) 9%C%( !ll peoples on !ll *ontinents +ere still "-nter.#!t"erers% Different r!tes of de,elop ent on different *ontinents( fro &&())) 9%C% to A%D% &3))( +ere +"!t led to t"e te*"nolo#i*!l !nd politi*!l ine/-!lities of A%D% &3))% W"ile A$ori#in!l A-str!li!ns !nd !ny N!ti,e A eri*!ns re !ined "-nter.#!t"erers( ost of E-r!si! !nd -*" of t"e A eri*!s !nd s-$.S!"!r!n Afri*! #r!d-!lly de,eloped !#ri*-lt-re( "erdin#( et!ll-r#y( !nd *o ple0 politi*!l or#!ni1!tion% P!rts of E-r!si!( !nd one !re! of t"e A eri*!s( independently de,eloped +ritin# !s +ell% Ho+e,er( e!*" of t"ese ne+ de,elop ents !ppe!red e!rlier in E-r!si! t"!n else+"ere% >or inst!n*e( t"e !ss prod-*tion of $ron1e tools( +"i*" +!s :-st $e#innin# in t"e So-t" A eri*!n Andes in t"e *ent-ries $efore A%D% &3))( +!s !lre!dy est!$lis"ed in p!rts of E-r!si! o,er F())) ye!rs e!rlier% T"e stone te*"nolo#y of t"e T!s !ni!ns( +"en first en*o-ntered $y E-rope!n e0plorers in A%D% &GF2( +!s si pler t"!n t"!t pre,!lent in p!rts of =pper P!leolit"i* E-rope tens of t"o-s!nds of ye!rs e!rlier% T"-s( +e *!n fin!lly rep"r!se t"e /-estion !$o-t t"e odern +orld;s ine/-!lities !s follo+sH +"y did "- !n de,elop ent pro*eed !t s-*" different r!tes on different *ontinentsD T"ose disp!r!te r!tes *onstit-te "istory;s $ro!dest p!ttern !nd y $oo7;s s-$:e*t% W"ile t"is $oo7 is t"-s -lti !tely !$o-t "istory !nd pre"istory( its s-$:e*t is not of :-st !*!de i* interest $-t !lso of o,er+"el in# pr!*ti*!l !nd politi*!l i port!n*e% T"e "istory of inter!*tions ! on# disp!r!te peoples is +"!t s"!ped t"e odern +orld t"ro-#" *on/-est( epide i*s( !nd #eno*ide% T"ose *ollisions *re!ted re,er$er!tions t"!t "!,e still not died do+n !fter !ny *ent-ries( !nd t"!t !re !*ti,ely *ontin-in# in so e of t"e +orld;s ost tro-$led !re!s tod!y% >or e0! ple( -*" of Afri*! is still str-##lin# +it" its le#!*ies fro re*ent *oloni!lis % In ot"er re#ions<in*l-din# -*" of Centr!l A eri*!( Ce0i*o( Per-( Ne+ C!ledoni!( t"e for er So,iet =nion( !nd p!rts of Indonesi!<*i,il -nrest or #-errill! +!rf!re pits still. n- ero-s indi#eno-s pop-l!tions !#!inst #o,ern ents do in!ted $y des*end!nts of

in,!din# *on/-erors% C!ny ot"er indi#eno-s pop-l!tions<s-*" !s n!ti,e H!+!ii!ns( A$ori#in!l A-str!li!ns( n!ti,e Si$eri!ns( !nd Indi!ns in t"e =nited St!tes( C!n!d!( 9r!1il( Ar#entin!( !nd C"ile<$e*! e so red-*ed in n- $ers $y #eno*ide !nd dise!se t"!t t"ey !re no+ #re!tly o-tn- $ered $y t"e des*end!nts of in,!ders% Alt"o-#" t"-s in*!p!$le of o-ntin# ! *i,il +!r( t"ey !re ne,ert"eless in*re!sin#ly !ssertin# t"eir ri#"ts% In !ddition to t"ese *-rrent politi*!l !nd e*ono i* re,er$er!tions of p!st *ollisions ! on# peoples( t"ere !re *-rrent lin#-isti* re,er$er!tions< espe*i!lly t"e i pendin# dis!ppe!r!n*e of ost of t"e odern +orld;s G())) s-r,i,in# l!n#-!#es( $e*o in# repl!*ed $y En#lis"( C"inese( R-ssi!n( !nd ! fe+ ot"er l!n#-!#es +"ose n- $ers of spe!7ers "!,e in*re!sed enor o-sly in re*ent *ent-ries% All t"ese pro$le s of t"e odern +orld res-lt fro t"e different "istori*!l tr!:e*tories i pli*it in Y!li;s /-estion% 9efore see7in# !ns+ers to Y!li;s /-estion( +e s"o-ld p!-se to *onsider so e o$:e*tions to dis*-ssin# it !t !ll% So e people t!7e offense !t t"e ere posin# of t"e /-estion( for se,er!l re!sons% One o$:e*tion #oes !s follo+s% If +e s-**eed in e0pl!inin# "o+ so e people *! e to do in!te ot"er people( !y t"is not see to :-stify t"e do in!tionD Doesn;t it see to s!y t"!t t"e o-t*o e +!s ine,it!$le( !nd t"!t it +o-ld t"erefore $e f-tile to try to *"!n#e t"e o-t*o e tod!yD T"is o$:e*tion rests on ! *o on tenden*y to *onf-se !n e0pl!n!tion of *!-ses +it" ! :-stifi*!tion or !**ept!n*e of res-lts% W"!t -se one !7es of ! "istori*!l e0pl!n!tion is ! /-estion sep!r!te fro t"e e0pl!n!tion itself% =nderst!ndin# is ore often -sed to try to !lter !n o-t*o e t"!n to repe!t or perpet-!te it% T"!t;s +"y psy*"olo#ists try to -nderst!nd t"e inds of -rderers !nd r!pists( +"y so*i!l "istori!ns try to -nderst!nd #eno*ide( !nd +"y p"ysi*i!ns try to -nderst!nd t"e *!-ses of "- !n dise!se% T"ose in,esti#!tors do not see7 to :-stify -rder( r!pe( #eno*ide( !nd illness% Inste!d( t"ey see7 to -se t"eir -nderst!ndin# of ! *"!in of *!-ses to interr-pt t"e *"!in% Se*ond( doesn;t !ddressin# Y!li;s /-estion !-to !ti*!lly in,ol,e ! E-ro*entri* !ppro!*" to "istory( ! #lorifi*!tion of +estern E-rope!ns( !nd !n o$session +it" t"e pro inen*e of +estern E-rope !nd E-rope!ni1ed A eri*! in t"e odern +orldD Isn;t t"!t pro inen*e :-st !n ep"e er!l p"eno enon of t"e l!st fe+ *ent-ries( no+ f!din# $e"ind t"e pro inen*e of 4!p!n !nd So-t"e!st Asi!D In f!*t( ost of t"is $oo7 +ill de!l +it" peoples ot"er t"!n E-rope!ns% R!t"er t"!n fo*-s solely on inter!*tions $et+een E-rope!ns !nd non. E-rope!ns( +e s"!ll !lso e0! ine inter!*tions $et+een different non.E-rope!n peoples< espe*i!lly t"ose t"!t too7 pl!*e +it"in s-$.S!"!r!n Afri*!( So-t"e!st Asi!( Indonesi!( !nd Ne+ 8-ine!( ! on# peoples n!ti,e to t"ose !re!s% >!r fro #lorifyin# peoples of +estern E-rope!n ori#in( +e s"!ll see t"!t ost $!si* ele ents of t"eir *i,ili1!tion +ere de,eloped $y ot"er peoples li,in# else+"ere !nd +ere t"en i ported to +estern E-rope% T"ird( don;t +ords s-*" !s A*i,ili1!tion(B !nd p"r!ses s-*" !s Arise of *i,ili1!tion(B *on,ey t"e f!lse i pression t"!t *i,ili1!tion is #ood( tri$!l "-nter.#!t"erers !re iser!$le( !nd "istory for t"e p!st &'())) ye!rs "!s in,ol,ed pro#ress to+!rd #re!ter "- !n "!ppinessD In

f!*t( I do not !ss- e t"!t ind-stri!li1ed st!tes !re A$etterB t"!n "-nter.#!t"erer tri$es( or t"!t t"e !$!ndon ent of t"e "-nter.#!t"erer lifestyle for iron.$!sed st!te"ood represents Apro#ress(B or t"!t it "!s led to !n in*re!se in "- !n "!ppiness% Cy o+n i pression( fro "!,in# di,ided y life $et+een =nited St!tes *ities !nd Ne+ 8-ine! ,ill!#es( is t"!t t"e so.*!lled $lessin#s of *i,ili1!tion !re i0ed% >or e0! ple( *o p!red +it" "-nter.#!t"erers( *iti1ens of odern ind-stri!li1ed st!tes en:oy $etter edi*!l *!re( lo+er ris7 of de!t" $y "o i*ide( !nd ! lon#er life sp!n( $-t re*ei,e -*" less so*i!l s-pport fro friends"ips !nd e0tended f! ilies% Cy oti,e for in,esti#!tin# t"ese #eo#r!p"i* differen*es in "- !n so*ieties is not to *ele$r!te one type of so*iety o,er !not"er $-t si ply to -nderst!nd +"!t "!ppened in "istory% Does Y!li;s /-estion re!lly need !not"er $oo7 to !ns+er itD Don;t +e !lre!dy 7no+ t"e !ns+erD If so( +"!t is itD Pro$!$ly t"e *o onest e0pl!n!tion in,ol,es i pli*itly or e0pli*itly !ss- in# $iolo#i*!l differen*es ! on# peoples% In t"e *ent-ries !fter A%D% &3))( !s E-rope!n e0plorers $e*! e !+!re of t"e +ide differen*es ! on# t"e +orld;s peoples in te*"nolo#y !nd politi*!l or#!ni1!tion( t"ey !ss- ed t"!t t"ose differen*es !rose fro differen*es in inn!te !$ility% Wit" t"e rise of D!r+ini!n t"eory( e0pl!n!tions +ere re*!st in ter s of n!t-r!l sele*tion !nd of e,ol-tion!ry des*ent% Te*"nolo#i*!lly pri iti,e peoples +ere *onsidered e,ol-tion!ry ,esti#es of "- !n des*ent fro !peli7e !n*estors% T"e displ!*e ent of s-*" peoples $y *olonists fro ind-stri!li1ed so*ieties e0e plified t"e s-r,i,!l of t"e fittest% Wit" t"e l!ter rise of #eneti*s( t"e e0pl!n!tions +ere re*!st on*e !#!in( in #eneti* ter s% E-rope!ns $e*! e *onsidered #eneti*!lly ore intelli#ent t"!n Afri*!ns( !nd espe*i!lly ore so t"!n A$ori#in!l A-str!li!ns% Tod!y( se# ents of Western so*iety p-$li*ly rep-di!te r!*is % Yet !ny ?per"!ps ostI@ Westerners *ontin-e to !**ept r!*ist e0pl!n!tions pri,!tely or s-$*ons*io-sly% In 4!p!n !nd !ny ot"er *o-ntries( s-*" e0pl!n!tions !re still !d,!n*ed p-$li*ly !nd +it"o-t !polo#y% E,en ed-*!ted +"ite A eri*!ns( E-rope!ns( !nd A-str!li!ns( +"en t"e s-$:e*t of A-str!li!n A$ori#ines *o es -p( !ss- e t"!t t"ere is so et"in# pri iti,e !$o-t t"e A$ori#ines t"e sel,es% T"ey *ert!inly loo7 different fro +"ites% C!ny of t"e li,in# des*end!nts of t"ose A$ori#ines +"o s-r,i,ed t"e er! of E-rope!n *oloni1!tion !re no+ findin# it diffi*-lt to s-**eed e*ono i*!lly in +"ite A-str!li!n so*iety% A see in#ly *o pellin# !r#- ent #oes !s follo+s% W"ite i i#r!nts to A-str!li! $-ilt ! liter!te( ind-stri!li1ed( politi*!lly *entr!li1ed( de o*r!ti* st!te $!sed on et!l tools !nd on food prod-*tion( !ll +it"in ! *ent-ry of *oloni1in# ! *ontinent +"ere t"e A$ori#ines "!d $een li,in# !s tri$!l "-nter.#!t"erers +it"o-t et!l for !t le!st F)())) ye!rs% Here +ere t+o s-**essi,e e0peri ents in "- !n de,elop ent( in +"i*" t"e en,iron ent +!s identi*!l !nd t"e sole ,!ri!$le +!s t"e people o**-pyin# t"!t en,iron ent% W"!t f-rt"er proof *o-ld $e +!nted to est!$lis" t"!t t"e differen*es $et+een A$ori#in!l A-str!li!n !nd E-rope!n so*ieties !rose fro differen*es $et+een t"e peoples t"e sel,esD

T"e o$:e*tion to s-*" r!*ist e0pl!n!tions is not :-st t"!t t"ey !re lo!t"so e( $-t !lso t"!t t"ey !re +ron#% So-nd e,iden*e for t"e e0isten*e of "- !n differen*es in intelli#en*e t"!t p!r!llel "- !n differen*es in te*"nolo#y is l!*7in#% In f!*t( !s I s"!ll e0pl!in in ! o ent( odern AStone A#eB peoples !re on t"e !,er!#e pro$!$ly ore intelli#ent( not less intelli. #ent( t"!n ind-stri!li1ed peoples% P!r!do0i*!l !s it !y so-nd( +e s"!ll see in C"!pter &3 t"!t +"ite i i#r!nts to A-str!li! do not deser,e t"e *redit -s-!lly !**orded to t"e for $-ildin# ! liter!te ind-stri!li1ed so*iety +it" t"e ot"er ,irt-es entioned !$o,e% In !ddition( peoples +"o -ntil re*ently +ere te*"nolo#i*!lly pri iti,e<s-*" !s A$ori#in!l A-str!li!ns !nd Ne+ 8-ine!ns<ro-tinely !ster ind-stri!l te*"nolo#ies +"en #i,en opport-nities to do so% An enor o-s effort $y *o#niti,e psy*"olo#ists "!s #one into t"e se!r*" for differen*es in IJ $et+een peoples of different #eo#r!p"i* ori#ins no+ li,in# in t"e s! e *o-ntry% In p!rti*-l!r( n- ero-s +"ite A eri*!n psy*"olo#ists "!,e $een tryin# for de*!des to de onstr!te t"!t $l!*7 A eri*!ns of Afri*!n ori#ins !re inn!tely less intelli#ent t"!n +"ite A eri*!ns of E-rope!n ori#ins% Ho+e,er( !s is +ell 7no+n( t"e peoples *o p!red differ #re!tly in t"eir so*i!l en,iron ent !nd ed-*!tion!l opport-nities% T"is f!*t *re!tes do-$le diffi*-lties for efforts to test t"e "ypot"esis t"!t intelle*t-!l differen*es -nderlie te*"nolo#i*!l differen*es% >irst( e,en o-r *o#niti,e !$ilities !s !d-lts !re "e!,ily infl-en*ed $y t"e so*i!l en,iron ent t"!t +e e0perien*ed d-rin# *"ild"ood( !7in# it "!rd to dis*ern !ny infl-en*e of pree0istin# #eneti* differen*es% Se*ond( tests of *o#niti,e !$ility ?li7e IJ tests@ tend to e!s-re *-lt-r!l le!rnin# !nd not p-re inn!te intelli#en*e( +"!te,er t"!t is% 9e*!-se of t"ose -ndo-$ted effe*ts of *"ild"ood en,iron ent !nd le!rned 7no+led#e on IJ test res-lts( t"e psy*"olo#ists; efforts to d!te "!,e not s-**eeded in *on,in*in#ly est!$lis"in# t"e post-l!ted #eneti* defi*ien*y in IJs of non+"ite peoples% Cy perspe*ti,e on t"is *ontro,ersy *o es fro '' ye!rs of +or7in# +it" Ne+ 8-ine!ns in t"eir o+n int!*t so*ieties% >ro t"e ,ery $e#innin# of y +or7 +it" Ne+ 8-ine!ns( t"ey i pressed e !s $ein# on t"e !,er!#e ore intelli#ent( ore !lert( ore e0pressi,e( !nd ore interested in t"in#s !nd people !ro-nd t"e t"!n t"e !,er!#e E-rope!n or A eri*!n is% At so e t!s7s t"!t one i#"t re!son!$ly s-ppose to refle*t !spe*ts of $r!in f-n*tion( s-*" !s t"e !$ility to for ! ent!l !p of -nf! ili!r s-rro-ndin#s( t"ey !ppe!r *onsider!$ly ore !dept t"!n Westerners% Of *o-rse( Ne+ 8-ine!ns tend to perfor poorly !t t!s7s t"!t Westerners "!,e $een tr!ined to perfor sin*e *"ild"ood !nd t"!t Ne+ 8-ine!ns "!,e not% Hen*e +"en -ns*"ooled Ne+ 8-ine!ns fro re ote ,ill!#es ,isit to+ns( t"ey loo7 st-pid to Westerners% Con,ersely( I ! *onst!ntly !+!re of "o+ st-pid I loo7 to Ne+ 8-ine!ns +"en I; +it" t"e in t"e :-n#le( displ!yin# y in*o peten*e !t si ple t!s7s ?s-*" !s follo+in# ! :-n#le tr!il or ere*tin# ! s"elter@ !t +"i*" Ne+ 8-ine!ns "!,e $een tr!ined sin*e *"ild"ood !nd I "!,e not% It;s e!sy to re*o#ni1e t+o re!sons +"y y i pression t"!t Ne+ 8-ine!ns !re s !rter t"!n Westerners !y $e *orre*t% >irst( E-rope!ns "!,e for t"o-s!nds of ye!rs $een li,in# in densely pop-l!ted so*ieties +it" *entr!l #o,ern ents( poli*e( !nd :-di*i!ries% In t"ose so*ieties( infe*tio-s epide i* dise!ses of dense pop-l!tions ?s-*" !s s !llpo0@ +ere

'

"istori*!lly t"e !:or *!-se of de!t"( +"ile -rders +ere rel!ti,ely -n*o on !nd ! st!te of +!r +!s t"e e0*eption r!t"er t"!n t"e r-le% Cost E-rope!ns +"o es*!ped f!t!l infe*tions !lso es*!ped ot"er potenti!l *!-ses of de!t" !nd pro*eeded to p!ss on t"eir #enes% Tod!y( ost li,e.$orn Western inf!nts s-r,i,e f!t!l infe*tions !s +ell !nd reprod-*e t"e sel,es( re#!rdless of t"eir intelli#en*e !nd t"e #enes t"ey $e!r% In *ontr!st( Ne+ 8-ine!ns "!,e $een li,in# in so*ieties +"ere "- !n n- $ers +ere too lo+ for epide i* dise!ses of dense pop-l!tions to e,ol,e% Inste!d( tr!dition!l Ne+ 8-ine!ns s-ffered "i#" ort!lity fro -rder( *"roni* tri$!l +!rf!re( !**idents( !nd pro$le s in pro*-rin# food% Intelli#ent people !re li7elier t"!n less intelli#ent ones to es*!pe t"ose *!-ses of "i#" ort!lity in tr!dition!l Ne+ 8-ine! so*ieties% Ho+e,er( t"e differenti!l ort!lity fro epide i* dise!ses in tr!dition!l E-rope!n so*ieties "!d little to do +it" intelli#en*e( !nd inste!d in,ol,ed #eneti* resist!n*e dependent on det!ils of $ody *"e istry% >or e0! ple( people +it" $lood #ro-p 9 or O "!,e ! #re!ter resist!n*e to s !llpo0 t"!n do people +it" $lood #ro-p A% T"!t is( n!t-r!l sele*tion pro otin# #enes for intelli#en*e "!s pro$!$ly $een f!r ore r-t"less in Ne+ 8-ine! t"!n in ore densely pop-l!ted( politi*!lly *o ple0 so*ieties( +"ere n!t-r!l sele*tion for $ody *"e istry +!s inste!d ore potent% 9esides t"is #eneti* re!son( t"ere is !lso ! se*ond re!son +"y Ne+ 8-ine!ns !y "!,e *o e to $e s !rter t"!n Westerners% Codern E-rope!n !nd A eri*!n *"ildren spend -*" of t"eir ti e $ein# p!ssi,ely entert!ined $y tele,ision( r!dio( !nd o,ies% In t"e !,er!#e A eri*!n "o-se"old( t"e TV set is on for se,en "o-rs per d!y% In *ontr!st( tr!dition!l Ne+ 8-ine! *"ildren "!,e ,irt-!lly no s-*" opport-nities for p!ssi,e entert!in ent !nd inste!d spend !l ost !ll of t"eir +!7in# "o-rs !*ti,ely doin# so et"in#( s-*" !s t!l7in# or pl!yin# +it" ot"er *"ildren or !d-lts% Al ost !ll st-dies of *"ild de,elop ent e p"!si1e t"e role of *"ild"ood sti -l!tion !nd !*ti,ity in pro otin# ent!l de,elop ent( !nd stress t"e irre,ersi$le ent!l st-ntin# !sso*i!ted +it" red-*ed *"ild"ood sti -l!tion% T"is effe*t s-rely *ontri$-tes ! non.#eneti* *o ponent to t"e s-perior !,er!#e ent!l f-n*tion displ!yed $y Ne+ 8-ine!ns% T"!t is( in ent!l !$ility Ne+ 8-ine!ns !re pro$!$ly #eneti*!lly s-perior to Westerners( !nd t"ey s-rely !re s-perior in es*!pin# t"e de,!st!tin# de,elop ent!l dis!d,!nt!#es -nder +"i*" ost *"ildren in ind-stri!li1ed so*ieties no+ #ro+ -p% Cert!inly( t"ere is no "int !t !ll of !ny intelle*t-!l diss!d,!nt!#e of Ne+ 8-ine!ns t"!t *o-ld ser,e to !ns+er Y!li;s /-estion% T"e s! e t+o #eneti* !nd *"ild"ood de,elop ent!l f!*tors !re li7ely to distin#-is" not only Ne+ 8-ine!ns fro Westerners( $-t !lso "-nter.#!t"erers !nd ot"er e $ers of te*"nolo#i*!lly pri iti,e so*ieties fro e $ers of te*"nolo#i*!lly !d,!n*ed so*ieties in #ener!l% T"-s( t"e -s-!l r!*ist !ss- ption "!s to $e t-rned on its "e!d% W"y is it t"!t E-rope!ns( despite t"eir li7ely #eneti* dis!d,!nt!#e !nd ?in odern ti es@ t"eir -ndo-$ted de,elop ent!l dis!d,!nt!#e( ended -p +it" -*" ore of t"e *!r#oD W"y did Ne+ 8-ine!ns +ind -p te*"nolo#i*!lly pri iti,e( despite +"!t I $elie,e to $e t"eir s-perior intelli#en*eD

A #eneti* e0pl!n!tion isn;t t"e only possi$le !ns+er to Y!li;s /-estion% Anot"er one( pop-l!r +it" in"!$it!nts of nort"ern E-rope( in,o7es t"e s-pposed sti -l!tory effe*ts of t"eir "o el!nd;s *old *li !te !nd t"e in"i$itory effe*ts of "ot( "- id( tropi*!l *li !tes on "- !n *re!ti,ity !nd ener#y% Per"!ps t"e se!son!lly ,!ri!$le *li !te !t "i#" l!tit-des poses ore di,erse *"!llen#es t"!n does ! se!son!lly *onst!nt tropi*!l *li !te% Per"!ps *old *li !tes re/-ire one to $e ore te*"nolo#i*!lly in,enti,e to s-r,i,e( $e*!-se one -st $-ild ! +!r "o e !nd !7e +!r *lot"in#( +"ere!s one *!n s-r,i,e in t"e tropi*s +it" si pler "o-sin# !nd no *lot"in#% Or t"e !r#- ent *!n $e re,ersed to re!*" t"e s! e *on*l-sionH t"e lon# +inters !t "i#" l!tit-des le!,e people +it" -*" ti e in +"i*" to sit indoors !nd in,ent% Alt"o-#" for erly pop-l!r( t"is type of e0pl!n!tion( too( f!ils to s-r,i,e s*r-tiny% As +e s"!ll see( t"e peoples of nort"ern E-rope *ontri$-ted not"in# of f-nd! ent!l i port!n*e to E-r!si!n *i,ili1!tion -ntil t"e l!st t"o-s!nd ye!rsE t"ey si ply "!d t"e #ood l-*7 to li,e !t ! #eo#r!p"i* lo*!tion +"ere t"ey +ere li7ely to re*ei,e !d,!n*es ?s-*" !s !#ri*-lt-re( +"eels( +ritin#( !nd et!ll-r#y@ de,eloped in +!r er p!rts of E-r!si!% In t"e Ne+ World t"e *old re#ions !t "i#" l!tit-de +ere e,en ore of ! "- !n $!*7+!ter% T"e sole N!ti,e A eri*!n so*ieties to de,elop +ritin# !rose in Ce0i*o so-t" of t"e Tropi* of C!n*erE t"e oldest Ne+ World pottery *o es fro ne!r t"e e/-!tor in tropi*!l So-t" A eri*!E !nd t"e Ne+ World so*iety #ener!lly *onsidered t"e ost !d,!n*ed in !rt( !strono y( !nd ot"er respe*ts +!s t"e Cl!ssi* C!y! so*iety of t"e tropi*!l Y-*!t!n !nd 8-!te !l! in t"e first illenni- A%D% Still ! t"ird type of !ns+er to Y!li in,o7es t"e s-pposed i port!n*e of lo+l!nd ri,er ,!lleys in dry *li !tes( +"ere "i#"ly prod-*ti,e !#ri*-lt-re depended on l!r#e.s*!le irri#!tion syste s t"!t in t-rn re/-ired *entr!li1ed $-re!-*r!*ies% T"is e0pl!n!tion +!s s-##ested $y t"e -ndo-$ted f!*t t"!t t"e e!rliest 7no+n e pires !nd +ritin# syste s !rose in t"e Ti#ris !nd E-p"r!tes V!lleys of t"e >ertile Cres*ent !nd in t"e Nile V!lley of E#ypt% W!ter *ontrol syste s !lso !ppe!r to "!,e $een !sso*i!ted +it" *entr!li1ed politi*!l or#!ni1!tion in so e ot"er !re!s of t"e +orld( in*l-din# t"e Ind-s V!lley of t"e Indi!n s-$*ontinent( t"e Yello+ !nd Y!n#t1e V!lleys of C"in!( t"e C!y! lo+l!nds of Ceso! eri*!( !nd t"e *o!st!l desert of Per-% Ho+e,er( det!iled !r*"!eolo#i*!l st-dies "!,e s"o+n t"!t *o ple0 irri#!tion syste s did not !**o p!ny t"e rise of *entr!li1ed $-re!-*r!*ies $-t follo+ed !fter ! *onsider!$le l!#% T"!t is( politi*!l *entr!li1!tion !rose for so e ot"er re!son !nd t"en per itted *onstr-*tion of *o ple0 irri#!tion syste s% None of t"e *r-*i!l de,elop ents pre*edin# politi*!l *entr!li1!tion in t"ose s! e p!rts of t"e +orld +ere !sso*i!ted +it" ri,er ,!lleys or +it" *o ple0 irri#!tion syste s% >or e0! ple( in t"e >ertile Cres*ent food prod-*tion !nd ,ill!#e life ori#in!ted in "ills !nd o-nt!ins( not in lo+l!nd ri,er ,!lleys% T"e Nile V!lley re !ined ! *-lt-r!l $!*7+!ter for !$o-t '())) ye!rs !fter ,ill!#e food prod-*tion $e#!n to flo-ris" in t"e "ills of t"e >ertile Cres*ent% Ri,er ,!lleys of t"e so-t"+estern =nited St!tes e,ent-!lly *! e to s-pport irri#!tion !#ri*-lt-re !nd *o ple0 so*ieties( $-t only !fter !ny of t"e de,elop ents on +"i*" t"ose so*ieties rested "!d $een i ported fro Ce0i*o%

T"e ri,er ,!lleys of so-t"e!stern A-str!li! re !ined o**-pied $y tri$!l so*ieties +it"o-t !#ri*-lt-re% Yet !not"er type of e0pl!n!tion lists t"e i edi!te f!*tors t"!t en!$led E-rope!ns to 7ill or *on/-er ot"er peoples<espe*i!lly E-rope!n #-ns( infe*tio-s dise!ses( steel tools( !nd !n-f!*t-red prod-*ts% S-*" !n e0pl!n!tion is on t"e ri#"t tr!*7( !s t"ose f!*tors de onstr!$ly +ere dire*tly responsi$le for E-rope!n *on/-ests% Ho+e,er( t"is "ypot"esis is in*o plete( $e*!-se it still offers only ! pro0i !te ?first.st!#e@ e0pl!n!tion identifyin# i edi!te *!-ses% It in,ites ! se!r*" for -lti !te *!-sesH +"y +ere E-rope!ns( r!t"er t"!n Afri*!ns or N!ti,e A eri*!ns( t"e ones to end -p +it" #-ns( t"e n!stiest #er s( !nd steelD W"ile so e pro#ress "!s $een !de in identifyin# t"ose -lti !te *!-ses in t"e *!se of E-rope;s *on/-est of t"e Ne+ World( Afri*! re !ins ! $i# p-11le% Afri*! is t"e *ontinent +"ere proto"- !ns e,ol,ed for t"e lon#est ti e( +"ere !n!to i*!lly odern "- !ns !y !lso "!,e !risen( !nd +"ere n!ti,e dise!ses li7e !l!ri! !nd yello+ fe,er 7illed E-rope!n e0plorers% If ! lon# "e!d st!rt *o-nts for !nyt"in#( +"y didn;t #-ns !nd steel !rise first in Afri*!( per ittin# Afri*!ns !nd t"eir #er s to *on/-er E-ropeD And +"!t !**o-nts for t"e f!il-re of A$ori#in!l A-str!li!ns to p!ss $eyond t"e st!#e of "-nter.#!t"erers +it" stone toolsD J-estions t"!t e er#e fro +orld+ide *o p!risons of "- !n so*ieties for erly !ttr!*ted -*" !ttention fro "istori!ns !nd #eo#r!p"ers% T"e $est.7no+n odern e0! ple of s-*" !n effort +!s Arnold Toyn$ee;s &2.,ol- e St-dy of History% Toyn$ee +!s espe*i!lly interested in t"e intern!l dyn! i*s of 2' !d,!n*ed *i,ili1!tions( of +"i*" 22 +ere liter!te !nd &5 +ere E-r!si!n% He +!s less interested in pre"istory !nd in si pler( nonliter!te so*ieties% Yet t"e roots of ine/-!lity in t"e odern +orld lie f!r $!*7 in pre"istory% Hen*e Toyn$ee did not pose Y!li;s /-estion( nor did "e *o e to #rips +it" +"!t I see !s "istory;s $ro!dest p!ttern% Ot"er !,!il!$le $oo7s on +orld "istory si il!rly tend to fo*-s on !d,!n*ed liter!te E-r!si!n *i,ili1!tions of t"e l!st 3())) ye!rsE t"ey "!,e ! ,ery $rief tre!t ent of pre.Col- $i!n N!ti,e A eri*!n *i,ili1!tions( !nd !n e,en $riefer dis*-ssion of t"e rest of t"e +orld e0*ept for its re*ent inter!*tions +it" E-r!si!n *i,ili1!tions% Sin*e Toyn$ee;s !tte pt( +orld+ide synt"eses of "istori*!l *!-s!tion "!,e f!llen into disf!,or ! on# ost "istori!ns( !s posin# !n !pp!rently intr!*t!$le pro$le % Spe*i!lists fro se,er!l dis*iplines "!,e pro,ided #lo$!l synt"eses of t"eir s-$:e*ts% Espe*i!lly -sef-l *ontri$-tions "!,e $een !de $y e*olo#i*!l #eo#r!p"ers( *-lt-r!l !nt"ropolo#ists( $iolo#ists st-dyin# pl!nt !nd !ni !l do esti*!tion( !nd s*"ol!rs *on*erned +it" t"e i p!*t of infe*tio-s dise!ses on "istory% T"ese st-dies "!,e *!lled !ttention to p!rts of t"e p-11le( $-t t"ey pro,ide only pie*es of t"e needed $ro!d synt"esis t"!t "!s $een issin#% T"-s( t"ere is no #ener!lly !**epted !ns+er to Y!li;s /-estion% On t"e one "!nd( t"e pro0i !te e0pl!n!tions !re *le!rH so e peoples de,eloped #-ns( #er s( steel( !nd ot"er f!*tors *onferrin# politi*!l !nd e*ono i* po+er $efore ot"ers didE !nd so e peoples ne,er

de,eloped t"ese po+er f!*tors !t !ll% On t"e ot"er "!nd( t"e -lti !te e0pl!n!tions<for e0! ple( +"y $ron1e tools !ppe!red e!rly in p!rts of E-r!si!( l!te !nd only lo*!lly in t"e Ne+ World( !nd ne,er in A$ori#in!l A-str!li!<re !in -n*le!r% O-r present l!*7 of s-*" -lti !te e0pl!n!tions le!,es ! $i# intelle*t-!l #!p( sin*e t"e $ro!dest p!ttern of "istory t"-s re !ins -ne0pl!ined% C-*" ore serio-s( t"o-#"( is t"e or!l #!p left -nfilled% It is perfe*tly o$,io-s to e,eryone( +"et"er !n o,ert r!*ist or not( t"!t different peoples "!,e f!red differently in "istory% T"e odern =nited St!tes is ! E-rope!n. olded so*iety( o**-pyin# l!nds *on/-ered fro N!ti,e A eri*!ns !nd in*orpor!tin# t"e des*end!nts of illions of s-$.S!"!r!n $l!*7 Afri*!ns $ro-#"t to A eri*! !s sl!,es% Codern E-rope is not ! so*iety olded $y s-$.S!"!r!n $l!*7 Afri*!ns +"o $ro-#"t illions of N!ti,e A eri*!ns !s sl!,es% T"ese res-lts !re *o pletely lopsidedH it +!s not t"e *!se t"!t 3& per*ent of t"e A eri*!s( A-str!li!( !nd Afri*! +!s *on/-ered $y E-rope!ns( +"ile F5 per*ent of E-rope +!s *on/-ered $y N!ti,e A eri*!ns( A$ori#in!l A-str!li!ns( or Afri*!ns% T"e +"ole odern +orld "!s $een s"!ped $y lopsided o-t*o es% Hen*e t"ey -st "!,e ine0or!$le e0pl!n!tions( ones ore $!si* t"!n ere det!ils *on*ernin# +"o "!ppened to +in so e $!ttle or de,elop so e in,ention on one o**!sion ! fe+ t"o-s!nd ye!rs !#o% It see s lo#i*!l to s-ppose t"!t "istory;s p!ttern refle*ts inn!te differen*es ! on# people t"e sel,es% Of *o-rse( +e;re t!-#"t t"!t it;s not polite to s!y so in p-$li*% We re!d of te*"ni*!l st-dies *l!i in# to de onstr!te in$orn differen*es( !nd +e !lso re!d re$-tt!ls *l!i in# t"!t t"ose st-dies s-ffer fro te*"ni*!l fl!+s% We see in o-r d!ily li,es t"!t so e of t"e *on/-ered peoples *ontin-e to for !n -nder*l!ss( *ent-ries !fter t"e *on/-ests or sl!,e i ports too7 pl!*e% We;re told t"!t t"is too is to $e !ttri$-ted not to !ny $iolo#i*!l s"ort*o in#s $-t to so*i!l dis!d,!nt!#es !nd li ited opport-nities% Ne,ert"eless( +e "!,e to +onder% We 7eep seein# !ll t"ose #l!rin#( persistent differen*es in peoples; st!t-s% We;re !ss-red t"!t t"e see in#ly tr!nsp!rent $iolo#i*!l e0pl!n!tion for t"e +orld;s ine/-!lities !s of A%D% &3)) is +ron#( $-t +e;re not told +"!t t"e *orre*t e0pl!n!tion is% =ntil +e "!,e so e *on,in*in#( det!iled( !#reed.-pon e0pl!n!tion for t"e $ro!d p!ttern of "istory( ost people +ill *ontin-e to s-spe*t t"!t t"e r!*ist $iolo#i*!l e0pl!n!tion is *orre*t !fter !ll% T"!t see s to e t"e stron#est !r#- ent for +ritin# t"is $oo7% A-t"ors !re re#-l!rly !s7ed $y :o-rn!lists to s!ri1e ! lon# $oo7 in one senten*e% >or t"is $oo7( "ere is s-*" ! senten*eH AHistory follo+ed different *o-rses for different peoples $e*!-se of differen*es ! on# peoples; en,iron ents( not $e*!-se of $iolo#i*!l differen*es ! on# peoples t"e sel,es%B N!t-r!lly( t"e notion t"!t en,iron ent!l #eo#r!p"y !nd $io#eo#r!p"y infl-en*ed so*iet!l de,elop ent is !n old ide!% No+!d!ys( t"o-#"( t"e ,ie+ is not "eld in estee $y "istori!nsE

it is *onsidered +ron# or si plisti*( or it is *!ri*!t-red !s en,iron ent!l deter inis !nd dis issed( or else t"e +"ole s-$:e*t of tryin# to -nderst!nd +orld+ide differen*es is s"el,ed !s too diffi*-lt% Yet #eo#r!p"y o$,io-sly "!s so e effe*t on "istoryE t"e open /-estion *on*erns "o+ -*" effe*t( !nd +"et"er #eo#r!p"y *!n !**o-nt for "istory;s $ro!d p!ttern% T"e ti e is no+ ripe for ! fres" loo7 !t t"ese /-estions( $e*!-se of ne+ infor !tion fro s*ientifi* dis*iplines see in#ly re ote fro "- !n "istory% T"ose dis*iplines in*l-de( !$o,e !ll( #eneti*s( ole*-l!r $iolo#y( !nd $io#eo#r!p"y !s !pplied to *rops !nd t"eir +ild !n*estorsE t"e s! e dis*iplines pl-s $e"!,ior!l e*olo#y( !s !pplied to do esti* !ni !ls !nd t"eir +ild !n*estorsE ole*-l!r $iolo#y of "- !n #er s !nd rel!ted #er s of !ni !lsE epide iolo#y of "- !n dise!sesE "- !n #eneti*sE lin#-isti*sE !r*"!eolo#i*!l st-dies on !ll *ontinents !nd !:or isl!ndsE !nd st-dies of t"e "istories of te*"nolo#y( +ritin#( !nd politi*!l or#!ni1!tion% T"is di,ersity of dis*iplines poses pro$le s for +o-ld.$e !-t"ors of ! $oo7 !i ed !t !ns+erin# Y!li;s /-estion% T"e !-t"or -st possess ! r!n#e of e0pertise sp!nnin# t"e !$o,e dis*iplines( so t"!t rele,!nt !d,!n*es *!n $e synt"esi1ed% T"e "istory !nd pre"istory of e!*" *ontinent -st $e si il!rly synt"esi1ed% T"e $oo7;s s-$:e*t !tter is "istory( $-t t"e !ppro!*" is t"!t of s*ien*e<in p!rti*-l!r( t"!t of "istori*!l s*ien*es s-*" !s e,ol-tion!ry $iolo#y !nd #eolo#y% T"e !-t"or -st -nderst!nd fro first"!nd e0perien*e ! r!n#e of "- !n so*ieties( fro "-nter.#!t"erer so*ieties to odern sp!*e.!#e *i,ili1!tions% T"ese re/-ire ents see !t first to de !nd ! -lti.!-t"or +or7% Yet t"!t !ppro!*" +o-ld $e doo ed fro t"e o-tset( $e*!-se t"e essen*e of t"e pro$le is to de,elop ! -nified synt"esis% T"!t *onsider!tion di*t!tes sin#le !-t"ors"ip( despite !ll t"e diffi*-lties t"!t it poses% Ine,it!$ly( t"!t sin#le !-t"or +ill "!,e to s+e!t *opio-sly in order to !ssi il!te !teri!l fro !ny dis*iplines( !nd +ill re/-ire #-id!n*e fro !ny *olle!#-es% Cy $!*7#ro-nd "!d led e to se,er!l of t"ese dis*iplines e,en $efore Y!li p-t "is /-estion to e in &562% Cy ot"er is ! te!*"er !nd lin#-istE y f!t"er( ! p"ysi*i!n spe*i!li1in# in t"e #eneti*s of *"ild"ood dise!ses% 9e*!-se of y f!t"er;s e0! ple( I +ent t"ro-#" s*"ool e0pe*tin# to $e*o e ! p"ysi*i!n% I "!d !lso $e*o e ! f!n!ti*!l $ird.+!t*"er $y t"e !#e of se,en% It +!s t"-s !n e!sy step( in y l!st -nder#r!d-!te ye!r !t -ni,ersity( to s"ift fro y initi!l #o!l of edi*ine to t"e #o!l of $iolo#i*!l rese!r*"% Ho+e,er( t"ro-#"o-t y s*"ool !nd -nder#r!d-!te ye!rs( y tr!inin# +!s !inly in l!n#-!#es( "istory( !nd +ritin#% E,en !fter de*idin# to o$t!in ! P"%D% in p"ysiolo#y( I ne!rly dropped o-t of s*ien*e d-rin# y first ye!r of #r!d-!te s*"ool to $e*o e ! lin#-ist% Sin*e *o pletin# y P"%D% in &5G&( I "!,e di,ided y s*ientifi* rese!r*" efforts $et+een t+o fieldsH ole*-l!r p"ysiolo#y on t"e one "!nd( e,ol-tion!ry $iolo#y !nd $io#eo#r!p"y on t"e ot"er "!nd% As !n -nforeseen $on-s for t"e p-rposes of t"is $oo7( e,ol-tion!ry $iolo#y is ! "istori*!l s*ien*e for*ed to -se et"ods different fro t"ose of t"e l!$or!tory s*ien*es% T"!t e0perien*e "!s !de t"e diffi*-lties in de,isin# ! s*ientifi* !ppro!*" to

"- !n "istory f! ili!r to e% Li,in# in E-rope fro &53K to &5G2( ! on# E-rope!n friends +"ose li,es "!d $een $r-t!lly tr!- !ti1ed $y 2)t".*ent-ry E-rope!n "istory( !de e st!rt to t"in7 ore serio-sly !$o-t "o+ *"!ins of *!-ses oper!te in "istory;s -nfoldin#% >or t"e l!st '' ye!rs y field+or7 !s !n e,ol-tion!ry $iolo#ist "!s $ro-#"t e into *lose *ont!*t +it" ! +ide r!n#e of "- !n so*ieties% Cy spe*i!lty is $ird e,ol-tion( +"i*" I "!,e st-died in So-t" A eri*!( so-t"ern Afri*!( Indonesi!( A-str!li!( !nd espe*i!lly Ne+ 8-ine!% T"ro-#" li,in# +it" n!ti,e peoples of t"ese !re!s( I "!,e $e*o e f! ili!r +it" !ny te*"nolo#i*!lly pri iti,e "- !n so*ieties( fro t"ose of "-nter.#!t"erers to t"ose of tri$!l f!r ers !nd fis"in# peoples +"o depended -ntil re*ently on stone tools% T"-s( +"!t ost liter!te people +o-ld *onsider str!n#e lifestyles of re ote pre"istory !re for e t"e ost ,i,id p!rt of y life% Ne+ 8-ine!( t"o-#" it !**o-nts for only ! s !ll fr!*tion of t"e +orld;s l!nd !re!( en*o p!sses ! disproportion!te fr!*tion of its "- !n di,ersity% Of t"e odern +orld;s G())) l!n#-!#es( &())) !re *onfined to Ne+ 8-ine!% In t"e *o-rse of y +or7 on Ne+ 8-ine! $irds( y interests in l!n#-!#e +ere re7indled( $y t"e need to eli*it lists of lo*!l n! es of $ird spe*ies in ne!rly &)) of t"ose Ne+ 8-ine! l!n#-!#es% O-t of !ll t"ose interests #re+ y ost re*ent $oo7( ! nonte*"ni*!l !**o-nt of "- !n e,ol-tion entitled T"e T"ird C"i p!n1ee% Its C"!pter &F( *!lled AA**ident!l Con/-erors(B so-#"t to -nderst!nd t"e o-t*o e of t"e en*o-nter $et+een E-rope!ns !nd N!ti,e A eri*!ns% After I "!d *o pleted t"!t $oo7( I re!li1ed t"!t ot"er odern( !s +ell !s pre"istori*( en*o-nters $et+een peoples r!ised si il!r /-estions% I s!+ t"!t t"e /-estion +it" +"i*" I "!d +restled in t"!t C"!pter &F +!s in essen*e t"e /-estion Y!li "!d !s7ed e in &562( erely tr!nsferred to ! different p!rt of t"e +orld% And so !t l!st( +it" t"e "elp of !ny friends( I s"!ll !tte pt to s!tisfy Y!li;s *-riosity<!nd y o+n% T"is $oo7;s *"!pters !re di,ided into fo-r p!rts% P!rt &( entitled A>ro Eden to C!:! !r*!(B *onsists of t"ree *"!pters% C"!pter & pro,ides ! +"irl+ind to-r of "- !n e,ol-tion !nd "istory( e0tendin# fro o-r di,er#en*e fro !pes( !ro-nd 6 illion ye!rs !#o( -ntil t"e end of t"e l!st I*e A#e( !ro-nd &'())) ye!rs !#o% We s"!ll tr!*e t"e spre!d of !n*estr!l "- !ns( fro o-r ori#ins in Afri*! to t"e ot"er *ontinents( in order to -nderst!nd t"e st!te of t"e +orld :-st $efore t"e e,ents often l- ped into t"e ter Arise of *i,ili1!tionB $e#!n% It t-rns o-t t"!t "- !n de,elop ent on so e *ontinents #ot ! "e!d st!rt in ti e o,er de,elop ents on ot"ers% C"!pter 2 prep!res -s for e0plorin# effe*ts of *ontinent!l en,iron ents on "istory o,er t"e p!st &'())) ye!rs( $y $riefly e0! inin# effe*ts of isl!nd en,iron ents on "istory o,er s !ller ti e s*!les !nd !re!s% W"en !n*estr!l Polynesi!ns spre!d into t"e P!*ifi* !ro-nd '(2)) ye!rs !#o( t"ey en*o-ntered isl!nds differin# #re!tly in t"eir en,iron ents% Wit"in ! fe+ illenni! t"!t sin#le !n*estr!l Polynesi!n so*iety "!d sp!+ned on t"ose di,erse isl!nds ! r!n#e of di,erse d!-#"ter so*ieties( fro "-nter.#!t"erer tri$es to proto.e pires% T"!t r!di!tion *!n ser,e !s ! odel for t"e lon#er( l!r#er.s*!le( !nd less -nderstood r!di!tion of so*ieties on different *ontinents sin*e t"e end of t"e l!st I*e A#e( to $e*o e ,!rio-sly "-nter.#!t"erer tri$es !nd e pires%

T"e t"ird *"!pter introd-*es -s to *ollisions $et+een peoples fro different *ontinents( $y retellin# t"ro-#" *onte por!ry eye+itness !**o-nts t"e ost dr! !ti* s-*" en*o-nter in "istoryH t"e *!pt-re of t"e l!st independent In*! e peror( At!"-!llp!( in t"e presen*e of "is +"ole !r y( $y >r!n*is*o Pi1!rro !nd "is tiny $!nd of *on/-ist!dores( !t t"e Per-,i!n *ity of C!:! !r*!% We *!n identify t"e *"!in of pro0i !te f!*tors t"!t en!$led Pi1!rro to *!pt-re At!"-!llp!( !nd t"!t oper!ted in E-rope!n *on/-ests of ot"er N!ti,e A eri*!n so*ieties !s +ell% T"ose f!*tors in*l-ded Sp!nis" #er s( "orses( liter!*y( politi*!l or#!ni1!tion( !nd te*"nolo#y ?espe*i!lly s"ips !nd +e!pons@% T"!t !n!lysis of pro0i !te *!-ses is t"e e!sy p!rt of t"is $oo7E t"e "!rd p!rt is to identify t"e -lti !te *!-ses le!din# to t"e !nd to t"e !*t-!l o-t*o e( r!t"er t"!n to t"e opposite possi$le o-t*o e of At!"-!llp!;s *o in# to C!drid !nd *!pt-rin# Kin# C"!rles I of Sp!in% P!rt 2( entitled AT"e Rise !nd Spre!d of >ood Prod-*tionB !nd *onsistin# of C"!pters F.&)( is de,oted to +"!t I $elie,e to $e t"e ost i port!nt *onstell!tion of -lti !te *!-ses% C"!pter F s7et*"es "o+ food prod-*tion<t"!t is( t"e #ro+in# of food $y !#ri*-lt-re or "erdin#( inste!d of t"e "-ntin# !nd #!t"erin# of +ild foods<-lti !tely led to t"e i edi!te f!*tors per ittin# Pi1!rro;s tri- p"% 9-t t"e rise of food prod-*tion ,!ried !ro-nd t"e #lo$e% As +e s"!ll see in C"!pter 3( peoples in so e p!rts of t"e +orld de,eloped food prod-*tion $y t"e sel,esE so e ot"er peoples !*/-ired it in pre"istori* ti es fro t"ose independent *entersE !nd still ot"ers neit"er de,eloped nor !*/-ired food prod-*tion pre"istori*!lly $-t re !ined "-nter.#!t"erers -ntil odern ti es% C"!pter G e0plores t"e n- ero-s f!*tors dri,in# t"e s"ift fro t"e "-nter.#!t"erer lifestyle to+!rd food prod-*tion( in so e !re!s $-t not in ot"ers% C"!pters 6( K( !nd 5 t"en s"o+ "o+ *rops !nd li,esto*7 *! e in pre"istori* ti es to $e do esti*!ted fro !n*estr!l +ild pl!nts !nd !ni !ls( $y in*ipient f!r ers !nd "erders +"o *o-ld "!,e "!d no ,ision of t"e o-t*o e% 8eo#r!p"i* differen*es in t"e lo*!l s-ites of +ild pl!nts !nd !ni !ls !,!il!$le for do esti*!tion #o ! lon# +!y to+!rd e0pl!inin# +"y only ! fe+ !re!s $e*! e independent *enters of food prod-*tion( !nd +"y it !rose e!rlier in so e of t"ose !re!s t"!n in ot"ers% >ro t"ose fe+ *enters of ori#in( food prod-*tion spre!d -*" ore r!pidly to so e !re!s t"!n to ot"ers% A !:or f!*tor *ontri$-tin# to t"ose differin# r!tes of spre!d t-rns o-t to "!,e $een t"e orient!tion of t"e *ontinents; !0esH predo in!ntly +est.e!st for E-r!si!( predo in!ntly nort".so-t" for t"e A eri*!s !nd Afri*! ?C"!pter &)@% T"-s( C"!pter ' s7et*"ed t"e i edi!te f!*tors $e"ind E-rope;s *on/-est of N!ti,e A eri*!ns( !nd C"!pter F t"e de,elop ent of t"ose f!*tors fro t"e -lti !te *!-se of food prod-*tion% In P!rt ' ?A>ro >ood to 8-ns( 8er s( !nd Steel(B C"!pters &&.&F@( t"e *onne*tions fro -lti !te to pro0i !te *!-ses !re tr!*ed in det!il( $e#innin# +it" t"e e,ol-tion of #er s *"!r!*teristi* of dense "- !n pop-l!tions ?C"!pter &&@% >!r ore N!ti,e A eri*!ns !nd ot"er non.E-r!si!n peoples +ere 7illed $y E-r!si!n #er s t"!n $y E-r!si!n #-ns or steel +e!pons% Con,ersely( fe+ or no distin*ti,e let"!l #er s !+!ited +o-ld.$e E-rope!n *on/-erors in t"e Ne+ World% W"y +!s t"e #er e0*"!n#e so

-ne/-!lD Here( t"e res-lts of re*ent ole*-l!r $iolo#i*!l st-dies !re ill- in!tin# in lin7in# #er s to t"e rise of food prod-*tion( in E-r!si! -*" ore t"!n in t"e A eri*!s% Anot"er *"!in of *!-s!tion led fro food prod-*tion to +ritin#( possi$ly t"e ost i port!nt sin#le in,ention of t"e l!st fe+ t"o-s!nd ye!rs ?C"!pter &2@% Writin# "!s e,ol,ed de no,o only ! fe+ ti es in "- !n "istory( in !re!s t"!t "!d $een t"e e!rliest sites of t"e rise of food prod-*tion in t"eir respe*ti,e re#ions% All ot"er so*ieties t"!t "!,e $e*o e liter!te did so $y t"e diff-sion of +ritin# syste s or of t"e ide! of +ritin# fro one of t"ose fe+ pri !ry *enters% Hen*e( for t"e st-dent of +orld "istory( t"e p"eno enon of +ritin# is p!rti*-l!rly -sef-l for e0plorin# !not"er i port!nt *onstell!tion of *!-sesH #eo#r!p"y;s effe*t on t"e e!se +it" +"i*" ide!s !nd in,entions spre!d% W"!t "olds for +ritin# !lso "olds for te*"nolo#y ?C"!pter &'@% A *r-*i!l /-estion is +"et"er te*"nolo#i*!l inno,!tion is so dependent on r!re in,entor.#eni-ses( !nd on !ny idiosyn*r!ti* *-lt-r!l f!*tors( !s to defy !n -nderst!ndin# of +orld p!tterns% In f!*t( +e s"!ll see t"!t( p!r!do0i*!lly( t"is l!r#e n- $er of *-lt-r!l f!*tors !7es it e!sier( not "!rder( to -nderst!nd +orld p!tterns of te*"nolo#y% 9y en!$lin# f!r ers to #ener!te food s-rpl-ses( food prod-*tion per itted f!r in# so*ieties to s-pport f-ll.ti e *r!ft spe*i!lists +"o did not #ro+ t"eir o+n food !nd +"o de,eloped te*"nolo#ies% 9esides s-st!inin# s*ri$es !nd in,entors( food prod-*tion !lso en!$led f!r ers to s-pport politi*i!ns ?C"!pter &F@% Co$ile $!nds of "-nter.#!t"erers !re rel!ti,ely e#!lit!ri!n( !nd t"eir politi*!l sp"ere is *onfined to t"e $!nd;s o+n territory !nd to s"iftin# !lli!n*es +it" nei#"$orin# $!nds% Wit" t"e rise of dense( sedent!ry( food.prod-*in# pop-l!tions *! e t"e rise of *"iefs( 7in#s( !nd $-re!-*r!ts% S-*" $-re!-*r!*ies +ere essenti!l not only to #o,ernin# l!r#e !nd pop-lo-s do !ins $-t !lso to !int!inin# st!ndin# !r ies( sendin# o-t fleets of e0plor!tion( !nd or#!ni1in# +!rs of *on/-est% P!rt F ?AAro-nd t"e World in >i,e C"!pters(B C"!pters &3.&5@ !pplies t"e lessons of P!rts 2 !nd ' to e!*" of t"e *ontinents !nd so e i port!nt isl!nds% C"!pter &3 e0! ines t"e "istory of A-str!li! itself( !nd of t"e l!r#e isl!nd of Ne+ 8-ine!( for erly :oined to A-str!li! in ! sin#le *ontinent% T"e *!se of A-str!li!( "o e to t"e re*ent "- !n so*ieties +it" t"e si plest te*"nolo#ies( !nd t"e sole *ontinent +"ere food prod-*tion did not de,elop indi#eno-sly( poses ! *riti*!l test of t"eories !$o-t inter*ontinent!l differen*es in "- !n so*ieties% We s"!ll see +"y A$ori#in!l A-str!li!ns re !ined "-nter.#!t"erers( e,en +"ile ost peoples of nei#"$orin# Ne+ 8-ine! $e*! e food prod-*ers% C"!pters &G !nd &6 inte#r!te de,elop ents in A-str!li! !nd Ne+ 8-ine! into t"e perspe*ti,e of t"e +"ole re#ion en*o p!ssin# t"e E!st Asi!n !inl!nd !nd P!*ifi* isl!nds% T"e rise of food prod-*tion in C"in! sp!+ned se,er!l #re!t pre"istori* o,e ents of "- !n pop-l!tions( or of *-lt-r!l tr!its( or of $ot"% One of t"ose o,e ents( +it"in C"in! itself( *re!ted t"e politi*!l !nd *-lt-r!l p"eno enon of C"in! !s +e 7no+ it tod!y% Anot"er res-lted in ! repl!*e ent( t"ro-#"o-t !l ost t"e +"ole of tropi*!l So-t"e!st Asi!( of indi#eno-s "-nter.#!t"erers $y f!r ers of -lti !tely So-t" C"inese ori#in% Still !not"er(

t"e A-stronesi!n e0p!nsion( si il!rly repl!*ed t"e indi#eno-s "-nter.#!t"erers of t"e P"ilippines !nd Indonesi! !nd spre!d o-t to t"e ost re ote isl!nds of Polynesi!( $-t +!s -n!$le to *oloni1e A-str!li! !nd ost of Ne+ 8-ine!% To t"e st-dent of +orld "istory( !ll t"ose *ollisions ! on# E!st Asi!n !nd P!*ifi* peoples !re do-$ly i port!ntH t"ey for ed t"e *o-ntries +"ere one.t"ird of t"e odern +orld;s pop-l!tion li,es( !nd in +"i*" e*ono i* po+er is in*re!sin#ly $e*o in# *on*entr!tedE !nd t"ey f-rnis" espe*i!lly *le!r odels for -nderst!ndin# t"e "istories of peoples else+"ere in t"e +orld% C"!pter &K ret-rns to t"e pro$le introd-*ed in C"!pter '( t"e *ollision $et+een E-rope!n !nd N!ti,e A eri*!n peoples% A s!ry of t"e l!st &'())) ye!rs of Ne+ World !nd +estern E-r!si!n "istory !7es *le!r "o+ E-rope;s *on/-est of t"e A eri*!s +!s erely t"e *-l in!tion of t+o lon# !nd ostly sep!r!te "istori*!l tr!:e*tories% T"e differen*es $et+een t"ose tr!:e*tories +ere st! ped $y *ontinent!l differen*es in do esti*!$le pl!nts !nd !ni !ls( #er s( ti es of settle ent( orient!tion of *ontinent!l !0es( !nd e*olo#i*!l $!rriers% >in!lly( t"e "istory of s-$.S!"!r!n Afri*! ?C"!pter &5@ offers stri7in# si il!rities !s +ell !s *ontr!sts +it" Ne+ World "istory% T"e s! e f!*tors t"!t olded E-rope!ns; en*o-nters +it" Afri*!ns olded t"eir en*o-nters +it" N!ti,e A eri*!ns !s +ell% 9-t Afri*! !lso differed fro t"e A eri*!s in !ll t"ese f!*tors% As ! res-lt( E-rope!n *on/-est did not *re!te +idespre!d or l!stin# E-rope!n settle ent of s-$.S!"!r!n Afri*!( e0*ept in t"e f!r so-t"% Of ore l!stin# si#nifi*!n*e +!s ! l!r#e.s*!le pop-l!tion s"ift +it"in Afri*! itself( t"e 9!nt- e0p!nsion% It pro,es to "!,e $een tri##ered $y !ny of t"e s! e *!-ses t"!t pl!yed t"e sel,es o-t !t C!:! !r*!( in E!st Asi!( on P!*ifi* isl!nds( !nd in A-str!li! !nd Ne+ 8-ine!% I "!r$or no ill-sions t"!t t"ese *"!pters "!,e s-**eeded in e0pl!inin# t"e "istories of !ll t"e *ontinents for t"e p!st &'())) ye!rs% O$,io-sly( t"!t +o-ld $e i possi$le to !**o plis" in ! sin#le $oo7 e,en if +e did -nderst!nd !ll t"e !ns+ers( +"i*" +e don;t% At $est( t"is $oo7 identifies se,er!l *onstell!tions of en,iron ent!l f!*tors t"!t I $elie,e pro,ide ! l!r#e p!rt of t"e !ns+er to Y!li;s /-estion% Re*o#nition of t"ose f!*tors e p"!si1es t"e -ne0pl!ined resid-e( +"ose -nderst!ndin# +ill $e ! t!s7 for t"e f-t-re% T"e Epilo#-e( entitled AT"e >-t-re of H- !n History !s ! S*ien*e(B l!ys o-t so e pie*es of t"e resid-e( in*l-din# t"e pro$le of t"e differen*es $et+een different p!rts of E-r!si!( t"e role of *-lt-r!l f!*tors -nrel!ted to en,iron ent( !nd t"e role of indi,id-!ls% Per"!ps t"e $i##est of t"ese -nsol,ed pro$le s is to est!$lis" "- !n "istory !s ! "istori*!l s*ien*e( on ! p!r +it" re*o#ni1ed "istori*!l s*ien*es s-*" !s e,ol-tion!ry $iolo#y( #eolo#y( !nd *li !tolo#y% T"e st-dy of "- !n "istory does pose re!l diffi*-lties( $-t t"ose re*o#ni1ed

"istori*!l s*ien*es en*o-nter so e of t"e s! e *"!llen#es% Hen*e t"e et"ods de,eloped in so e of t"ese ot"er fields !y !lso pro,e -sef-l in t"e field of "- !n "istory% Alre!dy( t"o-#"( I "ope to "!,e *on,in*ed yo-( t"e re!der( t"!t "istory is not A:-st one d! n f!*t !fter !not"er(B !s ! *yni* p-t it% T"ere re!lly !re $ro!d p!tterns to "istory( !nd t"e se!r*" for t"eir e0pl!n!tion is !s prod-*ti,e !s it is f!s*in!tin#% Reading Questions &% W"!t is Y!liLs /-estionD W"y does Di! ond s-##est t"!t t"e /-estion "!s Ao,er+"el in# pr!*ti*!l !nd politi*!l i port!n*eBD W"!t do yo- t"in7 "e e!ns +"en "e s!ys t"!t t"e /-estion in,ol,es t"e A$ro!dest p!ttern of "istoryBD 2% Di! ond s!ys on p!#e 2( AMTNe*"nolo#i*!l !nd politi*!l differen*es !s of A%D% &3)) +ere t"e i edi!te *!-se of t"e +orldLs odern ine/-!lities%B Do yo- !#reeD Wo-ld yo!dd or *"!n#e !nyt"in# !$o-t t"!t st!te entD '% W"!t !re t"ree *o on o$:e*tions !de to+!rd !nyone +"o tries to !ns+er Y!liLs /-estion !nd "o+ does Di! ond respond to t"ose o$:e*tionsD F% Ho+ does Di! ond tre!t t"e end-rin# $elief t"!t r!*i!l differen*es !**o-nt for t"e $ro!d p!tterns in "istoryD Or t"!t *li !te differen*es !y $e t"e so-r*e of differen*eD 3% Y!liLs /-estion le!ds -s to !s7 +"y E-rope!ns ended -p +it" +ritin#( politi*!l syste s( A#-ns( infe*tio-s dise!ses( steel tools( !nd !n-f!*t-red prod-*tsB $efore ot"er peoples% W"!t is Di! ondLs t"esis !nd +"!t does "e t"in7 is t"e +!y to !ns+er t"!t /-estionD G% W"!t !re t"e positi,e !nd ne#!ti,e sides of !pplyin# s*ientifi* rese!r*" et"ods to t"e st-dy of "istoryD W"!t ot"er dis*iplines *o-ld $e !pplied to t"e st-dy of "istoryD W"!t !re t"e !d,!nt!#es !nd dis!d,!nt!#es of doin# soD 6% On t"e l!st p!#e Di! ond -ses t"e p"r!se Ase,er!l *onstell!tions of en,iron ent!l f!*torsB to des*ri$e "is !ns+er to Y!liLs /-estion% W"!t do yo- t"in7 "e e!nsD K% Ho+ +o-ld yo- des*ri$e Di! ond;s +ritin# styleD S-pport yo-r !ns+er +it" spe*ifi* p!ss!#es( p"r!ses( or senten*es fro t"e re!din#%