Great Expectations

Great Expectations is a novel by Charles Dickens. It was first published in serial form in All the Year Round[1] from 1 December 186 to !u"ust 1861. It has been adapted for sta"e and screen over #$ times.[#] Great Expectations is written in the style of bildungsroman% which follows the story of a man or woman in their &uest for maturity% usually startin" from childhood and endin" in the main character's eventual adulthood. Great Expectations is the story of the orphan (ip% writin" about his life from his early childhood until adulthood and attemptin" to become a "entleman alon" the way. )he novel can also be considered semi*autobio"raphical of Dickens% like much of his work% drawin" on his e+periences of life and people. )he main plot of Great Expectations takes place between Christmas ,ve 181#% when the prota"onist is about seven years old -and which happens to be the year of Dickens' birth.% and the winter of 18/ .[0]

Plot summary
1n Christmas ,ve of 181#% (ip% an orphan a"ed 2% encounters an escaped convict in the villa"e churchyard while visitin" his family's many "raves. )he convict scares (ip into stealin" food for him and a file to "rind away his le" shackles. 3e threatens (ip not to tell anyone and do as he says or his friend will cut out (ip's liver. (ip returns home% where he lives with 4rs. 5oe% his older sister% and her husband 5oe 6ar"ery. 3is sister is very cruel and beats him and 5oe re"ularly% while 5oe is much more kind to (ip. ,arly the ne+t mornin"% (ip steals food and drink from the 6ar"ery pantry -includin" a pie for their Christmas feast. and sneaks out to the "raveyard. It is the first time in (ip7s life he7s felt truly "uilty. )his is an important event in the book because the convict will never for"et the kindness -albeit forced. that (ip showed to him. )he convict% however% waits many years to fully show his "ratitude. Durin" Christmas dinner with the minister% 4r. 8opsle% 4r. and 4rs. 3ubble% and 9ncle (umblechook% (ip and 4rs. 5oe's moderately wealthy uncle% no one notices the missin" food or brandy until 9ncle (umblechook drinks some brandy and spits it out. (ip reali:es that he filled the brandy ;u" not with water% but with tar water. (ip sits at the table bein" told how lucky he is by all the relatives and holds on to the dinin" table le" for dear life% scared that someone will notice the missin" pie. 8hen 4rs. 5oe "ets up and "oes to the kitchen for the pie% (ip bolts to the door. 3owever% his way is blocked by police officers. )hey ask 5oe to repair their handcuffs and invite 5oe% (ip and 4r. 8opsle to come with them to hunt for some escaped prisoners from the local ;ail. !s they hunt throu"h the marshes outside the villa"e% they accost the two convicts while en"a"ed in a fi"ht. 1ne of them is the convict helped by (ip< however% when &uestioned about where he "ot the food and file% he claims he stole the items himself in order to shield (ip. )he police take the two to the 3ulk% a "iant prison ship% and (ip is carried home by 5oe% where they finish Christmas dinner. ! while after (ip7s encounter with the convict% (ip's life returns to normal. 3e "oes to school% run by 4r. 8opsle's "reat*aunt% and becomes friends with =iddy% an orphan who was adopted by the 8opsles. 3e still feels "uilty for the theft. (ip's 9ncle (umblechook "ets (ip invited to the house of a rich old woman named 4iss 3avisham% who lives in the villa"e in >atis 3ouse. 4iss 3avisham is a spinster who wears an old weddin" dress with one shoe on and has all the house clocks stopped at # minutes to nine. >he hasn't seen sunli"ht in years and claims to

have a broken heart and ;ust wants to see (ip play cards with ,stella% a youn" "irl she has adopted. !fter this first meetin"% (ip fre&uently visits 4iss 3avisham and ,stella% for whom he harbours a feelin" of obsessive attraction. 3e be"ins to tenaciously learn everythin" he can from =iddy in school% in an effort to impress ,stella who called him a common labourin" boy. 1ne day% when (ip "oes to the town pub to pick up 5oe% they are approached by a messen"er sent by (ip's convict. 3e mi+es his drink with the stolen file and "ives (ip two pounds before leavin". (ip visits 4iss 3avisham on her birthday where she shows him her weddin" cake% which is bein" eaten by mice% and where she will be laid out when she is dead% a death she looks forward to. 3e also meets the (ockets% her relatives who only visit her to insure their inheritance. (ip fi"hts a pale boy in the courtyard and easily beats him. ,stella allows (ip to kiss her on the cheek and he leaves. >everal months later% 4iss 3avisham crushes (ip's dream of becomin" a "entleman when she a"rees to help with the papers that would make (ip's apprenticeship to 5oe official. 5oe comes to the house and (ip is embarrassed by his common appearance and talk. 4iss 3avisham "ives them #$ pounds as a "ift and the apprenticeship is finali:ed. (ip works with 5oe for a few years in the for"e% doin" work that he hates. In an a"reement with 5oe% he visits 4iss 3avisham only on his birthday% when he receives a half*holiday. 3e and 5oe work with a ;ourneyman named Dol"e 1rlick% who dislikes (ip because he feels that 5oe "ives (ip special treatment. 1ne day% 1rlick and 4rs. 5oe be"in to fi"ht. 4rs. 5oe calls for 5oe to defend her honor% and 5oe &uickly beats him in a fistfi"ht. ?ater that day% when (ip visits >atis 3ouse% he discovers that ,stella has been sent abroad for schoolin". 8hen he leaves he a"rees to spend the evenin" with 4r. 8opsle and 9ncle (umblechook readin" a play. 1n his way home that ni"ht% (ip sees 1rlick sneakin" away in shadows% and hears the cannons of the 3ulk "o off. 8hen he returns home% he discovers that 4rs. 5oe had been attacked. >he becomes a horribly brain*dama"ed invalid. (ip feels "uilty a"ain when the police believe escaped criminals attacked 4rs. 5oe. )he detectives from ?ondon are ine+perienced and do not discover anythin". 4rs. 5oe spends her days callin" for 1rlick and draws a capital @)@ on a slate. =iddy thinks that the @)@ represents a hammer and that 1rlick is the attacker. 8hen 1rlick arrives% 4rs. 5oe tries to please him and shows him the slate. =iddy moves in with the 6ar"erys and (ip confides in her about his feelin"s for ,stella. 8hen (ip and 5oe are listenin" to 4r. 8opsle read a murder trial from a newspaper% a ?ondon lawyer% 5a""ers% approaches (ip% revealin" very startlin" newsA (ip has inherited a lar"e sum of money from an anonymous benefactor. )he conditions of the receipt of said money re&uire him to leave for ?ondon immediately% buy some clothes and become a "entleman. (ip% because he has always wanted to become a "entleman% "raciously accepts these terms. In the days before the move% (ip be"ins to act hau"htily and takes advanta"e of 5oe and =iddy. =efore he leaves he visits 4iss 3avisham. =ased on her reaction% (ip is confident that she is the secret benefactor. 8hen he leaves for ?ondon% he feels "uilty for the way he treated the people that love him but not enou"h to "et off the train and make thin"s ri"ht. In ?ondon% (ip is ama:ed by the crowds of people. 3e meets 5a""er's clerk 8emmick. In 5a""er's office% he is introduced to his tutor% 4atthew (ocket% and his son% 3erbert (ocket% a poor "entleman who wants to become a merchant. 3erbert was the pale child that (ip beat in the courtyard. 3erbert &uickly nicknames (ip @3andel@ because he remembers 3andel's )he 3armonious =lacksmith. 3erbert tells (ip the story of 4iss 3avisham and what happened to her. 4iss 3avisham was en"a"ed to a man below her social standin". )he man convinced her to buy her half*brother's share of the family brewery for him. 3erbert believes that the half*

brother and the fiance were co*conspirators who decided to split the profits. 1n the weddin" day% she received a note from her fiance at # minutes to nine sayin" he won't marry her and she never tried to marry a"ain. )he ne+t day% after spendin" the mornin" at the Boyal ,+chan"e and bein" tutored% (ip eats dinner with the (ockets. )he (ocket house is a chaotic place full of noisy people. 1ne stormy ni"ht% (ip learns the true identity of his benefactor. It is not 4iss 3avisham% as he had always thou"ht% but rather a petty criminal named 4a"witch who had been transported to Cew >outh 8ales. 4a"witch is the convict (ip helped feed in the churchyard many years a"o and he left all his money to (ip in "ratitude for that kindness and also because (ip reminded him of his own child% whom he thinks is dead. )he news of his benefactor crushes (ip * he's ashamed of 4a"witch% and 4a"witch wants to spend the rest of his life with (ip. (ip% very reluctantly% lets 4a"witch stay with him. )here is a warrant out for 4a"witch's arrest in ,n"land and he'll be han"ed if he's cau"ht. ,ventually% because 4a"witch is on the run from the law% a plan is hatched by 3erbert and (ip which involves fleein" the country by boat. 4eanwhile% ,stella has married =entley Drummle% a marria"e that will be an unhappy one. =efore (ip flees with 4a"witch% he makes one last visit to 4iss 3avisham. 4iss 3avisham reali:es that she created a monster out of ,stella% who broke (ip's heart% and asks him for for"iveness. 4iss 3avisham stands too close to the fire and li"hts her dress on fire. (ip heroically saves her but she later dies from her burn in;uries. (ip% 3erbert and another friend% >tartop% make a "allant attempt to help 4a"witch escape% but instead he's captured and sent to ;ail. (ip is devoted to 4a"witch by now and reco"ni:es in him a "ood and noble man. (ip tries to have 4a"witch released but 4a"witch dies shortly before he's slated to be e+ecuted. 9nder ,n"lish law 4a"witch's wealth forfeits to the Crown% thus e+tin"uishin" (ip's @6reat ,+pectations@. !fter an e+tended period of sickness durin" which he is looked after by 5oe% he returns to "ood health and returns home to ask =iddy for for"iveness and for her love. 3owever% when he arrives% he finds that it is =iddy and 5oe's weddin" day. )hankful for not mentionin" his interest in =iddy to 5oe while he was sick% (ip con"ratulates the happy couple. !fterwards% (ip "oes into business overseas with 3erbert. !fter eleven relatively successful years abroad% (ip "oes back to visit 5oe and the rest of his family out in the marshes. Dinally% (ip makes one last visit to the ruins of 4iss 3avisham's house% where he finds ,stella wanderin". 3er marria"e is over% and she seems to have children and wants (ip to accept her as a friend. 8hen the novel ends% it seems that there is hope that (ip and ,stella will finally end up to"ether.[/]

[edit] Original ending

(ip meets ,stella on the streets. 3er abusive husband Drummle has died and she has remarried to a doctor. ,stella and (ip e+chan"e brief pleasantries and (ip states that while he could not have her in the end% he was at least "lad to know she was a different person now% chan"ed from the coldhearted "irl 4iss 3avisham had reared her to be. )he novel ends with (ip sayin" he could see that @sufferin" had been stron"er than 4iss 3avisham's teachin" and had "iven her a heart to understand what my heart used to be.@

)he revised% widely published endin" follows the para"raph @ '4y dear =iddy% I have for"otten nothin" in my life that ever had a foremost place there% and little that ever had any place there. =ut that poor dream% as I once used to call it% has all "one by =iddy% all "one byE' @ and be"ins @Cevertheless% I knew while I said those words...@ )he full te+t of the ori"inal endin" isA @It was two years more before I saw herself. I had heard of her as leadin" a most unhappy life% and as bein" separated from her husband% who had used her with "reat cruelty% and who had become &uite renowned as a compound of pride% brutality% and meanness. I had heard of the death of her husband from an accident conse&uent on ill* treatin" a horse% and of her bein" married a"ain to a >hropshire doctor who% a"ainst his interest% had once very manfully interposed on an occasion when he was in professional attendance upon 4r. Drummle% and had witnessed some outra"eous treatment of her. I had heard that the >hropshire doctor was not rich% and that they lived on her own personal fortune. I was in ,n"land a"ain * in ?ondon% and walkin" alon" (iccadilly with little (ip * when a servant came runnin" after me to ask would I step back to a lady in a carria"e who wished to speak to me. It was a little pony carria"e which the lady was drivin"% and the lady and I looked sadly enou"h on one another. 'I am "reatly chan"ed% I know% but I thou"ht you would like to shake hands with ,stella% too% (ip. ?ift up that pretty child and let me kiss itE' ->he supposed the child% I think% to be my child.. I was very "lad afterwards to have had the interview% for in her face and in her voice% and in her touch% she "ave me the assurance that sufferin" had been stron"er than 4iss 3avisham's teachin"% and had "iven her a heart to understand what my heart used to be.@ )he story ends in the year 18/ . CoteA )he full te+t above is from Cew !merican Classics edition published by Cew !merican ?ibrary% copyri"ht 1F60.

[edit] Revised ending

(ip% ,den and ,stella meet a"ain at the ruins of >atis 3ouseA @8e are friends%@ said I% risin" and bendin" over her% as she rose from the bench. @!nd will continue friends apart@. I took her hand in mine% and we went out of the ruined place< and% as the mornin" mists had risen lon" a"o when I first left the for"e% so the evenin" mists were risin" now% and in all the broad e+panse of tran&uil li"ht they showed to me% I saw no shadow of another partin" from her.[$] G Charles Dickens, Great Expectations

[edit] Main characters in Great Expectations

[edit] Pip and his loved and hated ones

Philip Pirrip% nicknamed (ip% an orphan and the prota"onist of Great Expectations. )hrou"hout his childhood% (ip thou"ht that he was "oin" to be trained as a blacksmith% but with 4a"witch's anonymous patrona"e% (ip travels to ?ondon and becomes a "entleman.

Joe Gargery% (ip's brother*in*law% and his first father fi"ure. 3e is a blacksmith who is always kind to (ip and the only person with whom (ip is always honest. 5oe was very disappointed when (ip decided to leave his home and travel to ?ondon to become a "entleman rather than be a blacksmith. Mrs. Joe Gargery% (ip's hot*tempered adult sister% who raises him after the death of their parents but complains constantly of the burden (ip is to her. 1rlick -a blacksmith. attacks her and she is left disabled until her death. Mr. Pumblechoo % 5oe 6ar"ery's uncle% an officious bachelor and corn merchant. 8hile holdin" (ip in disdain% he tells 4rs. 5oe how noble she is to raise (ip. !s the person who first connected (ip to 4iss 3avisham% he even claims to have been the ori"inal architect of (ip's precious fortune. (ip despises 4r. (umblechook as 4r. (umblechook constantly makes himself out to be better than he really is. 3e is a cunnin" impostor. 8hen (ip finally stands up to him% 4r. (umblechook turns those listenin" to the conversation a"ainst (ip.

[edit] Miss !avisham and her "amily

Miss !avisham% wealthy spinster who takes (ip on as a companion and whom (ip suspects is his benefactor. 4iss 3avisham does not discoura"e this as it fits into her own spiteful plans. >he later apolo"i:es to him as she's overtaken by "uilt. 3e accepts her apolo"y and she is badly burnt when her dress catches aflame from a spark which leapt from the fire. (ip saves her% but she later dies from her in;uries. Estella #!avisham$% 4iss 3avisham's adopted dau"hter% whom (ip pursues romantically throu"hout the novel. >he is secretly the dau"hter of 4olly% 5a""ers' housekeeper% and !bel 4a"witch% (ip's convict% but was "iven up to 4iss 3avisham after a murder trial. ,stella represents the life of wealth and culture for which (ip strives. >ince her ability to love has been ruined by 4iss 3avisham% she is unable to return (ip's passion. >he warns (ip of this repeatedly% but he is unwillin" or unable to believe her. %rthur #!avisham$% 4iss 3avisham's half*brother% who felt he was shortchan"ed in his inheritance by their father's preference for his dau"hter. 3e ;oined with Compeyson in the scheme to cheat 4iss 3avisham of lar"e sums of money by "ainin" 4iss 3avisham's trust throu"h promise of marria"e to Compeyson. !rthur is haunted by the memory of the scheme and sickens and dies in a delirium% ima"inin" that the still*livin" 4iss 3avisham is in his room% comin" to kill him. !rthur has died before the be"innin" of the novel and "ambled heavily% bein" drunk &uite often. Matthe& Poc et% a cousin of 4iss 3avisham's. 3e is the patriarch of the (ocket family% but unlike others of her relatives he is not "reedy for 3avisham's wealth. 4atthew (ocket has a family of nine children% two nurses% a housekeeper% a cook% and a pretty but useless wife -named =elinda.. 3e also tutors youn" "entlemen% such as =entley Drummle% >tartop% (ip% and his own son 3erbert% who live on his estate. !erbert Poc et% a member of the (ocket family% 4iss 3avisham's presumed heirs% whom (ip first meets as a @pale youn" "entleman@ who challen"es (ip to a fist fi"ht at 4iss 3avisham's house when both are children. 3e is the son of 4atthew (ocket% (ip's tutor in the @"entlemanly@ arts% and shares his apartment with (ip in ?ondon% becomin" (ip's fast friend who is there to share (ip's happiness as well as his troubles.

3e has a secret relationship with a woman called Clara. 3erbert keeps it secret because he knows his mother would say she is below his @station.@ >he's actually a sweet% fairy*like "irl who takes care of her dyin" drunk of a father.

'amilla% an a"in"% talkative relative of 4iss 3avisham who does not care much for 4iss 3avisham and only wants her money. >he is one of the many relatives who han" around 4iss 3avisham @like flies@ for her wealth. 'ousin Raymond% another a"in" relative of 4iss 3avisham who is only interested in her money. 3e is married to Camilla. Georgiana% an a"in" relative of 4iss 3avisham who is only interested in her money. (arah Poc et% @a dry% brown corru"ated old woman% with a small face that mi"ht have been made out of walnut shells% and a lar"e mouth like a cat's without the whiskers.@ !nother a"in" relative of 4iss 3avisham who is only interested in her money.

[edit] 'haracters "rom Pip)s youth

*he 'onvict% an escapee from a prison ship% whom (ip treats kindly% and who turns out to be his benefactor% at which time his real name is revealed to be !bel 4a"witch% but who is also known as (rovis and 4r. Campbell in parts of the story to protect his identity. (ip also covers him as his uncle in order that no one reco"ni:es him as a convict sent to !ustralia years before. o %bel Mag&itch% the convict's "iven name% who is also (ip's benefactor.
o

Provis% a name that !bel 4a"witch uses when he returns to ?ondon% to conceal his identity. (ip also says that @(rovis@ is his uncle visitin" from out of town. Mr. 'ampbell% a name that !bel 4a"witch uses after he is discovered in ?ondon by his enemy.

Mr. and Mrs. !ubble% simple folk who think they are more important than they really are. )hey live in (ip's villa"e. Mr. +opsle% the clerk of the church in (ip's town. 3e later "ives up the church work and moves to ?ondon to pursue his ambition to be an actor% even thou"h he is not very "ood.
o

Mr. +aldengarver% the sta"e name that 4r. 8opsle adopts as an actor in ?ondon.

,iddy% 4r. 8opsle's second cousin< she runs an evenin" school from her home in (ip's villa"e and becomes (ip's teacher. ! kind and intelli"ent but poor youn" woman% she is% like (ip and ,stella% an orphan. >he is the opposite of ,stella. (ip i"nores her obvious love for him as he fruitlessly pursues ,stella. !fter he reali:es the error of his life choices% he returns to claim =iddy as his bride% only to find out she has married 5oe 6ar"ery. =iddy and 5oe later have two children% one named after (ip who ,stella mistakes as (ip's child in the ori"inal endin". 1rlick was attracted to her% but his affection was unreciprocated.

'lara ,arley% wife to 3erbert (ocket. ! very poor "irl that lives with her father who is sufferin" from "out. >he dislikes (ip the first time she meets him because he influences 3erbert's spendin"% but she eventually warms up to him. Mr. Pumblechoo ! man who claims to be part of hi"h society% but is not much hi"her than (ip's family. 3e claims that it was all thanks to him that (ip "ot to 4iss 3avisham's in the first place% but he is an obvious% cocky fake.

[edit] *he la&yer and his circle

Mr. Jaggers% prominent ?ondon lawyer who represents the interests of diverse clients% both criminal and civil. 3e represents (ip's benefactor and is 4iss 3avisham's lawyer as well. =y the end of the story% his law practice is the common element that brushes many of the characters. John +emmic % 5a""ers's clerk% only called @4r. 8emmick@ and @8emmick@ e+cept by his father% who himself is referred to as @)he !"ed (arent@% @)he !"ed (.@% or simply @)he !"ed.@ 8emmick is (ip's chief "o*between with 5a""ers and "enerally looks after (ip in ?ondon. Molly% 4r. 5a""ers's maidservant whom 5a""ers saved from the "allows for murder. >he is revealed to be the former lover of 4a"witch% and ,stella's real mother.

[edit] Pip)s antagonists

'ompeyson -surname.% another convict% and enemy to 4a"witch. ! professional swindler% he had been 4iss 3avisham's intended husband% who was in lea"ue with !rthur to defraud 4iss 3avisham of her fortune. 3e pursues !bel 4a"witch when he learns that he is in ?ondon and eventually dies. -.olge- Orlic % ;ourneyman blacksmith at 5oe 6ar"ery's for"e. >tron"% rude and sullen% he is as churlish as 5oe is "entle and kind. 3is resentments cause him to take actions which threaten his desires in life but for which he blames others. 3e ends up in a fistfi"ht with 5oe over 4rs. 5oe's tauntin" and is easily beaten. )his set in motion an escalatin" chain of events that lead him to secretly in;ure 4rs. 5oe "rievously and eventually make an attempt on (ip's life. ,entley .rummle% a coarse unintelli"ent youn" man whose only savin" "races are that he is to succeed to a title and his family is wealthy. (ip meets him at 4r. (ocket's house% as Drummle is also to be trained in "entlemanly skills. Drummle is hostile to (ip and everyone. 3e is a rival to (ip for ,stella's attentions and marries her. It is said he ill*treats ,stella and took much from her. Drummle would later be mentioned to have died from an accident followin" his mistreatment of a horse.
o

-*he (pider-% 4r. 5a""ers's nickname for =entley Drummle.[6]

[edit] (tyle and *hemes

Great Expectations is written in first person and uses lan"ua"e and "rammar that has% since the publication of Great Expectations% fallen out of common use. )he title Great Expectations refers to the '6reat ,+pectations' (ip has of comin" into his benefator's property upon his disclosure to him and achievin" his intended role as a "entleman at that time. Great

Expectations is a bildun"sroman% a novel depictin" "rowth and personal development% in this case% of (ip. )he main themes of Great Expectations are those of crime% social class and ambition. Drom an early a"e% (ip feels "uilt< he is also afraid that someone will find out about his crime and arrest him. )he theme of crime comes in even "reater effect when (ip discovers that his benefactor is in fact a convict. (ip has an internal stru""le with his conscience throu"hout the book. Great Expectations e+plores the different social classes of Hictorian ,n"land. )hrou"hout the book% (ip becomes involved with all of them% from criminals like 4a"witch to the e+tremely rich like 4iss 3avisham. (ip has "reat ambition% as demonstrated constantly in the book. If (ip did not have ambition% he would have never "one to ?ondon% he would have stayed as a lowly blacksmith.[2]

'ontext
C harles Dickens was born on Debruary 2% 181#% and spent the first nine years of his life livin" in the coastal re"ions of Ient% a county in southeast ,n"land. Dickens7s father% 5ohn% was a kind and likable man% but he was incompetent with money and piled up tremendous debts throu"hout his life. 8hen Dickens was nine% his family moved to ?ondon. 8hen he was twelve% his father was arrested and taken to debtors7 prison. Dickens7s mother moved his seven brothers and sisters into prison with their father% but she arran"ed for the youn" Charles to live alone outside the prison and work with other children pastin" labels on bottles in a blackin" warehouse -blackin" was a type of manufactured soot used to make a black pi"ment for products such as matches or fertili:er.. Dickens found the three months he spent apart from his family hi"hly traumatic. Cot only was the ;ob itself miserable% but he considered himself too "ood for it% earnin" the contempt of the other children. !fter his father was released from prison% Dickens returned to school. 3e eventually became a law clerk% then a court reporter% and finally a novelist. 3is first novel% The Pickwick Papers, became a hu"e popular success when Dickens was only twenty*five. 3e published e+tensively and was considered a literary celebrity until his death in 182 . 4any of the events from Dickens7s early life are mirrored in Great Expectations, which% apart from Da id Copper!ield, is his most autobio"raphical novel. (ip% the novel7s prota"onist% lives in the marsh country% works at a ;ob he hates% considers himself too "ood for his surroundin"s% and e+periences material success in ?ondon at a very early a"e% e+actly as Dickens himself did. In addition% one of the novel7s most appealin" characters% 8emmick% is a law clerk% and the law% ;ustice% and the courts are all important components of the story. Great Expectations is set in early Hictorian ,n"land% a time when "reat social chan"es were sweepin" the nation. )he Industrial Bevolution of the late ei"hteenth and early nineteenth centuries had transformed the social landscape% enablin" capitalists and manufacturers to amass hu"e fortunes. !lthou"h social class was no lon"er entirely dependent on the circumstances of one7s birth% the divisions between rich and poor remained nearly as wide as ever. ?ondon% a teemin" mass of humanity% lit by "as lamps at ni"ht and darkened by black clouds from smokestacks durin" the day% formed a sharp contrast with the nation7s sparsely

populated rural areas. 4ore and more people moved from the country to the city in search of "reater economic opportunity. )hrou"hout ,n"land% the manners of the upper class were very strict and conservativeA "entlemen and ladies were e+pected to have thorou"h classical educations and to behave appropriately in innumerable social situations. )hese conditions defined Dickens7s time% and they make themselves felt in almost every facet of Great Expectations. (ip7s sudden rise from country laborer to city "entleman forces him to move from one social e+treme to another while dealin" with the strict rules and e+pectations that "overned Hictorian ,n"land. Ironically% this novel about the desire for wealth and social advancement was written partially out of economic necessity. Dickens7s ma"a:ine% All the Year Round, had become e+tremely popular based on the success of works it had published in serial% such as his own A Tale o! Two Cities and 8ilkie Collins7s The "oman in "hite. =ut it had e+perienced a decline in popularity after publishin" a dull serial by Charles ?ever called A Da#$s Ride. Dickens conceived of Great Expectations as a means of restorin" his publication7s fortunes. )he book is still immensely popular a century and a half later. In form% Great Expectations fits a pattern popular in nineteenth*century ,uropean fictionA the bildun"sroman% or novel depictin" "rowth and personal development% "enerally a transition from boyhood to manhood such as that e+perienced by (ip. )he "enre was populari:ed by 6oethe with his book "ilhelm %eister -12F/G12F6. and became prevalent in ,n"land with such books as Daniel Defoe7s Robinson Crusoe, Charlotte =rontJ7s &ane E#re, and Dickens7s own Da id Copper!ield. ,ach of these works% like Great Expectations, depicts a process of maturation and self*discovery throu"h e+perience as a prota"onist moves from childhood to adulthood.

Plot Overvie&
( ip% a youn" orphan livin" with his sister and her husband in the marshes of Ient% sits in a cemetery one evenin" lookin" at his parents7 tombstones. >uddenly% an escaped convict sprin"s up from behind a tombstone% "rabs (ip% and orders him to brin" him food and a file for his le" irons. (ip obeys% but the fearsome convict is soon captured anyway. )he convict protects (ip by claimin" to have stolen the items himself. 1ne day (ip is taken by his 9ncle (umblechook to play at >atis 3ouse% the home of the wealthy dowa"er 4iss 3avisham% who is e+tremely eccentricA she wears an old weddin" dress everywhere she "oes and keeps all the clocks in her house stopped at the same time. Durin" his visit% he meets a beautiful youn" "irl named ,stella% who treats him coldly and contemptuously. Cevertheless% he falls in love with her and dreams of becomin" a wealthy "entleman so that he mi"ht be worthy of her. 3e even hopes that 4iss 3avisham intends to make him a "entleman and marry him to ,stella% but his hopes are dashed when% after months of re"ular visits to >atis 3ouse% 4iss 3avisham decides to help him become a common laborer in his family7s business. 8ith 4iss 3avisham7s "uidance% (ip is apprenticed to his brother*in*law% 5oe% who is the villa"e blacksmith. (ip works in the for"e unhappily% stru""lin" to better his education with the help of the plain% kind =iddy and encounterin" 5oe7s malicious day laborer% 1rlick. 1ne ni"ht% after an altercation with 1rlick% (ip7s sister% known as 4rs. 5oe% is viciously attacked and becomes a mute invalid. Drom her si"nals% (ip suspects that 1rlick was responsible for the attack.

1ne day a lawyer named 5a""ers appears with stran"e newsA a secret benefactor has "iven (ip a lar"e fortune% and (ip must come to ?ondon immediately to be"in his education as a "entleman. (ip happily assumes that his previous hopes have come trueKthat 4iss 3avisham is his secret benefactor and that the old woman intends for him to marry ,stella. In ?ondon% (ip befriends a youn" "entleman named 3erbert (ocket and 5a""ers7s law clerk% 8emmick. 3e e+presses disdain for his former friends and loved ones% especially 5oe% but he continues to pine after ,stella. 3e furthers his education by studyin" with the tutor 4atthew (ocket% 3erbert7s father. 3erbert himself helps (ip learn how to act like a "entleman. 8hen (ip turns twenty*one and be"ins to receive an income from his fortune% he will secretly help 3erbert buy his way into the business he has chosen for himself. =ut for now% 3erbert and (ip lead a fairly undisciplined life in ?ondon% en;oyin" themselves and runnin" up debts. 1rlick reappears in (ip7s life% employed as 4iss 3avisham7s porter% but is promptly fired by 5a""ers after (ip reveals 1rlick7s unsavory past. 4rs. 5oe dies% and (ip "oes home for the funeral% feelin" tremendous "rief and remorse. >everal years "o by% until one ni"ht a familiar fi"ure bar"es into (ip7s roomKthe convict% 4a"witch% who stuns (ip by announcin" that he% not 4iss 3avisham% is the source of (ip7s fortune. 3e tells (ip that he was so moved by (ip7s boyhood kindness that he dedicated his life to makin" (ip a "entleman% and he made a fortune in !ustralia for that very purpose. (ip is appalled% but he feels morally bound to help 4a"witch escape ?ondon% as the convict is pursued both by the police and by Compeyson% his former partner in crime. ! complicated mystery be"ins to fall into place when (ip discovers that Compeyson was the man who abandoned 4iss 3avisham at the altar and that ,stella is 4a"witch7s dau"hter. 4iss 3avisham has raised her to break men7s hearts% as reven"e for the pain her own broken heart caused her. (ip was merely a boy for the youn" ,stella to practice on< 4iss 3avisham deli"hted in ,stella7s ability to toy with his affections. !s the weeks pass% (ip sees the "ood in 4a"witch and be"ins to care for him deeply. =efore 4a"witch7s escape attempt% ,stella marries an upper*class lout named =entley Drummle. (ip makes a visit to >atis 3ouse% where 4iss 3avisham be"s his for"iveness for the way she has treated him in the past% and he for"ives her. ?ater that day% when she bends over the fireplace% her clothin" catches fire and she "oes up in flames. >he survives but becomes an invalid. In her final days% she will continue to repent for her misdeeds and to plead for (ip7s for"iveness. )he time comes for (ip and his friends to spirit 4a"witch away from ?ondon. 5ust before the escape attempt% (ip is called to a shadowy meetin" in the marshes% where he encounters the ven"eful% evil 1rlick. 1rlick is on the ver"e of killin" (ip when 3erbert arrives with a "roup of friends and saves (ip7s life. (ip and 3erbert hurry back to effect 4a"witch7s escape. )hey try to sneak 4a"witch down the river on a rowboat% but they are discovered by the police% who Compeyson tipped off. 4a"witch and Compeyson fi"ht in the river% and Compeyson is drowned. 4a"witch is sentenced to death% and (ip loses his fortune. 4a"witch feels that his sentence is 6od7s for"iveness and dies at peace. (ip falls ill< 5oe comes to ?ondon to care for him% and they are reconciled. 5oe "ives him the news from homeA 1rlick% after robbin" (umblechook% is now in ;ail< 4iss 3avisham has died and left most of her fortune to the (ockets< =iddy has tau"ht 5oe how to read and write. !fter 5oe leaves% (ip decides to rush home after him and marry =iddy% but when he arrives there he discovers that she and 5oe have already married.

(ip decides to "o abroad with 3erbert to work in the mercantile trade. Beturnin" many years later% he encounters ,stella in the ruined "arden at >atis 3ouse. Drummle% her husband% treated her badly% but he is now dead. (ip finds that ,stella7s coldness and cruelty have been replaced by a sad kindness% and the two leave the "arden hand in hand% (ip believin" that they will never part a"ain. -CoteA Dickens7s ori"inal endin" to Great Expectations differed from the one described in this summary. )he final >ummary and !nalysis section of this >parkCote provides a description of the first endin" and e+plains why Dickens rewrote it..

'haracter /ist
Pip * )he prota"onist and narrator of Great Expectations, (ip be"ins the story as a youn" orphan boy bein" raised by his sister and brother*in*law in the marsh country of Ient% in the southeast of ,n"land. (ip is passionate% romantic% and somewhat unrealistic at heart% and he tends to e+pect more for himself than is reasonable. (ip also has a powerful conscience% and he deeply wants to improve himself% both morally and socially. Bead an in*depth analysis of (ip. Estella * 4iss 3avisham7s beautiful youn" ward% ,stella is (ip7s unattainable dream throu"hout the novel. 3e loves her passionately% but% thou"h she sometimes seems to consider him a friend% she is usually cold% cruel% and uninterested in him. !s they "row up to"ether% she repeatedly warns him that she has no heart. Bead an in*depth analysis of ,stella. Miss !avisham * 4iss 3avisham is the wealthy% eccentric old woman who lives in a manor called >atis 3ouse near (ip7s villa"e. >he is manic and often seems insane% flittin" around her house in a faded weddin" dress% keepin" a decayin" feast on her table% and surroundin" herself with clocks stopped at twenty minutes to nine. !s a youn" woman% 4iss 3avisham was ;ilted by her fiancL minutes before her weddin"% and now she has a vendetta a"ainst all men. >he deliberately raises ,stella to be the tool of her reven"e% trainin" her beautiful ward to break men7s hearts. Bead an in*depth analysis of 4iss 3avisham. %bel Mag&itch #0*he 'onvict1$ * ! fearsome criminal% 4a"witch escapes from prison at the be"innin" of Great Expectations and terrori:es (ip in the cemetery. (ip7s kindness% however% makes a deep impression on him% and he subse&uently devotes himself to makin" a fortune and usin" it to elevate (ip into a hi"her social class. =ehind the scenes% he becomes (ip7s secret benefactor% fundin" (ip7s education and opulent lifestyle in ?ondon throu"h the lawyer 5a""ers. Joe Gargery * (ip7s brother*in*law% the villa"e blacksmith% 5oe stays with his overbearin"% abusive wifeKknown as 4rs. 5oeKsolely out of love for (ip. 5oe7s &uiet "oodness makes him one of the few completely sympathetic characters in Great Expectations. !lthou"h he is uneducated and unrefined% he consistently acts for the benefit of those he loves and suffers in silence when (ip treats him coldly. Jaggers * )he powerful% forebodin" lawyer hired by 4a"witch to supervise (ip7s elevation to the upper class. !s one of the most important criminal lawyers in ?ondon% 5a""ers is privy to some dirty business< he consorts with vicious criminals% and even they are terrified of him. =ut there is more to 5a""ers than his impenetrable e+terior. 3e often seems to care for (ip%

and before the novel be"ins he helps 4iss 3avisham to adopt the orphaned ,stella. 5a""ers smells stron"ly of soapA he washes his hands obsessively as a psycholo"ical mech*anism to keep the criminal taint from corruptin" him. !erbert Poc et * (ip first meets 3erbert (ocket in the "arden of >atis 3ouse% when% as a pale youn" "entleman% 3erbert challen"es him to a fi"ht. Mears later% they meet a"ain in ?ondon% and 3erbert becomes (ip7s best friend and key companion after (ip7s elevation to the status of "entleman. 3erbert nicknames (ip N3andel.O 3e is the son of 4atthew (ocket% 4iss 3avisham7s cousin% and hopes to become a merchant so that he can afford to marry Clara =arley. +emmic * 5a""ers7s clerk and (ip7s friend% 8emmick is one of the stran"est characters in Great Expectations. !t work% he is hard% cynical% sarcastic% and obsessed with Nportable propertyO< at home in 8alworth% he is ;ovial% wry% and a tender caretaker of his N!"ed (arent.O ,iddy * ! simple% kindhearted country "irl% =iddy first befriends (ip when they attend school to"ether. !fter 4rs. 5oe is attacked and becomes an invalid% =iddy moves into (ip7s home to care for her. )hrou"hout most of the novel% =iddy represents the opposite of ,stella< she is plain% kind% moral% and of (ip7s own social class. .olge Orlic * )he day laborer in 5oe7s for"e% 1rlick is a slouchin"% oafish embodiment of evil. 3e is malicious and shrewd% hurtin" people simply because he en;oys it. 3e is responsible for the attack on 4rs. 5oe% and he later almost succeeds in his attempt to murder (ip. Mrs. Joe * (ip7s sister and 5oe7s wife% known only as N4rs. 5oeO throu"hout the novel. 4rs. 5oe is a stern and overbearin" fi"ure to both (ip and 5oe. >he keeps a spotless household and fre&uently menaces her husband and her brother with her cane% which she calls N)ickler.O >he also forces them to drink a foul*tastin" concoction called tar*water. 4rs. 5oe is petty and ambitious< her fondest wish is to be somethin" more than what she is% the wife of the villa"e blacksmith. 2ncle Pumblechoo * (ip7s pompous% arro"ant uncle. -3e is actually 5oe7s uncle and% therefore% (ip7s Nuncle*in*law%O but (ip and his sister both call him N9ncle (umblechook.O. ! merchant obsessed with money% (umblechook is responsible for arran"in" (ip7s first meetin" with 4iss 3avisham. )hrou"hout the rest of the novel% he will shamelessly take credit for (ip7s rise in social status% even thou"h he has nothin" to do with it% since 4a"witch% not 4iss 3avisham% is (ip7s secret benefactor. 'ompeyson * ! criminal and the former partner of 4a"witch% Compeyson is an educated% "entlemanly outlaw who contrasts sharply with the coarse and uneducated 4a"witch. Compeyson is responsible for 4a"witch7s capture at the end of the novel. 3e is also the man who ;ilted 4iss 3avisham on her weddin" day. ,entley .rummle * !n oafish% unpleasant youn" man who attends tutorin" sessions with (ip at the (ockets7 house% Drummle is a minor member of the nobility% and the sense of superiority this "ives him makes him feel ;ustified in actin" cruelly and harshly toward everyone around him. Drummle eventually marries ,stella% to (ip7s cha"rin< she is miserable in their marria"e and reunites with (ip after Drummle dies some eleven years later. Molly * 5a""ers7s housekeeper. In Chapter /8% (ip reali:es that she is ,stella7s mother. Mr. +opsle * )he church clerk in (ip7s country town< 4r. 8opsle7s aunt is the local schoolteacher. >ometime after (ip becomes a "entleman% 4r. 8opsle moves to ?ondon and becomes an actor. (tartop * ! friend of (ip7s and 3erbert7s. >tartop is a delicate youn" man who% with (ip and Drummle% takes tutela"e with 4atthew (ocket. ?ater% >tartop helps (ip and 3erbert with 4a"witch7s escape. Miss ( i""ins * 8emmick7s beloved% and eventual wife.

%nalysis o" Ma3or 'haracters

Pip

!s a bildun"sroman% Great Expectations presents the "rowth and development of a sin"le character% (hilip (irrip% better known to himself and to the world as (ip. !s the focus of the bildun"sroman% (ip is by far the most important character in Great ExpectationsA he is both the prota"onist% whose actions make up the main plot of the novel% and the narrator% whose thou"hts and attitudes shape the reader7s perception of the story. !s a result% developin" an understandin" of (ip7s character is perhaps the most important step in understandin" Great Expectations.

=ecause (ip is narratin" his story many years after the events of the novel take place% there are really two (ips in Great ExpectationsA (ip the narrator and (ip the characterKthe voice tellin" the story and the person actin" it out. Dickens takes "reat care to distin"uish the two (ips% imbuin" the voice of (ip the narrator with perspective and maturity while also impartin" how (ip the character feels about what is happenin" to him as it actually happens. )his skillfully e+ecuted distinction is perhaps best observed early in the book% when (ip the character is a child< here% (ip the narrator "ently pokes fun at his youn"er self% but also enables us to see and feel the story throu"h his eyes. !s a character% (ip7s two most important traits are his immature% romantic idealism and his innately "ood conscience. 1n the one hand% (ip has a deep desire to improve himself and attain any possible advancement% whether educational% moral% or social. 3is lon"in" to marry ,stella and ;oin the upper classes stems from the same idealistic desire as his lon"in" to learn to read and his fear of bein" punished for bad behaviorA once he understands ideas like poverty% i"norance% and immorality% (ip does not want to be poor% i"norant% or immoral. (ip the narrator ;ud"es his own past actions e+tremely harshly% rarely "ivin" himself credit for "ood deeds but an"rily casti"atin" himself for bad ones. !s a character% however% (ip7s idealism often leads him to perceive the world rather narrowly% and his tendency to oversimplify situations based on superficial values leads him to behave badly toward the people who care about him. 8hen (ip becomes a "entleman% for e+ample% he immediately be"ins to act as he thinks a "entleman is supposed to act% which leads him to treat 5oe and =iddy snobbishly and coldly. 1n the other hand% (ip is at heart a very "enerous and sympathetic youn" man% a fact that can be witnessed in his numerous acts of kindness throu"hout the book -helpin" 4a"witch% secretly buyin" 3erbert7s way into business% etc.. and his essential love for all those who love him. (ip7s main line of development in the novel may be seen as the process of learnin" to place his innate sense of kindness and conscience above his immature idealism. Cot lon" after meetin" 4iss 3avisham and ,stella% (ip7s desire for advancement lar"ely overshadows his basic "oodness. !fter receivin" his mysterious fortune% his idealistic wishes seem to have been ;ustified% and he "ives himself over to a "entlemanly life of idleness. =ut the discovery that the wretched 4a"witch% not the wealthy 4iss 3avisham% is his secret benefactor shatters (ip7s oversimplified sense of his world7s hierarchy. )he fact that he comes to admire 4a"witch while losin" ,stella to the brutish nobleman Drummle ultimately forces him to reali:e that one7s social position is not the most important &uality one possesses% and that his behavior as a "entleman has caused him to hurt the people who care about him most.

1nce he has learned these lessons% (ip matures into the man who narrates the novel% completin" the bildun"sroman.
Estella

1ften cited as Dickens7s first convincin" female character% ,stella is a supremely ironic creation% one who darkly undermines the notion of romantic love and serves as a bitter criticism a"ainst the class system in which she is mired. Baised from the a"e of three by 4iss 3avisham to torment men and Nbreak their hearts%O ,stella wins (ip7s deepest love by practicin" deliberate cruelty. 9nlike the warm% winsome% kind heroine of a traditional love story% ,stella is cold% cynical% and manipulative. )hou"h she represents (ip7s first lon"ed*for ideal of life amon" the upper classes% ,stella is actually even lower*born than (ip< as (ip learns near the end of the novel% she is the dau"hter of 4a"witch% the coarse convict% and thus sprin"s from the very lowest level of society.

Ironically% life amon" the upper classes does not represent salvation for ,stella. Instead% she is victimi:ed twice by her adopted class. Bather than bein" raised by 4a"witch% a man of "reat inner nobility% she is raised by 4iss 3avisham% who destroys her ability to e+press emotion and interact normally with the world. !nd rather than marryin" the kindhearted commoner (ip% ,stella marries the cruel nobleman Drummle% who treats her harshly and makes her life miserable for many years. In this way% Dickens uses ,stella7s life to reinforce the idea that one7s happiness and well*bein" are not deeply connected to one7s social positionA had ,stella been poor% she mi"ht have been substantially better off. Despite her cold behavior and the dama"in" influences in her life% Dickens nevertheless ensures that ,stella is still a sympathetic character. =y "ivin" the reader a sense of her inner stru""le to discover and act on her own feelin"s rather than on the imposed motives of her upbrin"in"% Dickens "ives the reader a "limpse of ,stella7s inner life% which helps to e+plain what (ip mi"ht love about her. ,stella does not seem able to stop herself from hurtin" (ip% but she also seems not to want to hurt him< she repeatedly warns him that she has Nno heartO and seems to ur"e him as stron"ly as she can to find happiness by leavin" her behind. Dinally% ,stella7s lon"% painful marria"e to Drummle causes her to develop alon" the same lines as (ip Kthat is% she learns% throu"h e+perience% to rely on and trust her inner feelin"s. In the final scene of the novel% she has become her own woman for the first time in the book. !s she says to (ip% N>ufferin" has been stron"er than all other teachin". . . . I have been bent and broken% butKI hopeKinto a better shape.O
Miss Havisham

)he mad% ven"eful 4iss 3avisham% a wealthy dowa"er who lives in a rottin" mansion and wears an old weddin" dress every day of her life% is not e+actly a believable character% but she is certainly one of the most memorable creations in the book. 4iss 3avisham7s life is defined by a sin"le tra"ic eventA her ;iltin" by Compeyson on what was to have been their weddin" day. Drom that moment forth% 4iss 3avisham is determined never to move beyond her heartbreak. >he stops all the clocks in >atis 3ouse at twenty minutes to nine% the moment when she first learned that Compeyson was "one% and she wears only one shoe% because when she learned of his betrayal% she had not yet put on the other shoe. 8ith a kind of manic% obsessive cruelty% 4iss 3avisham adopts ,stella and raises her as a weapon to achieve her own reven"e on men. 4iss 3avisham is an e+ample of sin"le*minded ven"eance pursued

destructivelyA both 4iss 3avisham and the people in her life suffer "reatly because of her &uest for reven"e. 4iss 3avisham is completely unable to see that her actions are hurtful to (ip and ,stella. >he is redeemed at the end of the novel when she reali:es that she has caused (ip7s heart to be broken in the same manner as her own< rather than achievin" any kind of personal reven"e% she has only caused more pain. 4iss 3avisham immediately be"s (ip for for"iveness% reinforcin" the novel7s theme that bad behavior can be redeemed by contrition and sympathy.

*hemes4 Moti"s 5 (ymbols

Themes Themes are the fundamental and often universal ideas explored in a literary work. Ambition and Self-Improvement

)he moral theme of Great Expectations is &uite simpleA affection% loyalty% and conscience are more important than social advancement% wealth% and class. Dickens establishes the theme and shows (ip learnin" this lesson% lar"ely by e+plorin" ideas of ambition and self*improvement Kideas that &uickly become both the thematic center of the novel and the psycholo"ical mechanism that encoura"es much of (ip7s development. !t heart% (ip is an idealist< whenever he can conceive of somethin" that is better than what he already has% he immediately desires to obtain the improvement. 8hen he sees >atis 3ouse% he lon"s to be a wealthy "entleman< when he thinks of his moral shortcomin"s% he lon"s to be "ood< when he reali:es that he cannot read% he lon"s to learn how. (ip7s desire for self*improvement is the main source of the novel7s titleA because he believes in the possibility of advancement in life% he has N"reat e+pectationsO about his future.

!mbition and self*improvement take three forms in Great ExpectationsKmoral% social% and educational< these motivate (ip7s best and his worst behavior throu"hout the novel. Dirst% (ip desires moral self*improvement. 3e is e+tremely hard on himself when he acts immorally and feels powerful "uilt that spurs him to act better in the future. 8hen he leaves for ?ondon% for instance% he torments himself about havin" behaved so wretchedly toward 5oe and =iddy. >econd% (ip desires social self*improvement. In love with ,stella% he lon"s to become a member of her social class% and% encoura"ed by 4rs. 5oe and (umblechook% he entertains fantasies of becomin" a "entleman. )he workin" out of this fantasy forms the basic plot of the novel< it provides Dickens the opportunity to "ently satiri:e the class system of his era and to make a point about its capricious nature. >i"nificantly% (ip7s life as a "entleman is no more satisfyin"Kand certainly no more moralKthan his previous life as a blacksmith7s apprentice. )hird% (ip desires educational improvement. )his desire is deeply connected to his social ambition and lon"in" to marry ,stellaA a full education is a re&uirement of bein" a "entleman. !s lon" as he is an i"norant country boy% he has no hope of social advancement. (ip understands this fact as a child% when he learns to read at 4r. 8opsle7s aunt7s school% and as a youn" man% when he takes lessons from 4atthew (ocket. 9ltimately% throu"h the e+amples of 5oe% =iddy% and 4a"witch% (ip learns that social and educational improvement are irrelevant to one7s real worth and that conscience and affection are to be valued above erudition and social standin".

Social Class

)hrou"hout Great Expectations, Dickens e+plores the class system of Hictorian ,n"land% ran"in" from the most wretched criminals -4a"witch. to the poor peasants of the marsh country -5oe and =iddy. to the middle class -(umblechook. to the very rich -4iss 3avisham.. )he theme of social class is central to the novel7s plot and to the ultimate moral theme of the bookK(ip7s reali:ation that wealth and class are less important than affection% loyalty% and inner worth. (ip achieves this reali:ation when he is finally able to understand that% despite the esteem in which he holds ,stella% one7s social status is in no way connected to one7s real character. Drummle% for instance% is an upper*class lout% while 4a"witch% a persecuted convict% has a deep inner worth. (erhaps the most important thin" to remember about the novel7s treatment of social class is that the class system it portrays is based on the post*Industrial Bevolution model of Hictorian ,n"land. Dickens "enerally i"nores the nobility and the hereditary aristocracy in favor of characters whose fortunes have been earned throu"h commerce. ,ven 4iss 3avisham7s family fortune was made throu"h the brewery that is still connected to her manor. In this way% by connectin" the theme of social class to the idea of work and self*advancement% Dickens subtly reinforces the novel7s overarchin" theme of ambition and self*improvement.
Crime, uilt, and Innocence

)he theme of crime% "uilt% and innocence is e+plored throu"hout the novel lar"ely throu"h the characters of the convicts and the criminal lawyer 5a""ers. Drom the handcuffs 5oe mends at the smithy to the "allows at the prison in ?ondon% the ima"ery of crime and criminal ;ustice pervades the book% becomin" an important symbol of (ip7s inner stru""le to reconcile his own inner moral conscience with the institutional ;ustice system. In "eneral% ;ust as social class becomes a superficial standard of value that (ip must learn to look beyond in findin" a better way to live his life% the e+ternal trappin"s of the criminal ;ustice system -police% courts% ;ails% etc.. become a superficial standard of morality that (ip must learn to look beyond to trust his inner conscience. 4a"witch% for instance% fri"htens (ip at first simply because he is a convict% and (ip feels "uilty for helpin" him because he is afraid of the police. =y the end of the book% however% (ip has discovered 4a"witch7s inner nobility% and is able to disre"ard his e+ternal status as a criminal. (rompted by his conscience% he helps 4a"witch to evade the law and the police. !s (ip has learned to trust his conscience and to value 4a"witch7s inner character% he has replaced an e+ternal standard of value with an internal one.
Motifs !otifs are recurrin" structures, contrasts, and literary devices that can help to develop and inform the text#s ma$or themes. %oubles

1ne of the most remarkable aspects of Dickens7s work is its structural intricacy and remarkable balance. Dickens7s plots involve complicated coincidences% e+traordinarily tan"led webs of human relationships% and hi"hly dramatic developments in which settin"% atmosphere% event% and character are all seamlessly fused.

In Great Expectations, perhaps the most visible si"n of Dickens7s commitment to intricate dramatic symmetryKapart from the knot of character relationships% of courseKis the fascinatin" motif of doubles that runs throu"hout the book. Drom the earliest scenes of the novel to the last% nearly every element of Great Expectations is mirrored or doubled at some other point in the book. )here are two convicts on the marsh -4a"witch and Compeyson.% two invalids -4rs. 5oe and 4iss 3avisham.% two youn" women who interest (ip -=iddy and ,stella.% and so on. )here are two secret benefactorsA 4a"witch% who "ives (ip his fortune% and (ip% who mirrors 4a"witch7s action by secretly buyin" 3erbert7s way into the mercantile business. Dinally% there are two adults who seek to mold children after their own purposesA 4a"witch% who wishes to NownO a "entleman and decides to make (ip one% and 4iss 3avisham% who raises ,stella to break men7s hearts in reven"e for her own broken heart. Interestin"ly% both of these actions are motivated by CompeysonA 4a"witch resents but is nonetheless covetous of Compeyson7s social status and education% which motivates his desire to make (ip a "entleman% and 4iss 3avisham7s heart was broken when Compeyson left her at the altar% which motivates her desire to achieve reven"e throu"h ,stella. )he relationship between 4iss 3avisham and CompeysonKa well*born woman and a common manKfurther mirrors the relationship between ,stella and (ip. )his doublin" of elements has no real bearin" on the novel7s main themes% but% like the connection of weather and action% it adds to the sense that everythin" in (ip7s world is connected. )hrou"hout Dickens7s works% this kind of dramatic symmetry is simply part of the fabric of his novelistic universe.
Comparison of Characters to Inanimate &b$ects

)hrou"hout Great Expectations, the narrator uses ima"es of inanimate ob;ects to describe the physical appearance of charactersKparticularly minor characters% or characters with whom the narrator is not intimate. Dor e+ample% 4rs. 5oe looks as if she scrubs her face with a nutme" "rater% while the inscrutable features of 4r. 8emmick are repeatedly compared to a letter*bo+. )his motif% which Dickens uses throu"hout his novels% may su""est a failure of empathy on the narrator7s part% or it may su""est that the character7s position in life is pressurin" them to resemble a thin" more than a human bein". )he latter interpretation would mean that the motif in "eneral is part of a social criti&ue% in that it implies that an institution such as the class system or the criminal ;ustice system dehumani:es certain people.
Symbols Symbols are ob$ects, characters, fi"ures, and colors used to represent abstract ideas or concepts. Satis 'ouse

In >atis 3ouse% Dickens creates a ma"nificent 6othic settin" whose various elements symboli:e (ip7s romantic perception of the upper class and many other themes of the book. 1n her decayin" body% 4iss 3avisham7s weddin" dress becomes an ironic symbol of death and de"eneration. )he weddin" dress and the weddin" feast symboli:e 4iss 3avisham7s past% and the stopped clocks throu"hout the house symboli:e her determined attempt to free:e time by refusin" to chan"e anythin" from the way it was when she was ;ilted on her weddin" day. )he brewery ne+t to the house symboli:es the connection between commerce and wealthA 4iss 3avisham7s fortune is not the product of an aristocratic birth but of a recent success in industrial capitalism. Dinally% the crumblin"% dilapidated stones of the house% as well as the

darkness and dust that pervade it% symboli:e the "eneral decadence of the lives of its inhabitants and of the upper class as a whole.
The !ists on the !arshes

)he settin" almost always symboli:es a theme in Great Expectations and always sets a tone that is perfectly matched to the novel7s dramatic action. )he misty marshes near (ip7s childhood home in Ient% one of the most evocative of the book7s settin"s% are used several times to symboli:e dan"er and uncertainty. !s a child% (ip brin"s 4a"witch a file and food in these mists< later% he is kidnapped by 1rlick and nearly murdered in them. 8henever (ip "oes into the mists% somethin" dan"erous is likely to happen. >i"nificantly% (ip must "o throu"h the mists when he travels to ?ondon shortly after receivin" his fortune% alertin" the reader that this apparently positive development in his life may have dan"erous conse&uences.
(entley %rummle

!lthou"h he is a minor character in the novel% =entley Drummle provides an important contrast with (ip and represents the arbitrary nature of class distinctions. In his mind% (ip has connected the ideas of moral% social% and educational advancement so that each depends on the others. )he coarse and cruel Drummle% a member of the upper class% provides (ip with proof that social advancement has no inherent connection to intelli"ence or moral worth. Drummle is a lout who has inherited immense wealth% while (ip7s friend and brother*in*law 5oe is a "ood man who works hard for the little he earns. Drummle7s ne"ative e+ample helps (ip to see the inner worth of characters such as 4a"witch and 5oe% and eventually to discard his immature fantasies about wealth and class in favor of a new understandin" that is both more compassionate and more realistic. !s an infant% (hilip (irrip was unable to pronounce either his first name or his last< doin" his best% he called himself N(ip%O and the name stuck. Cow (ip% a youn" boy% is an orphan livin" in his sister7s house in the marsh country in southeast ,n"land.

1ne evenin"% (ip sits in the isolated villa"e churchyard% starin" at his parents7 tombstones. >uddenly% a horrific man% "rowlin"% dressed in ra"s% and with his le" in chains% sprin"s out from behind the "ravestones and sei:es (ip. )his escaped convict &uestions (ip harshly and demands that (ip brin" him food and a file with which he can saw away his le" irons.
Summary: Chapter 2

Dri"htened into obedience% (ip runs to the house he shares with his overbearin" sister and her kindly husband% the blacksmith 5oe 6ar"ery. )he boy stashes some bread and butter in one le" of his pants% but he is unable to "et away &uickly. It is Christmas ,ve% and (ip is forced to stir the holiday puddin" all evenin". 3is sister% whom (ip calls 4rs. 5oe% thunders about. >he threatens (ip and 5oe with her cane% which she has named )ickler% and with a foul*tastin" concoction called tar*water. Hery early the ne+t mornin"% (ip sneaks down to the pantry% where he steals some brandy -mistakenly refillin" the bottle with tar*water% thou"h we do not learn this until Chapter /. and a pork pie for the convict. 3e then sneaks to 5oe7s smithy% where he steals a file. >tealthily% he heads back into the marshes to meet the convict.

Summary: Chapter 3

9nfortunately% the first man he finds hidin" in the marshes is actually a second% different convict% who tries to strike (ip and then flees. 8hen (ip finally comes upon his ori"inal tormentor% he finds him sufferin"% cold% wet% and hun"ry. (ip is kind to the man% but the convict becomes violent a"ain when (ip mentions the other escapee he encountered in the marsh% as thou"h the news troubles him "reatly. !s the convict scrapes at his le" irons with the file% (ip slips away throu"h the mists and returns home.
Analysis: Chapters 13

)he first chapters of Great Expectations set the plot in motion while introducin" (ip and his world. !s both narrator and prota"onist% (ip is naturally the most important character in Great ExpectationsA the novel is his story% told in his words% and his perceptions utterly define the events and characters of the book. !s a result% Dickens7s most important task as a writer in Great Expectations is the creation of (ip7s character. =ecause (ip7s is the voice with which he tells his story% Dickens must make his voice believably human while also ensurin" that it conveys all the information necessary to the plot. In this first section% (ip is a youn" child% and Dickens masterfully uses (ip7s narration to evoke the feelin"s and problems of childhood. !t the be"innin" of the novel% for instance% (ip is lookin" at his parents7 "ravestones% a solemn scene which Dickens renders comical by havin" (ip ponder the e+act inscriptions on the tombstones. 8hen the convict &uestions him about his parents7 names% (ip recites them e+actly as they appear on the tombstones% indicatin" his youthful innocence while simultaneously allowin" Dickens to lessen the dramatic tension of the novel7s openin". !s befits a well*meanin" child whose moral reasonin" is unsophisticated% (ip is horrified by the convict. =ut despite his horror% he treats him with compassion and kindness. It would have been easy for (ip to run to 5oe or to the police for help rather than stealin" the food and the file% but (ip honors his promise to the sufferin" manKand when he learns that the police are searchin" for him% he even worries for his safety. >till% throu"hout this section% (ip7s self* commentary mostly emphasi:es his ne"ative &ualitiesA his dishonesty and his "uilt. )his is characteristic of (ip as a narrator throu"hout Great Expectations. Despite his many admirable &ualitiesKthe stron"est of which are compassion% loyalty% and conscienceK(ip constantly focuses on his failures and shortcomin"s. )o understand him as a character% it is necessary to look beyond his self*descriptions and consider his actions. In fact% it may be his powerful sense of his own moral shortcomin"s that motivates (ip to act so morally. !s the novel pro"resses% the theme of self*improvement% particularly economic and social self* improvement% will become central to the story. In that sense% (ip7s deep*seated sense of moral obli"ation% which is first e+hibited in this section% works as a kind of psycholo"ical counterpart to the novel7s theme of social advancement.

(ip7s surroundin"sKin this section% the NshroudedO marshes of Ient and the oppressive bustle of 4rs. 5oe7s houseKare also important to the novel. )hrou"hout Great Expectations, Dickens uses settin" to create dramatic atmosphereA the settin" of the book always sets the tone for the action and reinforces (ip7s perception of his situation. 8hen the weather is dark and stormy% trouble is usually brewin"% and when (ip "oes alone into the mist*shrouded marsh% dan"er and ambi"uity usually await. In this section% (ip7s story shifts rapidly between dramatic scenes with the convict on the marshes and comical scenes under 4rs. 5oe7s thumb at home. Despite 4rs. 5oe7s rou"h treatment of (ip% which she calls brin"in" him up Nby

hand%O the comedy that pervades her household in Chapter # shows that it is a safe haven for (ip% steeped in 5oe7s &uiet "oodness despite 4rs. 5oe7s bombast. 8hen (ip ventures out alone onto the marshes% he leaves the sanctuary of home for va"ue% murky churchyards and the dan"er of a different world. )his sense of embarkin" alone into the unknown will become a recurrent motif throu"hout the novel% as (ip "rows up and leaves his childhood home behind. In terms of narrative% the introduction of the convict is the most important occurrence in the plot of the first section. )hou"h (ip believes that the convict7s appearance in his life is an isolated incident% he will feel this character7s influence in many ways throu"hout the novel. )he convict will later reappear as the "rim 4a"witch% (ip7s secret benefactor and the chief architect of his N"reat e+pectations.O )hou"h Dickens "ives us no indication of the man7s future in (ip7s life% he does create the sense that the convict will return% lar"ely by buildin" a sense of mystery around the man7s situation and around his relationship to the second convict (ip encounters in the marsh.
Summary: Chapter

!s he returns home% (ip is overwhelmed by a sense of "uilt for havin" helped the convict. 3e even e+pects to find a policeman waitin" for him at 5oe7s house. 8hen (ip slips into the house% he finds no policemen% only 4rs. 5oe busy in the kitchen cookin" Christmas dinner. (ip eats breakfast alone with 5oe. )he two "o to church< 4rs. 5oe% despite her morali:in" habits% stays behind.

Christmas dinner is an a"oni:in" affair for (ip% who is crowded into a corner of the table by his well*to*do 9ncle (umblechook and the church clerk% 4r. 8opsle. )errified that his sneakin" out of the house to help the convict will be discovered% (ip nearly panics when (umblechook asks for the brandy and finds the bottle filled with tar*water. 3is panic increases when% suddenly% several police officers burst into the house with a pair of handcuffs.
Summary: Chapter !

4y convict looked round him for the first time% and saw me. . . . ->ee Important Puotations ,+plained. (ip is sure that the policemen have come to arrest him% but all they want is for 5oe to fi+ their handcuffs. )he bumblin" policemen tell (ip and 5oe that they are searchin" for a pair of escaped convicts% and the two a"ree to participate in the manhunt. >eein" the policemen% (ip feels a stran"e sur"e of worry for NhisO convict. !fter a lon" hunt% the two convicts are discovered to"ether% fi"htin" furiously with one another in the marsh. Cornered and captured% (ip7s convict protects (ip by claimin" to have stolen the food and file himself. )he convict is taken away to a prison ship and out of (ip7s lifeKso (ip believesKforever.
Summary: Chapter "

5oe carries (ip home% and they finish their Christmas dinner< (ip sleepily heads to bed while 5oe narrates the scene of the capture to 4rs. 5oe and the "uests. (ip continues to feel

powerfully "uilty about the incidentKnot on his sister7s account% but because he has not told the whole truth to 5oe.
Summary: Chapter #

!fter the incident% some time passes. (ip lives with his "uilty secret and stru""les to learn readin" and writin" at 4rs. 8opsle7s school. !t school% (ip befriends =iddy% the "randdau"hter of the teacher. 1ne day% 5oe and (ip sit talkin"< the illiterate 5oe admires a piece of writin" (ip has ;ust done. >uddenly% 4rs. 5oe bursts in with (umblechook. 3i"hly self*satisfied% they reveal that (umblechook has arran"ed for (ip to "o play at the house of 4iss 3avisham% a rich spinster who lives nearby. 4rs. 5oe and (umblechook hope she will make (ip7s fortune% and they plan to send him home with (umblechook before he "oes to 4iss 3avisham7s the ne+t day. )he boy is "iven a rou"h bath% dressed in his suit% and taken away by (umblechook.
Analysis: Chapters #

In addition to the introduction of the convict% the other important plot development in the early chapters of Great Expectations occurs at the very end of Chapter 2% when (ip learns he is to be taken to 4iss 3avisham7s to play. 3is introduction to 4iss 3avisham and her world will determine a "reat part of his story and will chan"e him forever. )hou"h (ip has no sense of the importance of the event% Dickens conveys its importance to the reader throu"h 4rs. 5oe and (umblechook% who are obviously ecstatic at the idea of (ip befriendin" the wealthy old woman. )his is the first hint in the novel of the theme of social class and social improvement% which will &uickly become the dominant idea. =ecause he spends the first several chapters of the book e+clusively amon" those of his own social station% the theme of social class is not particularly important in this section. =ut (ip7s low social standin" makes itself felt in subtle waysKin the collo&uial dialect spoken by 5oe and his sister% the mean ambition of 4rs. 5oe and (umblechook% and the ineffective ri"or of his country school -where he is tau"ht by 4r. 8opsle7s "reat aunt.% for e+ample. =y describin" (ip7s early education% Dickens continues to emphasi:e the idea of self* improvement. 5ust as (ip7s behavior indicates a desire for moral improvement and 4rs. 5oe7s ambition indicates a desire for social improvement% (ip7s stru""le to learn to read indicates a desire for intellectual and educational improvement. )o emphasi:e this point% Dickens contrasts (ip7s mea"er knowled"e with the i"norance of 5oe% who admires (ip7s poor writin" because he himself is unable to read or write. Dickens also uses this scene to develop (ip7s special relationship with 5oe. !lthou"h 5oe is not (ip7s father or even his brother% he is the most carin" person in his lifeKa simple% honest man. Dickens contrasts 5oe7s earnest "ood nature with the "raspin" ambition and self* satisfaction of (umblechook and 4rs. 5oe% implyin" even at this early sta"e of the novel that real self*improvement -the kind that leads to "oodness. is not connected to social advancement or even education% but rather stems from honesty% empathy% and kindness. (ip will spend fifty chapters learnin" this lesson himself% and will then be struck by the fact that% in the fi"ure of 5oe% the best e+ample had been in front of him all alon". !s he did in the first three chapters% throu"hout this section Dickens demonstrates a masterful ability to tell his story effectively without ever losin" the perspective of childhood. )hou"h the novel itself is narrated by the adult (ip rememberin" his life% (ip the character is still a

little boy in these chapters% and the narrator comically and sympathetically conveys his immature impressions. !t the Christmas dinner in Chapter /% for instance% (ip is terrified that his secret will be found out% but he balances his fear with a deep desire to tweak 4r. 8opsle7s lar"e noseKto Npull it until he howled.O 3is sense of "uilt for sneakin" behind his "uardians7 backs is so "reat that he believes the whole world is busy tryin" to discover his secret% and he fully e+pects to Nfind a constable in the kitchen% waitin" to take me up.O
Summary: Chapter $

1ver breakfast the ne+t mornin"% (umblechook sternly "rills (ip on multiplication problems. !t ten% he is taken to 4iss 3avisham7s manor% >atis 3ouse. )he "ate is locked% and a small% very beautiful "irl comes to open it. >he is rude to (umblechook and sends him away when she takes (ip inside. >he leads him throu"h the ornate% dark mansion to 4iss 3avisham7s candlelit room% where the skeletal old woman waits by her mirror% wearin" a faded weddin" dress% surrounded by clocks stopped at twenty minutes to nine.

)he "irl leaves% and 4iss 3avisham orders (ip to play. 3e tells her earnestly that he is too affected by the newness and "randeur of the house to play. 4iss 3avisham forces him to call for the "irl% whose name is ,stella. ,stella returns% and 4iss 3avisham orders her to play cards with (ip. ,stella is cold and insultin"% critici:in" (ip7s low social class and his unrefined manners. 4iss 3avisham is morbidly deli"hted to see that (ip is nonetheless taken with the "irl. (ip cries when he leaves >atis 3ouse.
Summary: Chapter %

8hen (ip returns home% he lies to 5oe% 4rs. 5oe% and (umblechook about his e+perience at >atis 3ouse% inventin" a wild story in which ,stella feeds him cake and four immense do"s fi"ht over veal cutlet from a silver basket. 3e feels "uilty for lyin" to 5oe and tells him the truth in the smithy later that day. 5oe% who is astonished to find out that (ip has lied% advises (ip to keep company with his own class for the present and tells him that he can succeed someday only if he takes an honest path. (ip resolves to remember 5oe7s words% but that ni"ht% as he lies in bed% he can7t help but ima"ine how NcommonO ,stella would find 5oe% and he falls into a reverie about the "randeur of his hours at >atis 3ouse.
Summary: Chapter 1&

(ip continues to suffer throu"h his schoolin"% but a new desire for education and social standin" makes him a"ree to take e+tra lessons from his sensible friend =iddy. ?ater the same day% when (ip "oes to the pub to brin" 5oe home% he sees a mysterious stran"er stirrin" his drink with the same file (ip stole for the convict. )he stran"er "ives (ip two pounds% which (ip later "ives to 4rs. 5oe. 3e continues to worry that his aid to the convict will be discovered.
Analysis: Chapters $1&

8ith the introduction of 4iss 3avisham and ,stella% the themes of social class% ambition% and advancement move to the forefront of the novel. (ip7s hopes -encoura"ed by 4rs. 5oe7s and (umblechook7s su""estive comments. that 4iss 3avisham intends to raise him into wealth and hi"h social class are "iven special ur"ency by the passionate attraction he feels for

,stella. 3is feelin"s for the Nvery pretty and very proudO youn" lady% combined with the deep impression made on him by >atis 3ouse% with its ornate "randeur% haunted atmosphere% and tra"ic sense of mystery% raise in (ip a new consciousness of his own low birth and common bearin". 8hen he returns from >atis 3ouse in Chapter F% he even lies about his e+perience there% unwillin" to sully his thou"hts of it with the contrastin" plainness of his everyday worldA ,stella and 4iss 3avisham must remain Nfar above the level of such common doin"s.O (ip7s romantic sensibility% first visible in his tendency to lin"er around his parents7 "ravestones% is powerfully attracted to the eni"matic world of >atis 3ouse. 3is desire for self* improvement compels him to ideali:e ,stella. 3er condescension and spite match (ip7s feelin"s about himself in the world of >atis 3ouse. 3e accepts her crueltyKN8hy% he is a common labourin"*boyEOKwithout defendin" himself because he sorrowfully believes her to be ri"ht. In fact% he only cries when he is forced to leave her. )he differences between their social classes manifest themselves even in small thin"s< while playin" cards in Chapter 8% ,stella remarks disdainfully% N3e calls the knaves% ;acks% this boyEO

)hou"h the introduction of >atis 3ouse and 4iss 3avisham seem to have little to do with the early plotline of the convict and the marshes% Dickens keeps the earlier story in the reader7s mind with the appearance of the mysterious fi"ure in Chapter 1 % who stirs his drink with the file (ip "ave to the convict and "ives (ip a small sum of money. )his foreshadows not only the eventual return of the convict% but also the ma;or plot twist of the novel% when (ip discovers that the source of his mysterious fortune -which he has not yet received in this section. is not 4iss 3avisham% as he thou"ht% but the convict 4a"witch. ?ike the earlier chapters% this section abounds in mystery and foreshadowin"% particularly relatin" to 4iss 3avisham7s characterA what is the reason behind her bi:arre appearance% her behavior% and her home decor% with its stopped clocks and crumblin" relics of an earlier timeQ !t this sta"e of the novel% Dickens does not answer &uestions% only raises them. )he reader7s natural curiosity will help propel the book forward.
Summary: Chapter 11

Cot lon" after his encounter with the mysterious man in the pub% (ip is taken back to 4iss 3avisham7s% where he is paraded in front of a "roup of fawnin"% insincere relatives visitin" the dowa"er on her birthday. 3e encounters a lar"e% dark man on the stairs% who critici:es him. 3e a"ain plays cards with ,stella% then "oes to the "arden% where he is asked to fi"ht by a pale youn" "entleman. (ip knocks the youn" "entleman down% and ,stella allows him to "ive her a kiss on the cheek. 3e returns home% ashamed that ,stella looks down on him.
Summary: Chapter 12

(ip worries that he will be punished for fi"htin"% but the incident "oes unmentioned durin" his ne+t visit to 4iss 3avisham7s. 3e continues to visit re"ularly for the ne+t several months% pushin" 4iss 3avisham around in her wheelchair% relishin" his time with ,stella% and becomin" increasin"ly hopeful that 4iss 3avisham means to raise him from his low social standin" and "ive him a "entleman7s fortune. =ecause he is preoccupied with his hopes% he fails to notice that 4iss 3avisham encoura"es ,stella to torment him% whisperin" N=reak their heartsEO in her ear. (artially because of his elevated hopes for his own social standin"% (ip be"ins to "row apart from his family% confidin" in =iddy instead of 5oe and often feelin"

ashamed that 5oe is Ncommon.O 1ne day at >atis 3ouse% 4iss 3avisham offers to help with the papers that would officially make (ip 5oe7s apprentice% and (ip is devastated to reali:e that she never meant to make him a "entleman.
Summary: Chapter 13

5oe visits >atis 3ouse to complete (ip7s apprenticeship papers< with his rou"h speech and crude appearance% he seems horribly out of place in the 6othic mansion. ,stella lau"hs at him and at (ip. 4iss 3avisham "ives (ip a "ift of twenty*five pounds% and (ip and 5oe "o to )own 3all to confirm the apprenticeship. 5oe and 4rs. 5oe take (ip out to celebrate with (umblechook and 4r. 8opsle% but (ip is surly and an"ry% keenly disappointed by this turn in his life.
Analysis: Chapters 1113

8here the earlier sections of the novel focused very closely on short spans of time% this section covers several months and is mostly concerned with (ip7s "eneral development from an innocent boy to an ambitious youn" man. )he themes of ambition and social advancement are central to this development% as (ip increasin"ly uses his ambi"uous relationship with 4iss 3avisham as a prete+t for believin" that the old woman intends him to marry ,stella. )he conse&uence of (ip7s intensifyin" social ambition is that he loses some of his innocence and becomes detached from his natural% sympathetic kindness. In the early chapters of the novel% (ip sympathi:ed with the convict% despite the threat the man posed to his safety. Cow% (ip is unable to sympathi:e even with 5oe% the most carin" fi"ure in his life. =ecause he loves ,stella% (ip has come to value what ,stella seems to value% and when 5oe visits >atis 3ouse in Chapter 10% (ip is mortified by his rou"h manners and poor clothes. )hey now seem out of place even to (ip% a measure of the e+tent to which he has adapted to life at 4iss 3avisham7s house durin" his months of re"ular visits. 4iss 3avisham herself% with her maniacal ener"y and her inscrutable motives% is a fri"htenin" creature to (ip. Despite her weddin" dress -an outfit that symboli:es hope% re"eneration% and renewal.% he constantly thinks of her as a symbol of death% describin" her as a NskeletonO and picturin" her han"in" from a "allows. 3er insane behaviorKtraipsin" around her house in a weddin" dress% with a weddin" feast on her table and all the clocks stoppedKwill soon be e+plained% but for now it simply adds to her mysterious and powerful dramatic presence. >urely a woman this eccentric wouldn7t be above transformin" an orphan boy into a "entleman% he thinks. 8ith this line of thinkin"% the first of (ip7s N"reat e+pectationsO creeps into his life. )he title of the novel% of course% refers to (ip7s hopes for social advancement and romantic success with ,stella. )he si"ht of somethin" finer than what he himself has makes him intensely desire it% and he fiercely clin"s to his hopes of bein" elevated and married to ,stella. 3e even i"nores more realistic hopes% usin" his relationship with =iddy only to improve his education and his chances with ,stella. 3e has little reaction to realistic dan"ers% as we saw earlier% when he was nonplussed by his encounter with the mysterious stran"er in Chapter 1 . 3is thou"hts are for ,stella alone.

!lthou"h (ip increasin"ly believes that 4iss 3avisham intends to make him a "entleman -at least until his disappointment in Chapter 10.% Dickens creates dramatic irony by "ivin" the

reader a sense that the old woman has no such intention in mind. Bather% Dickens indicates that 4iss 3avisham is not really interested in (ip at all but only in somehow usin" ,stella as a weapon a"ainst men. !s the novel pro"resses% the source of her stran"e hostility will become clear% but in this section of the novel the reader is already able to make a fairly "ood "uessA ;ilted on her weddin" day -hence the dress and the feast.% the old woman has raised ,stella as a tool of reven"e on men% trainin" her to break men7s hearts as her own heart was broken years a"o. )hrou"hout this section% unbeknownst to him% (ip is her test case% an e+periment to measure the youn" "irl7s prowess at winnin" the love of men. )oward this purpose% 4iss 3avisham is deli"hted by the speed with which (ip falls in love with ,stella. (ip7s reali:ation that the e+tent of 4iss 3avisham7s assistance will be her help on his apprenticeship papersKthat he will be bound to 5oe7s for"e and to his social class after allKis devastatin" to him< it is the first of a series of disappointments that seem to be the inevitable result of (ip7s "reat e+pectations.
Summary: Chapter 1

)ime passes as (ip be"ins workin" in 5oe7s for"e< the boy slowly becomes an adolescent. 3e hates workin" as 5oe7s apprentice% but out of consideration for 5oe7s "oodness% he keeps his feelin"s to himself. !s he works% he thinks he sees ,stella7s face mockin" him in the for"e% and he lon"s for >atis 3ouse.
Summary: Chapter 1!

(ip still tries hard to read and e+pand his knowled"e% and on >undays% he also tries to teach 5oe to read. 1ne >unday% (ip tries to persuade 5oe that he needs to visit 4iss 3avisham% but 5oe a"ain advises him to stay away. 3owever% his advice sounds confused% and (ip resolves to do as he pleases. 5oe7s for"e worker% Dol"e 1rlick% makes (ip7s life even less pleasant. 1rlick is vicious% oafish% and hateful% and he treats (ip cruelly. 8hen (ip was still a youn" child% 1rlick fri"htened him by convincin" him that the devil lived in a corner of the for"e. 1ne day% 4rs. 5oe complains about 1rlick takin" a holiday% and she and 1rlick launch into a shoutin" match. 4rs. 5oe "leefully calls on 5oe to defend her honor% and 5oe &uickly defeats 1rlick in the fi"ht. 4rs. 5oe faints from e+citement. (ip visits 4iss 3avisham and learns that ,stella has been sent abroad. De;ected% he allows 8opsle to take him to (umblechook7s for the evenin"% where they pass the time readin" from a play. 1n the way home% (ip sees 1rlick in the shadows and hears "uns fire from the prison ships. 8hen he arrives home% he learns that 4rs. 5oe has been attacked and is now a brain* dama"ed invalid.
Summary: Chapter 1"

(ip7s old "uilt resurfaces when he learns that convictsKmore specifically% convicts with le" irons that have been filed throu"hKare suspected of the attack on his sister. )he detectives who come from ?ondon to solve the crime are bumblers% and the identity of the attacker remains undiscovered. 4rs. 5oe% who is now unable to talk% be"ins to draw the letter N)O on her slate over and over% which (ip "uesses represents a hammer. Drom this% =iddy deduces that she is referrin" to 1rlick. 1rlick is called in to see 4rs. 5oe% and (ip e+pects her to

denounce him as her attacker. Instead% she seems ea"er to please 1rlick and often calls for him in subse&uent days by drawin" a N)O on her slate.
Analysis: Chapters 1 1"

In Chapter 1 % (ip received an unwelcome reminder of the convict when the stran"er in the pub appeared with the stolen file. In this section% he receives an even more unpleasant reminder when an escaped convict from the prison shipsKpossibly the stran"er from the pub Kis blamed for the attack on 4rs. 5oe. =ecause of (ip7s powerful moral sense% he is racked with "uilt over the incident. !s he says in Chapter 16% NIt was horrible to think that I had provided the instrument% however undesi"nedly.O 1f course% 4rs. 5oe7s stran"e interest in 1rlick in the ne+t chapters marks him as the true attacker% and (ip "uesses this truth almost immediately. ,ven thou"h (ip is in no way at fault in the incident% his conscience still troubles him.

)hemes of "uilt and innocence run powerfully throu"h this section% as (ip7s adolescent mind wavers between ri"ht and wron"% between his desire to be "ood and his stark sense of evil. )he play he reads at (umblechook7s house tells the story of a man whose lover convinces him to kill his uncle for money. (ip will soon abandon 5oe for money and the promise of ,stella. ?ike the apparition of the convict and the fi"ures of the police% the fi"ht between 5oe and 1rlick emphasi:es this theme of starkly divided "ood and evilA 1rlick7s slouchin"% lumberin" badness is a powerful contrast to 5oe7s &uiet inner "oodness% and their fi"ht "ives a physical presence to (ip7s internal stru""le.

'hapters 67869
Summary: Chapter 1#

=iddy moves in to help nurse 4rs. 5oe. (ip visits >atis 3ouse a"ain and notices how bleak it is without ,stella. 3e walks with =iddy on >unday and confides to her his dissatisfaction with his place in life. !lthou"h he seems to be attracted to =iddy% he tells her the secret of his love for ,stella. 8hen =iddy advises him to stay away from ,stella% (ip is an"ry with her% but he still becomes very ;ealous when 1rlick be"ins tryin" to flirt with her.
Summary: Chapter 1$

!t the pub one evenin"% (ip sits in a crowd listenin" to 8opsle read the story of a murder trial from a newspaper. ! stran"er be"ins &uestionin" 8opsle about the le"al details of the case. (ip reco"ni:es him as the lar"e% dark man he met on the stairs at 4iss 3avisham7s -in Chapter 11.. )he stran"er introduces himself as the lawyer 5a""ers% and he "oes home with (ip and 5oe. 3ere% he e+plains that (ip will soon inherit a lar"e fortune. 3is education as a "entleman will be"in immediately. (ip will move to ?ondon and become a "entleman% he says% but the person who is "ivin" him the fortune wishes to remain secretA (ip can never know the name of his benefactor. (ip7s fondest wish has been reali:ed% and he assumes that his benefactor must be 4iss 3avishamKafter all% he first met 5a""ers at her house% and his tutor will be 4atthew (ocket% her cousin. 5oe seems deflated and sad to be losin" (ip% and he refuses 5a""ers7s

condescendin" offer of money. =iddy is also sad% but (ip adopts a snobbish attitude and thinks himself too "ood for his surroundin"s. >till% when (ip sees 5oe and =iddy &uietly talkin" to"ether that ni"ht% he feels sorry to be leavin" them.
Summary: Chapter 1%

(ip7s snobbery is back in the mornin"% however% as he allows the tailor to "rovel over him when he "oes in for a new suit of clothes. (ip even allows (umblechook to take him out to dinner and in"ratiate himself. 3e tries to comfort 5oe% but his attempt is obviously forced% and =iddy critici:es him for it. (reparin" to leave for ?ondon% he visits 4iss 3avisham one last time< based on her e+citement and knowled"e of the details of his situation% (ip feels even more certain that she is his anonymous benefactor. !fter a final ni"ht at 5oe7s house% (ip leaves for ?ondon in the mornin"% suddenly full of re"ret for havin" behaved so snobbishly toward the people who love him most.
Analysis: Chapters 1#1%

!s (ip enters adolescence% Dickens "radually chan"es the presentation of his thou"hts and perceptions. 8hen (ip was a youn" child% his descriptions emphasi:ed his smallness and confusion< be"innin" around Chapter 1/% they be"in to emphasi:e his moral and emotional turmoil. (ip becomes more aware of the &ualities and characteristics of the people around him. 3e refrains from complainin" about life in the for"e out of respect for 5oe7s role in his childhoodA N3ome was never a pleasant place for me% because of my sister7s temper. =ut 5oe had sanctified it.O )hou"h the respect he pays 5oe is clearly admirable% (ip the narrator passes to 5oe all the credit for his behavior. 3e says in Chapter 1/% NIt was not because I was faithful% but because 5oe was faithful.O 5ust as 1rlick is an immediate contrast to 5oe% =iddy emer"es in this section as a contrastin" fi"ure to ,stella. 3er plainness% frankness% and kindness are diametrically opposed to ,stella7s cold beauty% dishonesty% and cruelty. (ip seems to feel a natural attraction to =iddy% but his overpowerin" passion for ,stella makes him use =iddy only as a means to an end% as a confidante and a teacher.

(ip7s desire to elevate his social standin" never leaves him< he even seeks to better his surroundin"s by tryin" to teach 5oe to read. 8hen the ominous fi"ure of the lawyer 5a""ers appears with the messa"e of (ip7s sudden fortune% the youn" man7s deepest wish comes true. =ut the e+ultant (ip is not content simply to en;oy his "ood fortune< rather% he reads more into it than he should% decidin" that N4iss 3avisham intended me for ,stellaO and that she must be his benefactor. 3is adolescent self*importance causes him to put on airs and act snobbishly toward 5oe and =iddy% a character flaw that (ip will demonstrate throu"hout Great Expectations. In his career as a "entleman% he will cover up moments of uncertainty and fear by actin"% as he says in Chapter 1F% Nvirtuous and superior.O In part% this poor behavior is caused by the same character trait that causes (ip to covet self* advancement. (ip has a deep*seated strain of romantic idealism% and as soon as he can ima"ine somethin" better than his current condition -whether material% emotional% or moral.% he immediately desires that improvementA when he sees >atis 3ouse% he lon"s for wealth< when he meets ,stella% he lon"s for love and beauty< and when he acts poorly% he feels a powerful "uilt that amounts to a lon"in" to have acted more morally. )his is the psycholo"ical

center of the novel7s theme of self*improvement. =ut (ip7s romantic idealism is inherently unrealistic. 8hatever he mi"ht wish% it is impossible to become a "entleman overni"ht and never a"ain be a common boy% to immediately for"et one7s old friends% family% and surroundin"s% and to abruptly chan"e one7s inner self. 8hen (ip suddenly receives his fortune% he e+periences a moment in which his romantic ideal seems to have come true. =ut the impediments remain% and (ip is forced to contend with the entan"lements of his affection for his family and his home. Deelin" his emotions clash% (ip is unsure how to behave% so he "ives in fully to his romantic side and tries to act like a wealthy aristocratKa person% he ima"ines% who would be snobbish to 5oe and =iddy. )hou"h he is at heart a very "ood person% (ip has not yet learned to value human affection and loyalty above his immature vision of how the world ou"ht to be. In this section and throu"hout the novel% behavin" snobbishly is a way for (ip to simplify the complicated emotional situations in which he finds himself as he attempts to impose his immature picture of the world on the real comple+ities of life. 8hen (ip moves to ?ondon% a new sta"e in his life be"ins. !s we are told at the end of Chapter 1FA N)his is the end of the first sta"e of (ip7s e+pectations.O
Summary: Chapter 2&

5a""ers takes (ip to ?ondon% where the country boy is ama:ed and displeased by the stench and the thron"in" crowds in such areas as >mithfield. 5a""ers seems to be an important and powerful manA hordes of people wait outside his office% mutterin" his name amon" themselves. (ip meets 5a""ers7s cynical% wry clerk% 8emmick.
Summary: Chapter 21

8emmick introduces (ip to 3erbert (ocket% the son of (ip7s tutor% with whom (ip will spend the ni"ht. 3erbert and (ip take an immediate likin" to one another< 3erbert is cheerful and open% and (ip feels that his easy "ood nature is a contrast to his own awkward diffidence. 8hereas (ip7s fortune has been made for him% 3erbert is an impoverished "entleman who hopes to become a shippin" merchant. )hey reali:e% surprised% that they have met beforeA 3erbert is the pale youn" "entleman whom (ip fou"ht in the "arden at >atis 3ouse.
Summary: Chapter 22

(ip asks 3erbert to help him learn to be a "entleman% and% after a feast% the two a"ree to live to"ether. 3erbert subtly corrects (ip7s poor table manners% "ives him the nickname N3andel%O and tells him the whole story of 4iss 3avisham. 8hen she was youn"% her family fortune was misused by her unruly half brother% and she fell in love withKand a"reed to marryKa man from a lower social class than her own. )his man convinced her to buy her half brother7s share of the family brewery% which he wanted to run% for a hu"e price. =ut on their weddin" day% the man never appeared% instead sendin" a note which 4iss 3avisham received at twenty minutes to nineKthe time at which she later stopped all her clocks. It was assumed that 4iss 3avisham7s lover was in lea"ue with her half brother and that they split the profits from the brewery sale. !t some later point% 4iss 3avisham adopted ,stella% but 3erbert does not know when or where.

Summary: Chapter 23

)he ne+t day% (ip visits the unpleasant commercial world of the Boyal ,+chan"e before "oin" to 4atthew (ocket7s house to be tutored and to have dinner. )he (ockets7 home is a bustlin"% chaotic place where the servants run the show. 4atthew is absentminded but kind% and his wife is socially ambitious but not well born< the children are bein" raised by the nurse. (ip7s fellow students are a stran"e pairA =entley Drummle% a future baronet% is oafish and unpleasant% and a youn" man named >tartop is soft and delicate. !t dinner% (ip concentrates on his table manners and observes the peculiarities of the (ockets7 social lives.
Summary: Chapter 2

(ip returns to 5a""ers7s office in order to arran"e to share rooms with 3erbert. )here (ip befriends the lively 8emmick% who invites him to dinner. (ip sees 5a""ers in the courtroom% where he is a potent and menacin" force% fri"htenin" even the ;ud"e with his thunderin" speeches.
Summary: Chapter 2!

(ip continues to "et to know his fellow students and the (ockets% attendin" dinners at both 8emmick7s and 5a""ers7s. 8emmick7s house is like somethin" out of a dream% an absurd NcastleO in 8alworth that he shares with his N!"ed (arent.O (ip observes that 8emmick seems to have a new personality when he enters his homeA while he is cynical and dry at work% at home he seems ;ovial and merry.
Summary: Chapter 2"

=y contrast% 5a""ers7s house is oppressive and dark% shared only with a "loomy housekeeper% 4olly. (ip7s fellow students attend the dinner at 5a""ers7s with (ip% and (ip and Drummle &uarrel over a loan Drummle un"ratefully borrowed from >tartop. 5a""ers warns (ip to stay away from Drummle% thou"h the lawyer claims to like the disa"reeable youn" man himself.
Analysis: Chapters 2&2"

>tructurally% this series of brief% &uick chapters inau"urates the second phase of Great Expectations, marked by (ip7s receivin" his new fortune and his move from Ient to ?ondon. (ip7s move to ?ondon marks a drastic shift of settin" for the second main section of Great Expectations, away from the desolate marshes of Ient and into the teemin" crowds of the city. Dickens% with his consummate knowled"e of the ?ondon of his era% evokes the city masterfully% describin" the stink% the run*down buildin"s% and the colorful mass of humanity throu"h (ip7s stunned perceptions. 1ne of the first thin"s (ip sees after his arrival in ?ondon is the terrible "allows of Cew"ate (rison% which "ives (ip Na sickenin" idea of ?ondon.O In a novel that places so much emphasis on the relationship between character and settin"% it should come as no surprise that (ip encounters ob;ects of punishment and ;ustice everywhere he looks. =eneath his awkward desire to be a "entleman and advance socially% (ip is obsessed with ideas of "uilt% innocence% and moral obli"ation% "oin" all the way back to his first encounter with the convict in the marsh. )he "allows evokes not only the memory of the convict% but also the themes of "uilt and innocence that preoccupy (ip7s youn" mind.

(ip7s new ac&uaintances are unlike anyone he has ever known before% and they make his transformation into a "entleman an unpredictable one. 5a""ers is hard% cold% and powerful% but beneath the surface he seems dis"usted by his own work. In Chapter # % he does not allow his clients to talk to him% and he scrubs his hands ferociously at the end of each workday% symbolically attemptin" to remove the moral taint of his work. 3erbert -the Npale youn" "entlemanO of Chapter 11. makes a natural contrast to the lawyer< he is everythin" 5a""ers is not. Iind% rela+ed% and poor% he is the perfect "entleman to educate (ip in the ways of the upper class. 3erbert7s father% 4atthew% is kind as well% but his absentminded carelessness makes him a weak fi"ure even in his own household. 1f his students% Drummle is an oaf and >tartop is a weaklin". 8emmick7s split personalityKhe acts hard and cynical in 5a""ers7s office but wry and merry at home in 8alworthKconfuses (ip% but it also emphasi:es the inner "oodness beneath 8emmick7s callous e+terior. 3is insistence on obtainin" Nportable propertyO and his "ood*natured teasin" of his N!"ed (arentO "ive him two of his most memorable catchphrases% which he uses throu"hout the novel. )he story of 4iss 3avisham mirrors some of the same themesKsocial class% romantic an"uish% and criminalityKthat run throu"hout the main story of the book. )he story e+plains the main mystery of 4iss 3avisham7s life% which was implied by her surroundin"s and her behavior much earlier in the novel. It answers many of (ip7s &uestions about her but raises many more. 8ho were the criminals who preyed on her% and what became of themQ 8hat is ,stella7s history% and how is she related to 4iss 3avishamQ !s the novel pro"resses% these &uestions will become e+tremely important< for now% they are used primarily to continue the sense of mystery that is so important to the forward momentum of Dickens7s plot.
Summary: Chapter 2#

5oe comes to visit (ip in ?ondon. =ecause (ip worries that 5oe will disapprove of his opulent lifestyle and that Drummle will look down on him because of 5oe% 5oe7s visit is strained and awkward. 3e tries to tell (ip the news from homeA 8opsle% for instance% has become an actor. =ut (ip acts annoyed with him until 5oe mentions that ,stella has returned to >atis 3ouse and that she wishes to see (ip. (ip suddenly feels more kindly toward 5oe% but the blacksmith leaves before (ip can improve his behavior. N(ip% dear old chap% life is made of ever so many partin"s welded to"ether% as I may say% and one man7s a blacksmith% and one7s a whitesmith% and one7s a "oldsmith% and one7s a coppersmith. Diwisions amon" such must come. . . .O ->ee Important Puotations ,+plained.
Summary: Chapter 2$

3opin" to see ,stella and to apolo"i:e to 5oe% (ip travels home% forced to share a coach with a pair of convicts% one of whom is the mysterious stran"er who "ave (ip money in the pub. )hou"h this man does not reco"ni:e (ip% (ip overhears him e+plainin" that the convict (ip helped that lon"*a"o ni"ht in the marshes had asked him to deliver the money to (ip. (ip is so terrified by his memory of that ni"ht that he "ets off the coach at its first stop within the town limits. 8hen he arrives at his hotel% he reads a notice in a newspaper% from which he learns that (umblechook is takin" credit for his rise in status.

Summary: Chapter 2%

8hen he travels to >atis 3ouse the ne+t day% (ip pictures himself as a triumphant kni"ht ridin" to rescue the ?ady ,stella from an evil castle. 3e encounters 1rlick% now 4iss 3avisham7s porter% at the "ate. 8hen he sees ,stella% he is stunnedA she has become a ravishin" youn" woman. Despite his newfound fortune% (ip feels horribly inade&uate around her% as unworthy and clumsy as ever. 4iss 3avisham "oads him on% snappin" at him to continue to love ,stella. (ip walks with ,stella in the "arden% but she treats him with indifference% and he becomes upset. (ip reali:es that she reminds him of someone% but he can7t place the resemblance. =ack inside% he discovers 5a""ers there and feels oppressed by the lawyer7s heavy presence.
Summary: Chapter 3&

)he ne+t day% (ip tells 5a""ers about 1rlick7s past% and 5a""ers fires the man from 4iss 3avisham7s employ. (ip is mocked by the tailor7s apprentice as he walks down the street. 3e returns in low spirits to ?ondon% where 3erbert tries to cheer him up% thou"h he also tries to convince him that% even if 4iss 3avisham is his secret benefactor% she does not intend for him to marry ,stella. 3erbert confesses to (ip that he% too% is in love and% in fact% has a fiancLe named Clara% but he is too poor to marry her.
Summary: Chapter 31

(ip and 3erbert "o to the theater% where 8opsle plays a ridiculous 3amlet. (ip takes the hapless actor out to dinner followin" the play% but his mood remains sour.
Summary: Chapter 32

(ip receives a note from ,stella% orderin" him to meet her at a ?ondon train station. 3e arrives very early and encounters 8emmick% who takes him on a brief tour of the miserable "rounds of Cew"ate (rison. (ip feels uncomfortable in the dismal surroundin"s% but 8emmick is oddly at home% even introducin" (ip to a man who has been sentenced to death by han"in".
Summary: Chapter 33

8hen (ip meets ,stella% he is a"ain troubled by her resemblance to someone he can7t place. >he treats (ip arro"antly% but sends him into ecstatic ;oy when she refers to their Ninstructions%O which makes him feel as thou"h they are destined to be married. !fter he escorts her throu"h the "aslit ?ondon ni"ht to the house at which she is stayin"% he returns to the (ockets7 home.
Summary: Chapter 3

(ip feels terribly "uilty for his snobbish treatment of 5oe and =iddy% and he feels as thou"h his de"enerate lifestyle has been a bad influence on 3erbert. )he two youn" men catalo" their debts% but they are interrupted by a letter carryin" the news that 4rs. 5oe has died.

Summary: Chapter 3!

(ip is surprised by the intensity of his sadness about his sister7s death. 3e returns home at once for the funeral. 3e meets (umblechook% who continues to fawn over him irritatin"ly. 3e tries to mend his relations with 5oe and =iddy< =iddy is skeptical of his pled"es to visit more often. (ip says "oodbye to them the ne+t mornin"% truly intendin" to visit more often% and walks away into the mist.
Analysis: Chapters 2#3!

)hese chapters cover a dark and humiliatin" time for (ip. Ironically% (ip7s di::yin" rise in social status is accompanied by a sharp decline in his confidence and happiness. 3e is humiliated in no fewer than four important scenes in this section. Dirst% 5oe7s visit to ?ondon reintroduces the theme of social contrast% showin" ;ust how awkward (ip7s position between the social classes has become< he worries both that 5oe will disapprove of his new life and that the fi"ures in his new life will disapprove of 5oe. >econd% he is fri"htened by the convicts in the coach% who remind him of his childhood encounter on the marsh. )hird% even his return home is keenly embarrassin"% as he learns of (umblechook7s false boast and finds himself mocked by the tailor7s apprentice in Chapter 0 . !nd% fourth% most painful of all% what he hopes will be a triumphant return to >atis 3ouse as a "entleman is a complete failureA ,stella treats him ;ust as cruelly as ever% remindin" him coldly that she has Nno heart.O (ip7s behavior throu"hout this period is not admirableA he treats 5oe with barely dis"uised hostility durin" 5oe7s visit to ?ondon% and he behaves hau"htily and coldly throu"hout this section. )he difference between (ip the character and (ip the narrator becomes clear here. 8hen he visits >atis 3ouse% (ip the character feels irritated and unhappy at the thou"ht of visitin" 5oe% but (ip the narrator ;ud"es himself harshly for havin" felt that way% writin" N6od for"ive meEO in Chapter #F. !s a character% (ip is in the "rip of his immediate emotions% but as a narrator% he has the capacity to look at his life from a broader perspective and to ;ud"e himself. Dickens uses that contrast well% "ivin" (ip the wisdom of hindsi"ht without sacrificin" the immediacy of his story. (ip7s "uilt over his behavior toward 5oe and =iddy reaches a hi"h point at 4rs. 5oe7s funeral. 3e is stunned by the news of his sister7s death. 4ore than anyone else e+cept for 5oe% 4rs. 5oe raised (ip% and her death marks an important point in his maturation toward adulthood and the development of his character. 3e tries to rectify his behavior toward his lower*class loved ones% but they are skeptical of his promises to improve% and with "ood reason. (ip really does mean to visit them more% as he promises =iddy in Chapter 0$% but when he leaves% he walks into the risin" mists% which symboli:e ambi"uity and confusion throu"hout Great Expectations< even he knows he is unlikely to honor his promise. 4r. 8opsle7s rise as an actor works as a sort of parody of (ip7s rise as a "entleman. )he country churchman is as ridiculous onsta"e in Chapter 01 as (ip feels on the street when )rabb% the tailor7s boy% mocks him. !nother important contrast to (ip in this section is 3erbert% whose practical dream of becomin" a merchant% earnin" money% and marryin" Clara is virtually the opposite of (ip7s fairy*tale rise in status and his irrational belief that 4iss 3avisham means for him to marry ,stella.

Summary: Chapter 3"

(ip7s twenty*first birthday finally arrives% meanin" that he is an adult and will be"in to receive a re"ular income from his fortune rather than havin" to "o to 5a""ers to access his money. 3e feels a "reat sense of e+citement% because he hopes that his entrance into adulthood will cause 5a""ers to tell him the identity of his mysterious benefactor. Despite 3erbert7s warnin"% he feels increasin"ly certain that it is 4iss 3avisham and that she means for him to marry ,stella. =ut durin" their interview% 5a""ers is cold and brief< he reveals nothin" about the source of (ip7s fortune% simply tellin" him that his income will be five hundred pounds a year and refusin" to take responsibility for the outcome. Dor some reason% the encounter reminds (ip of his meetin" with the convict in the "raveyard so many years before. >till% (ip invites 5a""ers to participate in his birthday dinner% but 5a""ers7s oppressive presence makes the evenin" less en;oyable for (ip and 3erbert.
Summary: Chapter 3#

9pon receivin" his income% (ip decides to help 3erbert by buyin" 3erbert7s way into the merchant business. 3e asks 8emmick for advice. !t 5a""ers7s office -in Chapter 06.% 8emmick cynically advises (ip not to help 3erbert% but later% at the Castle -where (ip also meets 8emmick7s "irlfriend% 4iss >kiffins.% he ;ovially offers e+actly the opposite advice and a"rees to help (ip with the scheme. )hey find a merchant in need of a youn" partner% and (ip buys 3erbert the partnership. ,verythin" is all arran"ed anonymously% so that 3erbert% like (ip% does not know the identity of his benefactor.
Analysis: Chapters 3"3#

(ip7s twenty*first birthday marks his official transition to adulthood -5a""ers even be"ins callin" him N4r. (ipO.. 5a""ers7s refusal to comply with (ip7s wishes to know the truth about his benefactor is a bad omen% one borne out in the ne+t section with the arrival of the convict and the downfall of (ip7s "reatest e+pectations. ,ven thou"h (ip is still self*critical% he has le"itimately matured into early adulthood and developed more sympathetic &ualities. 3is decision to use his lar"e income to help 3erbertK bein" Nvery desirous%O as he says% Nto serve a friendOKallows him to share his "ood fortune with a friend in need. Ironically% (ip adopts secrecy even as he is most an+ious to know the identity of his own secret benefactor. 1f course% he still believes his benefactor to be 4iss 3avisham% and he even accounts for 5a""ers7s refusal to talk with the ridiculous deduction that N4iss 3avisham had not taken him into her confidence as to her desi"nin" me for ,stella< that he resented this% and felt a ;ealousy about it.O )hat (ip ima"ines the hard% powerful 5a""ers feelin" ;ealousy over anythin" involvin" (ip illustrates the e+tent to which (ip must delude himself to believe that 4iss 3avisham truly intends for him to marry ,stella. It is obvious to the reader and to all the other characters in the book that 4iss 3avisham has no such idea in mind% but (ip remains blinded by love and continues to e&uate his social advancement with romantic advancement. )his section also continues to develop the character of 8emmick. )he bi:arre clerk7s two distinct sides become even more sharply divided in this section% as office*8emmick advises (ip not to help 3erbert% while 8alworth*8emmick wholeheartedly endorses the plan. 8emmick even acknowled"es the split% sayin" in Chapter 06 that Nmy 8alworth sentiments must be taken at 8alworth< none but my official sentiments can be taken at this office.O (ip7s

introduction to 4iss >kiffins% 8emmick7s "irlfriend -and future bride.% in Chapter 02 allows Dickens to make an even more sentimental character out of 8emmick% but it also hi"hli"hts (ip7s own romantic troubles. 3is love for ,stella remains desperately impractical% and% as the ne+t section demonstrates% his relationship with her has become humiliatin" in an entirely new way.
Summary: Chapter 3$

(ip spends a "reat deal of time with ,stella in the house of her ?ondon hostess% 4rs. =randley. 3owever% he is not treated as a serious suitor. Bather% he is allowed to accompany ,stella everywhere she "oes% watchin" her treat her other suitors cruelly but bein" more or less i"nored himself. 3e cannot understand why 4iss 3avisham does not announce the details of their en"a"ement% in which he continues to believe. (ip and ,stella "o to visit the old woman% and (ip observes for the first time a combative relationship between her and ,stellaA 4iss 3avisham "oads ,stella on to break men7s hearts% but ,stella treats 4iss 3avisham as coldly as she treats her suitors. >hortly thereafter% (ip learns to his horror that Drummle is courtin" ,stella. 3e confronts ,stella about the news% but she refuses to take his concern seriously% remindin" (ip that he is the only suitor she doesn7t try to deceive and entrap. =ut this only makes (ip feel less important to her. )hat ni"ht% the youn" man ima"ines his fate as a heavy stone slab han"in" over his head% about to fall. NI be"in to think%O said ,stella% in a musin" way% after another moment of calm wonder% Nthat I almost understand how this comes about.O ->ee Important Puotations ,+plained.
Summary: Chapter 3%

)ime passes% and (ip is now twenty*three. 1ne ni"ht% durin" a midni"ht thunderstorm% he hears heavy footsteps trud"in" up his stairs. !n old sailor enters (ip7s apartment% and (ip treats him nervously and hau"htily before reco"ni:in" him. It is (ip7s convict% the same man who terrori:ed him in the cemetery and on the marsh when he was a little boy. 3orrified% (ip learns the truth of his situationA the convict went to !ustralia% where he worked in sheep ranchin" and earned a hu"e fortune. 4oved by (ip7s kindness to him on the marsh% he arran"ed to use his wealth to make (ip a "entleman. )he convict% not 4iss 3avisham% is (ip7s secret benefactor. (ip is not meant to marry ,stella at all. 8ith a crestfallen heart% (ip hears that the convict is even now on the run from the law% and that if he is cau"ht% he could be put to death. (ip reali:es that thou"h the convict7s story has plun"ed him into despair% it is his duty to help his benefactor. 3e feeds him and "ives him 3erbert7s bed for the ni"ht% since 3erbert is away. )errified of his new situation% (ip looks in on the convict% who is sleepin" with a pistol on his pillow% and then locks the doors and falls asleep. 3e awakes at five o7clock in the mornin" to a dark sky tormented by wind and rain.
Analysis: Chapters 3$3%

!s we saw in the previous section% (ip has now matured into an adult% markin" a new phase in the novel< additionally% the reappearance of the convict and the solution of the mystery of (ip7s benefactor mark an important milestone in the book7s narrative development.

!ppropriately% the second important sta"e of the novel concludes at the end of this section< we are told here% N)his is the end of the second sta"e of (ip7s e+pectations.O Dickens opens this section by illustratin" the e+tent to which (ip must now fool himself to believe that he is still meant to marry ,stella. 3is relationship with ,stella has "one from bad to worseA where he was once her innocent playmate% he is now e+pected to act as her innocuous companion% accompanyin" her to meet suitor after suitor at innumerable parties% essentially functionin" as her chaperone. Dickens contrasts (ip7s romantic &uandary with the romantic optimism of his friends% who all seem to find romantic happiness. 8emmick has 4iss >kiffins and 3erbert has Clara< (ip has only the bitter knowled"e that the oafish Drummle has be"un courtin" his beloved ,stella. 1f course% the most important and most ominous development in these chapters% foreshadowed countless times in the earlier sections of the novel% is the reappearance of the convict% now a ru""ed old man% and the revelation that he% not 4iss 3avisham% is (ip7s secret benefactor. )his revelation deflates (ip7s hopes that he is meant for ,stella% and it completely collapses the stark social divisions that have defined him in the novel% first as a poor laborer envious of the rich% then as a "entleman embarrassed of his poor relations. Cow (ip learns that his wealth and social standin" come from the labor of an uneducated prison inmate% turnin" his social perceptions inside out. )he fulfillment of his hope of bein" raised to a hi"her social class turns out to be the work of a man from a class even lower than his own. )he sense of duty that compels (ip to help the convict is a mark of his inner "oodness% ;ust as it was many years a"o in the swamp% but he is nevertheless unable to hide his dis"ust and disappointment. N?ook7ee here% (ip. I7m your second father. Mou7re my sonKmore to me nor any son. I7ve put away money% only for you to spend.O ->ee Important Puotations ,+plained.

)he convict7s reference to himself as (ip7s Nsecond fatherO in Chapter 0F allows us to track (ip7s development throu"h a succession of father fi"ures. )he orphaned (ip identifies most closely with 5oe as a father in the first section of the novel% and the blacksmith7s soft*spoken "ood nature most stron"ly defines his childhood. !fter the ma"ical appearance of his wealth% adolescent (ip seems to treat 5a""ers as a kind of distant father fi"ure% referrin" to him repeatedly as Nmy "uardianO and allowin" him to set the parameters for his life in ?ondon. Cow a youn" adult% (ip is confronted with the convict as an unwanted father% a relationship that will develop and deepen in the final section of the novel. 8ith (ip7s discovery of his new father fi"ure% this section ends on an e+tremely ominous note% as the mornin" sky is darkened by a violent storm. !s settin" is always connected to dramatic action and atmosphere in the world of Great Expectations, a storm can only mean that trouble lies ahead for (ip and his fri"htenin" benefactor.
Summary: Chapter &

In the mornin"% (ip trips over a shadowy man crouchin" on his staircase. 3e runs to fetch the watchman% but when they return the man is "one. (ip turns his attention to the convict% who "ives his name as !bel 4a"witch. )o keep the servants from learnin" the truth% (ip decides to call 4a"witch N9ncle (rovis%O an alias 4a"witch made up for himself on the ship from

!ustralia to ,n"land. (ip arran"es a dis"uise and calls on 5a""ers to confirm 4a"witch7s story. 4a"witch tramps around the apartment% embarrassin" (ip% NhisO "entleman% with his bad table manners and rou"h speech.
Summary: Chapter 1

!fter five days of endurin" his "uest% (ip is forced to confront his problem head*on when 3erbert returns home. 4a"witch leaves% and 3erbert and (ip discuss the situation% a"reein" that (ip should no lon"er use 4a"witch7s money. )hey plan for (ip to take 4a"witch abroad% where he will be safe from the police% before partin" ways with him.
Summary: Chapter 2

)he ne+t mornin"% 4a"witch tells the youn" men his story. 3e was an orphaned child and lived a life of crime out of necessity. 3is earliest memory is of stealin" turnips to feed himself. !s a youn" man% he met a "entleman criminal named Compeyson and fell under his power. Compeyson had already driven another accomplice% !rthur% into alcoholism and madness. !rthur% 4a"witch says% was driven to despair by the memory of a wealthy woman he and Compeyson had once victimi:ed. 4a"witch remembers a woman from his own past and becomes distrau"ht% but he does not tell 3erbert and (ip about her. 3e continues% sayin" that when he and Compeyson were cau"ht% Compeyson turned on him% usin" his "entleman7s manners to obtain a li"ht sentence at the trial. 4a"witch wanted reven"e% and Compeyson was the man (ip saw him stru""lin" with that ni"ht on the marsh. !t this point% 3erbert passes (ip a note that tan"les the situation even further. )he note reveals that !rthur was 4iss 3avisham7s half brother< Compeyson was the man who stood her up on their weddin" day.
Summary: Chapter 3

!shamed that his rise to social prominence is owed to such a coarse% lowborn man% (ip feels that he must leave ,stella forever. !fter an unpleasant encounter with Drummle at the inn% he travels to >atis 3ouse to see 4iss 3avisham and ,stella one final time.
Summary: Chapter

4iss 3avisham admits that she knowin"ly allowed him to believe she was his benefactor% and she a"rees to help 3erbert now that (ip can no lon"er use his own fortune. (ip finally tells ,stella he loves her% but she coldly replies that she never deceived him into thinkin" she shared his feelin"s. >he announces that she has decided to marry Drummle. >urprisin"ly% 4iss 3avisham seems to pity (ip.

9pset beyond words% (ip walks the whole way back to ?ondon. !t a "ate close to his home% a ni"ht porter "ives him a note from 8emmick% readin" Ndon7t "o home.O

Summary: Chapter

!fraid% (ip spends a ni"ht at a seedy inn called the 3ummums. )he ne+t day% (ip finds 8emmick% who e+plains that he has learned throu"h 5a""ers7s office that Compeyson is pursuin" 4a"witch. 3e says that 3erbert has hidden 4a"witch at Clara7s house% and (ip leaves at once to "o there.
Summary: Chapter "

9pon arrivin"% he finds that Clara7s father is a drunken o"re and feels "lad that he has helped Clara and 3erbert escape him. 3e finds 4a"witch upstairs and is surprised by the concern he now feels for the old convict7s safety< he even shields 4a"witch from the news of Compeyson7s reappearance. 3erbert and (ip discuss a plan to sneak 4a"witch away on the river% and (ip be"ins to consider stayin" with his benefactor even after their escape. (ip buys a rowboat% keepin" a nervous watch for the dark fi"ure searchin" for 4a"witch.
Analysis: Chapters & "

)hrou"hout these chapters% (ip is a"ain cau"ht between powerful and conflictin" feelin"s. 8hen 5oe visited ?ondon in Chapter #2% (ip was afraid both of how 5oe would see his new life and of how the people in his new life would see 5oe. Cow% (ip is cau"ht between his fear o! 4a"witch and his fear !or 4a"witchA he is afraid of the convict% but he also fears for 4a"witch7s safety. )he news of Compeyson7s arrival coincides with the appearance of the Nman crouchin" in the cornerO in the darkness on (ip7s stairs% makin" the dan"er suddenly seem very real. 4a"witch7s story of Compeyson also causes the two plotlines that have defined (ip7s lifeK that of the convict and that of 4iss 3avisham and ,stellaKto collapse into one. )his means that the world of (ip7s secret "uilt and the world of his hi"hest aspiration share a common history% and the stark polarities in which (ip has always believedKthe ri"id lines separatin" "ood from evil and innocence from "uiltKare suddenly threatened. Interestin"ly% when (ip "oes to break off his relations with ,stella and 4iss 3avisham in Chapter //% only to find that ,stella has abandoned him to marry Drummle% 4iss 3avisham seems to pity him. 3e says% NI saw 4iss 3avisham put her hand to her heart and hold it there% as she sat lookin" by turns at ,stella and at me.O ,ven as he tries to preserve his sense of their world by leavin" it% protectin" it from bein" tainted by the world of 4a"witch% he finds ,stella and 4iss 3avisham chan"in". Despite his efforts% his romantic ideals may be impossible to preserve. )he story of Compeyson also hi"hli"hts the theme of class differences that has run throu"hout the novel. 4a"witch is a low*born orphan% but Compeyson is an educated man. !s 4a"witch says in Chapter /#% N3e set up fur a "entleman% this Compeyson . . . 3e was a smooth one to talk% and was a dab at the ways of "entle*folks.O !s a result% Compeyson was able to ne"otiate a li"ht sentence at his trial% while the rou"h*ed"ed 4a"witch received a heavier one. ,stella7s cruelty spurred (ip to desire social status% but Compeyson7s betrayal spurred 4a"witch to desire somethin" even moreA (ip wished to become a "entleman% but 4a"witch wished to NownO a "entleman% thus inspirin" his plans for (ip. (ip is fortunate throu"hout this section to have such "ood friends% emphasi:in" the novel7s theme that loyalty and human affection are more important than social standin" and ambition. =oth 3erbert and 8emmick are instrumental to the plot to rescue 4a"witch. 3erbert helps

(ip from the be"innin" of the plan% and 8emmick even breaks the division between his office self and his 8alworth self -subtly reflectin" the collapse of other ri"id cate"ories throu"hout this section. to "ive (ip information about Compeyson that he learned at 5a""ers7s office. 4iss 3avisham7s softenin" toward (ip in this section is mirrored by (ip7s "radual softenin" toward 4a"witch. )hou"h at first he seems fearsome and rou"h% the convict slowly impresses both (ip and 3erbert with the raw sense of honor underneath his powerful personality. In Chapter /6% 4a"witch seems kind and noble compared to Clara7s brutish father% =ill =arley% and (ip is sincere when he tells him% NI don7t like to leave you here.O )he subtle sense of suspicion and dread that sei:es (ip7s worldKhe cannot N"et rid of the notion of bein" watchedOKalarms him more for 4a"witch7s sake than it does for his own. 3e is in constant fear that 4a"witch7s pursuers are N"oin" swiftly% silently% and surely to take him.O )he main mysteries of the novel -apart from that of ,stella7s parenta"e. have been resolved< Dickens now relies on a sense of suspense and dan"er to keep the plot movin" forward.
Summary: Chapter #

(ip an+iously waits for 8emmick7s si"nal to transport 4a"witch downriver. Despite his softenin" attitude toward the convict% he feels morally obli"ated to refuse to spend any more of 4a"witch7s money% and his debts pile up. 3e reali:es that ,stella7s marria"e to Drummle must have taken place by now% but he intentionally avoids learnin" more about it. !ll of his worries are for 4a"witch.

(ip "oes to the theater to for"et his troubles. !fter the performance% 8opsle tells (ip that in the audience behind him was one of the convicts from the battle on the marsh so many years a"o. (ip tries to &uestion 8opsle calmly% but inside he is terrified% reali:in" that Compeyson must be shadowin" him. (ip rushes home to tell 3erbert and 8emmick.
Summary: Chapter $

5a""ers invites (ip to dinner% where he "ives the youn" man a note from 4iss 3avisham. 8hen 5a""ers mentions ,stella7s marria"e shortly after 5a""ers7s housekeeper 4olly walks in% (ip reali:es that 4olly is the person he couldn7t place% the person ,stella mysteriously resembles. 3e reali:es at once that 4olly must be ,stella7s mother. 8alkin" home with 8emmick after the dinner% (ip &uestions his friend about 4olly% and he learns that she was accused of killin" a woman over her common*law husband and of murderin" her little dau"hter to hurt him. (ip feels certain that ,stella is that lost dau"hter.
Summary: Chapter %

(ip visits 4iss 3avisham% who feels unbearably "uilty for havin" caused ,stella to break his heart. >obbin"% she clin"s to (ip7s feet% pleadin" with him to for"ive her. 3e acts kindly toward her% then "oes for a walk in the "arden. )here% he has a morbid fantasy that 4iss 3avisham is dead. 3e looks up at her window ;ust in time to see her bend over the fire and "o up in a column of flame. Bushin" in to save her% (ip sweeps the ancient weddin" feast from her table and smothers the flames with the tablecloth. 4iss 3avisham lives% but she becomes an invalid% a shadow of her former self. (ip stays with her after the doctors have departed< early the ne+t mornin"% he leaves her in the care of her servants and returns to ?ondon.

Summary: Chapter !&

(ip himself was badly burned tryin" to save 4iss 3avisham% and while 3erbert chan"es his banda"es% they a"ree that they have both "rown fonder of 4a"witch. 3erbert tells (ip the part of 4a"witch7s story that the convict ori"inally left out% the story of the woman in his past. )he story matches that of 5a""ers7s housekeeper% 4olly. 4a"witch% therefore% is 4olly7s former common*law husband and ,stella7s father.
Summary: Chapter !1

(ip is sei:ed by a feverish conviction to learn the whole truth. 3e visits 5a""ers and mana"es to shock the lawyer by proclaimin" that he knows the truth of ,stella7s parenta"e. (ip cannot convince 5a""ers to divul"e any information% however% until he appeals to 8emmick7s human% kind side% the side that until now 8emmick has never shown in the office. 5a""ers is so surprised and pleased to learn that 8emmick has a pleasant side that he confirms that ,stella is 4olly7s dau"hter% thou"h he didn7t know 4a"witch7s role in the story.
Summary: Chapter !2

(ip leaves to finish the task of securin" 3erbert7s partnership. 3e learns that 3erbert is to be transferred to the 4iddle ,ast% and 3erbert fantasi:es about escortin" Clara to the land of !rabian Ci"hts. ! messa"e from 8emmick arrives% indicatin" that they should be ready to move 4a"witch in two days. =ut (ip also finds an anonymous note threatenin" N9ncle (rovis%O demandin" that (ip travel to the marshes in secret. (ip travels to the inn near his childhood home% where he is reminded of how badly he has ne"lected 5oe since he became a "entleman. 1f all his losses% (ip thinks he re"rets the loss of 5oe7s friendship the most. )hat ni"ht% humbled and with an arm in;ured from the fire% he heads out to the mysterious meetin" on the marshes.
Analysis: Chapters #!2

(ip7s compulsion to solve the mystery of ,stella7s ori"ins fills him with a feverish purpose while he waits for 8emmick7s si"nal. )he story he uncovers connects even more completely the world of 4iss 3avisham and the world of 4a"witch. (ip% who was ori"inally mortified to learn that his fortune came from someone so far beneath ,stella% now learns that ,stella is the dau"hter of his secret benefactor and therefore sprin"s from even humbler ori"ins than himself. )he revelation% nevertheless% does not seem to chan"e his feelin"s for her. )his is due in part to (ip7s own chan"in" feelin"s for 4a"witchK3erbert and (ip are by this point loyal to the former convictKand in part to (ip7s self*critical nature. 3e is still harder on himself than on those around him% and it is perfectly in keepin" with his character to overlook in ,stella somethin" he could not overlook in himself. !side from the continuin" pro"ress of the plot to escape with 4a"witchKevadin" Compeyson% waitin" for 8emmick7s si"nalKthe most important development in this section is 4iss 3avisham7s full repentance for her behavior toward (ip. )he ori"inal dynamic between the two% with 4iss 3avisham as the manic% powerful old woman and (ip the cowerin" child% is completely reversed in Chapter /F% when 4iss 3avisham drops to her knees before (ip% cryin"% N8hat have I doneE 8hat have I doneEO =ut somethin" of (ip7s

ori"inal feelin" for the dowa"er creeps back into his mind as he walks throu"h the "arden and ima"ines her han"in" from a beam in the brewery% ;ust as he used to do when he was a child. 8hen he looks throu"h her bedroom window to reassure himself of her well*bein"% he sees her catchin" on fire and runnin" at him% Nshriekin"% with a whirl of fire bla:in" all about her% and soarin" at least as many feet above her head as she was hi"h.O !lthou"h her in;uries from the fire leave her bedridden and destroyed -;ust as 1rlick7s attack left 4rs. 5oe an invalid in Chapter 1$.% this dramatic endin" to 4iss 3avisham7s story does not assua"e her "uilt and remorse or end her search for (ip7s for"iveness. Drom her bed% she continually entreats him% N)ake a pencil and write under my name% RI for"ive herE7O
Summary: Chapter !3

)he ni"ht is dark over the marsh< in the sky the moon is a deep red. )hick mists surround the limekiln to which (ip travels. 3e enters an abandoned stone &uarry and suddenly finds his candle e+tin"uished< a noose is thrown over his head in the darkness. 3e is bound ti"htly% and a "ruff voice threatens to kill him if he cries out. ! flint is struck% its flame illuminatin" 1rlick7s wicked face.

1rlick accuses (ip of comin" between him and a youn" woman he fancied% amon" other thin"s% and declares his intention to have reven"e. 3e also admits to killin" 4rs. 5oe% thou"h he says that (ip is ultimately responsible for her death since 1rlick did it to "et back at him. NIt was you% villain%O (ip retorts boldly% but inside he is worriedA he is afraid that he will die and none of his loved ones will know how he hoped to improve himself and to help them. 1rlick reveals that he has some connection with Compeyson and has solved the mystery of 4a"witch% and that he was the shadowy fi"ure lurkin" in (ip7s stairwell. 1rlick takes a swi" of li&uor% then picks up a stone hammer and advances menacin"ly toward (ip. (ip cries out% and suddenly 3erbert bursts in with a "roup of men to save him. 3erbert had found 1rlick7s note askin" (ip to meet him at the marshes and% worried% had followed (ip there. In the ensuin" scuffle% 1rlick mana"es to escape. Bather than pursuin" him% (ip rushes home with 3erbert to carry out 4a"witch7s escape.
Summary: Chapter !

In the mornin"% a sparklin" sunrise da::les ?ondon as (ip and 3erbert prepare to put their plan in motion. 8ith their friend >tartop% the pair set out on the river< the )hames is bustlin" with activity and crowded with boats. 8hen they stop for 4a"witch at Clara7s house% he looks well and seems contemplative< he dra"s his hand in the water as the boat moves and compares life to a river. !s they move out of ?ondon into the marshes% thou"h% the mood darkens% the rowin" becomes harder% and a sense of forebodin" settles over the "roup. !t the filthy inn where they stop that ni"ht% a servant tells them of an ominous boat he has seen lin"erin" near the inn< (ip worries that it could be either the police or Compeyson. )hat ni"ht (ip sees two men lookin" into his boat% so the "roup arran"es for (ip and 4a"witch to sneak out early the ne+t mornin" and re;oin the boat further down the river. 4akin" their way downriver% they see their "oalKa 6erman steamer that will take (ip and 4a"witch awayKin the distance. =ut suddenly another rowboat appears% and a policeman calls for 4a"witch7s arrest. 4a"witch reco"ni:es Compeyson on the other boat and dives into

the river to attack him. )hey "rapple% and each slips under the surface% but only 4a"witch resurfaces. 3e claims not to have drowned Compeyson% thou"h he says he would have liked to% but he cannot avoid bein" chained and led away to prison. Cow completely loyal to him% (ip takes his hand and promises to stand by him.
Summary: Chapter !!

5a""ers is certain that 4a"witch will be found "uilty% but (ip remains loyal. 3e does not worry when he learns that the state will appropriate 4a"witch7s fortune% includin" (ip7s money. 8hile 4a"witch awaits sentencin"% 3erbert prepares to marry Clara and 8emmick en;oys a comical weddin" to 4iss >kiffins. 3erbert offers (ip a ;ob% but (ip delays his answer.
Summary: Chapter !"

(ip visits 4a"witch% who is sick and imprisoned% and works to free the stricken convict. =ut when the old man is found "uilty and sentenced to death% as 5a""ers had predicted% 4a"witch tells the ;ud"e that he believes 6od has decreed his death as an act of for"iveness. 1n the day of his death% he is too ill to speak. (ip eases his final moments by tellin" him that ,stellaKthe child he believed to be lostKis alive% well% and a beautiful lady. 4a"witch dies in peace% and (ip prays over his body% pleadin" with 6od to for"ive his lost benefactor.
Analysis: Chapters !3!"

8hile the comple+ ambi"uities of character have filled the previous chapters of Great Expectations, 1rlick7s untimely reappearance reintroduces an element of pure evil. 1rlick has no redeemin" &ualities< he is malicious and cunnin" and hurts people simply because he en;oys it. 3e blames (ip for many thin"s -for havin" ruined his chances with =iddy% causin" him to be fired by 4iss 3avisham% and havin" always been favored by 5oe.% but his hatred for (ip is lar"ely irrationalA he simply wants to destroy him. NI won7t have a ra" of you% I won7t have a bone of you% left on earth%O he says in Chapter $0. 1rlick seems to have no self* awareness and repeatedly refers to himself in the third person as N1ld 1rlick.O In this way% 1rlick contrasts powerfully with (ip% whose every action is sub;ect to relentless self*scrutiny. If (ip% so aware of ;ustice% punishment% and "uilt everywhere he "oes% represents an e+cess of reflection and self*;ud"ment% 1rlick represents a total lack of those &ualities. 3e is a perfect tool for the manipulative Compeyson% who has no doubt orchestrated the entire attack. In the world of Great Expectations, the brilliant sunrise that li"hts up the river the day of the escape attempt seems like a "ood omen. )he trip down the )hames with 4a"witch hi"hli"hts the e+tent to which (ip has "rown throu"hout the novel. )he nervous% ambivalent child is now an adult confident in his actions% shepherdin" the once*terrifyin" 4a"witch toward freedom. (ublic and private morality are no lon"er one and the same for (ip and his friends. 8hen they stop at the inn and learn of the ominous boat lin"erin" outside% (ip7s "roup is uncertain whom they should fearA the police or CompeysonKthat is% the law or an outlaw. Ironically% they are captured by both% since Compeyson had "one to the police< when 4a"witch discovers what he had done% the "entleman criminal7s face is distorted by Nwhite terror.O 4a"witch "ets his reven"e on Compeyson% even thou"h he is not directly responsible for Compeyson7s drownin". 9nlike (ip7s other former anta"onists% such as 4iss 3avisham and 4a"witch% Compeyson ends his life with an act of betrayal. )he strict sense of ;ustice that "uides the

novel demands that any sinful character will either be redeemed or come to a bad end. (ip is redeemed by his newfound love for his secret benefactor< 4a"witch is redeemed by his inner nobility and love for (ip< and 4iss 3avisham is redeemed by her repentance. )hou"h 4a"witch and 4iss 3avisham die% they die at peace% while Compeyson simply disappears% and 1rlick will be dra""ed to prison -see Chapter $2.. NMou had a child once% whom you loved and lost.O ->ee Important Puotations ,+plained. )he way in which 4a"witch dies in Chapter $6 is a testament to his own inner stren"th% and (ip7s behavior immediately before 4a"witch7s death is a si"n of his newfound love for the convict. )hou"h 8emmick7s comical weddin" and 3erbert7s ;oyous en"a"ement li"hten the mood of tra"edy in these concludin" chapters% it is the manner of 4a"witch7s deathK uncomplainin"% believin" death to be the reward of 6od7s for"ivenessKthat renders his life a victory. )he sunrise the mornin" of the escape attempt did not foretell a successful endin" to 4a"witch7s escape attempt% but% instead% foreshadows his redemption in death. (ip has now completely accepted 4a"witch as his Nsecond father.O !s he says in Chapter $/A NDor now my repu"nance to him had all melted away% and in the hunted wounded shackled creature who held my hand in his% I only saw a man who had . . . felt affectionately% "ratefully% and "enerously toward me with "reat constancy throu"h a series of years.O (ip is no lon"er concerned with social classA he simply sees that 4a"witch has been better to him than he himself has been to 5oe% si"nalin" that (ip has at last learned the novel7s "reatest moral lesson. ?oyalty% love% and human affection are more important than social class and material "randeur% and are the only "oals worth strivin" for. !fter 4a"witch7s death% (ip falls into a feverish illness. 3e is also arrested for debt and nearly carted away to prison< he is spared only because of his e+treme ill health. 3e e+periences wild hallucinations% relivin" scenes with 1rlick and 4iss 3avisham and continually seein" 5oe7s face. =ut the last is not a hallucinationA 5oe has really come% and he nurses (ip throu"h his illness.

!s (ip recovers% 5oe tells him the news from homeA 4iss 3avisham has died% wisely distributin" her fortune amon" the (ockets. !fter failin" to kill (ip% 1rlick robbed (umblechook% and he since has been cau"ht and put in ;ail. !nd 5oe has news about himselfA =iddy has helped him learn how to read and write. (ip and 5oe "o on a >unday outin"% ;ust as they used to do when (ip was a boy. =ut when (ip tries to tell 5oe the story of 4a"witch% 5oe refuses to listen% not wantin" to revisit painful memories. Despite (ip7s renewed affection% livin" in ?ondon makes 5oe increasin"ly unhappy% and one mornin" (ip finds him "one. =efore leavin"% he does (ip one last "ood turn% payin" off all of (ip7s debts. (ip rushes home to reconcile with 5oe and decides to marry =iddy when he "ets there.
Summary: Chapter !$

8hen (ip arrives at his childhood home% he finds >atis 3ouse pulled apart in preparation for an auction. (umblechook tracks him down at his hotel and treats him condescendin"ly% but (ip rudely takes his leave and "oes to find =iddy and 5oe. =iddy7s schoolhouse is empty% as is

5oe7s smithy. 8hen (ip finds them% he is shocked to discover that they have been married. Despite his disappointed e+pectation of marria"e to =iddy% he e+presses happiness for them and decides to take the ;ob with 3erbert.
Summary: Chapter !%

,leven years later% (ip returns to ,n"land. 3e says he has learned to work hard and is content with the modest livin" he makes in the mercantile firm. 3e "oes to visit 5oe and =iddy% and tries to convince =iddy that he has resi"ned himself to bein" a bachelor. (ip then "oes to >atis 3ouse and finds that it is no lon"er standin". In a silvery mist% (ip walks throu"h the over"rown% ruined "arden and thinks of ,stella. 3e has heard that she was unhappy with Drummle but that Drummle has recently died. !s the moon rises% (ip finds ,stella wanderin" throu"h the old "arden. )hey discuss the past fondly< as the mists rise% they leave the "arden hand in hand% (ip believes% never to part a"ain.
Analysis: Chapters !#!%

)he endin" of Great Expectations is more controversial than it may seem at first. =efore writin" the scene in which (ip finds ,stella in the "arden and sees Nno shadow of another partin" from her%O Dickens wrote another% less romantic endin" to the book. In this version% (ip hears that% after Drummle7s death% ,stella married a country doctor in >hropshire. 8alkin" throu"h ?ondon one day with 5oe and =iddy7s son% (ip runs into ,stella and they have a very brief meetin" and shake hands. )hou"h they do not discuss the past% (ip says he could see that Nsufferin" had been stron"er than 4iss 3avisham7s teachin" and had "iven her a heart to understand what my heart used to be.O Dickens chan"ed this endin" at the su""estion of a friend% the novelist ,dward =ulwer ?ytton. 3e seems to have been motivated% at least in part% by the desire to please his readin" public with a happy endin". >ome critics have felt that the ori"inal endin" of Great Expectations is more true to the tone of the novel% that the process of (ip7s redemption as a character is e+actly the process that would make his continued love for ,stella impossible. 1thers have felt that the ori"inal endin" is too harsh% that their common past has destined (ip and ,stella for one another% and that the main story of the novel is the story of their mutual development toward the conditions in which their love can be reali:ed. )here is no clear historical reason to favor one of these endin"s over the other. Dickens stuck with the final version throu"h every subse&uent edition of the novel% but the ori"inal endin"% chan"ed only throu"h outside influence% was Dickens7s first sense of how the story ou"ht to end. )hou"h the romantic endin" remains the NofficialO endin" of the book% each reader of Great Expectations may interpret the novel for him* or herself and decide which endin" best fits his or her own understandin" of the story. In any case% (ip7s fundamental development by this final section remains clear% and it is emphasi:ed in his reconciliation with 5oe and =iddy in Chapters $2 and $8. 3ere% the lessons (ip has learned effectively summari:e the thematic development of the novel as a whole. (ip has learned that social class is not a criterion for happiness< that strict desi"nations of "ood and evil% and even of "uilt and innocence% are nearly impossible to maintain in a world that is constantly chan"in" -symboli:ed by the destruction of >atis 3ouse% which attempted to free:e time with its stopped clocks.< and that his treatment of his loved ones must be the "uidin"

principle in his life. )hou"h his self*description as a narrator shows that he continues to ;ud"e himself harshly% he has for"iven his enemies and been reconciled with his friends. 8hether he leaves the "arden with ,stella or only bids her farewell in her carria"e% he has found a satisfyin" endin" for himself.

+uthering !eights
Wuthering Heights is ,mily =rontJ's only novel% first published in 18/2 under the pseudonym ,llis =ell. ! posthumous second edition was edited by her sister Charlotte. )he name of the novel comes from the Morkshire manor on the moors on which the story centers -as an ad;ective% "uthering is a Morkshire word referrin" to turbulent weather.. )he narrative tells the tale of the all*encompassin" and passionate% yet thwarted% love between 3eathcliff and Catherine ,arnshaw% and how this unresolved passion eventually destroys them and many around them. Cow considered a classic of ,n"lish literature% "uthering 'eights met with mi+ed reviews by critics when it first appeared% mainly because of the narrative's stark depiction of mental and physical cruelty.[#][0] )hou"h Charlotte =rontJ's &ane E#re was initially considered the best of the =rontJ sisters' works% many subse&uent critics of "uthering 'eights ar"ued that its ori"inality and achievement made it superior.[/] "uthering 'eights has also "iven rise to many adaptations and inspired works% includin" films% radio% television dramatisations% a musical by =ernard 5. )aylor% ballet% opera% and son" -notably the Iate =ush hit @8utherin" 3ei"hts@..

Plot summary
)he novel opens in 18 1 with the arrival of 4r. ?ockwood% the first narrator%[a] to )hrushcross 6ran"e% a "rand house on the Morkshire moors that he is rentin" from the unsociable 3eathcliff% also master of nearby 8utherin" 3ei"hts. Hisitin" the 3ei"hts to "reet 3eathcliff% ?ockwood is treated rudely and coldly by its inhabitants% whose relationships with one another he does not understand. !fter attemptin" to leave and bein" attacked by the household's do"s% he is forced to stay overni"ht. In his overni"ht room he finds the diary of a "irl named Catherine ,arnshaw% and learns that she was a close childhood friend of 3eathcliff. !fter fallin" asleep% ?ockwood has a terrifyin" dream of Catherine's "host appearin" at his window and be""in" to be let in. !s he stru""les to keep her out of the room% 3eathcliff% awakened by ?ockwood's shouts% enters. 9pon hearin" of Catherine's "host% 3eathcliff asks 4r. ?ockwood to leave the room and ?ockwood hears him sobbin" outside the door sayin"% @1h Cathy% please come in.@ )he ne+t mornin"% after returnin" to )hrushcross 6ran"e% ?ockwood asks the housekeeper% Celly Dean% to tell the story of 3eathcliff% Catherine% and 8utherin" 3ei"hts. Celly -,llen.

Dean takes over the narration and be"ins her story thirty years earlier% when 3eathcliff% a @"ypsy@ from the streets of ?iverpool% is brou"ht to 8utherin" 3ei"hts by the then*owner% 4r. ,arnshaw% and raised as his own. =oth ,arnshaw children% Catherine and 3indley% initially resent 3eathcliff% however Catherine and 3eathcliff become inseparable. 3er brother 3indley continues to hate and physically abuse him seein" him as an interloper and rival for his father's attention. 8hen 4r. ,arnshaw dies three years later% 3indley% by this time married to a woman named Drances% inherits the estate. 3e brutalises 3eathcliff% forcin" him to work as a hired hand. Catherine becomes friends with the nei"hbourin" ?inton family who live at )hrushcross 6ran"e% who mellow her wild personality. >he is attracted to the refined% mild% and youn" ,d"ar ?inton% whom 3eathcliff instantly dislikes. ! year later% 3indley's wife dies% apparently of @consumption@% shortly after "ivin" birth to a son% 3areton. 3indley takes to drinkin" and becomes dan"erous% at one point droppin" 3areton from the stairs into the unassumin" arms of 3eathcliff. >ome two years% Catherine a"rees to marry ,d"ar. Celly knows that this will crush 3eathcliff% and 3eathcliff overhears Catherine's e+planation that it would be @de"radin"@ to marry him. 3eathcliff storms out and leaves 8utherin" 3ei"hts% not hearin" Catherine declarin" her love for himA @I am 3eathcliff@. !fter reali:in" 3eathcliff has left her% Catherine becomes desperate and is struck down by a fever. >he is moved to )hrushcross 6ran"e where the ?inton's nurse her% unfortunately 4r and 4rs ?inton contract the fever and die. ,d"ar's attentions slowly return Catherine back to health% and some years later she marries him. >he lives in apparent happiness for a few months%-althou"h relations between her and ?inton be"in to cool and her demandin" nature reasserts itself. until 3eathcliff returns% intent on destroyin" those who prevent him from bein" with Catherine. 3e has% mysteriously% become very wealthy and ac&uired "reater sophistication and control of his behavior. )hrou"h loans he has made to the drunken and dissipated 3indley that 3indley cannot repay% 3eathcliff takes ownership of 8utherin" 3ei"hts upon 3indley's death. Intent on ruinin" ,d"ar% 3eathcliff elopes with ,d"ar's sister Isabella% which places him in a position to inherit )hrushcross 6ran"e upon ,d"ar's death. Catherine is initially very happy at seein" 3eathcliff a"ain% but then becomes very ill after a harsh ar"ument with 3eathcliff re"ardin" Isabella. )hey reconcile a few hours before her death% however% reaffirmin" their feelin"s for one another. Catherine dies after "ivin" birth to a dau"hter also named Catherine% or Cathy* with no male heir the ?inton estate passes to 3eathcliff% who becomes more bitter and ven"eful towards those around him. Isabella flees her abusive marria"e a month later and subse&uently "ives birth to a boy% ?inton. !t around the same time% 3indley dies. 3eathcliff takes ownership of 8utherin" 3ei"hts and vows to raise 3indley's son 3areton with as much ne"lect as he had suffered at 3indley's hands years earlier. 3eathcliff chooses to i"nore paternal emotions so that he mi"ht continue to de"rade 3areton as 3indley de"raded him% thereby achievin" his reven"e. )welve years later% the dyin" Isabella asks ,d"ar to raise her and 3eathcliff's son% ?inton. 3owever% 3eathcliff finds out about this and takes the sickly% spoiled child to 8utherin" 3ei"hts. 3eathcliff has nothin" but contempt for his son% but deli"hts in the idea of him rulin" the property of his enemies. Cathy% accompanied by Celly% and ?inton% accompanied by 3areton% meet while Cathy is ridin" on the moors. ?inton treats 3areton% who is illiterate% with e&ual disrespect and contempt as his father does% believin" 3areton to be an imbecile. Celly is appalled by the state of 3areton% rememberin" him as a bri"ht% lovin" toddler. Cathy feels sorry for ?inton% who knows his father despises him and is utterly miserable. 3eathcliff uses his son to issue Cathy invitations to 8utherin" 3ei"hts% but ,d"ar senses a trap and

refuses to let Cathy "o. Cathy's nature is much sweeter than her mother's and she reluctantly obeys her father. =ut when she receives news that ?inton has fallen ill% she refuses to stay at home and hurries to 8utherin" 3ei"hts to see if she can be of help. 3eathcliff attempts to persuade her to marry ?inton. 8ith ?inton's health diminishin" swiftly% he puts Cathy under house arrest and forces the two to marry. >oon after% ,d"ar ?inton dies% followed shortly by ?inton 3eathcliff. )his leaves Cathy a widow and a virtual prisoner at 8utherin" 3ei"hts% as 3eathcliff has "ained complete control of both 8utherin" 3ei"hts and )hrushcross 6ran"e. It is at this point in the narrative that ?ockwood arrives% rentin" )hrushcross 6ran"e from 3eathcliff% and hearin" Celly Dean's story. >hocked% ?ockwood leaves for ?ondon. Durin" ?ockwood's absence% events% described to him by Celly upon returnin"% reach a clima+< Cathy "radually softens toward her rou"h% uneducated cousin 3areton% ;ust as her mother was tender towards 3eathcliff. >he teaches him to read and he allows her to open up a"ain after becomin" so bitter from 3eathcliff's brutal treatment. 8hen 3eathcliff is confronted by Cathy and 3areton's love% notably 3areton's determination to protect the defiant Cathy from 3eathcliff's attacks% he seems to suffer a mental breakdown and be"ins to see Catherine's "host. 3e seemin"ly abandons his life*lon" vendetta and dies% havin" @swallowed nothin" for four days@. Celly describes findin" 3eathcliff's corpse as lyin" on the bed% stiff with ri"or mortis% with the window open and rain pourin" in throu"h it% soakin" 3eathcliff's body. 1nly 3areton mourns 3eathcliff's death. 3e is buried% accordin" to his wishes% ne+t to Catherine in the "raveyard% with ,d"ar's "rave on the other side of Catherine's. ?ockwood hastily leaves Celly and on his walk home visits the "raves% notin" the peacefulness of the spot% which contrasts sharply with the turbulent lives of the characters.

[edit] 'haracters

3eathcliff Catherine ,arnshaw ,d"ar ?inton Isabella ?inton 3indley ,arnshaw ,llen -Celly. Dean Drances ,arnshaw 3areton ,arnshaw Catherine ?inton ?inton 3eathcliff 5oseph ?ockwood 4r. ,arnshaw 4r. Ienneth

Sillah

[edit] *imeline
12$2A 126#A 126$A 1221A 1220A 122/A 1222A 1228A 128 A 1280A 128/A 12F2A 18 A 3indley born -summer.< Celly born ,d"ar ?inton born Catherine ,arnshaw born -summer.< Isabella ?inton born -late 126$. 3eathcliff brou"ht to 8utherin" 3ei"hts by 4r ,arnshaw -late summer. 4rs ,arnshaw dies -sprin". 3indley sent off to colle"e 3indley marries Drances< 4r ,arnshaw dies and 3indley comes back -1ctober.< 3eathcliff and Cathy visit )hrushcross 6ran"e for the first time< Cathy remains behind -Covember.% and then returns to 8utherin" 3ei"hts -Christmas ,ve. 3areton born -5une.< Drances dies 3eathcliff runs away from 8utherin" 3ei"hts< 4r and 4rs ?inton both die Catherine has married ,d"ar -4arch.< 3eathcliff comes back ->eptember. 3eathcliff marries Isabella -Debruary.< Catherine dies and Cathy born -# 4arch.< 3indley dies< ?inton born ->eptember. Isabella dies< Cathy visits 8utherin" 3ei"hts and meets 3areton< ?inton brou"ht to )hrushcross 6ran"e and then taken to 8utherin" 3ei"hts Cathy meets 3eathcliff and sees ?inton a"ain -# 4arch. Cathy and ?inton are married -!u"ust.< ,d"ar dies -!u"ust.< ?inton dies ->eptember.< 4r ?ockwood "oes to )hrushcross 6ran"e and visits 8utherin" 3ei"hts% be"innin" his narrative 4r ?ockwood "oes back to ?ondon -5anuary.< 3eathcliff dies -!pril.< 4r ?ockwood comes back to )hrushcross 6ran"e ->eptember. Cathy plans to marry 3areton -1 5anuary.

18 1A 18 #A 18 0A

[edit] .evelopment history

)here are several theories as to which buildin" was the inspiration for 8utherin" 3ei"hts. 1ne is )op 8ithens% a ruined farmhouse% that is located in a isolated area near the 3aworth (arsona"e. Met% its structure does not match that of the farmhouse described in the novel% and is therefore considered less likely to be the model.[$] )op 8ithens was first su""ested as the model for the fictitious farmhouse by ,llen Cussey% a friend of Charlotte =rontJ's% to ,dward 4orison 8imperis% a commissioned artist for the =rontJ sisters' novels in 182#.[6] )he second option is the now demolished 3i"h >underland 3all% near 3alifa+% 8est Morkshire.[$] )his 6othic edifice is located near ?aw 3ill% and was where ,mily worked briefly as a "overness in 1808. 8hile very "rand for the farmhouse of 8utherin" 3ei"hts% the hall had "rotes&ue embellishments of "riffins and misshapen nude men similar to those described by ?ockwood of 8utherin" 3ei"hts in chapter one of the novelA @=efore passin" the threshold% I paused to admire a &uantity of "rotes&ue carvin" lavished over the front% and especially about the principal door% above which% amon" a wilderness of crumblin" "riffins and shameless little boys% I detected the date '1$ '@.

)he inspiration for )hrushcross 6ran"e has been traditionally connected to (onden 3all% near 3aworth% althou"h very small. 4ore likely is >hibden 3all% near 3alifa+.[2][8]

[edit] /iterary allusions

)his section may contain original research. (lease improve it by verifyin" the claims made and addin" references. >tatements consistin" only of ori"inal research may be removed. 4ore details may be available on the talk pa"e. ()ebruar# *++,)raditionally% this novel has been seen as a uni&ue piece of work written by a woman confined to the lonesome heath% detached from the literary movements of the time. 3owever% ,mily =rontJ received literary trainin" at the (ensionnat 3L"er in =russels by imitatin" and analy:in" the styles of classic writers. >he also learned 6erman and was able to read the 6erman Bomantics in the ori"inal. )he work of ?ord =yron was also admired by all three =rontJ sisters. )he brother*sister relationship between 3eathcliff and Cathy is reminiscent of the brother*sister couples in =yron's epics. )he character of 3eathcliff is reminiscent of the =yronic hero.

[edit] Gothic and supernatural elements

)he novel contains many 6othic and supernatural elements. )he mystery of 3eathcliff's parenta"e is never solved. Dilm interpretations fail in accurately depictin" 3eathcliff's appearance. 3e is described as @a dark skinned "ypsy in appearance%@ with black hair and black eyes. It is assumed that he is a "ypsy< there were% from what 4r. ,arnshaw said% no people in the town who knew him or claimed him< he belon"ed to no one. In literature% the smoky% threatenin"% miserable factory*towns were often represented in reli"ious terms and compared to hell. )he poet 8illiam =lake% writin" near the turn of the nineteenth century% speaks of ,n"land7s @dark >atanic 4ills.@ 3eathcliff is described by 3indley as an @imp of >atan@ in chapter four. Cear the end of the novel% Celly Dean wonders if 3eathcliff is a "houl or vampire% but then remembers how they "rew up to"ether and dismisses the thou"ht. )he awesome but unseen presence of >atan is also alluded to at several points in the novel% and it is noted in chapter three that @no cler"yman will undertake the duties of pastor@ at the local chapel% which has fallen into dereliction. 3eathcliff is constantly described as a devil or demon by many different characters throu"hout the course of the book. 3is wife% Isabella ?inton% asks Celly if 3eathcliff is a man at all% after she marries him and is e+posed to his true nature. 6hosts also play a role in the novel. ?ockwood has a horrible vision of Catherine -the elder. as a child% appearin" at the window of her old chamber at 8utherin" 3ei"hts and be""in" to be allowed in< terrified for some reason he cannot e+plain% he resorts to an act of shockin" violence to drive her away. 3eathcliff believes this story of Catherine's "hostly return and late in the novel behaves as thou"h he has seen her "host himself. 8hen 3eathcliff dies% he is found in the bedroom with the window open% raisin" the possibility that Catherine's "host entered 8utherin" 3ei"hts as ?ockwood visuali:ed in his dream. !t the end of the novel% Celly Dean reports that various superstitious locals claimed to see Catherine and 3eathcliff's "hosts roamin" the moors. ?ockwood% however% discounts the idea of @un&uiet slumbers for those sleepers in that &uiet earth.@

+uthering !eights

,mily =rontJ

'ontext
8 utherin" 3ei"hts% which has lon" been one of the most popular and hi"hly re"arded novels in ,n"lish literature% seemed to hold little promise when it was published in 18/2% sellin" very poorly and receivin" only a few mi+ed reviews. Hictorian readers found the book shockin" and inappropriate in its depiction of passionate% un"overned love and cruelty -despite the fact that the novel portrays no se+ or bloodshed.% and the work was virtually i"nored. ,ven ,mily =rontJ7s sister CharlotteKan author whose works contained similar motifs of 6othic love and desolate landscapesKremained ambivalent toward the unapolo"etic intensity of her sister7s novel. In a preface to the book% which she wrote shortly after ,mily =rontJ7s death% Charlotte =rontJ stated% N8hether it is ri"ht or advisable to create bein"s like 3eathcliff% I do not know. I scarcely think it is.O ,mily =rontJ lived an eccentric% closely "uarded life. >he was born in 1818% two years after Charlotte and a year and a half before her sister !nne% who also became an author. 3er father worked as a church rector% and her aunt% who raised the =rontJ children after their mother died% was deeply reli"ious. ,mily =rontJ did not take to her aunt7s Christian fervor< the character of 5oseph% a caricature of an evan"elical% may have been inspired by her aunt7s reli"iosity. )he =rontJs lived in 3aworth% a Morkshire villa"e in the midst of the moors. )hese wild% desolate e+pansesKlater the settin" of "uthering 'eightsKmade up the =rontJs7 daily environment% and ,mily lived amon" them her entire life. >he died in 18/8% at the a"e of thirty. !s witnessed by their e+traordinary literary accomplishments% the =rontJ children were a hi"hly creative "roup% writin" stories% plays% and poems for their own amusement. ?ar"ely left to their own devices% the children created ima"inary worlds in which to play. Met the sisters knew that the outside world would not respond favorably to their creative e+pression< female authors were often treated less seriously than their male counterparts in the nineteenth century. )hus the =rontJ sisters thou"ht it best to publish their adult works under assumed names. Charlotte wrote as Currer =ell% ,mily as ,llis =ell% and !nne as !cton =ell. )heir real identities remained secret until after ,mily and !nne had died% when Charlotte at last revealed the truth of their novels7 authorship. )oday% "uthering 'eights has a secure position in the canon of world literature% and ,mily =rontJ is revered as one of the finest writersKmale or femaleKof the nineteenth century. ?ike Charlotte =rontJ7s &ane E#re, "uthering 'eights is based partly on the 6othic tradition of the late ei"hteenth century% a style of literature that featured supernatural encounters% crumblin" ruins% moonless ni"hts% and "rotes&ue ima"ery% seekin" to create effects of mystery and fear. =ut "uthering 'eights transcends its "enre in its sophisticated observation and artistic subtlety. )he novel has been studied% analy:ed% dissected% and discussed from every ima"inable critical perspective% yet it remains une+hausted. !nd while the novel7s symbolism% themes% structure% and lan"ua"e may all spark fertile e+ploration% the bulk of its popularity may rest on its unfor"ettable characters. !s a shatterin" presentation of the doomed love affair between the fiercely passionate Catherine and 3eathcliff% it remains one of the most hauntin" love stories in all of literature.

Plot Overvie&
I n the late winter months of 18 1% a man named ?ockwood rents a manor house called )hrushcross 6ran"e in the isolated moor country of ,n"land. 3ere% he meets his dour landlord% 3eathcliff% a wealthy man who lives in the ancient manor of 8utherin" 3ei"hts% four miles away from the 6ran"e. In this wild% stormy countryside% ?ockwood asks his housekeeper% Celly Dean% to tell him the story of 3eathcliff and the stran"e deni:ens of 8utherin" 3ei"hts. Celly consents% and ?ockwood writes down his recollections of her tale in his diary< these written recollections form the main part of "uthering 'eights. Celly remembers her childhood. !s a youn" "irl% she works as a servant at 8utherin" 3ei"hts for the owner of the manor% 4r. ,arnshaw% and his family. 1ne day% 4r. ,arnshaw "oes to ?iverpool and returns home with an orphan boy whom he will raise with his own children. !t first% the ,arnshaw childrenKa boy named 3indley and his youn"er sister CatherineKdetest the dark*skinned 3eathcliff. =ut Catherine &uickly comes to love him% and the two soon "row inseparable% spendin" their days playin" on the moors. !fter his wife7s death% 4r. ,arnshaw "rows to prefer 3eathcliff to his own son% and when 3indley continues his cruelty to 3eathcliff% 4r. ,arnshaw sends 3indley away to colle"e% keepin" 3eathcliff nearby. )hree years later% 4r. ,arnshaw dies% and 3indley inherits 8utherin" 3ei"hts. 3e returns with a wife% Drances% and immediately seeks reven"e on 3eathcliff. 1nce an orphan% later a pampered and favored son% 3eathcliff now finds himself treated as a common laborer% forced to work in the fields. 3eathcliff continues his close relationship with Catherine% however. 1ne ni"ht they wander to )hrushcross 6ran"e% hopin" to tease ,d"ar and Isabella ?inton% the cowardly% snobbish children who live there. Catherine is bitten by a do" and is forced to stay at the 6ran"e to recuperate for five weeks% durin" which time 4rs. ?inton works to make her a proper youn" lady. =y the time Catherine returns% she has become infatuated with ,d"ar% and her relationship with 3eathcliff "rows more complicated. 8hen Drances dies after "ivin" birth to a baby boy named 3areton% 3indley descends into the depths of alcoholism% and behaves even more cruelly and abusively toward 3eathcliff. ,ventually% Catherine7s desire for social advancement prompts her to become en"a"ed to ,d"ar ?inton% despite her overpowerin" love for 3eathcliff. 3eathcliff runs away from 8utherin" 3ei"hts% stayin" away for three years% and returnin" shortly after Catherine and ,d"ar7s marria"e. 8hen 3eathcliff returns% he immediately sets about seekin" reven"e on all who have wron"ed him. 3avin" come into a vast and mysterious wealth% he deviously lends money to the drunken 3indley% knowin" that 3indley will increase his debts and fall into deeper despondency. 8hen 3indley dies% 3eathcliff inherits the manor. 3e also places himself in line to inherit )hrushcross 6ran"e by marryin" Isabella ?inton% whom he treats very cruelly. Catherine becomes ill% "ives birth to a dau"hter% and dies. 3eathcliff be"s her spirit to remain on ,arthKshe may take whatever form she will% she may haunt him% drive him madK;ust as lon" as she does not leave him alone. >hortly thereafter% Isabella flees to ?ondon and "ives birth to 3eathcliff7s son% named ?inton after her family. >he keeps the boy with her there. )hirteen years pass% durin" which Celly Dean serves as Catherine7s dau"hter7s nursemaid at )hrushcross 6ran"e. Moun" Catherine is beautiful and headstron" like her mother% but her temperament is modified by her father7s "entler influence. Moun" Catherine "rows up at the 6ran"e with no knowled"e of 8utherin" 3ei"hts< one day% however% wanderin" throu"h the

moors% she discovers the manor% meets 3areton% and plays to"ether with him. >oon afterwards% Isabella dies% and ?inton comes to live with 3eathcliff. 3eathcliff treats his sickly% whinin" son even more cruelly than he treated the boy7s mother. )hree years later% Catherine meets 3eathcliff on the moors% and makes a visit to 8utherin" 3ei"hts to meet ?inton. >he and ?inton be"in a secret romance conducted entirely throu"h letters. 8hen Celly destroys Catherine7s collection of letters% the "irl be"ins sneakin" out at ni"ht to spend time with her frail youn" lover% who asks her to come back and nurse him back to health. 3owever% it &uickly becomes apparent that ?inton is pursuin" Catherine only because 3eathcliff is forcin" him to< 3eathcliff hopes that if Catherine marries ?inton% his le"al claim upon )hrushcross 6ran"eKand his reven"e upon ,d"ar ?intonKwill be complete. 1ne day% as ,d"ar ?inton "rows ill and nears death% 3eathcliff lures Celly and Catherine back to 8utherin" 3ei"hts% and holds them prisoner until Catherine marries ?inton. >oon after the marria"e% ,d"ar dies% and his death is &uickly followed by the death of the sickly ?inton. 3eathcliff now controls both 8utherin" 3ei"hts and )hrushcross 6ran"e. 3e forces Catherine to live at 8utherin" 3ei"hts and act as a common servant% while he rents )hrushcross 6ran"e to ?ockwood. Celly7s story ends as she reaches the present. ?ockwood% appalled% ends his tenancy at )hrushcross 6ran"e and returns to ?ondon. 3owever% si+ months later% he pays a visit to Celly% and learns of further developments in the story. !lthou"h Catherine ori"inally mocked 3areton7s i"norance and illiteracy -in an act of retribution% 3eathcliff ended 3areton7s education after 3indley died.% Catherine "rows to love 3areton as they live to"ether at 8utherin" 3ei"hts. 3eathcliff becomes more and more obsessed with the memory of the elder Catherine% to the e+tent that he be"ins speakin" to her "host. ,verythin" he sees reminds him of her. >hortly after a ni"ht spent walkin" on the moors% 3eathcliff dies. 3areton and youn" Catherine inherit 8utherin" 3ei"hts and )hrushcross 6ran"e% and they plan to be married on the ne+t Cew Mear7s Day. !fter hearin" the end of the story% ?ockwood "oes to visit the "raves of Catherine and 3eathcliff.
Chronolo'y

)he story of "uthering 'eights is told throu"h flashbacks recorded in diary entries% and events are often presented out of chronolo"ical orderK?ockwood7s narrative takes place after Celly7s narrative% for instance% but is interspersed with Celly7s story in his ;ournal. Cevertheless% the novel contains enou"h clues to enable an appro+imate reconstruction of its chronolo"y% which was elaborately desi"ned by ,mily =rontJ. Dor instance% ?ockwood7s diary entries are recorded in the late months of 18 1 and in >eptember 18 #< in 18 1% Celly tells ?ockwood that she has lived at )hrushcross 6ran"e for ei"hteen years% since Catherine7s marria"e to ,d"ar% which must then have occurred in 1280. 8e know that Catherine was en"a"ed to ,d"ar for three years% and that Celly was twenty*two when they were en"a"ed% so the en"a"ement must have taken place in 128 % and Celly must have been born in 12$8. >ince Celly is a few years older than Catherine% and since ?ockwood comments that 3eathcliff is about forty years old in 18 1% it stands to reason that 3eathcliff and Catherine were born around 1261% three years after Celly. )here are several other clues like this in the novel -such as 3areton7s birth% which occurs in 5une% 1228.. )he followin" chronolo"y is based on those clues% and should closely appro+imate the timin" of the novel7s important events. ! NTO before a date indicates that it cannot be precisely determined from the evidence in the novel% but only closely estimated.

1500 - The stone above the front door of )utherin" 'ei"hts, bearin" the name of 'areton *arnshaw, is inscribed, possibly to mark the completion of the house. 1758 - +elly is born. ~1761 - 'eathcliff and Catherine are born. ~1767 - !r. *arnshaw brin"s 'eathcliff to live at )utherin" 'ei"hts. 1774 - !r. *arnshaw sends 'indley away to colle"e. 1777 - !r. *arnshaw dies, 'indley and -rances take possession of )utherin" 'ei"hts, Catherine first visits Thrushcross ran"e around Christmastime. 1778 - 'areton is born in .une, -rances dies, 'indley be"ins his slide into alcoholism. 1780 - Catherine becomes en"a"ed to *d"ar /inton, 'eathcliff leaves )utherin" 'ei"hts. 1783 - Catherine and *d"ar are married, 'eathcliff arrives at Thrushcross ran"e in September. 1784 - 'eathcliff and Isabella elope in the early part of the year, Catherine becomes ill with brain fever, youn" Catherine is born late in the year, Catherine dies. 1785 - *arly in the year, Isabella flees )utherin" 'ei"hts and settles in /ondon, /inton is born. ~1785 - 'indley dies, 'eathcliff inherits )utherin" 'ei"hts. ~1797 - 0oun" Catherine meets 'areton and visits )utherin" 'ei"hts for the first time, /inton comes from /ondon after Isabella dies 1in late 2343 or early 23456. 1800 - 0oun" Catherine sta"es her romance with /inton in the winter. 1801 - *arly in the year, youn" Catherine is imprisoned by 'eathcliff and forced to marry /inton, *d"ar /inton dies, /inton dies, 'eathcliff assumes control of Thrushcross ran"e. /ate in the year, /ockwood rents the ran"e from 'eathcliff and be"ins his tenancy. In a winter storm, /ockwood takes ill and be"ins conversin" with +elly %ean. 18011802 - %urin" the winter, +elly narrates her story for /ockwood. 1802 - In sprin", /ockwood returns to /ondon, Catherine and 'areton fall in love, 'eathcliff dies, /ockwood returns in September and hears the end of the story from +elly. 1803 - &n +ew 0ear#s %ay, youn" Catherine and 'areton plan to be married.

'haracter /ist

!eathcli"" * !n orphan brou"ht to live at 8utherin" 3ei"hts by 4r. ,arnshaw% 3eathcliff falls into an intense% unbreakable love with 4r. ,arnshaw7s dau"hter Catherine. !fter 4r. ,arnshaw dies% his resentful son 3indley abuses 3eathcliff and treats him as a servant. =ecause of her desire for social prominence% Catherine marries ,d"ar ?inton instead of 3eathcliff. 3eathcliff7s humiliation and misery prompt him to spend most of the rest of his life seekin" reven"e on 3indley% his beloved Catherine% and their respective children -3areton and youn" Catherine.. ! powerful% fierce% and often cruel man% 3eathcliff ac&uires a fortune and uses his e+traordinary powers of will to ac&uire both 8utherin" 3ei"hts and )hrushcross 6ran"e% the estate of ,d"ar ?inton. 'atherine * )he dau"hter of 4r. ,arnshaw and his wife% Catherine falls powerfully in love with 3eathcliff% the orphan 4r. ,arnshaw brin"s home from ?iverpool. Catherine loves 3eathcliff so intensely that she claims they are the same person. 3owever% her desire for social advancement motivates her to marry ,d"ar ?inton instead. Catherine is free*spirited% beautiful% spoiled% and often arro"ant. >he is "iven to fits of temper% and she is torn between her wild passion for 3eathcliff and her social ambition. >he brin"s misery to both of the men who love her. Bead an in*depth analysis of Catherine. Edgar /inton * 8ell*bred but rather spoiled as a boy% ,d"ar ?inton "rows into a tender% constant% but cowardly man. 3e is almost the ideal "entlemanA Catherine accurately describes him as Nhandsome%O Npleasant to be with%O Ncheerful%O and Nrich.O 3owever% this full assortment of "entlemanly characteristics% alon" with his civili:ed virtues% proves useless in ,d"ar7s clashes with his foil% 3eathcliff% who "ains power over his wife% sister% and dau"hter. :elly .ean * Celly Dean -known formally as ,llen Dean. serves as the chief narrator of "uthering 'eights. ! sensible% intelli"ent% and compassionate woman% she "rew up essentially alon"side 3indley and Catherine ,arnshaw and is deeply involved in the story she tells. >he has stron" feelin"s for the characters in her story% and these feelin"s complicate her narration. /oc &ood * ?ockwood7s narration forms a frame around Celly7s< he serves as an intermediary between Celly and the reader. ! somewhat vain and presumptuous "entleman% he deals very clumsily with the inhabitants of 8utherin" 3ei"hts. ?ockwood comes from a more domesticated re"ion of ,n"land% and he finds himself at a loss when he witnesses the stran"e household7s disre"ard for the social conventions that have always structured his world. !s a narrator% his vanity and unfamiliarity with the story occasionally lead him to misunderstand events. ;oung 'atherine * Dor clarity7s sake% this >parkCote refers to the dau"hter of ,d"ar ?inton and the first Catherine as Nyoun" Catherine.O )he first Catherine be"ins her life as Catherine ,arnshaw and ends it as Catherine ?inton< her dau"hter be"ins as Catherine ?inton and% assumin" that she marries 3areton after the end of the story% "oes on to become Catherine ,arnshaw. )he mother and the dau"hter share not only a name% but also a tendency toward headstron" behavior% impetuousness% and occasional arro"ance. 3owever% ,d"ar7s influence seems to have tempered youn" Catherine7s character% and she is a "entler and more compassionate creature than her mother. !areton Earnsha& * )he son of 3indley and Drances ,arnshaw% 3areton is Catherine7s nephew. !fter 3indley7s death% 3eathcliff assumes custody of 3areton% and raises him as an uneducated field worker% ;ust as 3indley had done to 3eathcliff himself. )hus 3eathcliff uses 3areton to seek reven"e on 3indley. Illiterate and &uick*tempered% 3areton is easily humiliated% but shows a "ood heart and a deep desire to improve himself. !t the end of the novel% he marries youn" Catherine.

/inton !eathcli"" * 3eathcliff7s son by Isabella. 8eak% snivelin"% demandin"% and constantly ill% ?inton is raised in ?ondon by his mother and does not meet his father until he is thirteen years old% when he "oes to live with him after his mother7s death. 3eathcliff despises ?inton% treats him contemptuously% and% by forcin" him to marry the youn" Catherine% uses him to cement his control over )hrushcross 6ran"e after ,d"ar ?inton7s death. ?inton himself dies not lon" after this marria"e. !indley Earnsha& * Catherine7s brother% and 4r. ,arnshaw7s son. 3indley resents it when 3eathcliff is brou"ht to live at 8utherin" 3ei"hts. !fter his father dies and he inherits the estate% 3indley be"ins to abuse the youn" 3eathcliff% terminatin" his education and forcin" him to work in the fields. 8hen 3indley7s wife Drances dies shortly after "ivin" birth to their son 3areton% he lapses into alcoholism and dissipation. <sabella /inton * ,d"ar ?inton7s sister% who falls in love with 3eathcliff and marries him. >he sees 3eathcliff as a romantic fi"ure% like a character in a novel. 9ltimately% she ruins her life by fallin" in love with him. 3e never returns her feelin"s and treats her as a mere tool in his &uest for reven"e on the ?inton family. Mr. Earnsha& * Catherine and 3indley7s father. 4r. ,arnshaw adopts 3eathcliff and brin"s him to live at 8utherin" 3ei"hts. 4r. ,arnshaw prefers 3eathcliff to 3indley but nevertheless be&ueaths 8utherin" 3ei"hts to 3indley when he dies. Mrs. Earnsha& * Catherine and 3indley7s mother% who neither likes nor trusts the orphan 3eathcliff when he is brou"ht to live at her house. >he dies shortly after 3eathcliff7s arrival at 8utherin" 3ei"hts. Joseph * ! lon"*winded% fanatically reli"ious% elderly servant at 8utherin" 3ei"hts. 5oseph is stran"e% stubborn% and unkind% and he speaks with a thick Morkshire accent. =rances Earnsha& * 3indley7s simperin"% silly wife% who treats 3eathcliff cruelly. >he dies shortly after "ivin" birth to 3areton. Mr. /inton * ,d"ar and Isabella7s father and the proprietor of )hrushcross 6ran"e when 3eathcliff and Catherine are children. !n established member of the "entry% he raises his son and dau"hter to be well*mannered youn" people. Mrs. /inton * 4r. ?inton7s somewhat snobbish wife% who does not like 3eathcliff to be allowed near her children% ,d"ar and Isabella. >he teaches Catherine to act like a "entle* woman% thereby instillin" her with social ambitions. >illah * )he housekeeper at 8utherin" 3ei"hts durin" the latter sta"es of the narrative. Mr. Green * ,d"ar ?inton7s lawyer% who arrives too late to hear ,d"ar7s final instruction to chan"e his will% which would have prevented 3eathcliff from obtainin" control over )hrushcross 6ran"e.

%nalysis o" Ma3or 'haracters

Heath(liff

"uthering 'eights centers around the story of 3eathcliff. )he first para"raph of the novel provides a vivid physical picture of him% as ?ockwood describes how his Nblack eyesO withdraw suspiciously under his brows at ?ockwood7s approach. Celly7s story be"ins with his introduction into the ,arnshaw family% his ven"eful machinations drive the entire plot% and his death ends the book. )he desire to understand him and his motivations has kept countless readers en"a"ed in the novel.

3eathcliff% however% defies bein" understood% and it is difficult for readers to resist seein" what they want or e+pect to see in him. )he novel teases the reader with the possibility that 3eathcliff is somethin" other than what he seemsKthat his cruelty is merely an e+pression of his frustrated love for Catherine% or that his sinister behaviors serve to conceal the heart of a romantic hero. 8e e+pect 3eathcliff7s character to contain such a hidden virtue because he resembles a hero in a romance novel. )raditionally% romance novel heroes appear dan"erous% broodin"% and cold at first% only later to emer"e as fiercely devoted and lovin". 1ne hundred years before ,mily =rontJ wrote "uthering 'eights, the notion that Na reformed rake makes the best husbandO was already a clichL of romantic literature% and romance novels center around the same clichL to this day. 3owever% 3eathcliff does not reform% and his malevolence proves so "reat and lon"*lastin" that it cannot be ade&uately e+plained even as a desire for reven"e a"ainst 3indley% Catherine% ,d"ar% etc. !s he himself points out% his abuse of Isabella is purely sadistic% as he amuses himself by seein" how much abuse she can take and still come crin"in" back for more. Critic 5oyce Carol 1ates ar"ues that ,mily =rontJ does the same thin" to the reader that 3eathcliff does to Isabella% testin" to see how many times the reader can be shocked by 3eathcliff7s "ratuitous violence and still% masochistically% insist on seein" him as a romantic hero. It is si"nificant that 3eathcliff be"ins his life as a homeless orphan on the streets of ?iverpool. 8hen =rontJ composed her book% in the 18/ s% the ,n"lish economy was severely depressed% and the conditions of the factory workers in industrial areas like ?iverpool were so appallin" that the upper and middle classes feared violent revolt. )hus% many of the more affluent members of society beheld these workers with a mi+ture of sympathy and fear. In literature% the smoky% threatenin"% miserable factory*towns were often represented in reli"ious terms% and compared to hell. )he poet 8illiam =lake% writin" near the turn of the nineteenth century% speaks of ,n"land7s Ndark >atanic 4ills.O 3eathcliff% of course% is fre&uently compared to a demon by the other characters in the book. Considerin" this historical conte+t% 3eathcliff seems to embody the an+ieties that the book7s upper* and middle*class audience had about the workin" classes. )he reader may easily sympathi:e with him when he is powerless% as a child tyranni:ed by 3indley ,arnshaw% but he becomes a villain when he ac&uires power and returns to 8utherin" 3ei"hts with money and the trappin"s of a "entleman. )his corresponds with the ambivalence the upper classes felt toward the lower classesKthe upper classes had charitable impulses toward lower*class citi:ens when they were miserable% but feared the prospect of the lower classes tryin" to escape their miserable circumstances by ac&uirin" political% social% cultural% or economic power.
Catherine

)he location of Catherine7s coffin symboli:es the conflict that tears apart her short life. >he is not buried in the chapel with the ?intons. Cor is her coffin placed amon" the tombs of the ,arnshaws. Instead% as Celly describes in Chapter UHI% Catherine is buried Nin a corner of the kirkyard% where the wall is so low that heath and bilberry plants have climbed over it from the moor.O 4oreover% she is buried with ,d"ar on one side and 3eathcliff on the other% su""estin" her conflicted loyalties. 3er actions are driven in part by her social ambitions% which initially are awakened durin" her first stay at the ?intons7% and which eventually compel her to marry ,d"ar. 3owever% she is also motivated by impulses that prompt her to

violate social conventionsKto love 3eathcliff% throw temper tantrums% and run around on the moor.

Isabella ?intonKCatherine7s sister*in*law and 3eathcliff7s wife% who was born in the same year that Catherine wasKserves as Catherine7s foil. )he two women7s parallel positions allow us to see their differences with "reater clarity. Catherine represents wild nature% in both her hi"h% lively spirits and her occasional cruelty% whereas Isabella represents culture and civili:ation% both in her refinement and in her weakness.
E)'ar

5ust as Isabella ?inton serves as Catherine7s foil% ,d"ar ?inton serves as 3eathcliff7s. ,d"ar is born and raised a "entleman. 3e is "raceful% well*mannered% and instilled with civili:ed virtues. )hese &ualities cause Catherine to choose ,d"ar over 3eathcliff and thus to initiate the contention between the men. Cevertheless% ,d"ar7s "entlemanly &ualities ultimately prove useless in his ensuin" rivalry with 3eathcliff. ,d"ar is particularly humiliated by his confrontation with 3eathcliff in Chapter UI% in which he openly shows his fear of fi"htin" 3eathcliff. Catherine% havin" witnessed the scene% taunts him% sayin"% N3eathcliff would as soon lift a fin"er at you as the kin" would march his army a"ainst a colony of mice.O !s the reader can see from the earliest descriptions of ,d"ar as a spoiled child% his refinement is tied to his helplessness and impotence. Charlotte =rontJ% in her preface to the 18$ edition of "uthering 'eights, refers to ,d"ar as Nan e+ample of constancy and tenderness%O and "oes on to su""est that her sister ,mily was usin" ,d"ar to point out that such characteristics constitute true virtues in all human bein"s% and not ;ust in women% as society tended to believe. 3owever% Charlotte7s readin" seems influenced by her own feminist a"enda. ,d"ar7s inability to counter 3eathcliff7s ven"eance% and his naVve belief on his deathbed in his dau"hter7s safety and happiness% make him a weak% if sympathetic% character.

*hemes4 Moti"s 5 (ymbols

Themes Themes are the fundamental and often universal ideas explored in a literary work. The %estructiveness of a /ove That +ever Chan"es

Catherine and 3eathcliff7s passion for one another seems to be the center of "uthering 'eights, "iven that it is stron"er and more lastin" than any other emotion displayed in the novel% and that it is the source of most of the ma;or conflicts that structure the novel7s plot. !s she tells Catherine and 3eathcliff7s story% Celly critici:es both of them harshly% condemnin" their passion as immoral% but this passion is obviously one of the most compellin" and memorable aspects of the book. It is not easy to decide whether =rontJ intends the reader to condemn these lovers as blameworthy or to ideali:e them as romantic heroes whose love transcends social norms and conventional morality. )he book is actually structured around two parallel love stories% the first half of the novel centerin" on the love between Catherine and 3eathcliff% while the less dramatic second half features the developin" love between youn" Catherine and 3areton. In contrast to the first% the latter tale ends happily% restorin"

peace and order to 8utherin" 3ei"hts and )hrushcross 6ran"e. )he differences between the two love stories contribute to the reader7s understandin" of why each ends the way it does.

)he most important feature of youn" Catherine and 3areton7s love story is that it involves "rowth and chan"e. ,arly in the novel 3areton seems irredeemably brutal% sava"e% and illiterate% but over time he becomes a loyal friend to youn" Catherine and learns to read. 8hen youn" Catherine first meets 3areton he seems completely alien to her world% yet her attitude also evolves from contempt to love. Catherine and 3eathcliff7s love% on the other hand% is rooted in their childhood and is marked by the refusal to chan"e. In choosin" to marry ,d"ar% Catherine seeks a more "enteel life% but she refuses to adapt to her role as wife% either by sacrificin" 3eathcliff or embracin" ,d"ar. In Chapter UII she su""ests to Celly that the years since she was twelve years old and her father died have been like a blank to her% and she lon"s to return to the moors of her childhood. 3eathcliff% for his part% possesses a seemin"ly superhuman ability to maintain the same attitude and to nurse the same "rud"es over many years. 4oreover% Catherine and 3eathcliff7s love is based on their shared perception that they are identical. Catherine declares% famously% NI am 3eathcliff%O while 3eathcliff% upon Catherine7s death% wails that he cannot live without his Nsoul%O meanin" Catherine. )heir love denies difference% and is stran"ely ase+ual. )he two do not kiss in dark corners or arran"e secret trysts% as adulterers do. 6iven that Catherine and 3eathcliff7s love is based upon their refusal to chan"e over time or embrace difference in others% it is fittin" that the disastrous problems of their "eneration are overcome not by some climactic reversal% but simply by the ine+orable passa"e of time% and the rise of a new and distinct "eneration. 9ltimately% "uthering 'eights presents a vision of life as a process of chan"e% and celebrates this process over and a"ainst the romantic intensity of its principal characters.
The 7recariousness of Social Class

!s members of the "entry% the ,arnshaws and the ?intons occupy a somewhat precarious place within the hierarchy of late ei"hteenth* and early nineteenth*century =ritish society. !t the top of =ritish society was the royalty% followed by the aristocracy% then by the "entry% and then by the lower classes% who made up the vast ma;ority of the population. !lthou"h the "entry% or upper middle class% possessed servants and often lar"e estates% they held a nonetheless fra"ile social position. )he social status of aristocrats was a formal and settled matter% because aristocrats had official titles. 4embers of the "entry% however% held no titles% and their status was thus sub;ect to chan"e. ! man mi"ht see himself as a "entleman but find% to his embarrassment% that his nei"hbors did not share this view. ! discussion of whether or not a man was really a "entleman would consider such &uestions as how much land he owned% how many tenants and servants he had% how he spoke% whether he kept horses and a carria"e% and whether his money came from land or NtradeOK"entlemen scorned bankin" and commercial activities. Considerations of class status often crucially inform the characters7 motivations in "uthering 'eights. Catherine7s decision to marry ,d"ar so that she will be Nthe "reatest woman of the nei"hborhoodO is only the most obvious e+ample. )he ?intons are relatively firm in their "entry status but nonetheless take "reat pains to prove this status throu"h their behaviors. )he ,arnshaws% on the other hand% rest on much shakier "round socially. )hey do not have a

carria"e% they have less land% and their house% as ?ockwood remarks with "reat pu::lement% resembles that of a Nhomely% northern farmerO and not that of a "entleman. )he shiftin" nature of social status is demonstrated most strikin"ly in 3eathcliff7s tra;ectory from homeless waif to youn" "entleman*by*adoption to common laborer to "entleman a"ain -althou"h the status* conscious ?ockwood remarks that 3eathcliff is only a "entleman in Ndress and mannersO..
Motifs !otifs are recurrin" structures, contrasts, and literary devices that can help to develop and inform the text#s ma$or themes. %oubles

=rontJ or"ani:es her novel by arran"in" its elementsKcharacters% places% and themesKinto pairs. Catherine and 3eathcliff are closely matched in many ways% and see themselves as identical. Catherine7s character is divided into two warrin" sidesA the side that wants ,d"ar and the side that wants 3eathcliff. Catherine and youn" Catherine are both remarkably similar and strikin"ly different. )he two houses% 8utherin" 3ei"hts and )hrushcross 6ran"e% represent opposin" worlds and values. )he novel has not one but two distinctly different narrators% Celly and 4r. ?ockwood. )he relation between such paired elements is usually &uite complicated% with the members of each pair bein" neither e+actly alike nor diametrically opposed. Dor instance% the ?intons and the ,arnshaws may at first seem to represent opposin" sets of values% but% by the end of the novel% so many intermarria"es have taken place that one can no lon"er distin"uish between the two families.
8epetition

Bepetition is another tactic =rontJ employs in or"ani:in" "uthering 'eights. It seems that nothin" ever ends in the world of this novel. Instead% time seems to run in cycles% and the horrors of the past repeat themselves in the present. )he way that the names of the characters are recycled% so that the names of the characters of the youn"er "eneration seem only to be rescramblin"s of the names of their parents% leads the reader to consider how plot elements also repeat themselves. Dor instance% 3eathcliff7s de"radation of 3areton repeats 3indley7s de"radation of 3eathcliff. !lso% the youn" Catherine7s mockery of 5oseph7s earnest evan"elical :ealousness repeats her mother7s. ,ven 3eathcliff7s second try at openin" Catherine7s "rave repeats his first.
The Conflict (etween +ature and Culture

In "uthering 'eights, =rontJ constantly plays nature and culture a"ainst each other. Cature is represented by the ,arnshaw family% and by Catherine and 3eathcliff in particular. )hese characters are "overned by their passions% not by reflection or ideals of civility. Correspondin"ly% the house where they liveK8utherin" 3ei"htsKcomes to symboli:e a similar wildness. 1n the other hand% )hrushcross 6ran"e and the ?inton family represent culture% refinement% convention% and cultivation. 8hen% in Chapter HI% Catherine is bitten by the ?intons7 do" and brou"ht into )hrushcross 6ran"e% the two sides are brou"ht onto the collision course that structures the ma;ority of the novel7s plot. !t the time of that first meetin" between the ?inton and ,arnshaw households% chaos has already be"un to erupt at 8utherin" 3ei"hts% where 3indley7s cruelty and in;ustice rei"n% whereas all seems to be fine and peaceful at )hrushcross 6ran"e. 3owever% the

influence of 8utherin" 3ei"hts soon proves overpowerin"% and the inhabitants of )hrushcross 6ran"e are drawn into Catherine% 3indley% and 3eathcliff7s drama. )hus the reader almost may interpret 8utherin" 3ei"hts7s impact on the ?inton family as an alle"ory for the corruption of culture by nature% creatin" a curious reversal of the more traditional story of the corruption of nature by culture. 3owever% =rontJ tells her story in such a way as to prevent our interest and sympathy from strayin" too far from the wilder characters% and often portrays the more civili:ed characters as despicably weak and silly. )his method of characteri:ation prevents the novel from flattenin" out into a simple privile"in" of culture over nature% or vice versa. )hus in the end the reader must acknowled"e that the novel is no mere alle"ory.
Symbols Symbols are ob$ects, characters, fi"ures, and colors used to represent abstract ideas or concepts. !oors

)he constant emphasis on landscape within the te+t of "uthering 'eights endows the settin" with symbolic importance. )his landscape is comprised primarily of moorsA wide% wild e+panses% hi"h but somewhat so""y% and thus infertile. 4oorland cannot be cultivated% and its uniformity makes navi"ation difficult. It features particularly waterlo""ed patches in which people could potentially drown. -)his possibility is mentioned several times in "uthering 'eights.. )hus% the moors serve very well as symbols of the wild threat posed by nature. !s the settin" for the be"innin"s of Catherine and 3eathcliff7s bond -the two play on the moors durin" childhood.% the moorland transfers its symbolic associations onto the love affair.
hosts

6hosts appear throu"hout "uthering 'eights, as they do in most other works of 6othic fiction% yet =rontJ always presents them in such a way that whether they really e+ist remains ambi"uous. )hus the world of the novel can always be interpreted as a realistic one. Certain "hostsKsuch as Catherine7s spirit when it appears to ?ockwood in Chapter IIIKmay be e+plained as ni"htmares. )he villa"ers7 alle"ed si"htin"s of 3eathcliff7s "host in Chapter UUUIH could be dismissed as unverified superstition. 8hether or not the "hosts are Nreal%O they symboli:e the manifestation of the past within the present% and the way memory stays with people% permeatin" their day*to*day lives.
Summary: Chapter *

=ut 4r. 3eathcliff forms a sin"ular contrast to his abode and style of livin". 3e is a dark* skinned "ypsy in aspect% in dress and manners a "entleman. . . . ->ee Important Puotations ,+plained. 8ritin" in his diary in 18 1% ?ockwood describes his first days as a tenant at )hrushcross 6ran"e% an isolated manor in thinly populated Morkshire. >hortly after arrivin" at the 6ran"e% he pays a visit to his landlord% 4r. 3eathcliff% a surly% dark man livin" in a manor called 8utherin" 3ei"htsKNwutherin"O bein" a local ad;ective used to describe the fierce and wild winds that blow durin" storms on the moors. Durin" the visit% 3eathcliff seems not to trust ?ockwood% and leaves him alone in a room with a "roup of snarlin" do"s. ?ockwood is saved

from the hounds by a ruddy*cheeked housekeeper. 8hen 3eathcliff returns% ?ockwood is an"ry% but eventually warms toward his taciturn host% andKthou"h he hardly feels that he has been welcomed at 8utherin" 3ei"htsKhe volunteers to visit a"ain the ne+t day.
Summary: Chapter **

1n a chilly afternoon not lon" after his first visit% ?ockwood plans to loun"e before the fire in his study% but he finds a servant dustily sweepin" out the fireplace there% so instead he makes the four*mile walk to 8utherin" 3ei"hts% arrivin" ;ust as a li"ht snow be"ins to fall. 3e knocks% but no one lets him in% and 5oseph% an old servant who speaks with a thick Morkshire accent% calls out from the barn that 3eathcliff is not in the house. ,ventually a rou"h*lookin" youn" man comes to let him in% and ?ockwood "oes into a sittin" room where he finds a beautiful "irl seated beside a fire. ?ockwood assumes she is 3eathcliff7s wife. 3e tries to make conversation% but she responds rudely. 8hen 3eathcliff arrives% he corrects ?ockwoodA the youn" woman is his dau"hter*in*law. ?ockwood then assumes that the youn" man who let him in must be 3eathcliff7s son. 3eathcliff corrects him a"ain. )he youn" man% 3areton ,arnshaw% is not his son% and the "irl is the widow of 3eathcliff7s dead son. )he snowfall becomes a bli::ard% and when ?ockwood is ready to leave% he is forced to ask for a "uide back to )hrushcross 6ran"e. Co one will help him. 3e takes a lantern and says that he will find his own way% promisin" to return with the lantern in the mornin". 5oseph% seein" him make his way throu"h the snow% assumes that he is stealin" the lantern% and looses the do"s on him. (inned down by the do"s% ?ockwood "rows furious% and be"ins cursin" the inhabitants of the house. 3is an"er brin"s on a nosebleed% and he is forced to stay at 8utherin" 3ei"hts. )he housekeeper% Sillah% leads him to bed.
Summary: Chapter ***

Catherine ,arnshaw . . . Catherine 3eathcliff . . . Catherine ?inton. . . . a "lare of white letters started from the dark% as vivid as spectresKthe air swarmed with Catherines. . . . ->ee Important Puotations ,+plained. Sillah leads ?ockwood to an out*of*the*way room from which 3eathcliff has forbidden all visitors. 3e notices that someone has scratched words into the paint on the led"e by the bed. )hree names are inscribed there repeatedlyA Catherine Earnshaw, Catherine .inton, and Catherine 'eathcli!!/ 3e also finds a diary written appro+imately twenty*five years earlier. !pparently the diary belon"ed to Catherine ,arnshaw% and ?ockwood reads an entry that describes a day at 8utherin" 3ei"hts shortly after her father died% durin" which her cruel older brother 3indley forces her and 3eathcliff to endure 5oseph7s tedious sermons. Catherine and 3eathcliff seem to have been very close% and 3indley seems to have hated 3eathcliff. )he diary even describes 3indley tellin" his wife% Drances% to pull the boy7s hair. ?ockwood falls asleep and enters into a pair of ni"htmares. 3e awakes from the second when the cone from a fir branch be"ins tappin" on his window. >till half asleep% he attempts to break off the branch by forcin" his hand throu"h the window "lass. =ut instead of a branch% he finds a "hostly hand% which sei:es his own% and a voice% sobbin" the name Catherine ?inton% demands to be let in. )o free himself% ?ockwood rubs the "host7s wrist on the broken "lass until blood covers the bed sheets. )he "host releases him% and ?ockwood tries to cover

the hole in the window with a pile of books. =ut the books be"in to fall% and he cries out in terror. 3eathcliff rushes into the room% and ?ockwood cries out that the room is haunted. 3eathcliff curses him% but% as ?ockwood flees from the room% 3eathcliff cries out to Catherine% be""in" her to return. )here are no si"ns that the "host was ever at the window. In the mornin"% 3eathcliff treats his dau"hter*in*law cruelly. 3e later escorts ?ockwood home% where the servants% who believed their master dead in the storm% receive him with ;oy. ?ockwood% however% retreats into his study to escape human company.
Summary: Chapter *+

3avin" re;ected human contact the day before% ?ockwood now becomes lonely. 8hen his housekeeper% Celly Dean% brin"s him his supper% he bids her sit and tell him the history of the people at 8utherin" 3ei"hts. >he attempts to clarify the family relationships% e+plainin" that the youn" Catherine whom ?ockwood met at 8utherin" 3ei"hts is the dau"hter of the Catherine who was Celly7s first mistress at 8utherin" 3ei"hts% and that 3areton ,arnshaw is youn" Catherine7s cousin% the nephew of the first Catherine. )he first Catherine was the dau"hter of 4r. ,arnshaw% the late proprietor of 8utherin" 3ei"hts. Cow youn" Catherine is the last of the ?intons% and 3areton is the last of the ,arnshaws. Celly says that she "rew up as a servant at 8utherin" 3ei"hts% alon"side Catherine and her brother 3indley% 4r. ,arnshaw7s children.

Celly continues by tellin" the story of her early years at 8utherin" 3ei"hts. 8hen Catherine and 3indley are youn" children% 4r. ,arnshaw takes a trip to ?iverpool and returns home with a scra""ly orphan whom the ,arnshaws christen N3eathcliff.O 4r. ,arnshaw announces that 3eathcliff will be raised as a member of the family. =oth Catherine and 3indley resent 3eathcliff at first% but Catherine &uickly "rows to love him. Catherine and 3eathcliff become inseparable% and 3indley% who continues to treat 3eathcliff cruelly% falls into disfavor with his family. 4rs. ,arnshaw continues to distrust 3eathcliff% but 4r. ,arnshaw comes to love the boy more than his own son. 8hen 4rs. ,arnshaw dies only two years after 3eathcliff7s arrival at 8utherin" 3ei"hts% 3indley is essentially left without an ally.
Summary: Chapter +

)ime passes% and 4r. ,arnshaw "rows frail and weak. Dis"usted by the conflict between 3eathcliff and 3indley% he sends 3indley away to colle"e. 5oseph7s fanatical reli"ious beliefs appeal to 4r. ,arnshaw as he nears the end of his life% and the old servant e+erts more and more sway over his master. >oon% however% 4r. ,arnshaw dies% and it is now Catherine and 3eathcliff who turn to reli"ion for comfort. )hey discuss the idea of heaven while awaitin" the return of 3indley% who will now be master of 8utherin" 3ei"hts.
Analysis: Chapters *+

)he stran"e% deliberately confusin" openin" chapters of "uthering 'eights serve as =rontJ7s introduction to the world of the novel and to the comple+ relationships amon" the characters% as well as to the peculiar style of narration throu"h which the story will be told. 1ne of the most important aspects of the novel is its second* and third*hand manner of narration. Cothin" is ever related simply from the perspective of a sin"le participant. Instead% the story is told throu"h entries in ?ockwood7s diary% but ?ockwood does not participate in the events he records. )he vast ma;ority of the novel represents ?ockwood7s written recollections of what

he has learned from the testaments of others% whether he is transcribin" what he recalls of Catherine7s diary entry or recordin" his conversations with Celly Dean. =ecause of the distance that this imposes between the reader and the story itself% it is e+tremely important to remember that nothin" in the book is written from the perspective of an unbiased narrator% and it is often necessary to read between the lines in order to understand events. )he reader can immediately &uestion ?ockwood7s reliability as a conveyer of facts. ! vain and somewhat shallow man% he fre&uently makes amusin" mistakesKhe assumes% for instance% that 3eathcliff is a "entleman with a house full of servants% even thou"h it is apparent to the reader that 3eathcliff is a rou"h and cruel man with a house full of do"s. Celly Dean is more knowled"eable about events% as she has participated in many of them first hand% yet while this makes her more trustworthy in some ways% it also makes her more biased in others. >he fre&uently "losses over her own role in the story7s developments% particularly when she has behaved badly. ?ater in the novel% she describes how she took the youn" ?inton to live with his cruel father after the death of his mother. >he lies to the boy on the ;ourney% tellin" him that his father is a kind man% and% after his horrible meetin" with 3eathcliff% she tries to sneak out when he is not payin" attention. 3e notices her and be"s her not to leave him with 3eathcliff. >he i"nores his entreaties% however% and tells ?ockwood that she simply had Nno e+cuse for lin"erin" lon"er.O Celly is "enerally a dependable source of information% but moments such as this oneKand there are manyKremind the reader that the story is told by a fallible human bein". !part from establishin" the manner and &uality of narration% the most important function of these early chapters is to pi&ue the reader7s curiosity about the stran"e histories of the deni:ens of 8utherin" 3ei"hts. )he family relationships% includin" multiple ,arnshaws% Catherines% ?intons% and 3eathcliffs% seem at this point in the novel to intertwine with bafflin" comple+ity% and the characters% because ?ockwood first encounters them late in their story% seem full of mysterious passions and ancient% hidden resentments. ,ven the settin" of this history seems to possess its own secrets. 8ild and desolate% full of eerie winds and for"otten corners% the land has borne witness to its residents7 ni"httime walks% forbidden meetin"s% and "raveyard visits. Indeed% the mysteries of the land cannot be separated from the mysteries of the characters% and the physical landscape of the novel is often used to reflect the mental and emotional landscapes of those who live there. 8hile the odd characters and wild settin" contribute to a certain sense of mystery% this sense is most definitively established by the appearance of Catherine ,arnshaw7s "host. Met while ?ockwood7s account of the event "reatly influences the feel of the novel% and while his subse&uent account of it to 3eathcliff provokes a reaction that may offer us clues as to his relationship with the late Catherine% the reader may still conclude that the "host is a fi"ment of ?ockwood7s ima"ination. =ecause ?ockwood has proven himself fli"hty and emotional% and he is still half asleep when he encounters the "host% one could infer that he never actually sees a "host% but simply has an intense vision in the midst of his dream. It seems likely% however% that ,mily =rontJ would have intended the "host to seem real to her readersA such a supernatural phenomenon would certainly be in keepin" with the 6othic tone pervadin" the rest of the novel. 4oreover% 3eathcliff refers to Catherine7s "host several times durin" the course of the novel. Clearly he concurs with ?ockwood in believin" that she haunts 8utherin" 3ei"hts. )hus the "host% whether ob;ectively NrealO or not% attests to the way the characters remain haunted by a troublin" and turbulent past.

Summary: Chapter +*

3indley and his new wife% a simperin"% silly woman named Drances% return to 8utherin" 3ei"hts in time for 4r. ,arnshaw7s funeral. 3indley immediately be"ins to take his reven"e on 3eathcliff% declarin" that 3eathcliff no lon"er will be allowed an education and instead will spend his days workin" in the fields like a common laborer. =ut% for the most part% Catherine and 3eathcliff are able to escape 3indley7s notice% and when 3eathcliff is free from his responsibilities they "o off onto the moors to"ether to play.

1ne evenin"% when 3eathcliff and Catherine disappear% 3indley orders that the doors be bolted and that the children not be allowed into the house. Despite his char"e% Celly waits for them% and receives a shock when 3eathcliff returns alone. 3e tells her that he and Catherine made the trip to )hrushcross 6ran"e to spy on and tease ,d"ar and Isabella ?inton% 4r. ?inton7s children. =efore they could succeed in their mission% >kulker% the ?intons7 "uard do"% took them by surprise and chased them% bitin" Catherine7s ankle. 9nable to return home% Catherine was taken inside )hrushcross 6ran"e by a servant. 3owever% the ?intons% repelled by 3eathcliff7s rou"h appearance% forbade her playmate to stay with her. )he followin" day% 4r. ?inton pays a visit to 8utherin" 3ei"hts to e+plain matters to 3indley and upbraids the youn" man for his mismana"ement of Catherine. !fter 4r. ?inton leaves% the humiliated 3indley furiously tells 3eathcliff that he may have no further contact with Catherine.
Summary: Chapter +**

Catherine spends five weeks recuperatin" at the 6ran"e. 4rs. ?inton determines to transform the "irl into a youn" lady and spends her time educatin" Catherine in manners and social "races. Catherine returns to 8utherin" 3ei"hts at Christmastime% wearin" a lovely dress. 3indley says that 3eathcliff may "reet Catherine Nlike the other servants%O and% when he does so% she says he is dirty in comparison with the ?inton children% to whom she has "rown accustomed. 3eathcliff7s feelin"s are wounded% and he storms out of the room% declarin" that he will be as dirty as he likes. )he ?inton children come for dinner at 8utherin" 3ei"hts the ne+t day. Celly helps 3eathcliff to wash himself and put on suitable clothes after the boy declares his intention to be N"ood%O but 4rs. ?inton has allowed ,d"ar and Isabella to attend under the condition that 3eathcliff be kept away from them. !ccordin"ly% 3indley orders that 3eathcliff be locked in the attic until the end of dinner. =efore the boy can be locked away% however% ,d"ar makes a comment about 3eathcliff7s hair% and 3eathcliff an"rily flin"s hot applesauce in his face. Catherine clearly appears unhappy with 3indley7s treatment of 3eathcliff% and after dinner she "oes up to see him. Celly frees the boy and "ives him some supper in the kitchen. 3eathcliff confides to Celly that he intends to seek reven"e on 3indley. !t this point% Celly interrupts her narrative and rises to "o% remarkin" that the ni"ht is "rowin" late. ?ockwood says that he intends to sleep late the ne+t day and wishes to hear the rest of her story now. 3e ur"es her to continue in minute detail.
Summary: Chapter +***

Celly skips ahead a bit in her story% to the summer of 1228% several months after the ?intons7 visit and twenty*three years before ?ockwood7s arrival at the 6ran"e. Drances "ives birth to a baby boy% 3areton% but she dies not lon" afterwards% the strain of childbirth havin" a""ravated

her chronic consumption. 3indley assi"ns Celly the task of raisin" the baby% as he takes no interest in the child. 4iserable at Drances7s death% 3indley be"ins to drink e+cessively and behaves abusively toward his servantsKespecially toward 3eathcliff% who takes "reat pleasure in 3indley7s steady decline. Catherine continues to spend time with ,d"ar ?inton% and she behaves like a proper lady while with him. 3owever% when she is with 3eathcliff% she acts as she always has. 1ne afternoon% when 3indley is out of the house% 3eathcliff declares that he will stay home from the fields and spend the day with Catherine. >he tells him ruefully that ,d"ar and Isabella are plannin" to visit. 8hen 3eathcliff confronts her about the amount of time she spends with ,d"ar% she retorts that 3eathcliff is i"norant and dull. !t that moment% ,d"ar entersKwithout IsabellaKand 3eathcliff storms away. Catherine asks Celly to leave the room% but Celly refuses% havin" been instructed by 3indley to act as Catherine7s chaperone in ,d"ar7s presence. Catherine pinches her and then slaps her% and when 3areton be"ins to cry% she shakes him. ,d"ar% appalled at Catherine7s behavior% attempts to restore order% and Catherine bo+es his ears. ,d"ar is unable to cope with Catherine7s unladylike temper and hurries out of the house. 1n his way out% however% he catches a last "limpse of Catherine throu"h the window< lured by her beauty% he comes back inside. Celly now leaves them alone and interrupts them only to tell them that 3indley has arrived home% drunk and in a foul temper. 8hen she ne+t enters the room% she can tell that Catherine and ,d"ar have confessed their love for one another. ,d"ar hurries home to avoid 3indley% and Catherine "oes to her chamber. Celly "oes to hide little 3areton and takes the shot out of 3indley7s "un% which he is fond of playin" with in his drunken ra"es.
Summary: Chapter *,

3eathcliff . . . shall never know how I love him . . . he7s more myself than I am. 8hatever our souls are made of% his and mine are the same. . . . ->ee Important Puotations ,+plained.

Celly is in the midst of hidin" 3areton from 3indley when 3indley bolts in and sei:es the boy. >tumblin" drunkenly% he accidentally drops 3areton over the banister. 3eathcliff is there to catch him at the bottom of the stairs. ?ater that evenin"% Catherine seeks out Celly in the kitchen and confides to her that ,d"ar has asked her to marry him% and that she has accepted. 9nnoticed by the two women% 3eathcliff listens to their conversation. 3eathcliff hears Catherine tell Celly that she cannot marry him because 3indley has cast him down so low< to marry him now would be to de"rade herself. 3eathcliff withdraws in a ra"e of shame% humiliation% and despair% and thus is not present to hear Catherine say that she loves him more deeply than anythin" else in the world. >he says that she and 3eathcliff are such kindred spirits that they are essentially the same person. Conetheless% she insists% she must marry ,d"ar ?inton instead. )hat ni"ht% 3eathcliff runs away from 8utherin" 3ei"hts. Catherine spends the ni"ht outdoors in the rain% sobbin" and searchin" for 3eathcliff. >he catches a fever% and soon she nears death. )he ?intons take her to )hrushcross 6ran"e to recuperate% and Catherine recovers. 3owever% both 4r. and 4rs. ?inton become infected and soon die. )hree years later% Catherine and ,d"ar marry. Celly transfers to )hrushcross 6ran"e to serve Catherine%

leavin" 3areton in the care of his drunken father and 5oseph% the only servant now remainin" at 8utherin" 3ei"hts. Coticin" the clock% Celly a"ain interrupts her narrative% sayin" that it is half past one% and that she must "et some sleep. ?ockwood notes in his diaryKthe same book in which he has set down Celly7s storyKthat he% too% will "o to bed now.
Analysis: Chapters +**,

In this section% Celly brin"s to conclusion the story of 3eathcliff and Catherine7s childhood% with 3eathcliff leavin" 8utherin" 3ei"hts the ni"ht Catherine decides to marry ,d"ar ?inton. In the climactic scene in which Catherine discusses with Celly her decision to marry ,d"ar% Catherine describes the conflict between her love for 3eathcliff and her love for ,d"ar. >he says that she loves ,d"ar because he is handsome% rich% and "raceful% and because he would make her the "reatest lady in the re"ion. 3owever% she also states that she loves 3eathcliff as thou"h they shared the same soul% and that she knows in her heart that she has no business marryin" ,d"ar. Cevertheless% her desire for a "enteel and socially prominent lifestyle "uides her decision*makin"A she would marry 3eathcliff% if 3indley had not cast him down so low. 3eathcliff7s emotional turmoil is due in part to his ambi"uous class status. 3e be"ins life as a lower*class orphan% but is raised to the status of a "entleman7s son when 4r. ,arnshaw adopts him. 3e suffers another reversal in status when 3indley forces him to work as a servant in the very same household where he once en;oyed a life of lu+ury. )he other characters% includin" the ?intons and% to an e+tent% CatherineKall upper*class themselvesKprove complicit in this obliteration of 3eathcliff7s hopes. Inevitably% the unbrid"eable "ap in Catherine7s and 3eathcliff7s social positions renders their fervent romance unreali:able on any practical level. Cevertheless% the passion between the two lovers remains rooted in their hearts% impervious to e+ternal contin"encies. )he te+t consistently treats the love between Catherine and 3eathcliff as an incontestable fact of nature. Cothin" can alter or lessen it% and the lovers know this. 3eathcliff and Catherine know that no matter how they hurt each other% they can be sure of never losin" their shared passion and ultimate mutual loyalty. Catherine can decide to marry ,d"ar% certain that this outward act will have no effect on her and 3eathcliff7s inner feelin"s for one another. >imilarly% it is in the knowled"e of their passion7s durability that 3eathcliff later undertakes his cruel reven"e.
Summary: Chapter ,

?ockwood becomes sick after his traumatic e+perience at 8utherin" 3ei"hts% andKas he writes in his diaryKspends four weeks in misery. 3eathcliff pays him a visit% and afterward ?ockwood summons Celly Dean and demands to know the rest of her story. 3ow did 3eathcliff% the oppressed and reviled outcast% make his fortune and ac&uire both 8utherin" 3ei"hts and )hrushcross 6ran"eQ Celly says that she does not know how 3eathcliff spent the three years that he was away and that it was at this time that he apparently ac&uired his wealth. =ut she a"rees to continue with her tale.

!bout si+ months after Catherine7s marria"e to ,d"ar ?inton% 3eathcliff returns home% surprisin" Celly at )hrushcross 6ran"e. 8hen he comes indoors% Catherine becomes almost

"iddy with happiness at the si"ht of him% and their obvious affection for one another makes ,d"ar uncomfortable and ;ealous. 3eathcliff has "rown into a polished% "entlemanly% and physically impressive man% thou"h some hint of sava"ery remains in his eyes. 3e announces that 3indley has invited him to stay at 8utherin" 3ei"hts. )his surprises both Catherine and Celly% but 3eathcliff tells Catherine that when he sou"ht Celly at 8utherin" 3ei"hts earlier that day% he came across 3indley in a card "ame with his rou"h friends. 3eathcliff ;oined them in the "amblin"% and% because his reckless bids seemed to bespeak a "reat wealth% 3indley e+citedly invited him to return. Catherine and Isabella be"in to visit 8utherin" 3ei"hts &uite often% and 3eathcliff returns the favor by callin" at the 6ran"e. Isabella be"ins to fall in love with 3eathcliff% who% despite his obvious love for Catherine% does nothin" to discoura"e her sister*in*law7s affections. Celly suspects that he harbors wicked and ven"eful motives% and vows to watch him closely.
Summary: Chapter ,*

Celly travels to 8utherin" 3ei"hts to talk with 3indley% but instead she finds 3areton% who throws stones at her and curses. Celly learns from 3areton that 3eathcliff has tau"ht the boy to swear at his father% 3indley% and has forbidden the curate% who offered to educate 3areton% to set foot on the property. 3eathcliff appears% and Celly flees. )he ne+t day% at the 6ran"e% Celly observes 3eathcliff embracin" Isabella. In the kitchen% Catherine demands that 3eathcliff tell her his true feelin"s about Isabella. >he offers to convince ,d"ar to permit the marria"e if 3eathcliff truly loves the woman. 3eathcliff scorns this idea% however% declarin" that Catherine has wron"ed him by marryin" ,d"ar% and that he intends to e+act reven"e. Celly informs ,d"ar of the encounter occurrin" between Catherine and 3eathcliff in the kitchen% and ,d"ar storms in and orders 3eathcliff off of his property. 8hen 3eathcliff refuses to leave% ,d"ar summons his servants for help. 3owever% Catherine locks herself and the two men inside the kitchen and throws the key into the fire% forcin" ,d"ar to confront 3eathcliff without the help of additional men. 1vercome with fear and shame% ,d"ar hides his face. >till% Catherine7s taunts "oad ,d"ar into strikin" 3eathcliff a blow to the throat% after which ,d"ar e+its throu"h the "arden. In terror of the lar"er and stron"er 3eathcliff% ,d"ar hurries to find help% and 3eathcliff% decidin" that he cannot fi"ht three armed servants% departs. In a ra"e% ,d"ar declares that Catherine must choose between 3eathcliff and himself. Catherine refuses to speak to him% lockin" herself in a room and refusin" to eat. )wo days pass in this way% and ,d"ar warns Isabella that if she pursues 3eathcliff% he will cast her out of the ?inton family.
Summary: Chapter ,**

!t last% Catherine permits the servants to brin" her food. 3ysterical% she believes that she is dyin"% and cannot understand why ,d"ar has not come to her. >he rants about her childhood with 3eathcliff on the moors% and speaks obsessively about death. Celly% worried that her mistress will catch a chill% refuses to open the window. Catherine mana"es to stumble to the window and force it open< from the window% she believes she can see 8utherin" 3ei"hts. Catherine says that even thou"h she will die% her spirit will never be at rest until she can be with 3eathcliff. ,d"ar arrives and is shocked to find Catherine in such a weak condition.

Celly "oes to fetch a doctor. )he doctor professes himself cautiously optimistic for a successful recovery. )hat very ni"ht% Isabella and 3eathcliff elope. Durious% ,d"ar declares that Isabella is now his sister only in name. Met he does not disown her% sayin" instead that she has disowned him.
Summary: Chapter ,***

,d"ar and Celly spend two months nursin" Catherine throu"h her illness% and% thou"h she never entirely recovers% she learns that she has become pre"nant. >i+ weeks after Isabella and 3eathcliff7s marria"e% Isabella sends a letter to ,d"ar be""in" his for"iveness. 8hen ,d"ar i"nores her pleas% she sends a letter to Celly% describin" her horrible e+periences at 8utherin" 3ei"hts. In her letter% she e+plains that 3indley% 5oseph% and 3areton have all treated her cruelly% and that 3eathcliff declares that since he cannot punish ,d"ar for causin" Catherine7s illness% he will punish Isabella in his place. Isabella also tells Celly that 3indley has developed a mad obsession with 3eathcliff% who has assumed the position of power at 8utherin" 3ei"hts. 3indley hopes that somehow he will be able to obtain 3eathcliff7s vast fortune for himself% and he has shown Isabella the weapon with which he hopes to kill 3eathcliffKa pistol with a knife attached to its barrel. Isabella says that she has made a terrible mistake% and she be"s Celly to visit her at 8utherin" 3ei"hts% where she and 3eathcliff are now livin".
Summary: Chapter ,*+

Celly "rants Isabella7s re&uest and "oes to the manor% but ,d"ar continues to spurn his sister7s appeals for for"iveness. 8hen Celly arrives% 3eathcliff presses her for news of Catherine and asks if he may come see her. Celly refuses to allow him to come to the 6ran"e% however% and% enra"ed% 3eathcliff threatens that he will hold Celly a prisoner at 8utherin" 3ei"hts and "o alone. )errified by that possibility% Celly a"rees to carry a letter from 3eathcliff to Catherine.
Analysis: Chapters ,,*+

3eathcliff% who seemed an almost superhuman fi"ure even at his most oppressed% emer"es in these chapters as a demonically charismatic% powerful% and villainous man% capable of e+treme cruelties. )ortured by the depth of his love for Catherine% by his sense that she has betrayed him% and by his hatred of 3indley and the ?inton family for makin" him seem unworthy of her% 3eathcliff dedicates himself to an elaborate plan for reven"e. )he e+ecution of this plan occupies much of the rest of the novel. )hou"h 3eathcliff7s first reunion with Catherine seems ;oyful% Celly is ri"ht to fear his return% for he &uickly e+hibits his ardent malice% first throu"h his treatment of the pathetic wretch 3indley% and then throu"h his merciless abuse of the innocent Isabella. =ut thou"h his destructive cruelty makes him the villain of the book% 3eathcliff never loses his status as a sympathetic character. !lthou"h one can hardly condone his actions% it is difficult not to commiserate with him. )his ambi"uity in 3eathcliff7s character has sparked much discussion amon" critics% who debate whether his role in the novel is that of hero or villain. In some sense% he fulfills both roles. 3e certainly behaves cruelly and harmfully toward many of the other characters< yet% because he does so out of the pain of his love for Catherine% the reader remains ;ust as attuned

to 3eathcliff7s own misery as to the misery he causes in others. )he love between Catherine and 3eathcliff constitutes the center of "uthering 'eights both thematically and emotionally% and% if one is to respond at all to the novel% it is difficult to resist sympathi:in" with that love. Correspondin"ly% as a participant in this love story% 3eathcliff never becomes an entirely inhuman or incomprehensible character to the reader% no matter how sadistically he behaves. 4any scholars believe that =rontJ intended her novel to be a morali:in"% cautionary tale about the dan"ers of lovin" too deeply. If this is true% then one mi"ht ar"ue that the book% in creatin" such charismatic main characters as 3eathcliff and Catherine% defeats its own purpose. Dor instance% Isabella% thou"h innocent and morally pure% never e+erts the same power over the reader7s ima"ination as 3eathcliff and Catherine. !s a result% it becomes unnervin"ly easy to overlook Isabella7s sufferin"% even thou"h her sufferin" would otherwise function as one of the novel7s stron"est pieces of evidence in its condemnation of obsessive passions. >imilarly% 3eathcliff suffers the ill treatment of characters who seem his intellectual and spiritual inferiors< thus when he seeks reven"e on a brute such as 3indley% the reader secretly wishes him success. !s a result% once a"ain% =rontJ7s stron" characteri:ation of 3eathcliff undermines any possible intent she mi"ht have had to warn her readers about the perils of an overly intense love. In addition to e+plorin" the character of 3eathcliff as a "rown man% this section casts some li"ht on the character of Celly Dean as a narrator. 3er narrative has always shown certain biases% and throu"hout the book she harshly critici:es Catherine7s behavior% callin" her spoiled% proud% arro"ant% thou"htless% selfish% naVve% and cruel. It is true that Catherine can be each of those thin"s% but it also seems clear that Celly is ;ealous of Catherine7s beauty% wealth% and social station. It is important to remember that Celly is not much older than Catherine and "rew up servin" her. >ome readers have speculated that Celly7s ;ealousy may also arise from a passion for ,d"ar ?intonKwhom she praises e+trava"antly throu"hout the novelKor even for 3eathcliff% whom she often heatedly denounces. )his section of the book offers some evidence for the latter view. Dor instance% when Catherine teasin"ly tells 3eathcliff in Chapter U that Isabella has fallen in love with him% she does so by sayin"% N3eathcliff% I7m proud to show you% at last% somebody that dotes on you more than myself. I e+pect you to feel flattered.O >he then says% NCay% it7s not Celly< don7t look at herEO )his comment su""ests that 3eathcliff looks at Celly after Catherine7s first statement. (erhaps in the past he has suspected Celly of havin" feelin"s for him. Certainly% a reader mi"ht interpret Catherine7s words in a different manner. Cevertheless% Catherine7s comments substantiate the idea that Celly7s feelin"s for the other characters in the novel are deeper and more complicated than she reveals to ?ockwood.

'hapters ?@8??
Summary: Chapter ,+

Dour days after visitin" 8utherin" 3ei"hts% Celly waits for ,d"ar to leave for church% and then takes the opportunity to "ive 3eathcliff7s letter to the ailin" Catherine. Catherine has become so weak that she cannot even hold the letter% but nearly as soon as Celly tells her that it is from 3eathcliff% 3eathcliff himself enters the room. 3eathcliff and Catherine enter into a dramatic% hi"hly char"ed conversation durin" which Catherine claims that both 3eathcliff and ,d"ar have broken her heart. >he says that she cannot bear dyin" while 3eathcliff remains alive% and that she never wants to be apart from him. >he be"s his for"iveness. 3e says that he

can for"ive her for the pain she has caused him% but that he can never for"ive her for the pain that she has caused herselfKhe adds that she has killed herself throu"h her behavior% and that he could never for"ive her murderer.

)he church service over% ,d"ar reaches the house% but Catherine pleads with 3eathcliff not to leave. 3e promises to stay by her side. !s ,d"ar hurries toward Catherine7s room% Celly screams% and Catherine collapses. 3eathcliff catches her% and forces her into ,d"ar7s arms as he enters the room% demandin" that ,d"ar see to Catherine7s needs before actin" on his an"er. Celly hurries 3eathcliff out of the room% promisin" to send him word about Catherine7s condition in the mornin". 3eathcliff swears that he will stay in the "arden% wantin" to be near her.
Summary: Chapter ,+*

!t midni"ht% Catherine "ives birth to youn" Catherine two months prematurely. >he dies within two hours of "ivin" birth. Celly solemnly declares that her soul has "one home to 6od. 8hen Celly "oes to tell 3eathcliff what has happened% he seems to know already. 3e curses Catherine for the pain she has caused him% and pleads with her spirit to haunt him for the rest of his life. >he may take any form% he says% and even drive him madKas lon" as she stays with him. ,d"ar keeps a vi"il over Catherine7s body. !t ni"ht% 3eathcliff lurks in the "arden outside. !t one point% ,d"ar leaves% and Celly permits 3eathcliff a moment alone with the body. !fterwards% Celly finds that he has opened the locket around her neck and replaced a lock of ,d"ar7s hair with a lock of his own. Celly twines ,d"ar7s lock around 3eathcliff7s% and leaves them both in the locket. 3indley is invited to Catherine7s funeral but does not come% while Isabella is not invited at all. )o the surprise of the villa"ers% Catherine is not buried in the ?inton tomb% nor by the "raves of her relatives. Instead% ,d"ar orders that she be buried in a corner of the churchyard overlookin" the moors that she so loved. Celly tells ?ockwood that now% years later% ,d"ar lies buried beside her.
Summary: Chapter ,+**

Cot lon" after the funeral% Isabella arrives at )hrushcross 6ran"e% out of breath and lau"hin" hysterically. >he has come at a time when she knows ,d"ar will be asleep% to ask Celly for help. Isabella reports that the conflict between 3indley and 3eathcliff has become violent. 3indley% she says% tried to stay sober for Catherine7s funeral% but could not bear to "o. Instead% he be"an drinkin" heavily that mornin". 8hile 3eathcliff kept a vi"il over Catherine7s "rave% 3indley locked him out of the house and told Isabella that he planned to shoot him. Isabella warned 3eathcliff about 3indley7s plan% and when 3indley aimed his knife*"un out the window at 3eathcliff% the latter "rabbed it and fired it back at its owner7s wrist% woundin" 3indley. 3eathcliff forced his way in the window% then beat 3indley severely. )he ne+t mornin"% Isabella reminded 3indley what 3eathcliff had done to him the previous ni"ht. 3indley "rew enra"ed% and the men be"an fi"htin" a"ain. Isabella fled to )hrushcross 6ran"e% seekin" a permanent refu"e from 8utherin" 3ei"hts. >oon after her visit to Celly% Isabella leaves for ?ondon% where she "ives birth to 3eathcliff7s son% ?inton. Isabella corresponds with Celly throu"hout the followin" twelve years.

3eathcliff learns of his wife7s whereabouts% and of his son7s e+istence% but he doesn7t pursue either of them. Isabella dies when ?inton is twelve years old.

>i+ months after Catherine7s death% 3indley dies. Celly returns to 8utherin" 3ei"hts to see to the funeral arran"ements% and to brin" youn" 3areton back to )hrushcross 6ran"e. >he is shocked to learn that 3indley died deeply in debt% and that 3eathcliff% who had lent 3indley lar"e amounts of money to supply his "amblin" addiction% now owns 8utherin" 3ei"hts. 3eathcliff does not allow 3areton to return to )hrushcross 6ran"e with Celly% sayin" that he plans to raise him on his own. 3e also intimates that he plans to recover his son ?inton at some point in the future. !nd so% Celly tells ?ockwood% 3areton% who should have lived as the finest "entleman in the area% is reduced to workin" for his keep at 8utherin" 3ei"hts. ! common% uneducated servant% he remains friendless and without hope.
Summary: Chapter ,+***

Moun" Catherine "rows up at )hrushcross 6ran"e% and by the time she is thirteen she is a beautiful% intelli"ent "irl% but often stron"*willed and temperamental. 3er father% mindful of the tormented history of the nei"hborin" manor% does not allow youn" Catherine off the "rounds of )hrushcross 6ran"e% and she "rows up without any knowled"e of 8utherin" 3ei"hts% 3eathcliff% or 3areton. >he lon"s to visit the fairy caves at (enistone Cra"s% but ,d"ar refuses her re&uest. 3e receives word one day% however% that Isabella is dyin"% and he hurries to ?ondon to take char"e of youn" ?inton. 8hile he is "one% Catherine is left in Celly7s care% and she is able to escape the confines of the 6ran"e. >he travels toward (enistone Cra"s but stops at 8utherin" 3ei"hts% where she meets 3areton and takes an instant likin" to him. >he and 3areton spend a deli"htful day playin" near the cra"s. Celly arrives in pursuit of her char"e% and tries to hurry her back to )hrushcross 6ran"e. =ut Catherine refuses to "o. Celly tells Catherine that 3areton is not the son of the master of 8utherin" 3ei"htsKa fact that makes the "irl contemptuous of himKbut she also reveals that he is Catherine7s cousin. Catherine tries to deny this possibility% sayin" that her cousin is in ?ondon% that her father has "one to retrieve him there. Celly% however% e+plains that a person can have more than one cousin. !t last% Celly prevails upon her to leave% and Catherine a"rees not to mention the incident to her father% who mi"ht well terminate Celly7s employment in ra"e if he knew she had let Catherine learn of 8utherin" 3ei"hts.
Summary: Chapter ,*,

,d"ar brin"s youn" ?inton to the 6ran"e% and Catherine is disappointed to find her cousin a pale% weak% whiny youn" man. Cot lon" after he arrives% 5oseph appears% sayin" that 3eathcliff is determined to take possession of his son. ,d"ar promises that he will brin" ?inton to 8utherin" 3ei"hts the followin" day.
Summary: Chapter ,,

Celly receives orders to escort the boy to the 3ei"hts in the mornin". 1n the way% she tries to comfort ?inton by tellin" him reassurin" lies about his father. 8hen they arrive% however% 3eathcliff does not even pretend to love his sonKhe calls ?inton7s mother a slut% and he says that ?inton is his property. ?inton pleads with Celly not to leave him with such a monster% but Celly mounts her horse and rides away hurriedly.

Analysis: Chapters ,+,,

"uthering 'eights is% in many ways% a novel of ;u+taposed pairsA Catherine7s two "reat loves for 3eathcliff and ,d"ar< the two ancient manors of 8utherin" 3ei"hts and )hrushcross 6ran"e< the two families% the ,arnshaws and the ?intons< 3eathcliff7s conflictin" passions of love and hate. !dditionally% the structure of the novel divides the story into two contrastin" halves. )he first deals with the "eneration of characters represented by Catherine% 3eathcliff% 3indley% Isabella% and ,d"ar% and the second deals with their childrenKyoun" Catherine% ?inton% and 3areton. 4any of the same themes and ideas occur in the second half of the novel as in the first half% but they develop &uite differently. 8hile the first half ends on a note of doom and despair with Catherine7s death and 3eathcliff7s "radual descent into evil% the novel as a whole ends on a note of hope% peace% and ;oy% with youn" Catherine7s proposed marria"e to 3areton ,arnshaw. In the first of the chapters in this section% we witness the event that marks the dividin" line between the two halves of the novelA Catherine7s death. )he episodes surroundin" her passin" Kher dramatic illness% her confrontation with 3eathcliff% 3eathcliff7s conflict with ,d"ar% and 3eathcliff7s curse upon her soul to walk the earth after her death -contrastin" immediately with Celly7s "entle claim that she at last rests in heaven. rank amon" the most intense scenes in the book. In fact% many readers view the second half of the novel% in which Catherine fi"ures only as a memory% as a sort of anticlima+. 8hile the latter chapters may never reach the emotional hei"hts of the earlier ones% however% they remain crucial to the thematic development of the novel% as well as to its structural symmetry. Moun" Catherine "rows up sheltered at )hrushcross 6ran"e% learnin" only in piecemeal fashion about the e+istence of 3eathcliff and his rei"n at 8utherin" 3ei"hts. 9nbeknownst to her% 3eathcliff7s le"al claim on the 6ran"e -throu"h his marria"e to Isabella. may ;eopardi:e her own eventual claim on it. ,d"ar ?inton% however% painfully aware of this threat% searches for a way to prevent 3eathcliff from takin" the property. )hese events underscore the symbolic importance of the two houses. 8utherin" 3ei"hts represents wildness% un"overned passion% e+tremity% and doom. )he fiery behavior of the characters associated with this house K3indley% Catherine% and 3eathcliffKunderscores such connotations. =y contrast% )hrushcross 6ran"e represents restraint% social "race% civility% "entility% and aristocracyK &ualities emphasi:ed by the more mannered behavior of the ?intons who live there. )he names of the two houses also bear out the contrast. 8hile the ad;ective Nwutherin"O refers to violent storms% the thrush is a bird known for its melodious son"% as well as bein" a symbol of Christian piety. In addition% whereas N3ei"htsO evoke raw and imposin" cliffs% N6ran"eO refers to a domestic site% a farmKespecially that of a "entleman farmer. )he concepts ;u+taposed in the contrast of the two estates come into further conflict in Catherine7s inability to choose between ,d"ar and 3eathcliff. 8hile she is attracted to ,d"ar7s social "race% her feelin"s for 3eathcliff reach hei"hts of wild passion. !s the second "eneration of main characters matures% its members emer"e as combinations of their parents7 characteristics% blendin" to"ether &ualities that had been opposed in the older "eneration. )hus youn" Catherine is impetuous and headstron" like her mother% but tempered by the "entlin" influence of her father. ?inton% on the other hand% represents the worst of both of his parents% behavin" in an imperious and demandin" manner like 3eathcliff% but also remainin" fra"ile and simperin" like Isabella. 3areton appears as a second 3eathcliff% rou"h and unpolished% but possessed of a stren"th of character that refuses to be suppressed% despite 3eathcliff7s attempts to stunt his development.

Summary: Chapter ,,*

Moun" Catherine despairs over her cousin7s sudden departure from )hrushcross 6ran"e. Celly tries to keep up with the news of youn" ?inton% &ui::in" the housekeeper at 8utherin" 3ei"hts whenever she meets her in the nearby town of 6immerton. >he learns that 3eathcliff loathes his snivelin" son and cannot bear to be alone with him. >he also learns that ?inton continues to be frail and sickly.

1ne day% when youn" Catherine is si+teen% she and Celly are out bird*huntin" on the moors. Celly loses si"ht of Catherine for a moment% then finds her conversin" with 3eathcliff and 3areton. Catherine says that she thinks she has met 3areton before and asks if 3eathcliff is his father. 3eathcliff says no% but that he does have a son back at the house. 3e invites Catherine and Celly to pay a visit to 8utherin" 3ei"hts to see the boy. Celly% always suspicious of 3eathcliff% disapproves of the idea% but Catherine% not reali:in" that this son is her cousin ?inton% is curious to meet the boy% and Celly cannot keep her from "oin". !t 8utherin" 3ei"hts% 3eathcliff tells Celly that he hopes Catherine and his son will be married someday. Dor their part% the cousins do not reco"ni:e one anotherKthey have chan"ed much in three yearsKand because ?inton is too sickly and self*pityin" to show Catherine around the farm% she leaves with 3areton instead% all the while mockin" the latter7s illiteracy and lack of education. 3eathcliff forces ?inton to "o after them. !t )hrushcross 6ran"e the ne+t day% Catherine tells her father about her visit and demands to know why he has kept her relatives secret. ,d"ar tries to e+plain% and eventually Catherine comes to understand his disdain for 3eathcliff. =ut althou"h ,d"ar "ently implores her not to have any contact with ?inton% Catherine cannot resist e+chan"in" letters with the boy covertly. Celly discovers the correspondence% and% much to Catherine7s dismay% destroys ?inton7s letters to her. >he then sends a note to 8utherin" 3ei"hts re&uestin" that ?inton desist in his part of the correspondence. 3owever% she does not alert ,d"ar to the youn" people7s relationship.
Summary: Chapter ,,**

,d"ar7s health be"ins to fail% and% as a result% he spends less time with Catherine. Celly attempts in vain to fill the companionship role formerly played by the "irl7s father. 1ne winter day% durin" a walk in the "arden% Catherine climbs the wall and stretches for some fruit on a tree. In the process% her hat falls off her head and down to the other side of the wall. Celly allows Catherine to climb down the wall to retrieve it% but% once on the other side% Catherine is unable to "et back over the wall by herself. Celly looks for the key to the "ate% and suddenly 3eathcliff appears% tellin" Catherine that it was cruel of her to break off her correspondence with ?inton. 3e accuses her of toyin" with his son7s affections% and he ur"es her to visit ?inton while he is away the followin" week. 3e claims that ?inton may be dyin" of a broken heart. Catherine believes him and convinces Celly to take her to 8utherin" 3ei"hts the ne+t mornin". Celly assents in the hope that the si"ht of ?inton will e+pose 3eathcliff7s lie.
Summary: Chapter ,,***

)he followin" mornin"% Catherine and Celly ride in the rain to 8utherin" 3ei"hts% where they find ?inton en"a"ed in his customary whinin". 3e speaks to Catherine about the

possibility of marria"e. !nnoyed% Catherine shoves his chair in a fit of temper. ?inton be"ins to cou"h and says that Catherine has assaulted him and has in;ured his already fra"ile health. 3e fills Catherine with "uilt and re&uests that she nurse him back to health herself. !fter Celly and Catherine ride home% Celly discovers that she has cau"ht a cold from travelin" in the rain. Catherine nurses both her father and Celly durin" the day% but% by ni"ht% she be"ins travelin" in secret to be with ?inton.
Summary: Chapter ,,*+

!fter Celly recuperates% she notices Catherine7s suspicious behavior and &uickly discovers where she has been spendin" her evenin"s. Catherine tells Celly the story of her visits to 8utherin" 3ei"hts% includin" one incident in which 3areton proves to her that he can read a name inscribed above the manor7s entranceA it is his own name% carved by a distant ancestor who shared it. =ut Catherine asks if he can read the dateK1$ Kand he must confess that he cannot. Catherine calls him a dunce. ,nra"ed% 3areton interrupts her visit with ?inton% bullyin" the weak youn" man and forcin" him to "o upstairs. In a later moment of contrition% he attempts to apolo"i:e for his behavior% but Catherine an"rily i"nores him and "oes home. 8hen she returns to 8utherin" 3ei"hts a few days later% ?inton blames her for his humiliation. >he leaves% but she returns two days later to tell him that she will never visit him a"ain. Distressed% ?inton asks for her for"iveness. !fter she has heard Catherine7s story% Celly reveals the "irl7s secret to ,d"ar. ,d"ar immediately forbids her from visitin" ?inton a"ain% but he a"rees to invite ?inton to come to )hrushcross 6ran"e.
Summary: Chapter ,,+

!t this point% Celly interrupts her story to e+plain to ?ockwood its chronolo"yA the events that she has ;ust described happened the previous winter% only a little over a year a"o. Celly says that the previous year% it never crossed her mind that she would entertain a stran"er by tellin" him the story. =ut she wonders how lon" he will remain a stran"er% speculatin" that he mi"ht fall in love with the beautiful youn" Catherine. ?ockwood confesses that he mi"ht% but says that he doubts his love would ever be re&uited. =esides% he says% these moors are not his home< he must return soon to the outside world. >till% he remains enraptured by the story% and he ur"es Celly to continue. >he obli"es. Moun" Catherine a"rees to abide by her father7s wishes and stops sneakin" out to visit ?inton. =ut ?inton never visits the 6ran"e% eitherKhe is very frail% as Celly reminds ,d"ar. ,d"ar worries over his dau"hter7s happiness% and over the future of his estate. 3e says that if marryin" ?inton would make Catherine happy% he would allow it% despite the fact that it would ensure that 3eathcliff would inherit )hrushcross 6ran"e. ,d"ar7s health continues to fail% as does ?inton7s. ,ventually% ,d"ar a"rees to allow Catherine to meet ?inton% not at 8utherin" 3ei"hts% but on the moors% not reali:in" that the youn" man is as close to death as he is himself.
Summary: Chapter ,,+*

8hen Catherine and Celly ride to their meetin" with ?inton% they do not find him in the a"reed*upon spotKhe has not ventured far from 8utherin" 3ei"hts. 3e appears frail and weak% but he insists that his health is improvin". )he youth seems nervous and looks fearfully over his shoulder at the house. !t the end of their visit% Catherine a"rees to meet ?inton a"ain

on the followin" )hursday. 1n the way home% Catherine and Celly worry over ?inton7s health% but they decide to wait until their ne+t meetin" before comin" to any conclusions.
Analysis: Chapters ,,*,,+*

!s Celly tells ?ockwood% her story has now nearly cau"ht up with the present. 3areton was born in the summer of 1228< the first Catherine married ,d"ar in 1280 -a fact that can be e+trapolated from Celly7s claim in 18 1 to have been livin" at )hrushcross 6ran"e for about ei"hteen years.< and youn" Catherine was born in 128/% first met her cousins in 12F2% and carried on her romance with ?inton in the winter of 18 G18 1% ;ust over a year a"o -see NChronolo"yO.. )he reali:ation that Celly has been narratin" recent events should come as somethin" of a surprise to the reader% to whom these events have seemed stran"e and distant. Cow% both the reader and ?ockwood reali:e that the story he has been hearin" is not remote history% but bears on the present. Indeed% the events that ?ockwood has ;ust heard recounted may partially e+plain the interactions of the characters at 8utherin" 3ei"hts when he first visited. !part from supplyin" important chronolo"ical information% these chapters lar"ely help to further the "enerational drama% illustratin" the similarities and differences between the first and second "enerations of main characters. Moun" Catherine7s tauntin" of 3areton for his i"norance directly parallels the first Catherine7s tauntin" of 3eathcliff% ;ust as 3eathcliff7s oppression of 3areton parallels 3indley7s oppression of 3eathcliff. In addition% these chapters demonstrate that 3eathcliff accomplishes his reven"e methodically% punishin" his dead contemporaries by manipulatin" and bullyin" their children. =y this point in the novel% reven"e has supplanted love as the main force bearin" upon 3eathcliff7s behavior. 3is acts take on a sense of ur"ency as he hurries to have youn" Catherine married to ?inton before the boy dies. )his plot evidences the way that 3eathcliff makes a pawn of everyoneKeven his own son. Indeed% 3eathcliff may despise ?inton more than any other character in the novel. 8orried that ?inton will not outlive ,d"ar% 3eathcliff hastens to secure his claim on )hrushcross 6ran"e by unitin" his son with ,d"ar7s dau"hter.
Summary: Chapter ,,+**

Durin" the ne+t week% ,d"ar7s health "rows consistently worse. 8orried for her father% youn" Catherine only reluctantly rides to her meetin" with ?inton on the moors. Celly comes with her. )he cousins talk% and ?inton seems even more nervous than usual. 3e reveals that his father is forcin" him to court Catherine% and that he is terrified of what 3eathcliff will do if Catherine re;ects him. 3eathcliff arrives on the scene and &uestions Celly about ,d"ar7s health. 3e says that he worries that ?inton will die before ,d"ar. 3eathcliff asks Catherine and Celly to walk back to 8utherin" 3ei"hts% and% thou"h Catherine reminds him that she is forbidden to do so by her father% she a"rees because she is afraid of 3eathcliff. 3eathcliff seems full of ra"e toward ?inton% who is practically weepin" with terror. 1nce he has Celly and Catherine inside 8utherin" 3ei"hts% 3eathcliff locks them inside the house and refuses to allow them to leave until Catherine has married ?inton. 3e allows Catherine to leave the bedroom in which they are locked% but he keeps Celly imprisoned there for five days. Durin" this time% the only soul Celly sees is 3areton% who is ordered to "uard and attend her.
Summary: Chapter ,,+***

!t last% the housekeeper% Sillah% frees Celly from her imprisonment% tellin" her that the villa"ers in 6immerton have spread the news that both Celly and Catherine have been lost in =lackhorse 4arsh. Celly searches throu"h the house until she finds ?inton% who tells her that Catherine is locked away in another room. )he two are now husband and wife. ?inton "loats over this development% claimin" that all of Catherine7s possessions are now his% as ,d"ar is dyin" &uickly. Dearin" discovery by 3eathcliff% Celly hurries back to )hrushcross 6ran"e. 3ere% she tells the dyin" ,d"ar that Catherine is safe and will soon be home. >he sends a "roup of men to 8utherin" 3ei"hts to retrieve Catherine% but they fail in their task. ,d"ar plans to chan"e his will% placin" Catherine7s inheritance in the hands of trustees and thus keepin" it from 3eathcliff. 3e summons 4r. 6reen% his lawyer% to the 6ran"e. Celly hears someone arrivin" and believes it to be 4r. 6reen% but it is Catherine. )hus ,d"ar sees his dau"hter once more before he dies% believin" that his dau"hter is happily married to ?inton% and knowin" nothin" about her desperate circumstances. >hortly after ,d"ar7s death% 4r. 6reen arrives% and dismisses all of the servants e+cept Celly. 3e tries to have ,d"ar buried in the chapel% but Celly insists that he obey ,d"ar7s will% which states that he wishes to be buried in the churchyard ne+t to his wife.
Summary: Chapter ,,*,

NI "ot the se+ton% who was di""in" ?inton7s "rave% to remove the earth off her coffin lid% and I opened it. . . .O ->ee Important Puotations ,+plained. 3eathcliff appears at )hrushcross 6ran"e shortly after the funeral in order to take youn" Catherine to her new home. 3e tells her that he has punished ?inton for havin" helped her escape% and says that she will have to work for her keep at 8utherin" 3ei"hts. Catherine an"rily retorts that she and ?inton are in fact in love% despite ?inton7s bad*temperedness% while 3eathcliff has no one to love him. )hus no matter how miserable 3eathcliff makes the youn" couple% Catherine says% they shall have the reven"e of knowin" that his cruelty arises from his "reater misery. !s Catherine is packin" her thin"s% Celly asks 3eathcliff for Sillah7s position at 8utherin" 3ei"hts% desperate to remain with Catherine. =ut 3eathcliff interrupts Celly to tell her his astonishin" deed of the day before. 8hile the se+ton was di""in" ,d"ar7s "rave% 3eathcliff had him remove the earth from his beloved Catherine7s% and he opened her coffin to "a:e upon her face% which he says is still reco"ni:able. 3eathcliff asserts that Catherine will not crumble to dust until he ;oins her in the "round% at which point they will share the transformation to"ether. 3e says that he forced the se+ton to remove one whole side of her coffinKthe side not facin" ,d"arKand that when he dies% he will re&uire in his will that the correspondin" side of his coffin be removed% so that he and Catherine mi"ht min"le in the earth. Celly chastises him for disturbin" the dead% and 3eathcliff tells her that Catherine7s "host has tormented him every ni"ht for the last ei"hteen years. 3e e+plains that he has felt her presence without bein" able to reach her. !s they leave% Catherine asks Celly to visit her soon% but 3eathcliff tells Celly that she must never call at 8utherin" 3ei"hts% notin" that if he wishes to see her he will come to )hrushcross 6ran"e.

Summary: Chapter ,,,

Celly has not seen Catherine since she left% and her only source of information about her is Sillah. Sillah says that 3eathcliff refused to allow anyone at 8utherin" 3ei"hts to be kind or helpful to Catherine after her arrival% and that Catherine tended to ?inton by herself until the day he died. >ince ?inton7s death% Catherine has remained aloof from Sillah and from 3areton% with whom she has been in constant conflict. Desperate to help her% Celly tells ?ockwood that she has taken a cotta"e herself and wants to brin" Catherine to live with her% but she knows that 3eathcliff will not allow it. )he only thin" that could save Catherine would be another marria"e% says Celly% but she does not have the power to brin" about such a thin". 8ritin" in his diaryKwhere all of Celly7s story has been recordedK?ockwood says that this is the end of Celly7s story% and that he is finally recoverin" from his illness. 3e writes that he plans to ride out to 8utherin" 3ei"hts and to inform 3eathcliff that he will spend the ne+t si+ months in ?ondon% and that 3eathcliff may look for another tenant for the 6ran"e. 3e emphatically states that he has no desire to spend another winter in this stran"e company.
Analysis: Chapters ,,+**,,,

!s ,d"ar ?inton "rows weak and dies% 3eathcliff7s cruelty ra"es unchecked. 8ithout fear of repercussion% he abuses the other characters mercilessly% kidnappin" Celly and youn" Catherine. 8ith no one left who is stron" enou"h to counter 3eathcliff% the course of events in these chapters seems inevitable. 3eathcliff easily succeeds in marryin" his son to youn" Catherine% and in inheritin" )hrushcross 6ran"e. 3owever% a new force be"ins to rise up a"ainst the tyrant. Catherine shows a defiant spirit% and she triumphantly declares that the love between her and ?inton will save them from misery and make them superior to 3eathcliff. )his foreshadows her eventual stron"*willed rebellion a"ainst 3eathcliffKand her redemption of her oppressed predecessors throu"h her love for her other cousin% 3areton ,arnshaw. )he youn" Catherine7s manifestation of her mother7s boldness% as well as 3eathcliff7s pro"ressin" reven"e% brin" to mind the older Catherine and the defiant marria"e to ,d"ar with which she first sparked 3eathcliff7s wrath. Indeed% perhaps because of youn" Catherine7s behavior% 3eathcliff himself seems to become increasin"ly preoccupied with thou"hts of the late Catherine. )he horrifyin" spectacle of 3eathcliff uncoverin" her "rave and "a:in" upon her corpse7s face% as well as his intense concern about the fate of Catherine7s body% testifies to the e+treme depth of his obsession. In a sense% 3eathcliff7s interest in the decomposition of his beloved is &uite in keepin" with the nature of their relationship. )he te+t consistently describes their love not only in spiritual terms% but in material ones. )hus Catherine declares in Chapter IU% N8hatever souls are made of% his and mine are the same.O 4oreover% the relationship between 3eathcliff and Catherine has come to be associated with the soil where it has been conducted< its fate becomes intertwined with that of the earth% as the narrative repeatedly links both 3eathcliff and Catherine to the severe and wild moors% which fre&uently symboli:e the unruly nature of their love. )hese chapters "ive us insi"ht not only into the story7s main characters and their relationships% but also into the story7s narrator% Celly Dean. Dirst% Celly chooses to lie to ,d"ar about his dau"hter7s condition as ,d"ar lin"ers near death% a well*meanin" untruth that resembles her earlier lie to ?inton% which she told en route to deliver him to 3eathcliff. 5ust as she declared to ?inton that his father was kind and "enerous% she now tells ,d"ar that his dau"hter is

happily married. Celly thus shows herself willin" to lie and distort the truth in order to spare feelin"s and ease social situations. Celly a"ain displays a certain manipulative &uality in a statement she makes outside the story% to ?ockwood. >he tells him that the youn" Catherine7s last hope for salvation would be a second marria"e% but that she% Celly% is powerless to brin" about such a union. )his remark seems intended to e+press more than idle wishfulness. !s the reader may recall% Celly insinuates in Chapter UUH that ?ockwood mi"ht fall in love with Catherine himself. !t the time% the comment seemed nothin" more than speculation. Met now the reader can see that Celly may be pursuin" a plot to rescue her former mistress. Indeed% Celly7s willin"ness to narrate the story to ?ockwood in the first place may stem from this notion of savin" Catherine. Celly paints a far more flatterin" picture of youn" Catherine than she does of the "irl7s mother% even when they e+hibit similar traits. Celly fre&uently emphasi:es youn" Catherine7s beauty% and she may subtly frame her story in a certain way so as to pi&ue ?ockwood7s interest in the "irl. 1f course% this is merely one possible interpretation of the te+t% but a"ain% it is e+tremely important to consider the motivations and biases of the character who narrates the story. 1ne of the most impressive aspects of ,mily =rontJ7s achievement in "uthering 'eights is her ability to include such finely drawn% subtle psycholo"ical portraits as that of Celly DeanKmany of whose most fascinatin" human &ualities emer"e only when one reads between the lines of her narration.
Summary: Chapter ,,,*

?ockwood% true to his word% travels to 8utherin" 3ei"hts to end his tenancy at the 6ran"e. 3e brin"s youn" Catherine a note from Celly. 3areton first appropriates the note% but when Catherine cries% he "ives it back to her. 3e has been stru""lin" to learn to read and to ac&uire an education. 4eanwhile% Catherine has been starvin" for books% as 3eathcliff confiscated her collection. Catherine mocks 3areton7s stru""les to learn% an"erin" him% but she admits that she does not want to hinder his education. >till% 3areton feels humiliated% and he throws his books into the fire.

3eathcliff returns% and on enterin" the house% he notes that 3areton has be"un increasin"ly to resemble his aunt CatherineKso much so that he can hardly bear to see him. ?ockwood passes a cheerless meal with 3eathcliff and 3areton% and then departs the manor. !s he leaves% he considers what a bleak place it is% full of dreary people. 3e muses further that it would have been like a fairy tale for youn" Catherine had she fallen in love with him and left 8utherin" 3ei"hts for a more pleasant environment.
Summary: Chapter ,,,**

!bout si+ months laterK?ockwood remained at the 6ran"e until late winter% 18 #% and it is now >eptember% 18 #K?ockwood writes in his diary that he has traveled a"ain to the vicinity of the moors. )here% he tries to pay a visit to Celly at )hrushcross 6ran"e% but discovers that she has moved back to 8utherin" 3ei"hts. 3e rides to the manor% where he talks to Celly and hears the news of the intervenin" months. Sillah has departed 8utherin" 3ei"hts% and 3eathcliff has "iven the position to Celly. Catherine has admitted to Celly that she feels "uilty for havin" mocked 3areton7s attempt to learn to read. 1ne day% 3areton accidentally shoots himself% and is forced to remain indoors to recuperate. !t first% he and Catherine &uarrel% but they finally make up and a"ree to "et alon". )o show her "ood will% Catherine "ives 3areton a book% promisin" to teach him to read and never to mock him a"ain. Celly

says that the two youn" people have "radually "rown to love and trust each other% and that the day they are married will be her proudest day.
Summary: Chapter ,,,***

NIn every cloud% in every treeKfillin" the air at ni"ht% and cau"ht by "limpses in every ob;ect by day% I am surrounded with her ima"eEO ->ee Important Puotations ,+plained. !t breakfast the mornin" after Catherine "ives 3areton the book% she and 3eathcliff become embroiled in an ar"ument over her inheritance and her relationship with 3areton. 3eathcliff sei:es her and nearly strikes her% but% lookin" into her face% he suddenly lets her "oK apparently havin" seen somethin" in her eyes that reminds him of her mother. Celly speculates to ?ockwood that so many reminders of the dead Catherine seem to have chan"ed 3eathcliff. In fact% he has confided to Celly that he no lon"er has the desire to carry out his reven"e on youn" Catherine and 3areton.
Summary: Chapter ,,,*+

!s time passes% 3eathcliff becomes more and more solitary and be"ins to eat less and less% eventually takin" only one meal a day. ! few days after the incident at breakfast% he spends the entire ni"ht out walkin"% and he returns in a stran"e% wildly ebullient mood. 3e tells Celly that last ni"ht he stood on the threshold of hell but now has reached si"ht of heaven. 3e refuses all food. 3e also insists that he be left aloneKhe wants to have 8utherin" 3ei"hts to himself% he says. 3e seems to see an apparition before him% and to communicate with it% thou"h Celly can see nothin". 3eathcliff7s behavior becomes increasin"ly stran"e< he be"ins to murmur Catherine7s name% and insists that Celly remember his burial wishes. >oon% Celly finds him dead. >he tells ?ockwood that he has since been buried% and that youn" Catherine and 3areton shall soon marry. )hey will wed on Cew Mear7s Day and move to )hrushcross 6ran"e. )he youn" lovers now return to the house from outside% and ?ockwood feels an overpowerin" desire to leave. 3e hurriedly e+its throu"h the kitchen% tossin" a "old soverei"n to 5oseph on his way out. 3e finds his way throu"h the wild moors to the churchyard% where he discovers the "raves of ,d"ar% Catherine% and 3eathcliff. !lthou"h the villa"ers claim that they have seen 3eathcliff7s "host wanderin" about in the company of a second spirit% ?ockwood wonders how anyone could ima"ine un&uiet slumbers for the persons that lie in such &uiet earth.
Analysis: Chapters ,,,*,,,*+

9nlike most 6othic romances% "uthering 'eights does not build to an intense% violent clima+ before its endin"< rather% its tension &uietly unravels as the inner conflict within 3eathcliff "radually dissipates% his love for Catherine erodin" his lust for reven"e. !lthou"h the novel7s happy endin" is not possible until 3eathcliff7s death% his influence has become an ever less menacin" one in the precedin" days% and thus his demise does not constitute a dramatic reversal of the book7s trends. !s time passes% 3eathcliff becomes increasin"ly obsessed with his dead love% and he finds reminders of her everywhere. 3e be"ins conversin" with her "host% and% after his climactic ni"ht on the moorsKa ni"ht that we do not see or hear anythin"

about% because Celly was not thereKa stran"e cheer comes over him% a happy premonition of his own impendin" death. =ecause he re;ects all reli"ious notions of the afterlife% 3eathcliff does not fear death. !lthou"h the te+t fre&uently likens him to the Devil% he does not believe in hell% and his forced reli"ious education as a child has caused him to deny the e+istence of heaven. 3is lack of reli"ious belief leads him to refuse to allow Celly to Christiani:e his death by callin" for a priest. Bather% for 3eathcliff% the end of life can mean only one thin"A the be"innin" of his reunion with Catherine. !s 3eathcliff anticipates a union in the afterlife% youn" Catherine and 3areton look forward to a shared life. )heir love for one another seems not only to secure happiness for the future% but to redeem the miseries of the past. 8hen youn" Catherine re"rets aloud her mockeries of 3areton% she redeems not only her own past sins% but those of her mother% who behaved similarly toward 3eathcliffKthou"h without remorse. Dor his part% 3areton represents a final renewal for the manor of 8utherin" 3ei"hts. 3e stands poised to inherit the estate% where his name is carved over the entrance% inscribed there by an earlier 3areton over three centuries before. 3areton7s appropriation of the manor will si"nify the end of one cycle and the be"innin" of another% his very name markin" the entry into a new era for 8utherin" 3ei"hts. Dinally% Catherine and 3areton to"ether% as a unit% represent a resolution of past troubles. )o"ether% they seem to manifest all of the best &ualities of their parents and mer"e the various conflictin" aspects of 8utherin" 3ei"hts and )hrushcross 6ran"e into a stron"er whole. In essence% they embody the stren"th and passion of 8utherin" 3ei"hts without its doomed intensity% and the civility and kindness of )hrushcross 6ran"e without its cowardly snobbishness. 5oined throu"h their lovin" bond% the two estates will constitute a haven of warmth% hope% and ;oy.

Jane Eyre
Charlotte =rontJ

6et this >parkCote to "oE W (revious >ection )able of Contents Ce+t >ection X (lot 1verview

'ontext

C harlotte =rontJ was born in Morkshire% ,n"land on !pril #1% 1816 to 4aria =ranwell and (atrick =rontJ. =ecause Charlotte7s mother died when Charlotte was five years old% Charlotte7s aunt% a devout 4ethodist% helped her brother*in*law raise his children. In 18#/ Charlotte and three of her sistersK4aria% ,li:abeth% and ,milyKwere sent to Cowan =rid"e% a school for cler"ymen7s dau"hters. 8hen an outbreak of tuberculosis killed 4aria and ,li:abeth% Charlotte and ,mily were brou"ht home. >everal years later% Charlotte returned to school% this time in Boe 3ead% ,n"land. >he became a teacher at the school in 180$ but decided after several years to become a private "overness instead. >he was hired to live with and tutor the children of the wealthy >id"ewick family in 180F% but the ;ob was a misery to her and she soon left it. 1nce Charlotte reco"ni:ed that her dream of startin" her own school was not immediately reali:able% however% she returned to workin" as a "overness% this time for a different family. Dindin" herself e&ually disappointed with "overness work the second time around% Charlotte recruited her sisters to ;oin her in more serious preparation for the establishment of a school. !lthou"h the =rontJs7 school was unsuccessful% their literary pro;ects flourished. !t a youn" a"e% the children created a fictional world they named !n"ria% and their many stories% poems% and plays were early predictors of shared writin" talent that eventually led ,mily% !nne% and Charlotte to careers as novelists. !s adults% Charlotte su""ested that she% !nne% and ,mily collaborate on a book of poems. )he three sisters published under male pseudonymsA Charlotte7s was Currer =ell% while ,mily and !nne wrote as ,llis and !cton =ell% respectively. 8hen the poetry volume received little public notice% the sisters decided to work on separate novels but retained the same pseudonyms. !nne and ,mily produced their masterpieces in 18/2% but Charlotte7s first book% The Pro!essor, never found a willin" publisher durin" her lifetime. Charlotte wrote &ane E#re later that year. )he book% a criti&ue of Hictorian assumptions about "ender and social class% became one of the most successful novels of its era% both critically and commercially. !utobio"raphical elements are reco"ni:able throu"hout &ane E#re. 5ane7s e+perience at ?owood >chool% where her dearest friend dies of tuberculosis% recalls the death of Charlotte7s sisters at Cowan =rid"e. )he hypocritical reli"ious fervor of the headmaster% 4r. =rocklehurst% is based in part on that of the Beverend Carus 8ilson% the ,van"elical minister who ran Cowan =rid"e. Charlotte took reven"e upon the school that treated her so poorly by usin" it as the basis for the fictional ?owood. 5ane7s friend 3elen =urns7s tra"ic death from tuberculosis recalls the deaths of two of Charlotte7s sisters% 4aria and ,li:abeth% who succumbed to the same disease durin" their time at Cowan =rid"e. !dditionally% 5ohn Beed7s decline into alcoholism and dissolution is most likely modeled upon the life of Charlotte =rontJ7s brother =ranwell% who slid into opium and alcohol addictions in the years precedin" his death. Dinally% like Charlotte% 5ane becomes a "overnessKa neutral vanta"e point from which to observe and describe the oppressive social ideas and practices of nineteenth*century Hictorian society. )he plot of &ane E#re follows the form of a =ildun"sroman% which is a novel that tells the story of a child7s maturation and focuses on the emotions and e+periences that accompany and incite his or her "rowth to adulthood. In &ane E#re, there are five distinct sta"es of development% each linked to a particular placeA 5ane7s childhood at 6ateshead% her education at the ?owood >chool% her time as !dYle7s "overness at )hornfield% her time with the Bivers family at 4orton and at 4arsh ,nd -also called 4oor 3ouse.% and her reunion with and

marria"e to Bochester at Derndean. Drom these e+periences% 5ane becomes the mature woman who narrates the novel retrospectively. =ut the =ildun"sroman plot of &ane E#re, and the book7s element of social criticism% are filtered throu"h a third literary traditionKthat of the 6othic horror story. ?ike the =ildun"sroman% the 6othic "enre ori"inated in 6ermany. It became popular in ,n"land in the late ei"hteenth century% and it "enerally describes supernatural e+periences% remote landscapes% and mysterious occurrences% all of which are intended to create an atmosphere of suspense and fear. 5ane7s encounters with "hosts% dark secrets% and sinister plots add a potent and lin"erin" sense of fantasy and mystery to the novel. !fter the success of &ane E#re, Charlotte revealed her identity to her publisher and went on to write several other novels% most notably 0hirle# in 18/F. In the years that followed% she became a respected member of ?ondon7s literary set. =ut the deaths of siblin"s ,mily and =ranwell in 18/8% and of !nne in 18/F% left her feelin" de;ected and emotionally isolated. In 18$/% she wed the Beverend !rthur Cicholls% despite the fact that she did not love him. >he died of pneumonia% while pre"nant% the followin" year.

Plot Overvie&
5 ane ,yre is a youn" orphan bein" raised by 4rs. Beed% her cruel% wealthy aunt. ! servant named =essie provides 5ane with some of the few kindnesses she receives% tellin" her stories and sin"in" son"s to her. 1ne day% as punishment for fi"htin" with her bullyin" cousin 5ohn Beed% 5ane7s aunt imprisons 5ane in the red*room% the room in which 5ane7s 9ncle Beed died. 8hile locked in% 5ane% believin" that she sees her uncle7s "host% screams and faints. >he wakes to find herself in the care of =essie and the kindly apothecary 4r. ?loyd% who su""ests to 4rs. Beed that 5ane be sent away to school. )o 5ane7s deli"ht% 4rs. Beed concurs. 1nce at the ?owood >chool% 5ane finds that her life is far from idyllic. )he school7s headmaster is 4r. =rocklehurst% a cruel% hypocritical% and abusive man. =rocklehurst preaches a doctrine of poverty and privation to his students while usin" the school7s funds to provide a wealthy and opulent lifestyle for his own family. !t ?owood% 5ane befriends a youn" "irl named 3elen =urns% whose stron"% martyrlike attitude toward the school7s miseries is both helpful and displeasin" to 5ane. ! massive typhus epidemic sweeps ?owood% and 3elen dies of consumption. )he epidemic also results in the departure of 4r. =rocklehurst by attractin" attention to the insalubrious conditions at ?owood. !fter a "roup of more sympathetic "entlemen takes =rocklehurst7s place% 5ane7s life improves dramatically. >he spends ei"ht more years at ?owood% si+ as a student and two as a teacher. !fter teachin" for two years% 5ane yearns for new e+periences. >he accepts a "overness position at a manor called )hornfield% where she teaches a lively Drench "irl named !dYle. )he distin"uished housekeeper 4rs. Dairfa+ presides over the estate. 5ane7s employer at )hornfield is a dark% impassioned man named Bochester% with whom 5ane finds herself fallin" secretly in love. >he saves Bochester from a fire one ni"ht% which he claims was started by a drunken servant named 6race (oole. =ut because 6race (oole continues to work at )hornfield% 5ane concludes that she has not been told the entire story. 5ane sinks into despondency when Bochester brin"s home a beautiful but vicious woman named =lanche In"ram. 5ane e+pects Bochester to propose to =lanche. =ut Bochester instead proposes to 5ane% who accepts almost disbelievin"ly.

)he weddin" day arrives% and as 5ane and 4r. Bochester prepare to e+chan"e their vows% the voice of 4r. 4ason cries out that Bochester already has a wife. 4ason introduces himself as the brother of that wifeKa woman named =ertha. 4r. 4ason testifies that =ertha% whom Bochester married when he was a youn" man in 5amaica% is still alive. Bochester does not deny 4ason7s claims% but he e+plains that =ertha has "one mad. 3e takes the weddin" party back to )hornfield% where they witness the insane =ertha 4ason scurryin" around on all fours and "rowlin" like an animal. Bochester keeps =ertha hidden on the third story of )hornfield and pays 6race (oole to keep his wife under control. =ertha was the real cause of the mysterious fire earlier in the story. Inowin" that it is impossible for her to be with Bochester% 5ane flees )hornfield. (enniless and hun"ry% 5ane is forced to sleep outdoors and be" for food. !t last% three siblin"s who live in a manor alternatively called 4arsh ,nd and 4oor 3ouse take her in. )heir names are 4ary% Diana% and >t. 5ohn -pronounced N>in;inO. Bivers% and 5ane &uickly becomes friends with them. >t. 5ohn is a cler"yman% and he finds 5ane a ;ob teachin" at a charity school in 4orton. 3e surprises her one day by declarin" that her uncle% 5ohn ,yre% has died and left her a lar"e fortuneA # % pounds. 8hen 5ane asks how he received this news% he shocks her further by declarin" that her uncle was also his uncleA 5ane and the Biverses are cousins. 5ane immediately decides to share her inheritance e&ually with her three newfound relatives. >t. 5ohn decides to travel to India as a missionary% and he ur"es 5ane to accompany himKas his wife. 5ane a"rees to "o to India but refuses to marry her cousin because she does not love him. >t. 5ohn pressures her to reconsider% and she nearly "ives in. 3owever% she reali:es that she cannot abandon forever the man she truly loves when one ni"ht she hears Bochester7s voice callin" her name over the moors. 5ane immediately hurries back to )hornfield and finds that it has been burned to the "round by =ertha 4ason% who lost her life in the fire. Bochester saved the servants but lost his eyesi"ht and one of his hands. 5ane travels on to Bochester7s new residence% Derndean% where he lives with two servants named 5ohn and 4ary. !t Derndean% Bochester and 5ane rebuild their relationship and soon marry. !t the end of her story% 5ane writes that she has been married for ten blissful years and that she and Bochester en;oy perfect e&uality in their life to"ether. >he says that after two years of blindness% Bochester re"ained si"ht in one eye and was able to behold their first son at his birth.

'haracter /ist
Jane Eyre * )he prota"onist and narrator of the novel% 5ane is an intelli"ent% honest% plain* featured youn" "irl forced to contend with oppression% ine&uality% and hardship. !lthou"h she meets with a series of individuals who threaten her autonomy% 5ane repeatedly succeeds at assertin" herself and maintains her principles of ;ustice% human di"nity% and morality. >he also values intellectual and emotional fulfillment. 3er stron" belief in "ender and social e&uality challen"es the Hictorian pre;udices a"ainst women and the poor. Bead an in*depth analysis of 5ane ,yre. Ed&ard Rochester * 5ane7s employer and the master of )hornfield% Bochester is a wealthy% passionate man with a dark secret that provides much of the novel7s suspense. Bochester is unconventional% ready to set aside polite manners% propriety% and consideration of social class in order to interact with 5ane frankly and directly. 3e is rash and impetuous and has spent

much of his adult life roamin" about ,urope in an attempt to avoid the conse&uences of his youthful indiscretions. 3is problems are partly the result of his own recklessness% but he is a sympathetic fi"ure because he has suffered for so lon" as a result of his early marria"e to =ertha. Bead an in*depth analysis of ,dward Bochester. (t. John Rivers * !lon" with his sisters% 4ary and Diana% >t. 5ohn -pronounced N>in;inO. serves as 5ane7s benefactor after she runs away from )hornfield% "ivin" her food and shelter. )he minister at 4orton% >t. 5ohn is cold% reserved% and often controllin" in his interactions with others. =ecause he is entirely alienated from his feelin"s and devoted solely to an austere ambition% >t. 5ohn serves as a foil to ,dward Bochester. Bead an in*depth analysis of >t. 5ohn Bivers. Mrs. Reed * 4rs. Beed is 5ane7s cruel aunt% who raises her at 6ateshead 3all until 5ane is sent away to school at a"e ten. ?ater in her life% 5ane attempts reconciliation with her aunt% but the old woman continues to resent her because her husband had always loved 5ane more than his own children. ,essie /ee * )he maid at 6ateshead% =essie is the only fi"ure in 5ane7s childhood who re"ularly treats her kindly% tellin" her stories and sin"in" her son"s. =essie later marries Bobert ?eaven% the Beeds7 coachman. Mr. /loyd * 4r. ?loyd is the Beeds7 apothecary% who su""ests that 5ane be sent away to school. !lways kind to 5ane% 4r. ?loyd writes a letter to 4iss )emple confirmin" 5ane7s story about her childhood and clearin" 5ane of 4rs. Beed7s char"e that she is a liar. Georgiana Reed * 6eor"iana Beed is 5ane7s cousin and one of 4rs. Beed7s two dau"hters. )he beautiful 6eor"iana treats 5ane cruelly when they are children% but later in their lives she befriends her cousin and confides in her. 6eor"iana attempts to elope with a man named ?ord ,dwin Here% but her sister% ,li:a% alerts 4rs. Beed of the arran"ement and sabota"es the plan. !fter 4rs. Beed dies% 6eor"iana marries a wealthy man. EliAa Reed * ,li:a Beed is 5ane7s cousin and one of 4rs. Beed7s two dau"hters -alon" with her sister% 6eor"iana.. Cot as beautiful as her sister% ,li:a devotes herself somewhat self* ri"hteously to the church and eventually "oes to a convent in Drance where she becomes the 4other >uperior. John Reed * 5ohn Beed is 5ane7s cousin% 4rs. Beed7s son% and brother to ,li:a and 6eor"iana. 5ohn treats 5ane with appallin" cruelty durin" their childhood and later falls into a life of drinkin" and "amblin". 5ohn commits suicide midway throu"h the novel when his mother ceases to pay his debts for him. !elen ,urns * 3elen =urns is 5ane7s close friend at the ?owood >chool. >he endures her miserable life there with a passive di"nity that 5ane cannot understand. 3elen dies of consumption in 5ane7s arms. Bead an in*depth analysis of 3elen =urns. Mr. ,roc lehurst * )he cruel% hypocritical master of the ?owood >chool% 4r. =rocklehurst preaches a doctrine of privation% while stealin" from the school to support his lu+urious lifestyle. !fter a typhus epidemic sweeps ?owood% =rocklehurst7s shifty and dishonest practices are brou"ht to li"ht and he is publicly discredited.

Maria *emple * 4aria )emple is a kind teacher at ?owood% who treats 5ane and 3elen with respect and compassion. !lon" with =essie ?ee% she serves as one of 5ane7s first positive female role models. 4iss )emple helps clear 5ane of 4rs. Beed7s accusations a"ainst her. Miss (catcherd * 5ane7s sour and vicious teacher at ?owood% 4iss >catcherd behaves with particular cruelty toward 3elen. %lice =air"ax * !lice Dairfa+ is the housekeeper at )hornfield 3all. >he is the first to tell 5ane that the mysterious lau"hter often heard echoin" throu"h the halls is% in fact% the lau"hter of 6race (ooleKa lie that Bochester himself often repeats. ,ertha Mason * Bochester7s clandestine wife% =ertha 4ason is a formerly beautiful and wealthy Creole woman who has become insane% violent% and bestial. >he lives locked in a secret room on the third story of )hornfield and is "uarded by 6race (oole% whose occasional bouts of inebriation sometimes enable =ertha to escape. =ertha eventually burns down )hornfield% plun"in" to her death in the flames. Grace Poole * 6race (oole is =ertha 4ason7s keeper at )hornfield% whose drunken carelessness fre&uently allows =ertha to escape. 8hen 5ane first arrives at )hornfield% 4rs. Dairfa+ attributes to 6race all evidence of =ertha7s misdeeds. %dBle @arens * 5ane7s pupil at )hornfield% !dYle Harens is a lively thou"h somewhat spoiled child from Drance. Bochester brou"ht her to )hornfield after her mother% Celine% abandoned her. !lthou"h Celine was once Bochester7s mistress% he does not believe himself to be !dYle7s father. 'eline @arens * Celine Harens is a Drench opera dancer with whom Bochester once had an affair. !lthou"h Bochester does not believe Celine7s claims that he fathered her dau"hter !dYle% he nonetheless brou"ht the "irl to ,n"land when Celine abandoned her. Bochester had broken off his relationship with Celine after learnin" that Celine was unfaithful to him and interested only in his money. (ophie * >ophie is !dYle7s Drench nurse at )hornfield. Richard Mason * Bichard 4ason is =ertha7s brother. Durin" a visit to )hornfield% he is in;ured by his mad sister. !fter learnin" of Bochester7s intent to marry 5ane% 4ason arrives with the solicitor =ri""s in order to thwart the weddin" and reveal the truth of Bochester7s prior marria"e. Mr. ,riggs * 5ohn ,yre7s attorney% 4r. =ri""s helps Bichard 4ason prevent 5ane7s weddin" to Bochester when he learns of the e+istence of =ertha 4ason% Bochester7s wife. !fter 5ohn ,yre7s death% =ri""s searches for 5ane in order to "ive her her inheritance. ,lanche <ngram * =lanche In"ram is a beautiful socialite who despises 5ane and hopes to marry Bochester for his money. .iana Rivers * Diana Bivers is 5ane7s cousin% and the sister of >t. 5ohn and 4ary. Diana is a kind and intelli"ent person% and she ur"es 5ane not to "o to India with >t. 5ohn. >he serves as a model for 5ane of an intellectually "ifted and independent woman. Mary Rivers * 4ary Bivers is 5ane7s cousin% the sister of >t. 5ohn and Diana. 4ary is a kind and intelli"ent youn" woman who is forced to work as a "overness after her father loses his fortune. ?ike her sister% she serves as a model for 5ane of an independent woman who is also able to maintain close relationships with others and a sense of meanin" in her life. Rosamond Oliver * Bosamond is the beautiful dau"hter of 4r. 1liver% 4orton7s wealthiest inhabitant. Bosamond "ives money to the school in 4orton where 5ane works. !lthou"h she is in love with >t. 5ohn% she becomes en"a"ed to the wealthy 4r. 6ranby. John Eyre * 5ohn ,yre is 5ane7s uncle% who leaves her his vast fortune of # % pounds. 2ncle Reed * 9ncle Beed is 4rs. Beed7s late husband. In her childhood% 5ane believes that she feels the presence of his "host. =ecause he was always fond of 5ane and her mother -his sister.% 9ncle Beed made his wife promise that she would raise 5ane as her own child. It is a promise that 4rs. Beed does not keep.

-ane Eyre

)he development of 5ane ,yre7s character is central to the novel. Drom the be"innin"% 5ane possesses a sense of her self*worth and di"nity% a commitment to ;ustice and principle% a trust in 6od% and a passionate disposition. 3er inte"rity is continually tested over the course of the novel% and 5ane must learn to balance the fre&uently conflictin" aspects of herself so as to find contentment.

!n orphan since early childhood% 5ane feels e+iled and ostraci:ed at the be"innin" of the novel% and the cruel treatment she receives from her !unt Beed and her cousins only e+acerbates her feelin" of alienation. !fraid that she will never find a true sense of home or community% 5ane feels the need to belon" somewhere% to find Nkin%O or at least Nkindred spirits.O )his desire tempers her e&ually intense need for autonomy and freedom. In her search for freedom% 5ane also stru""les with the &uestion of what type of freedom she wants. 8hile Bochester initially offers 5ane a chance to liberate her passions% 5ane comes to reali:e that such freedom could also mean enslavementKby livin" as Bochester7s mistress% she would be sacrificin" her di"nity and inte"rity for the sake of her feelin"s. >t. 5ohn Bivers offers 5ane another kind of freedomA the freedom to act unreservedly on her principles. 3e opens to 5ane the possibility of e+ercisin" her talents fully by workin" and livin" with him in India. 5ane eventually reali:es% thou"h% that this freedom would also constitute a form of imprisonment% because she would be forced to keep her true feelin"s and her true passions always in check. Charlotte =rontJ may have created the character of 5ane ,yre as a means of comin" to terms with elements of her own life. 4uch evidence su""ests that =rontJ% too% stru""led to find a balance between love and freedom and to find others who understood her. !t many points in the book% 5ane voices the author7s then*radical opinions on reli"ion% social class% and "ender.
E).ar) /o(hester

Despite his stern manner and not particularly handsome appearance% ,dward Bochester wins 5ane7s heart% because she feels they are kindred spirits% and because he is the first person in the novel to offer 5ane lastin" love and a real home. !lthou"h Bochester is 5ane7s social and economic superior% and althou"h men were widely considered to be naturally superior to women in the Hictorian period% 5ane is Bochester7s intellectual e&ual. 4oreover% after their marria"e is interrupted by the disclosure that Bochester is already married to =ertha 4ason% 5ane is proven to be Bochester7s moral superior. Bochester re"rets his former libertinism and lustfulness< nevertheless% he has proven himself to be weaker in many ways than 5ane. 5ane feels that livin" with Bochester as his mistress would mean the loss of her di"nity. 9ltimately% she would become de"raded and dependent upon Bochester for love% while unprotected by any true marria"e bond. 5ane will only enter into marria"e with Bochester after she has "ained a fortune and a family% and after she has been on the ver"e of abandonin" passion alto"ether. >he waits until she is not unduly influenced by her own poverty% loneliness% psycholo"ical vulnerability% or passion. !dditionally% because Bochester has been blinded by the fire and has lost his manor house at the end of the novel% he has become weaker while 5ane has "rown in stren"thK5ane claims that they are e&uals% but the marria"e dynamic has actually tipped in her favor.

St0 -ohn /ivers

>t. 5ohn Bivers is a foil to ,dward Bochester. 8hereas Bochester is passionate% >t. 5ohn is austere and ambitious. 5ane often describes Bochester7s eyes as flashin" and flamin"% whereas she constantly associates >t. 5ohn with rock% ice% and snow. 4arria"e with Bochester represents the abandonment of principle for the consummation of passion% but marria"e to >t. 5ohn would mean sacrificin" passion for principle. 8hen he invites her to come to India with him as a missionary% >t. 5ohn offers 5ane the chance to make a more meanin"ful contribution to society than she would as a housewife. !t the same time% life with >t. 5ohn would mean life without true love% in which 5ane7s need for spiritual solace would be filled only by retreat into the recesses of her own soul. Independence would be accompanied by loneliness% and ;oinin" >t. 5ohn would re&uire 5ane to ne"lect her own le"itimate needs for love and emotional support. 3er consideration of >t. 5ohn7s proposal leads 5ane to understand that% parado+ically% a lar"e part of one7s personal freedom is found in a relationship of mutual emotional dependence.
Helen 1urns

3elen =urns% 5ane7s friend at ?owood >chool% serves as a foil to 4r. =rocklehurst as well as to 5ane. 8hile 4r. =rocklehurst embodies an evan"elical form of reli"ion that seeks to strip others of their e+cessive pride or of their ability to take pleasure in worldly thin"s% 3elen represents a mode of Christianity that stresses tolerance and acceptance. =rocklehurst uses reli"ion to "ain power and to control others< 3elen ascetically trusts her own faith and turns the other cheek to ?owood7s harsh policies. !lthou"h 3elen manifests a certain stren"th and intellectual maturity% her efforts involve self* ne"ation rather than self*assertion% and 3elen7s submissive and ascetic nature hi"hli"hts 5ane7s more headstron" character. ?ike 5ane% 3elen is an orphan who lon"s for a home% but 3elen believes that she will find this home in 3eaven rather than Corthern ,n"land. !nd while 3elen is not oblivious to the in;ustices the "irls suffer at ?owood% she believes that ;ustice will be found in 6od7s ultimate ;ud"mentK6od will reward the "ood and punish the evil. 5ane% on the other hand% is unable to have such blind faith. 3er &uest is for love and happiness in this world. Cevertheless% she counts on 6od for support and "uidance in her search.
Themes Themes are the fundamental and often universal ideas explored in a literary work. /ove 9ersus Autonomy

&ane E#re is very much the story of a &uest to be loved. 5ane searches% not ;ust for romantic love% but also for a sense of bein" valued% of belon"in". )hus 5ane says to 3elen =urnsA Nto "ain some real affection from you% or 4iss )emple% or any other whom I truly love% I would willin"ly submit to have the bone of my arm broken% or to let a bull toss me% or to stand behind a kickin" horse% and let it dash its hoof at my chestO -Chapter 8.. Met% over the course of the book% 5ane must learn how to "ain love without sacrificin" and harmin" herself in the process.

3er fear of losin" her autonomy motivates her refusal of Bochester7s marria"e proposal. 5ane believes that Nmarryin"O Bochester while he remains le"ally tied to =ertha would mean renderin" herself a mistress and sacrificin" her own inte"rity for the sake of emotional "ratification. 1n the other hand% her life at 4oor 3ouse tests her in the opposite manner. )here% she en;oys economic independence and en"a"es in worthwhile and useful work% teachin" the poor< yet she lacks emotional sustenance. !lthou"h >t. 5ohn proposes marria"e% offerin" her a partnership built around a common purpose% 5ane knows their marria"e would remain loveless. Conetheless% the events of 5ane7s stay at 4oor 3ouse are necessary tests of 5ane7s autonomy. 1nly after provin" her self*sufficiency to herself can she marry Bochester and not be asymmetrically dependent upon him as her Nmaster.O )he marria"e can be one between e&uals. !s 5ane saysA NI am my husband7s life as fully as he is mine. . . . )o be to"ether is for us to be at once as free as in solitude% as "ay as in company. . . . 8e are precisely suited in characterKperfect concord is the resultO -Chapter 08..
8eli"ion

)hrou"hout the novel% 5ane stru""les to find the ri"ht balance between moral duty and earthly pleasure% between obli"ation to her spirit and attention to her body. >he encounters three main reli"ious fi"uresA 4r. =rocklehurst% 3elen =urns% and >t. 5ohn Bivers. ,ach represents a model of reli"ion that 5ane ultimately re;ects as she forms her own ideas about faith and principle% and their practical conse&uences. 4r. =rocklehurst illustrates the dan"ers and hypocrisies that Charlotte =rontJ perceived in the nineteenth*century ,van"elical movement. 4r. =rocklehurst adopts the rhetoric of ,van"elicalism when he claims to be pur"in" his students of pride% but his method of sub;ectin" them to various privations and humiliations% like when he orders that the naturally curly hair of one of 5ane7s classmates be cut so as to lie strai"ht% is entirely un*Christian. 1f course% =rocklehurst7s proscriptions are difficult to follow% and his hypocritical support of his own lu+uriously wealthy family at the e+pense of the ?owood students shows =rontJ7s wariness of the ,van"elical movement. 3elen =urns7s meek and forbearin" mode of Christianity% on the other hand% is too passive for 5ane to adopt as her own% althou"h she loves and admires 3elen for it. 4any chapters later% >t. 5ohn Bivers provides another model of Christian behavior. 3is is a Christianity of ambition% "lory% and e+treme self*importance. >t. 5ohn ur"es 5ane to sacrifice her emotional deeds for the fulfillment of her moral duty% offerin" her a way of life that would re&uire her to be disloyal to her own self.

!lthou"h 5ane ends up re;ectin" all three models of reli"ion% she does not abandon morality% spiritualism% or a belief in a Christian 6od. 8hen her weddin" is interrupted% she prays to 6od for solace -Chapter #6.. !s she wanders the heath% poor and starvin"% she puts her survival in the hands of 6od -Chapter #8.. >he stron"ly ob;ects to Bochester7s lustful immorality% and she refuses to consider livin" with him while church and state still deem him married to another woman. ,ven so% 5ane can barely brin" herself to leave the only love she has ever known. >he credits 6od with helpin" her to escape what she knows would have been an immoral life -Chapter #2..

5ane ultimately finds a comfortable middle "round. 3er spiritual understandin" is not hateful and oppressive like =rocklehurst7s% nor does it re&uire retreat from the everyday world as 3elen7s and >t. 5ohn7s reli"ions do. Dor 5ane% reli"ion helps curb immoderate passions% and it spurs one on to worldly efforts and achievements. )hese achievements include full self* knowled"e and complete faith in 6od.
Social Class

&ane E#re is critical of Hictorian ,n"land7s strict social hierarchy. =rontJ7s e+ploration of the complicated social position of "overnesses is perhaps the novel7s most important treatment of this theme. ?ike 3eathcliff in "uthering 'eights, 5ane is a fi"ure of ambi"uous class standin" and% conse&uently% a source of e+treme tension for the characters around her. 5ane7s manners% sophistication% and education are those of an aristocrat% because Hictorian "overnesses% who tutored children in eti&uette as well as academics% were e+pected to possess the NcultureO of the aristocracy. Met% as paid employees% they were more or less treated as servants< thus% 5ane remains penniless and powerless while at )hornfield. 5ane7s understandin" of the double standard crystalli:es when she becomes aware of her feelin"s for Bochester< she is his intellectual% but not his social% e&ual. ,ven before the crisis surroundin" =ertha 4ason% 5ane is hesitant to marry Bochester because she senses that she would feel indebted to him for Ncondescendin"O to marry her. 5ane7s distress% which appears most stron"ly in Chapter 12% seems to be =rontJ7s criti&ue of Hictorian class attitudes. 5ane herself speaks out a"ainst class pre;udice at certain moments in the book. Dor e+ample% in Chapter #0 she chastises BochesterA NDo you think% because I am poor% obscure% plain% and little% I am soulless and heartlessQ Mou think wron"EKI have as much soul as youKand full as much heartE !nd if 6od had "ifted me with some beauty and much wealth% I should have made it as hard for you to leave me% as it is now for me to leave you.O 3owever% it is also important to note that nowhere in &ane E#re are society7s boundaries bent. 9ltimately% 5ane is only able to marry Bochester as his e&ual because she has almost ma"ically come into her own inheritance from her uncle.
ender 8elations

5ane stru""les continually to achieve e&uality and to overcome oppression. In addition to class hierarchy% she must fi"ht a"ainst patriarchal dominationKa"ainst those who believe women to be inferior to men and try to treat them as such. )hree central male fi"ures threaten her desire for e&uality and di"nityA 4r. =rocklehurst% ,dward Bochester% and >t. 5ohn Bivers. !ll three are miso"ynistic on some level. ,ach tries to keep 5ane in a submissive position% where she is unable to e+press her own thou"hts and feelin"s. In her &uest for independence and self*knowled"e% 5ane must escape =rocklehurst% re;ect >t. 5ohn% and come to Bochester only after ensurin" that they may marry as e&uals. )his last condition is met once 5ane proves herself able to function% throu"h the time she spends at 4oor 3ouse% in a community and in a family. >he will not depend solely on Bochester for love and she can be financially independent. Durthermore% Bochester is blind at the novel7s end and thus dependent upon 5ane to be his Nprop and "uide.O In Chapter 1#% 5ane articulates what was for her time a radically feminist philosophyA
)omen are supposed to be very calm "enerally: but women feel $ust as men feel, they need exercise for their faculties, and a field for their efforts as much as their brothers do, they suffer from too ri"id a restraint, too absolute a sta"nation,

precisely as men would suffer, and it is narrow-minded in their more privile"ed fellow-creatures to say that they ou"ht to confine themselves to makin" puddin"s and knittin" stockin"s, to playin" on the piano and embroiderin" ba"s. It is thou"htless to condemn them, or lau"h at them, if they seek to do more or learn more than custom has pronounced necessary for their sex. Motifs !otifs are recurrin" structures, contrasts, and literary devices that can help to develop and inform the text#s ma$or themes. -ire and Ice

Dire and ice appear throu"hout &ane E#re. )he former represents 5ane7s passions% an"er% and spirit% while the latter symboli:es the oppressive forces tryin" to e+tin"uish 5ane7s vitality. Dire is also a metaphor for 5ane% as the narrative repeatedly associates her with ima"es of fire% bri"htness% and warmth. In Chapter /% she likens her mind to Na rid"e of li"hted heath% alive% "lancin"% devourin".O 8e can reco"ni:e 5ane7s kindred spirits by their similar links to fire< thus we read of Bochester7s Nflamin" and flashin"O eyes -Chapter #$.. !fter he has been blinded% his face is compared to Na lamp &uenched% waitin" to be relitO -Chapter 02.. Ima"es of ice and cold% often appearin" in association with barren landscapes or seascapes% symboli:e emotional desolation% loneliness% or even death. )he Ndeath*white realmsO of the arctic that =ewick describes in his 'istor# o! 1ritish 1irds parallel 5ane7s physical and spiritual isolation at 6ateshead -Chapter 1.. ?owood7s free:in" temperaturesKfor e+ample% the fro:en pitchers of water that "reet the "irls each mornin"Kmirror 5ane7s sense of psycholo"ical e+ile. !fter the interrupted weddin" to Bochester% 5ane describes her state of mindA N! Christmas frost had come at mid*summerA a white December storm had whirled over 5une< ice "la:ed the ripe apples% drifts crushed the blowin" roses< on hay*field and corn* field lay a fro:en shroud . . . and the woods% which twelve hours since waved leafy and fra"rant as "roves between the tropics% now spread% waste% wild% and white as pine*forests in wintry Corway. 4y hopes were all dead. . . .O -Chapter #6.. Dinally% at 4oor 3ouse% >t. 5ohn7s fri"idity and stiffness are established throu"h comparisons with ice and cold rock. 5ane writesA N=y de"rees% he ac&uired a certain influence over me that took away my liberty of mind. . . . I fell under a free:in" spellO -Chapter 0/.. 8hen >t. 5ohn proposes marria"e to 5ane% she concludes that N[a]s his curate% his comrade% all would be ri"ht. . . . =ut as his wife Kat his side always% and always restrained% and always checkedKforced to keep the fire of my nature continually low% to compel it to burn inwardly and never utter a cry% thou"h the imprisoned flame consumed vital after vitalKthis would be unendurableO -Chapter 0/..
Substitute !others

(oet and critic !drienne Bich has noted that 5ane encounters a series of nurturin" and stron" women on whom she can model herself% or to whom she can look for comfort and "uidanceA these women serve as mother*fi"ures to the orphaned 5ane. )he first such fi"ure that 5ane encounters is the servant =essie% who soothes 5ane after her trauma in the red*room and teaches her to find comfort in stories and son"s. !t ?owood% 5ane meets 4iss )emple% who has no power in the world at lar"e% but possesses "reat spiritual stren"th and charm. Cot only does she shelter 5ane from pain% she also encoura"es her intellectual development. 1f 4iss )emple% 5ane writesA Nshe had stood by me in the stead of

mother% "overness% and latterly% companionO -Chapter 1 .. 5ane also finds a comfortin" model in 3elen =urns% whose lessons in stamina teach 5ane about self*worth and the power of faith. !fter 5ane and Bochester7s weddin" is cancelled% 5ane finds comfort in the moon% which appears to her in a dream as a symbol of the matriarchal spirit. 5ane sees the moon as Na white human formO shinin" in the sky% Ninclinin" a "lorious brow earthward.O >he tells usA NIt spoke to my spiritA immeasurably distant was the tone% yet so near% it whispered in my heartKN4y dau"hter% flee temptation.O 5ane answers% N4other% I willO -Chapter #2.. 8akin" from the dream% 5ane leaves )hornfield. 5ane finds two additional mother*fi"ures in the characters of Diana and 4ary Bivers. Bich points out that the sisters bear the names of the pa"an and Christian versions of Nthe 6reat 6oddessOA Diana% the Hir"in huntress% and 4ary% the Hir"in 4other. 9nmarried and independent% the Bivers sisters love learnin" and recitin" poetry and live as intellectual e&uals with their brother >t. 5ohn.
Symbols Symbols are ob$ects, characters, fi"ures, and colors used to represent abstract ideas or concepts. (ertha !ason

=ertha 4ason is a comple+ presence in &ane E#re. >he impedes 5ane7s happiness% but she also catalyses the "rowth of 5ane7s self*understandin". )he mystery surroundin" =ertha establishes suspense and terror to the plot and the atmosphere. Durther% =ertha serves as a remnant and reminder of Bochester7s youthful libertinism. Met =ertha can also be interpreted as a symbol. >ome critics have read her as a statement about the way =ritain feared and psycholo"ically Nlocked awayO the other cultures it encountered at the hei"ht of its imperialism. 1thers have seen her as a symbolic representation of the NtrappedO Hictorian wife% who is e+pected never to travel or work outside the house and becomes ever more fren:ied as she finds no outlet for her frustration and an+iety. 8ithin the story% then% =ertha7s insanity could serve as a warnin" to 5ane of what complete surrender to Bochester could brin" about. 1ne could also see =ertha as a manifestation of 5ane7s subconscious feelin"sKspecifically% of her ra"e a"ainst oppressive social and "ender norms. 5ane declares her love for Bochester% but she also secretly fears marria"e to him and feels the need to ra"e a"ainst the imprisonment it could become for her. 5ane never manifests this fear or an"er% but =ertha does. )hus =ertha tears up the bridal veil% and it is =ertha7s e+istence that indeed stops the weddin" from "oin" forth. !nd% when )hornfield comes to represent a state of servitude and submission for 5ane% =ertha burns it to the "round. )hrou"hout the novel% 5ane describes her inner spirit as fiery% her inner landscape as a Nrid"e of li"hted heathO -Chapter /.. =ertha seems to be the outward manifestation of 5ane7s interior fire. =ertha e+presses the feelin"s that 5ane must keep in check.
The 8ed-8oom

)he red*room can be viewed as a symbol of what 5ane must overcome in her stru""les to find freedom% happiness% and a sense of belon"in". In the red*room% 5ane7s position of e+ile and

imprisonment first becomes clear. !lthou"h 5ane is eventually freed from the room% she continues to be socially ostraci:ed% financially trapped% and e+cluded from love< her sense of independence and her freedom of self*e+pression are constantly threatened. )he red*room7s importance as a symbol continues throu"hout the novel. It reappears as a memory whenever 5ane makes a connection between her current situation and that first feelin" of bein" ridiculed. )hus she recalls the room when she is humiliated at ?owood. >he also thinks of the room on the ni"ht that she decides to leave )hornfield after Bochester has tried to convince her to become an undi"nified mistress. 3er destitute condition upon her departure from )hornfield also threatens emotional and intellectual imprisonment% as does >t. 5ohn7s marria"e proposal. 1nly after 5ane has asserted herself% "ained financial independence% and found a spiritual familyKwhich turns out to be her real familyKcan she wed Bochester and find freedom in and throu"h marria"e.
Summary: Chapter 1

)he novel opens on a dreary Covember afternoon at 6ateshead% the home of the wealthy Beed family. ! youn" "irl named 5ane ,yre sits in the drawin" room readin" =ewick7s 'istor# o! 1ritish 1irds/ 5ane7s aunt% 4rs. Beed% has forbidden her niece to play with her cousins ,li:a% 6eor"iana% and the bullyin" 5ohn. 5ohn chides 5ane for bein" a lowly orphan who is only permitted to live with the Beeds because of his mother7s charity. 5ohn then hurls a book at the youn" "irl% pushin" her to the end of her patience. 5ane finally erupts% and the two cousins fi"ht. 4rs. Beed holds 5ane responsible for the scuffle and sends her to the Nred*roomOKthe fri"htenin" chamber in which her 9ncle Beed diedKas punishment.
Summary: Chapter 2

)wo servants% 4iss !bbott and =essie ?ee% escort 5ane to the red*room% and 5ane resists them with all of her mi"ht. 1nce locked in the room% 5ane catches a "limpse of her "hastly fi"ure in the mirror% and% shocked by her mea"er presence% she be"ins to reflect on the events that have led her to such a state. >he remembers her kind 9ncle Beed brin"in" her to 6ateshead after her parents7 death% and she recalls his dyin" command that his wife promise to raise 5ane as one of her own. >uddenly% 5ane is struck with the impression that her 9ncle Beed7s "host is in the room% and she ima"ines that he has come to take reven"e on his wife for breakin" her promise. 5ane cries out in terror% but her aunt believes that she is ;ust tryin" to escape her punishment% and she i"nores her pleas. 5ane faints in e+haustion and fear.
Summary: Chapter 3

8hen she wakes% 5ane finds herself in her own bedroom% in the care of 4r. ?loyd% the family7s kind apothecary. =essie is also present% and she e+presses disapproval of her mistress7s treatment of 5ane. 5ane remains in bed the followin" day% and =essie sin"s her a son". 4r. ?loyd speaks with 5ane about her life at 6ateshead% and he su""ests to 5ane7s aunt that the "irl be sent away to school% where she mi"ht find happiness. 5ane is cautiously e+cited at the possibility of leavin" 6ateshead. >oon after her own reflections on the past in the red*room% 5ane learns more of her history when she overhears a conversation between =essie and 4iss !bbott. 5ane7s mother was a member of the wealthy Beed family% which stron"ly disapproved of 5ane7s father% an impoverished cler"yman. 8hen they married% 5ane7s wealthy maternal "randfather wrote his

dau"hter out of his will. Cot lon" after 5ane was born% 5ane7s parents died from typhus% which 5ane7s father contracted while carin" for the poor.
Summary: Chapter

NI am "lad you are no relation of mine. I will never call you aunt a"ain as lon" as I live. I will never come to visit you when I am "rown up< and if any one asks me how I liked you% and how you treated me% I will say the very thou"ht of you makes me sick. . . .O ->ee Important Puotations ,+plained. !bout two months have passed% and 5ane has been endurin" even crueler treatment from her aunt and cousins while an+iously waitin" for the arran"ements to be made for her schoolin". Cow 5ane is finally told she may attend the "irls7 school ?owood% and she is introduced to 4r. =rocklehurst% the stern*faced man who runs the school. 4r. =rocklehurst abrasively &uestions 5ane about reli"ion% and he reacts with indi"nation when she declares that she finds the psalms uninterestin". 5ane7s aunt warns 4r. =rocklehurst that the "irl also has a propensity for lyin"% a piece of information that 4r. =rocklehurst says he intends to publici:e to 5ane7s teachers upon her arrival. 8hen 4r. =rocklehurst leaves% 5ane is so hurt by her aunt7s accusation that she cannot stop herself from defendin" herself to her aunt. 4rs. Beed% for once% seems to concede defeat. >hortly thereafter% =essie tells 5ane that she prefers her to the Beed children. =efore 5ane leaves for school% =essie tells her stories and sin"s her lovely son"s.
Analysis: Chapters 1

In the early chapters% =rontJ establishes the youn" 5ane7s character throu"h her confrontations with 5ohn and 4rs. Beed% in which 5ane7s "ood*hearted but stron"*willed determination and inte"rity become apparent. )hese chapters also establish the novel7s mood. =e"innin" with 5ane7s e+perience in the red*room in Chapter #% we sense a palpable atmosphere of mystery and the supernatural. ?ike ,mily =rontJ7s "uthering 'eights% &ane E#re draws a "reat deal of its stylistic inspiration from the 6othic novels that were in vo"ue durin" the late ei"hteenth and early nineteenth centuries. )hese books depicted remote% desolate landscapes% crumblin" ruins% and supernatural events% all of which were desi"ned to create a sense of psycholo"ical suspense and horror. 8hile &ane E#re is certainly not a horror novel% and its intellectually ambitious criticisms of society make it far more than a typical 6othic romance% it is =rontJ7s employment of 6othic conventions that "ives her novel popular as well as intellectual appeal.

Drom its be"innin"% &ane E#re e+plores and challen"es the social preconceptions of nineteenth*century Hictorian society. )hemes of social class% "ender relations% and in;ustice predominate throu"hout. 5ane ,yre be"ins her story as an orphan raised by a wealthy and cultivated family% and this ambi"uous social standin" motivates much of the novel7s internal tension and conflict. 5ane7s education and semi*aristocratic lifestyle are those of the upper class% but she has no money. !s a penniless orphan forced to live on the charity of others% 5ane is a kind of second*class citi:en. In some ways she is below even the servants% who certainly have no obli"ation to treat her respectfully. )he tensions of this contradiction emer"e in the very first chapter of the novel% when 5ane suffers teasin" and punishment at the hands of 5ohn Beed and his hateful mother. 5ane7s banishment to the red*room e+emplifies her inferior position with re"ard to the rest of the members of the Beed household.

)he red*room is the first in a series of literal and metaphorical imprisonments in the novel. !lthou"h 5ane7s imprisonment in the red*room is real% she will encounter spiritual% intellectual% and emotional imprisonment throu"hout the book. )he ri"id Hictorian hierarchies of social class and "ender will pose challen"es to her freedom of movement and personal "rowth% and corrupt morals and reli"ion will also constitute menaces to her ability to reali:e her dreams for herself. 5ane will even come to fear NenslavementO to her own passions. !t the same time% the red*room is also symbolic of 5ane7s feelin" of isolation with respect to every communityA she is Nlocked in%O but she is also% in a sense% Nlocked out.O !"ain% class and "ender hierarchies will contribute to 5ane7s sense of e+ile. Dor e+ample% her position as a "overness at )hornfield once a"ain situates her in a stran"e borderland between the upper class and the servant class% so that she feels part of neither "roup.
Summary: Chapter !

Dour days after meetin" 4r. =rocklehurst% 5ane boards the 6 a.m. coach and travels alone to ?owood. 8hen she arrives at the school% the day is dark and rainy% and she is led throu"h a "rim buildin" that will be her new home. )he followin" day% 5ane is introduced to her classmates and learns the daily routine% which keeps the "irls occupied from before dawn until dinner. 4iss )emple% the superintendent of the school% is very kind% while one of 5ane7s teachers% 4iss >catcherd% is unpleasant% particularly in her harsh treatment of a youn" student named 3elen =urns. 5ane and 3elen befriend one another% and 5ane learns from 3elen that ?owood is a charity school maintained for female orphans% which means that the Beeds have paid nothin" to put her there. >he also learns that 4r. =rocklehurst oversees every aspect of its operationA even 4iss )emple must answer to him.
Summary: Chapter "

1n 5ane7s second mornin" at ?owood% the "irls are unable to wash% as the water in their pitchers is fro:en. 5ane &uickly learns that life at the school is harsh. )he "irls are underfed% overworked% and forced to sit still durin" seemin"ly endless sermons. >till% she takes comfort in her new friendship with 3elen% who impresses 5ane with her e+pansive knowled"e and her ability to patiently endure even the cruelest treatment from 4iss >catcherd. 3elen tells 5ane that she practices a doctrine of Christian endurance% which means lovin" her enemies and acceptin" her privation. 5ane disa"rees stron"ly with such meek tolerance of in;ustice% but 3elen takes no heed of 5ane7s ar"uments. 3elen is self*critical only because she sometimes fails to live up to her ascetic standardsA she believes that she is a poor student and chastises herself for daydreamin" about her home and family when she should be concentratin" on her studies.
Summary: Chapter #

Dor most of 5ane7s first month at ?owood% 4r. =rocklehurst spends his time away from the school. 8hen he returns% 5ane becomes &uite nervous because she remembers his promise to her aunt% 4rs. Beed% to warn the school about 5ane7s supposed habit of lyin". 8hen 5ane inadvertently drops her slate in 4r. =rocklehurst7s presence% he is furious and tells her she is careless. 3e orders 5ane to stand on a stool while he tells the school that she is a liar% and he forbids the other students to speak to her for the rest of the day. 3elen makes 5ane7s day of humiliation endurable by providin" her friend with silent consolationKshe covertly smiles at 5ane every time she passes by.

Summary: Chapter $

Dinally% at five o7clock% the students disperse% and 5ane collapses to the floor. Deeply ashamed% she is certain that her reputation at ?owood has been ruined% but 3elen assures her that most of the "irls felt more pity for 5ane than revulsion at her alle"ed deceitfulness. 5ane tells 4iss )emple that she is not a liar% and relates the story of her tormented childhood at 6ateshead. 4iss )emple seems to believe 5ane and writes to 4r. ?loyd re&uestin" confirmation of 5ane7s account of events. 4iss )emple offers 5ane and 3elen tea and seed cake% endearin" herself even further to 5ane. 8hen 4r. ?loyd7s letter arrives and corroborates 5ane7s story% 4iss )emple publicly declares 5ane to be innocent. Believed and contented% 5ane devotes herself to her studies. >he e+cels at drawin" and makes pro"ress in Drench.
Summary: Chapter %

In the sprin"% life at ?owood briefly seems happier% but the damp forest dell in which the school resides is a breedin"*"round for typhus% and in the warm temperatures more than half the "irls fall ill with the disease. 5ane remains healthy and spends her time playin" outdoors with a new friend% 4ary !nn 8ilson. 3elen is sick% but not with typhusK5ane learns the horrific news that her friend is dyin" of consumption. 1ne evenin"% 5ane sneaks into 4iss )emple7s room to see 3elen one last time. 3elen promises 5ane that she feels little pain and is happy to be leavin" the world7s sufferin" behind. 5ane takes 3elen into her arms% and the "irls fall asleep. Durin" the ni"ht% 3elen dies. 3er "rave is ori"inally unmarked% but fifteen years after her death% a "ray marble tablet is placed over the spot -presumably by 5ane.% bearin" the sin"le word Resurgam, ?atin for NI shall rise a"ain.O
Summary: Chapter 1&

!fter 4r. =rocklehurst7s ne"li"ent treatment of the "irls at ?owood is found to be one of the causes of the typhus epidemic% a new "roup of overseers is brou"ht in to run the school. Conditions improve dramatically for the youn" "irls% and 5ane e+cels in her studies for the ne+t si+ years. !fter spendin" two more years at ?owood as a teacher% 5ane decides she is ready for a chan"e% partly because 4iss )emple "ets married and leaves the school. >he advertises in search of a post as a "overness and accepts a position at a manor called )hornfield.

=efore leavin"% 5ane receives a visit from =essie% who tells her what has happened at 6ateshead since 5ane departed for ?owood. 6eor"iana attempted to run away in secret with a man named ?ord ,dwin Here% but ,li:a foiled the plan by revealin" it to 4rs. Beed. 5ohn has fallen into a life of debauchery and dissolution. =essie also tells 5ane that her father7s brother% 5ohn ,yre% appeared at 6ateshead seven years a"o% lookin" for 5ane. 3e did not have the time to travel to ?owood and went away to 4adeira -a (ortu"uese island west of 4orocco. in search of wealth. 5ane and =essie part ways% =essie returnin" to 6ateshead% and 5ane leavin" for her new life at )hornfield.
Analysis: Chapters !1&

)his section details 5ane7s e+periences at ?owood% from her first day at the school to her final one some nine years later. 5ane7s early years at ?owood prove to be a period of considerable tribulation% as she endures harsh conditions% cruel teachers% and the tyranny of 4r.

=rocklehurst. 4oreover% the harsh conditions she e+periences as a student at ?owood show us that% despite 5ane7s intelli"ence% talent% and self*assurance% she is merely a burden in the eyes of society% because she is poor. )he most important thematic elements in this section are the contrastin" modes of reli"ious thou"ht represented by 4r. =rocklehurst and 3elen =urns. 4r. =rocklehurst is a reli"ious hypocrite% supportin" his own lu+uriously wealthy family at the e+pense of the ?owood students and usin" his NpietyO as an instrument of power over the lower*class "irls at ?owood. 3e claims that he is pur"in" his students of pride by sub;ectin" them to various privations and humiliationsA for e+ample% he orders that the naturally curly hair of one of 5ane7s classmates be cut so as to lie strai"ht. )he an"elic 3elen =urns and her doctrine of endurance represent a reli"ious position that contrasts with 4r. =rocklehurst7s. 9tterly passive and acceptin" of any ab;ection% 3elen embodies rather than preaches the Christian ideas of love and for"iveness. =ut neither form of reli"ion satisfies 5ane% who% because of her stron" sensitivity to indi"nities and in;ustices% reviles =rocklehurst7s shallow devotional displays and fails to understand 3elen =urns7s passivity. !s 5ane herself declaresA Nwhen we are struck at without a reason% we should strike back a"ain very hard . . . so as to teach the person who struck us never to do it a"ainO -Chapter 6.. 3elen7s doctrine of endurance and love is incompatible with 5ane7s belief in fairness and self*respect.
Summary: Chapter 11

5ane7s driver is late pickin" her up from the station at 4illcote. 8hen she finally arrives at )hornfield it is ni"httime. !lthou"h she cannot distin"uish much of the house7s facade from amon" the shadows% she finds the interior Ncosy and a"reeable.O 4rs. Dairfa+% a prim% elderly woman% is waitin" for 5ane. It turns out that 4rs. Dairfa+ is not% as 5ane had assumed from their correspondence% the owner of )hornfield% but rather the housekeeper. )hornfield7s owner% 4r. Bochester% travels re"ularly and leaves much of the manor7s mana"ement to 4rs. Dairfa+. 5ane learns that she will be tutorin" !dYle% an ei"ht*year*old Drench "irl whose mother was a sin"er and dancer. 4rs. Dairfa+ also tells 5ane about Bochester% sayin" that he is an eccentric man whose family has a history of e+treme and violent behavior. >uddenly% 5ane hears a peal of stran"e% eerie lau"hter echoin" throu"h the house% and 4rs. Dairfa+ summons someone named 6race% whom she orders to make less noise and to Nremember directions.O 8hen 6race leaves% 4rs. Dairfa+ e+plains that she is a rather unbalanced and unpredictable seamstress who works in the house.
Summary: Chapter 12

It is in vain to say human bein"s ou"ht to be satisfied with tran&uilityA they must have action< and they will make it if they cannot find it. 4illions are condemned to a stiller doom than mine% and millions are in silent revolt a"ainst their lot. ->ee Important Puotations ,+plained.

5ane finds life at )hornfield pleasant and comfortable. !dYle proves to be e+uberant and intelli"ent% thou"h spoiled and at times a bit petulant. Conetheless% 5ane is fre&uently restless and collects her thou"hts while pacin" )hornfield7s top*story passa"eway. 1ne evenin" a few

months after her arrival at )hornfield% 5ane is alone watchin" the moon rise when she perceives a horse approachin". It calls to her mind the story =essie once told her of a spirit called a 6ytrash% which dis"uises itself as a mule% do"% or horse to fri"hten Nbelated travellers.O 1ddly enou"h% a do" then appears as well. 1nce she reali:es that the horse has a rider% the uncanny moment ceases. 5ust after the horse passes her% it slips on a patch of ice% and its rider tumbles to the "round. 5ane helps the man rise to his feet and introduces herself to him. >he observes that he has a dark face% stern features% and a heavy brow. 3e is not &uite middle*a"ed. 9pon reenterin" )hornfield% 5ane "oes to 4rs. Dairfa+7s room and sees the same do"K(ilotKrestin" on the ru". ! servant answers 5ane7s &ueries% e+plainin" that the do" belon"s to 4r. Bochester% who has ;ust returned home with a sprained ankle% havin" fallen from his horse.
Summary: Chapter 13

)he day followin" his arrival% 4r. Bochester invites 5ane and !dYle to have tea with him. 3e is abrupt and rather cold toward both of them% althou"h he seems charmed by 5ane7s drawin"s% which he asks to see. 8hen 5ane mentions to 4rs. Dairfa+ that she finds Bochester Nchan"eful and abrupt%O 4rs. Dairfa+ su""ests that his mannerisms are the result of a difficult personal history. Bochester was somethin" of a family outcast% and when his father died% his older brother inherited )hornfield. Bochester has been )hornfield7s proprietor for nine years% since the death of his brother.
Summary: Chapter 1

5ane sees little of Bochester durin" his first days at )hornfield. 1ne ni"ht% however% in his Nafter*dinner mood%O Bochester sends for 5ane and !dYle. 3e "ives !dYle the present she has been an+iously awaitin"% and while !dYle plays% Bochester is uncharacteristically chatty with 5ane. 8hen Bochester asks 5ane whether she thinks him handsome% she answers NnoO without thinkin"% and from Bochester7s voluble reaction 5ane concludes that he is sli"htly drunk. Bochester7s command that she converse with him makes 5ane feel awkward% especially because he "oes on to ar"ue that her relationship to him is not one of servitude. )heir conversation turns to the concepts of sin% for"iveness% and redemption. 8hen !dYle mentions her mother% 5ane is intri"ued% and Bochester promises to e+plain more about the situation on a future occasion.
Summary: Chapter 1!

! while later% Bochester fulfills his promise to 5ane to tell her about his and !dYle7s pasts. 3e had a lon" affair with !dYle7s mother% the Drench sin"er and dancer named Celine Harens. 8hen he discovered that Celine was en"a"ed in relations with another man% Bochester ended the relationship. Bochester has always denied Celine7s claim that !dYle is his dau"hter% notin" that the child looks utterly unlike him. ,ven so% when Celine abandoned her dau"hter% Bochester brou"ht !dYle to ,n"land so that she would be properly cared for. 5ane lies awake broodin" about the stran"e insi"hts she has "ained into her employer7s past. >he hears what sound like fin"ers brushin" a"ainst the walls% and an eerie lau"h soon emanates from the hallway. >he hears a door openin" and hurries out of her room to see smoke comin" from Bochester7s door. 5ane dashes into his room and finds his bed curtains abla:e. >he douses the bed with water% savin" Bochester7s life. >tran"ely% Bochester7s reaction is to visit the third floor of the house. 8hen he returns% he says mysteriously% NI have

found it all out% it is ;ust as I thou"ht.O 3e in&uires whether 5ane has ever heard the eerie lau"hter before% and she answers that she has heard 6race (oole lau"h in the same way. N5ust so. 6race (ooleKyou have "uessed it%O Bochester confirms. 3e thanks 5ane for savin" his life and cautions her to tell no one about the details of the ni"ht7s events. 3e sleeps on the library sofa for the remainder of the ni"ht.
Summary: Chapter 1"

)he ne+t mornin"% 5ane is shocked to learn that the near tra"edy of the ni"ht before has caused no scandal. )he servants believe Bochester to have fallen asleep with a lit candle by his bed% and even 6race (oole shows no si"n of "uilt or remorse. 5ane cannot ima"ine why an attempted murderer is allowed to continue workin" at )hornfield. >he reali:es that she is be"innin" to have feelin"s for Bochester and is disappointed that he will be away from )hornfield for several days. 3e has left to attend a party where he will be in the company of =lanche In"ram% a beautiful lady. 5ane scolds herself for bein" disappointed by the news% and she resolves to restrain her fli"hts of ima"inative fancy by comparin" her own portrait to one she has drawn of =lanche In"ram% notin" how much plainer she is than the beautiful =lanche.
Analysis: Chapters 111"

)his section marks the third phase of 5ane7s life% in which she be"ins her career as a "overness and travels to )hornfield% where the principal incidents of her story take place. =y linkin" 5ane7s sta"es of development to the various institutions or "eo"raphic locations with which she is involved -6ateshead% ?owood% )hornfield% 4oor 3ouse% and Derndean% in order.% the book positions itself amon" a literary "enre known as the =ildun"sroman. )he =ildun"sroman% a novel that details the "rowth and development of a main character throu"h several periods of life% be"an as a 6erman "enre in the seventeenth century% but by the mid*18 s had become firmly established in ,n"land as well. >uch important Hictorian novels as Da id Copper!ield base themselves on this form% which continues as an important literary sub*"enre even today. )he =ildun"sroman typically told the story of a man "rowin" from boyhood to adulthood< Charlotte =rontJ7s appropriation of the form for her heroine represents one of the many ways in which her novel challen"es the accepted Hictorian conceptions of "ender hierarchy% makin" the statement that a woman7s inner development merits as much attention and analysis as that of a man. >till% althou"h 5ane herself and &ane E#re as a novel are often identified as important early fi"ures in the feminist movement% 5ane e+periences much inner &uestionin" re"ardin" her "ender role< she is not a staunch and confident feminist at all times. )hat is% while 5ane is possessed of an immense inte"rity and a determination to succeed on her own terms% her failure to conform to ideals of female beauty nonetheless troubles her and makes her &uestion herself. 5ust as 5ane7s time at ?owood involved a number of elements taken from Charlotte =rontJ7s own life% so too is 5ane7s career as a "overness based in part on =rontJ7s short*lived position as a "overness in the late 180 s. In many ways% =rontJ7s e+ploration of the role of the "overness represents the novel7s most important and challen"in" treatment of the theme of social class. 5ust as ,mily =rontJ does with 3eathcliff in "uthering 'eights, Charlotte =rontJ makes 5ane a fi"ure of ambi"uous class standin". Conse&uently% she is a source of e+treme tension for the characters around her. =ut while 3eathcliff -an orphan like 5ane. achieves wealth and power without achievin" education or social "race% 5ane ac&uires the manners% sophistication% and education of an aristocrat while remainin" penniless and powerless. >uch

was the role of the "overnessA brou"ht into wealthy Hictorian households as the children7s private tutors in both academics and eti&uette% "overnesses were e+pected to possess the demeanor of the aristocracy< but as paid employees% they were in many ways treated merely as servants. 5ane be"ins to e+perience this tension as soon as she notices her emer"in" feelin"s for Bochester. )hou"h she is in some ways his social e&ual% she is also his servant% and thus she cannot believe that he could ever fall in love with her.
Summary: Chapter 1#

Bochester has been "one for a week% and 5ane is dismayed to learn that he may choose to depart for continental ,urope without returnin" to )hornfieldKaccordin" to 4rs. Dairfa+% he could be "one for more than a year. ! week later% however% 4rs. Dairfa+ receives word that Bochester will arrive in three days with a lar"e "roup of "uests. 8hile she waits% 5ane continues to be ama:ed by the apparently normal relations the stran"e% selfGisolated 6race (oole en;oys with the rest of the staff. 5ane also overhears a conversation in which a few of the servants discuss 6race7s hi"h pay% and 5ane is certain that she doesn7t know the entire truth about 6race (oole7s role at )hornfield.

Bochester arrives at last% accompanied by a party of ele"ant and aristocratic "uests. 5ane is forced to ;oin the "roup but spends the evenin" watchin" them from a window seat. =lanche In"ram and her mother are amon" the party7s members% and they treat 5ane with disdain and cruelty. 5ane tries to leave the party% but Bochester stops her. 3e "rud"in"ly allows her to "o when he sees the tears brimmin" in her eyes. 3e informs her that she must come into the drawin" room every evenin" durin" his "uests7 stay at )hornfield. !s they part% Bochester nearly lets slip more than he intends. N6ood*ni"ht% myKO he says% before bitin" his lip.
Summary: Chapter 1$

)he "uests stay at )hornfield for several days. Bochester and =lanche compete as a team at charades. Drom watchin" their interaction% 5ane believes that they will be married soon thou"h they do not seem to love one another. =lanche would be marryin" Bochester for his wealth% and he for her beauty and her social position. 1ne day% a stran"e man named 4r. 4ason arrives at )hornfield. 5ane dislikes him at once because of his vacant eyes and his slowness% but she learns from him that Bochester once lived in the 8est Indies% as he himself has done. 1ne evenin"% a "ypsy woman comes to )hornfield to tell the "uests7 fortunes. =lanche In"ram "oes first% and when she returns from her talk with the "ypsy woman she looks keenly disappointed.
Summary: Chapter 1%

5ane "oes in to the library to have her fortune read% and after overcomin" her skepticism% she finds herself entranced by the old woman7s speech. )he "ypsy woman seems to know a "reat deal about 5ane and tells her that she is very close to happiness. >he also says that she told =lanche In"ram that Bochester was not as wealthy as he seemed% thereby accountin" for =lanche7s sullen mood. !s the woman reads 5ane7s fortune% her voice slowly deepens% and 5ane reali:es that the "ypsy is Bochester in dis"uise. 5ane reproaches Bochester for trickin" her and remembers thinkin" that 6race (oole mi"ht have been the "ypsy. 8hen Bochester learns that 4r. 4ason has arrived% he looks troubled.

Summary: Chapter 2&

)he same ni"ht% 5ane is startled by a sudden cry for help. >he hurries into the hallway% where Bochester assures everyone that a servant has merely had a ni"htmare. !fter everyone returns to bed% Bochester knocks on 5ane7s door. 3e tells her that he can use her help and asks whether she is afraid of blood. 3e leads her to the third story of the house and shows her 4r. 4ason% who has been stabbed in the arm. Bochester asks 5ane to stanch the wound and then leaves% orderin" 4ason and 5ane not to speak to one another. In the silence% 5ane "a:es at the ima"e of the apostles and Christ7s crucifi+ion that is painted on the cabinet across from her. Bochester returns with a sur"eon% and as the men tend to 4ason7s wounds% Bochester sends 5ane to find a potion downstairs. 3e "ives some of it to 4ason% sayin" that it will "ive him heart for an hour. 1nce 4ason is "one% 5ane and Bochester stroll in the orchard% and Bochester tells 5ane a hypothetical story about a youn" man who commits a Ncapital errorO in a forei"n country and proceeds to lead a life of dissipation in an effort to Nobtain relief.O )he youn" man then hopes to redeem himself and live morally with a wife% but convention prevents him from doin" so. 3e asks whether the youn" man would be ;ustified in Noverleapin" an obstacle of custom.O 5ane7s reply is that such a man should look to 6od for his redemption% not to another person. BochesterKwho obviously has been describin" his own situationKasks 5ane to reassure him that marryin" =lanche would brin" him salvation. 3e then hurries away before she has a chance to answer.
Summary: Chapter 21

5ane has heard that it is a bad omen to dream of children% and now she has dreams on seven consecutive ni"hts involvin" babies. >he learns that her cousin 5ohn Beed has committed suicide% and that her aunt% 4rs. Beed% has suffered a stroke and is nearin" death. 5ane "oes to 6ateshead% where she is reunited with =essie. >he also sees her cousins ,li:a and 6eor"iana. ,li:a is plain and plans to enter a convent% while 6eor"iana is as beautiful as ever. ,ver since ,li:a ruined 6eor"iana7s hopes of elopin" with a youn" man% the two sisters have not "otten alon". 5ane tries to patch thin"s up with 4rs. Beed% but the old woman is still full of hostility toward her late husband7s favorite. 1ne day% 4rs. Beed "ives 5ane a letter from her father7s brother% 5ohn ,yre. 3e declares that he wishes to adopt 5ane and be&ueath her his fortune. )he letter is three years old< out of malice% 4rs. Beed did not forward it to 5ane when she received it. In spite of her aunt7s behavior% 5ane tries once more to smooth relations with the dyin" woman. =ut 4rs. Beed refuses% and% at midni"ht% she dies.
Analysis: Chapters 1#21

5ane7s situation in Chapter 12 manifests the uncomfortable position of "overnesses. 5ane% forced to sit in the drawin" room durin" Bochester7s party% must endure =lanche In"ram7s comments to her mother about the nature of "overnessesKNhalf of them detestable and the rest ridiculous% and all incubi.O -NIncubiO is the plural of Nincubus%O an oppressive or ni"htmarish burden.. =y this sta"e of the story% the narrative has be"un to focus increasin"ly on the potential relationship between 5ane and Bochester. =lanche7s presence% which threatens the possibility of a union between the two% adds tension to the plot. =lanche is not only a competitor for 5ane% she is also a foil to her% as the two women differ in every respect. &ane E#re never seems to possess the de"ree of romantic tension that runs throu"hout ,mily =rontJ7s "uthering 'eights because the si"ns of Bochester7s affection for 5ane are reco"ni:able early on. )he

most tellin" tip*off occurs at the end of Chapter 12% when Bochester nearly calls 5ane Nmy loveO before bitin" his ton"ue. )he tension surroundin" 5ane7s and Bochester7s relationship derives not from the &uestion of whether Bochester loves 5ane% but from whether he will be able to act upon his feelin"s. >o far% two obstaclesK=lanche and the dark secrets of )hornfield 3allKstand in Bochester7s way. )hese obstacles% and the potential marria"e that they impede% constitute the romantic plot of &ane E#re. !s in many romances% the norms of society and the prota"onists7 conflictin" personalities must either be chan"ed or i"nored in order for marria"e to be possible. =ut Bochester7s dark past% most importantly his secret marria"e to =ertha% adds a 6othic element to the story. 9nlike the marria"e plot% which leads toward the public% communal event of a weddin"% the N6othic plotO of Bochester7s stru""le with his own past focuses on Bochester7s private consciousness. )he physical world of )hornfield 3all reflects his interior stateKthe house% the landscape% and =ertha can all be seen as e+ternal manifestations of his dan"erous secrets. )hese 6othic elements su""est that the story will lead to death or madness rather than the happy occasion of a weddin". Dis"uised as a "ypsy woman% Bochester wields an almost ma"ical power over 5ane% and the scene reveals how much he controls her emotions at this sta"e of the novel. 3e also controls the plot% and his mas&ueradin" as a "ypsy woman allows him to overcome the obstacle =lanche poses. ?ike the "ame of charades the "roup plays earlier% Bochester7s dis"uised appearance su""ests his dis"uised character. 4r. 4ason7s une+plained wounds% like the earlier mysterious fire in Bochester7s bedroom% further the lar"er 6othic plot that will soon unfold. =y allowin" 5ane upstairs to see 4ason% Bochester seems to be invitin" her to help cure the ills inflicted by =ertha% and he attempts for the first time to talk with 5ane about his past as they take a walk to"ether followin" 4ason7s stabbin". !lthou"h he speaks to 5ane about his determination to redeem himself% his references to a "rave error and a dissipated youth su""est that 5ane risks "reat dan"er not only by continuin" to live at )hornfield but by fallin" in love with him. 3er emotional welfare as well as her physical welfare may soon be in ;eopardy. !dYle and =ertha already serve as livin" le"acies of Bochester7s past licentiousness% and 5ane could be ne+t in line% as her prophetic dream seems to su""est.
Summary: Chapter 22

5ane remains at 6ateshead for a month because 6eor"iana dreads bein" left alone with ,li:a% with whom she does not "et alon". ,ventually% 6eor"iana "oes to ?ondon to live with her uncle% and ,li:a ;oins a convent in Drance. 5ane tells us that ,li:a eventually becomes the 4other >uperior of her convent% while 6eor"iana marries a wealthy man. !t 6ateshead% 5ane receives a letter from 4rs. Dairfa+% which says that Bochester7s "uests have departed and that Bochester has "one to ?ondon to buy a new carria"eKa sure si"n of his intention to marry =lanche. !s 5ane travels toward )hornfield% she an+iously anticipates seein" Bochester a"ain% and yet she worries about what will become of her after his marria"e. )o her surprise% as she walks from the station at 4illcote% 5ane encounters Bochester. 8hen he asks her why she has stayed away from )hornfield so lon"% she replies% still a bit bewildered% NI have been with my aunt% sir% who is dead.O Bochester asks 5ane whether she has heard about his new carria"e% and he tells herA NMou must see the carria"e% 5ane% and tell me if you don7t think it will suit 4rs. Bochester e+actly.O !fter a few more words to"ether% 5ane surprises herself by e+pressin" the happiness she feels in Bochester7s presenceA NI am stran"ely "lad to "et back a"ain to you< and wherever you are is my homeKmy only home.O =ack at the manor% 4rs. Dairfa+% !dYle% and the servants "reet 5ane warmly.

Summary: Chapter 23

!fter a blissful two weeks% 5ane encounters Bochester in the "ardens. 3e invites her to walk with him% and 5ane% cau"ht off "uard% accepts. Bochester confides that he has finally decided to marry =lanche In"ram and tells 5ane that he knows of an available "overness position in Ireland that she could take. 5ane e+presses her distress at the "reat distance that separates Ireland from )hornfield. )he two seat themselves on a bench at the foot of the chestnut tree% and Bochester saysA Nwe will sit there in peace to*ni"ht% thou"h we should never more be destined to sit there to"ether.O 3e tells 5ane that he feels as thou"h they are connected by a Ncord of communion.O 5ane sobsKNfor I could repress what I endured no lon"er%O she tells us% NI was obli"ed to yield.O 5ane confesses her love for Bochester% and to her surprise% he asks her to be his wife. >he suspects that he is teasin" her% but he convinces her otherwise by admittin" that he only brou"ht up marryin" =lanche in order to arouse 5ane7s ;ealousy. Convinced and elated% 5ane accepts his proposal. ! storm breaks% and the newly en"a"ed couple hurries indoors throu"h the rain. Bochester helps 5ane out of her wet coat% and he sei:es the opportunity to kiss her. 5ane looks up to see 4rs. Dairfa+ watchin"% astonished. )hat ni"ht% a bolt of li"htnin" splits the same chestnut tree under which Bochester and 5ane had been sittin" that evenin".
Summary: Chapter 2

(reparations for 5ane and Bochester7s weddin" do not run smoothly. 4rs. Dairfa+ treats 5ane coldly because she doesn7t reali:e that 5ane was already en"a"ed to Bochester when she allowed him to kiss her. =ut even after she learns the truth% 4rs. Dairfa+ maintains her disapproval of the marria"e. 5ane feels unsettled% almost fearful% when Bochester calls her by what will soon be her name% 5ane Bochester. 5ane e+plains that everythin" feels impossibly ideal% like a fairy*tale or a daydream. Bochester certainly tries to turn 5ane into a Cinderella* like fi"ureA he tells her he will dress her in ;ewels and in finery befittin" her new social station% at which point 5ane becomes terrified and self*protective. >he has a premonitory feelin" that the weddin" will not happen% and she decides to write her uncle% 5ohn ,yre% who is in 4adeira. 5ane reasons that if 5ohn ,yre were to make her his heir% her inheritance mi"ht put her on more e&ual footin" with Bochester% which would make her feel less uncomfortable about the marria"e.
Summary: Chapter 2!

)he ni"ht before her weddin"% 5ane waits for Bochester% who has left )hornfield for the evenin". >he "rows restless and takes a walk in the orchard% where she sees the now*split chestnut tree. 8hen Bochester arrives% 5ane tells him about stran"e events that have occurred in his absence. )he precedin" evenin"% 5ane7s weddin" dress arrived% and underneath it was an e+pensive veilKBochester7s weddin" "ift to 5ane. In the ni"ht% 5ane had a stran"e dream% in which a little child cried in her arms as 5ane tried to make her way toward Bochester on a lon"% windin" road. Bochester dismisses the dream as insi"nificant% but then she tells him about a second dream. )his time% 5ane loses her balance and the child falls from her knee. )he dream was so disturbin" that it roused 5ane from her sleep% and she perceived Na formO rustlin" in her closet. It turned out to be a stran"e% sava"e*lookin" woman% who took 5ane7s veil and tore it in two. Bochester tells her that the woman must have been 6race (oole and that what she e+perienced was really Nhalf*dream% half*reality.O 3e tells her that he will "ive her a full e+planation of events after they have been married for one year and one day. 5ane

sleeps with !dYle for the evenin" and cries because she will soon have to leave the sleepin" "irl.
Analysis: Chapters 222!

!fter her stay at 6ateshead% 5ane comes to understand fully what Bochester and )hornfield mean to her. 3avin" been acutely reminded of the ab;ection and cruelty she suffered durin" her childhood% 5ane now reali:es how different her life has become% how much she has "ained and how much she has "rown. In Bochester she has found someone she truly cares forK someone who% despite periodic shows of brus&ueness% nevertheless continues to admire 5ane and care for her tenderly. 4oreover% Bochester "ives her a true sense of belon"in"% somethin" she has always lacked. !s she tells him% Nwherever you are is my homeKmy only home.O !lthou"h Bochester7s declaration of love and marria"e proposal make 5ane e+ceedin"ly happy% she is also very apprehensive about the marria"e. 3er feelin"s of dread may stem in part from a subconscious intimation of Bochester7s dark and horrible secret% which will be divul"ed in the ne+t few chaptersA the eerie lau"hter she has heard% the mysterious fire from which she rescued Bochester% the stran"e fi"ure who tears 5ane7s weddin" veil% and other smaller clues may have led 5ane to make some subconscious conclusions about what she will consciously find out only later.

!nother possibility is that 5ane7s mis"ivin"s stem from other concerns. >he has always lon"ed for freedom and escape% and marryin" Bochester would be a form of tyin" herself down. 5ane may worry that the marria"e will encroach upon her autonomy% and even enforce her submission to Bochester. Cot only would the marria"e brin" her into a relationship of responsibility and commitment to another person% it could cement her into a position of inferiority. 5ane7s an+iety surfaces when Bochester tries to dress her in feminine finery. >he reacts with revulsion% notin" that she feels like a toy doll. 5ane fears that Bochester may be tryin" to ob;ectify her% that he sees her not as a human bein" with her own thou"hts and feelin"s but as a playthin" desi"ned to cater to his fantasies and whims. 5ane also worries about her financial inferiorityA she hates the thou"ht of marryin" Nabove her station%O as she does not want to feel that she somehow NowesO Bochester somethin" for the fact that he has Ndei"nedO to love her% as it were. >he hates the thou"ht that his love mi"ht be a NfavorO to her. )hus% 5ane7s feelin"s and desires for Bochester are ti"htly bound up with her feelin"s about her social position -her status as an employee and her e+periences of economic dependence. and her position as a woman. >he is very sensitive to the hierarchy and power dynamic implicit in marria"e% and despite her statement that she is forced to NyieldO to her feelin"s for Bochester% she does not desire the complete surrender that heroines in romance novels e+perience. )he storybook weddin" toward which these chapters appear to lead cannot succeed% because 5ane will only be able to occupy the role of wife on her own% &uite different% terms.

'hapter CD

Summary

>ophie helps 5ane dress for the weddin"% and Bochester and 5ane walk to the church. 5ane notes a pair of stran"ers readin" the headstones in the churchyard cemetery. 8hen 5ane and Bochester enter the church% the two stran"ers are also present. 8hen the priest asks if anyone ob;ects to the ceremony% one of the stran"ers answersA N)he marria"e cannot "o onA I declare the e+istence of an impediment.O Bochester attempts to proceed with the ceremony% but the stran"er e+plains that Bochester is already marriedKhis wife is a Creole woman whom Bochester wed fifteen years earlier in 5amaica. )he speaker e+plains that he is a solicitor from ?ondon% and he introduces himself as 4r. =ri""s. 3e produces a si"ned letter from Bichard 4ason affirmin" that Bochester is married to 4ason7s sister% =ertha. 4r. 4ason himself then steps forward to corroborate the story. !fter a moment of inarticulate fury% Bochester admits that his wife is alive and that in marryin" 5ane he would have been knowin"ly takin" a second wife. Co one in the community knows of his wife because she is mad% and Bochester keeps her locked away under the care of 6race (oole. =ut% he promises them all% 5ane is completely i"norant of =ertha7s e+istence. 3e orders the crowd to come to )hornfield to see her% so that they may understand what impelled him to his present course of action.

!t )hornfield% the "roup climbs to the third story. Bochester points out the room where =ertha bit and stabbed her brother% and then he lifts a tapestry to uncover a second door. Inside the hidden room is =ertha 4ason% under the care of 6race (oole. 5ane writesA In the deep shade% at the farther end of the room% a fi"ure ran backwards and forwards. 8hat it was% whether beast or human bein"% one could not% at first si"ht tellA it "rovelled% seemin"ly% on all fours< it snatched and "rowled like some stran"e wild animalA but it was covered with clothin"% and a &uantity of dark% "ri::led hair% wild as a mane% hid its head and face. =ertha attempts to stran"le Bochester% who reminds his audience% Nthis is the sole con;u"al embrace I am ever to know.O 5ane leaves the room with 4ason and =ri""s% who tells her that he learned of her intent to marry 5ane via a letter from 5ane7s uncle% 5ohn ,yre% to 4ason. It turns out that the two men are ac&uaintances% and 4ason had stopped in 4adeira on his way back to 5amaica when 5ohn received 5ane7s letter. !pproachin" death% 5ohn asked 4ason to hurry to ,n"land to save his niece. !fter the weddin" crowd disperses% 5ane locks herself in her room and plun"es into an ine+pressible "rief. >he thinks about the almost calm manner in which the mornin"7s events unfolded and how it seems disproportionate to the immense effect those events will have on her life. >he prays to 6od to be with her.
Analysis

)he incident of the Nmadwoman in the atticO is probably the most famous in &ane E#re, and it has "iven rise to innumerable interpretations and symbolic readin"s. Dor e+ample% =ertha 4ason could represent the horror of Hictorian marria"e. Bochester claims to have imprisoned her because she is mad% but it is easy to ima"ine an opposite relation of cause and effect% in which years of enforced imprisonment and isolation have made her violently insane or% at least% increased her insanity. )hus% the madwoman in the attic could represent the confinin" and repressive aspects of Hictorian wifehood% su""estin" that the lack of autonomy and freedom in marria"e suffocates women% threatenin" their mental and emotional health. =ertha7s tearin" of 5ane7s weddin" veil could be seen as symboli:in" her revolt a"ainst the institution of marria"e.

!nother interpretation is that Bochester7s marria"e to =ertha represents the =ritish ,mpire7s cultural and economic e+ploitation of its colonial sub;ects. =ri""s7s letter states that =ertha7s mother is a NCreole%O which could mean either that she is a person of ,uropean descent born in the colonies or that she is of black or mi+ed descent. In either case% =ertha mi"ht have evoked =ritish an+ieties about havin" to deal with the other cultures under =ritain7s dominion% and =ertha7s imprisonment mi"ht si"nify =ritain7s attempt to control and contain the influence of these sub;ect cultures by metaphorically Nlockin" them in the attic.O >till another interpretation of =ertha is that she is a double for 5ane herself% the embodiment of 5ane7s repressed fear and an"er% both in re"ard to her specific situation and in re"ard to oppression. Dor althou"h 5ane declares her love for Bochester% her dreams and apprehensions su""est that she also secretly fears bein" married to him% perhaps even that she secretly wants to ra"e a"ainst the imprisonment that marria"e could become for her. !lthou"h 5ane does not manifest this fear or ra"e% =ertha does. )hus% =ertha tears the bridal veil% and it is =ertha7s e+istence that stops the weddin" from "oin" forth.

,ach of these ar"uments provides an interestin" way of thinkin" about the te+t% but it is also important to reco"ni:e that =ertha does not function merely as a symbol. 3er presence is also a "rippin" story element and a source of e+ternal psycholo"ical distress for 5ane% from which 5ane develops and "rows. >imilarly% )hornfield could be seen as N=ritish >ociety at ?ar"e%O but )hornfield is more than ;ust an alle"ory. )he relationships between )hornfield7s inhabitants as well as its architecture and "rounds are all important to 5ane7s story. ?astly% 5ane herself% while possessin" many proto*feminist viewpoints% is not simply a symbol for the NHictorian 8oman.O 3er individual psycholo"y cannot be read as representin" the mindset of all Hictorian women.
Summary: Chapter 2#

!fter fallin" asleep for a short while% 5ane awakes to the reali:ation that she must leave )hornfield. 8hen she steps out of her room% she finds Bochester waitin" in a chair on the threshold. )o Bochester7s assurances that he never meant to wound her% and to his pleas of for"iveness% 5ane is silent% althou"h she confides to the reader that she for"ave him on the spot. 5ane suddenly feels faint% and Bochester carries her to the library to revive her. 3e then offers her a new proposalKto leave ,n"land with him for the >outh of Drance% where they will live to"ether as husband and wife. 5ane refuses% e+plainin" that no matter how Bochester chooses to view the situation% she will never be more than a mistress to him while =ertha is alive. Bochester reali:es that he must e+plain why he does not consider himself married% and he launches into the story of his past.

9nwillin" to divide his property% Bochester7s father left his entire estate to his other son% Bowland% and sent Bochester to 5amaica to marry =ertha% who was to inherit a massive fortuneK0 % pounds. =ertha was beautiful% and althou"h she and Bochester spent hardly any time alone% the stimulated% da::led% and i"norant youth believed himself to be in love and a"reed to the marria"e. >hortly after the weddin"% Bochester learned that =ertha7s mother was not% as he had been led to believe% dead% but mad and livin" in an insane asylum. =ertha7s youn"er brother was a mute idiot. Bochester7s father and brother had known about the family7s unpromisin" "enetic le"acy% but they had promoted the marria"e for the sake of the money. =ertha soon revealed herself to be coarse% perverse% and prone to violent outbreaks of

temper and unhealthy indul"ences. )hese e+cesses only hastened the approach of what had been lurkin" on her hori:on alreadyA absolute madness. =y this time% Bochester7s father and brother had died% so Bochester found himself all alone with a maniacal wife and a hu"e fortune. 3e considered killin" himself but returned to ,n"land instead. 3e resolved to place =ertha at )hornfield 3all Nin safety and comfortA [to] shelter her de"radation with secrecy% and leave her.O Bochester then drifted around the continent from one city to the ne+t% always in search of a woman to love. 8hen he was met with disappointment% he sank into debauchery. 3e was always disappointed with his mistresses% because they were% as he puts it% Nthe ne+t worse thin" to buyin" a slave.O )hen he met 5ane. Bochester retells the story of their introduction from his point of view% tellin" her that she enchanted him from the start. 5ane feels torn. >he doesn7t want to condemn Bochester to further misery% and a voice within her asks% N8ho in the world cares for youQO 5ane wonders how she could ever find another man who values her the way Bochester does% and whether% after a life of loneliness and ne"lect% she should leave the first man who has ever loved her. Met her conscience tells her that she will respect herself all the more if she bears her sufferin" alone and does what she believes to be ri"ht. >he tells Bochester that she must "o% but she kisses his cheek and prays aloud for 6od to bless him as she departs. )hat ni"ht% 5ane has a dream in which her mother tells her to flee temptation. >he "rabs her purse% sneaks down the stairs% and leaves )hornfield.
Summary: Chapter 2$

Bidin" in a coach% 5ane &uickly e+hausts her mea"er money supply and is forced to sleep outdoors. >he spends much of the ni"ht in prayer% and the followin" day she be"s for food or a ;ob in the nearby town. Co one helps her% e+cept for one farmer who is willin" to "ive her a slice of bread. !fter another day% 5ane sees a li"ht shinin" from across the moors. Dollowin" it% she comes to a house. )hrou"h the window% 5ane sees two youn" women studyin" 6erman while their servant knits. Drom their conversation 5ane learns that the servant is named 3annah and that the "raceful youn" women are Diana and 4ary. )he three women are waitin" for someone named >t. 5ohn -pronounced N>in;inO.. 5ane knocks on the door% but 3annah refuses to let her in. Collapsin" on the doorstep in an"uish and weakness% 5ane cries% NI can but die% and I believe in 6od. ?et me try to wait 3is will in silence.O ! voice answers% N!ll men must die% but all are not condemned to meet a lin"erin" and premature doom% such as yours would be if you perished here of want.O )he voice belon"s to N>t. 5ohn%O who brin"s 5ane into the house. 3e is the brother of Diana and 4ary% and the three siblin"s "ive 5ane food and shelter. )hey ask her some &uestions% and she "ives them a false nameA N5ane ,lliott.O
Analysis : Chapters 2#2$

Deelin" . . . clamoured wildly. N1h% complyEO it said. N. . . soothe him< save him< love him< tell him you love him and will be his. 8ho in the world cares for youQ or who will be in;ured by what you doQO ->ee Important Puotations ,+plained. 5ane endures her most difficult trials in this section of the bookA she resolves to leave Bochester althou"h it pains her deeply% and she is forced to sleep outdoors and "o hun"ry on the moors in her fli"ht from )hornfield. 3owever% this section is also where 5ane proves to herself her endurance% her stren"th of principle% and her ability to for"e new friendships. !s she tells herself before leavin" )hornfield% NI care for myself. )he more solitary% the more

friendless% the more unsustained I am% the more I will respect myself.O 9ltimately this self* interest will make her relationships with others% includin" her eventual marria"e% all the more meanin"ful and rewardin". 5ane7s departure from )hornfield is perhaps the most important decision she makes in the novel. In Bochester she found the love for which she had always yearned% and )hornfield was the first real home she ever knew. In fleein" them% 5ane leaves a part of herself behind. =ut livin" with Bochester as his mistress would re&uire a self*compromise that 5ane is not willin" to make. ,ven before she learns of =ertha7s e+istence% 5ane senses that in marryin" Bochester she risks cementin" herself into a position of ine&uality. >he fears that Bochester would ob;ectify her and that by Nmarryin" above her stationO she would come to the relationship already Nin debtO to him. Cow 5ane sees more clearly than ever that a relationship with Bochester would mean the loss of her self*respect% and of her control over her life. 5ane cannot brin" herself to do what is morally wron"% simply out of weakness of will and emotional neediness.

Despite the happiness and the sense of acceptance that )hornfield and Bochester7s love offer% 5ane knows that stayin" would be a type of self*imprisonment. 5ane must choose between emotional e+ile and spiritual and intellectual imprisonment. >he knows she must flee while she can. )hrou"hout the narrative of 5ane7s trials% the reader not only "ains insi"ht into 5ane7s personal constitution and character% but also into the society in which she lives. 8hen 5ane e+periences the pli"ht of the poor% the novel presents us with a bleak "limpse of a society in which the needy are shunned out of ti"htfistedness and distrust.
Summary: Chapter 2%

!fter she is taken in by the Bivers siblin"s% 5ane spends three days recuperatin" in bed. 1n the fourth day% she feels well a"ain and follows the smell of bakin" bread into the kitchen% where she finds 3annah. 5ane critici:es 3annah for ;ud"in" her unfairly when she asked for help% and 3annah apolo"i:es. 3annah tells the story of 4r. Bivers% the siblin"s7 father% who lost most of the family fortune in a bad business deal. In turn% Diana and 4ary were forced to work as "overnessesKthey are only at 4arsh ,nd -or 4oor 3ouse. now because their father died three weeks a"o. 5ane then relates some of her own story and admits that 5ane ,lliott is not her real name. >t. 5ohn promises to find her a ;ob.
Summary: Chapter 3&

5ane befriends Diana and 4ary% who admire her drawin"s and "ive her books to read. >t. 5ohn% on the other hand% remains distant and cold% althou"h he is never unkind. !fter a month% Diana and 4ary must return to their posts as "overnesses. >t. 5ohn has found a position for 5ane% runnin" a charity school for "irls in the town of 4orton. 5ane accepts% but >t. 5ohn presumes that she will soon leave the school out of restlessness% perhaps because he himself is &uite restless. 3is sisters suspect he will soon leave ,n"land for a missionary post overseas. >t. 5ohn tells his sisters that their 9ncle 5ohn has died and left them nothin"% because all his money went to another% unknown% relative. 5ane learns that it was 9ncle 5ohn who led 4r. Bivers into his disastrous business deal.

Summary: Chapter 31

!t 4orton% the wealthy heiress Bosamond 1liver provides 5ane with a cotta"e in which to live. 5ane be"ins teachin"% but to her own re"ret% she finds the work de"radin" and disappointin". 8hile on a visit to 5ane% >t. 5ohn reveals that he% too% used to feel that he had made the wron" career choice% until one day he heard 6od7s call. Cow he plans to become a missionary. )he beautiful Bosamond 1liver then appears% interruptin" >t. 5ohn and 5ane7s conversation. Drom their interaction% 5ane believes that Bosamond and >t. 5ohn are in love.
Summary: Chapter 32

5ane7s students become more familiar and endeared to her% and 5ane becomes &uite popular amon" them. !t ni"ht% thou"h% she has troublin" ni"htmares that involve Bochester. 5ane continues to pay attention to the relationship between >t. 5ohn and Bosamond% who often visits the school when she knows >t. 5ohn will be there. Bosamond asks 5ane to draw her portrait% and as she is workin" on it one day% >t. 5ohn pays her a visit. 3e "ives her a new book of poetry ->ir 8alter >cott7s %armion. and looks at the drawin". >he offers to draw him a duplicate% and then boldly declares that he ou"ht to marry Bosamond. >t. 5ohn admits that he loves her and is tempted by her beauty% but he e+plains that he refuses to allow worldly affection to interfere with his holy duties. )he flirtatious% silly% and shallow Bosamond would make a terrible wife for a missionary. >uddenly% >t. 5ohn notices somethin" on the ed"e of 5ane7s paper and tears off a tiny pieceK5ane is not certain why. 8ith a peculiar look on his face% he hurries from the room.
Analysis: Chapters 2%32

4arsh ,nd and 4orton are the settin" of the novel7s fourth phase. 3ere 5ane develops a new sense of belon"in"% and proves herself capable of findin" like*minded companions with whom she is not romantically involved. )he fact that Diana and 4ary Bivers are also "overnesses puts them on an e&ual footin" with 5ane. !lthou"h 5ane left )hornfield convinced that she had made the ri"ht decision% she harbored uncertainty as to whether she would ever find a sense of belon"in" without sacrificin" her autonomy. 5ane7s stay at 4arsh ,nd proves to her that she is not doomed to be forever alienated from the world% that a balance between community and autonomy can be achieved. Cow% as an inte"rated member of the Bivers household% 5ane reali:es that one may "ive and accept love from others in e&ual e+chan"e.

8hen >t. 5ohn "ives 5ane >ir 8alter >cott7s %armion, and 5ane*the*narrator comments that this was a new book% it seems as if =rontJ is providin" a definitive statement about when the events of the novel take place% since %armion was first published in 18 8. 3owever% other characters in &ane E#re refer to books published after this date. =lanche In"ram% for instance% refers to =yron7s poem The Corsair in Chapter 00% but =yron7s book wasn7t published until 181/. =rontJ was obviously not especially concerned with fi+in" her story in a precise and consistent relation to historical dates% and perhaps she selected the te+ts mentioned in her novel for other reasons.

Summary: Chapter 33

1ne snowy ni"ht% 5ane sits readin" %armion when >t. 5ohn appears at the door. !ppearin" troubled% he tells 5ane the story of an orphan "irl who became the "overness at )hornfield 3all% then disappeared after nearly marryin" ,dward BochesterA this runaway "overness7s name is 5ane ,yre. 9ntil this point% 5ane has been cautious not to reveal her past and has "iven the Bivers a false name. )hus althou"h it is clear that >t. 5ohn suspects her of bein" the woman about whom he speaks% she does not immediately identify herself to him. 3e says that he has received a letter from a solicitor named 4r. =ri""s intimatin" that it is e+tremely important that this 5ane ,yre be found. 5ane is only interested in whether 4r. =ri""s has sent news of Bochester% but >t. 5ohn says that Bochester7s well*bein" is not at issueA 5ane ,yre must be found because her uncle% 5ohn ,yre% has died% leavin" her the vast fortune of # % pounds.

5ane reveals herself to be 5ane ,yre% knowin" that >t. 5ohn has "uessed already. >he asks him how he knew. 3e shows her the scrap of paper he tore from her drawin" the previous dayA it is her si"nature. >he then asks why 4r. =ri""s would have sent him a letter about her at all. >t. 5ohn e+plains that thou"h he did not reali:e it before% he is her cousinA her 9ncle 5ohn was his 9ncle 5ohn% and his name is >t. 5ohn ,yre Bivers. 5ane is over;oyed to have found a family at lon" last% and she decides to divide her inheritance between her cousins and herself evenly% so that they each will inherit $% pounds.
Summary: Chapter 3

5ane closes her school for Christmas and spends a happy time with her newfound cousins at 4oor 3ouse. Diana and 4ary are deli"hted with the improvements 5ane has made at the school% but >t. 5ohn seems colder and more distant than ever. 3e tells 5ane that Bosamond is en"a"ed to a rich man named 4r. 6ranby. 1ne day% he asks 5ane to "ive up her study of 6erman and instead to learn N3industaniO with himKthe lan"ua"e he is learnin" to prepare for missionary work in India. !s time "oes by% >t. 5ohn e+erts a "reater and "reater influence on 5ane< his power over her is almost uncanny. )his leaves 5ane feelin" empty% cold% and sad% but she follows his wishes. !t last% he asks her to "o to India with him to be a missionaryK and to be his wife. >he a"rees to "o to India as a missionary but says that she will not be his wife because they are not in love. >t. 5ohn harshly insists that she marry him% declarin" that to refuse his proposal is the same as to deny the Christian faith. 3e abruptly leaves the room.
Summary: Chapter 3!

[=]ut as his wifeKat his side always% and always restrained% and always checkedKforced to keep the fire of my nature continually low% to compel it to burn inwardly and never utter a cry% thou"h the imprisoned flame consumed vital after vitalKthis would be unendurable. ->ee Important Puotations ,+plained. Durin" the followin" week% >t. 5ohn continues to pressure 5ane to marry him. >he resists as kindly as she can% but her kindness only makes him insist more bitterly and unyieldin"ly that she accompany him to India as his wife. Diana tells 5ane that she would be a fool to "o to India with >t. 5ohn% who considers her merely a tool to aid his "reat cause. !fter dinner% >t. 5ohn prays for 5ane% and she is overcome with awe at his powers of speech and his influence.

>he almost feels compelled to marry him% but at that moment she hears what she thinks is Bochester7s voice% callin" her name as if from a "reat distance. 5ane believes that somethin" fateful has occurred% and >t. 5ohn7s spell over her is broken.
Analysis: Chapters 333!

In these chapters% the foreshadowin" of 5ohn ,yre7s importance in the plot is at last fulfilled% and the household that has initially been for 5ane merely a community of social e&uality is now revealed to be a true family. 4ore importantly% >t. 5ohn emer"es as a crucial fi"ure% providin" 5ane with a powerful and dan"erous alternative to Bochester. !ll of these e+periences prepare the "round for 5ane to return to BochesterA havin" come to know her own stren"th% havin" learned that she is no lon"er alone in the world% havin" come into her own inheritance% and havin" received a competin" marria"e proposal% 5ane can now enter into marria"e without feelin" herself beholden to her husband. >t. 5ohn7s character emer"es forcefully in these chapters. !s a potential husband to 5ane% he offers a foil to the character of Bochester. 8hereas Bochester is passionate and impetuous% >t. 5ohn is cold% harsh% and clinical. 8hile 5ane often finds herself remindin" Bochester of the importance of Christian morality% she finds the same morality in >t. 5ohn overwhelmin" and threatenin".

)his leads to >t. 5ohn7s other important functionA he provides an interestin" comparison to the models of reli"ion embodied in 3elen =urns and 4r. =rocklehurst. 9nlike the meek and forbearin" 3elen% >t. 5ohn is active and even ambitious. 3e is not hypocritical like =rocklehurst% but he is so ri"idly principled and lackin" in empathy that his behavior is potentially ;ust as destructive. Despite 5ane7s protracted attempt to inte"rate Christian morality comfortably into her own life and behavior% >t. 5ohn is a dan"erous influence on her% because his forceful personality compels her obedience a"ainst her own internal feelin"s. 5ane refuses to marry >t. 5ohn because she does not love him% but >t. 5ohn pressures 5ane to i"nore her feelin"s and submit to his powerful conception of necessary moral duty. 5ane remains true to herself only with "reat difficulty% and with the help of the preternatural e+perience of hearin" Bochester call out her name over the moors. In declinin" >t. 5ohn7s proposal 5ane escapes yet another threat to her freedom and her sense of self. Met the very seriousness with which 5ane considers his proposal leads her to an important reali:ation about herself. (art of the reason she fled )hornfield was that she feared becomin" a slave to her own passion and sacrificin" her principles. =y comin" so close to marryin" >t. 5ohn% she demonstrates her ability to do the oppositeA to sacrifice passion alto"ether and devote herself wholly to principle. Cow 5ane knows that returnin" to Bochester would not si"nify a weakness on her part. 4oreover% she now appreciates more than ever what Bochester offered her. 3avin" found herself on the threshold of a loveless marria"e% she understands fully the importance of followin" not only her mind but also her heart.
Summary: Chapter 3"

5ane contemplates her supernatural e+perience of the previous ni"ht% wonderin" whether it was really Bochester7s voice that she heard callin" to her and whether Bochester mi"ht

actually be in trouble. >he finds a note from >t. 5ohn ur"in" her to resist temptation% but nevertheless she boards a coach to )hornfield. >he travels to the manor% an+ious to see Bochester and reflectin" on the ways in which her life has chan"ed in the sin"le year since she left. 1nce hopeless% alone% and impoverished% 5ane now has friends% family% and a fortune. >he hurries to the house after her coach arrives and is shocked to find )hornfield a charred ruin. >he "oes to an inn called the Bochester !rms to learn what has happened. 3ere% she learns that =ertha 4ason set the house abla:e several months earlier. Bochester saved his servants and tried to save his wife% but she flun" herself from the roof as the fire ra"ed around her. In the fire% Bochester lost a hand and went blind. 3e has taken up residence in a house called Derndean% located deep in the forest% with 5ohn and 4ary% two elderly servants.
Summary: Chapter 3#

5ane "oes to Derndean. Drom a distance% she sees Bochester reach a hand out of the door% testin" for rain. 3is body looks the same% but his face is desperate and disconsolate. Bochester returns inside% and 5ane approaches the house. >he knocks% and 4ary answers the door. Inside% 5ane carries a tray to Bochester% who is unable to see her. 8hen he reali:es that 5ane is in the room with him% he thinks she must be a "host or spirit speakin" to him. 8hen he catches her hand% he takes her in his arms% and she promises never to leave him. )he ne+t mornin" they walk throu"h the woods% and 5ane tells Bochester about her e+periences the previous year. >he has to assure him that she is not in love with >t. 5ohn. 3e asks her a"ain to marry him% and she says yesKthey are now free from the specter of =ertha 4ason. Bochester tells 5ane that a few ni"hts earlier% in a moment of desperation% he called out her name and thou"ht he heard her answer. >he does not wish to upset him or e+cite him in his fra"ile condition% and so she does not tell him about hearin" his voice at 4oor 3ouse.
Summary: Chapter 3$

5ane and Bochester marry with no witnesses other than the parson and the church clerk. 5ane writes to her cousins with the news. >t. 5ohn never acknowled"es what has happened% but 4ary and Diana write back with their "ood wishes. 5ane visits !dYle at her school% and finds her unhappy. Bememberin" her own childhood e+perience% 5ane moves !dYle to a more con"enial school% and !dYle "rows up to be a very pleasant and mild*mannered youn" woman. 5ane writes that she is narratin" her story after ten years of marria"e to Bochester% which she describes as ine+pressibly blissful. )hey live as e&uals% and she helps him to cope with his blindness. !fter two years% Bochester be"ins to re"ain his vision in one eye% and when their first childKa boyKis born% Bochester is able to see the baby. 5ane writes that Diana and 4ary have both found husbands and that >t. 5ohn went to India as he had planned. >he notes that in his last letter% >t. 5ohn claimed to have had a premonition of his own approachin" death. >he does not believe that she will hear from >t. 5ohn a"ain% but she does not "rieve for him% sayin" that he has fulfilled his promise and done 6od7s work. >he closes her book with a &uote from his letter% in which he be"s the ?ord 5esus to come for him &uickly.
Analysis: Chapters 3"3$

5ane7s melodramatic discovery of the ruined )hornfield and her recountin" of the story of =ertha 4ason7s mad and fiery death lead to the novel7s last% brief sta"e at Derndean% durin" which 5ane and Bochester are able to marry at last.

It is possible to &uestion &ane E#re$s proto*feminism on the "rounds that 5ane only becomes Bochester7s full e&ual -as she claims to be in the novel7s epilo"ue*like last chapter. when he is physically infirm and dependent on her to "uide him and read to himKin other words% when he is physically incapable of masterin" her. 3owever% it is also possible that 5ane now finds herself Bochester7s e&ual not because of the decline Bochester has suffered but because of the autonomy that she has achieved by comin" to know herself more fully. Co woman was ever nearer to her mate than I amA ever more absolutely bone of his bone% and flesh of his flesh. I know no weariness of my ,dward7s societyA he knows none of mine% any more than we each do of the pulsation of the heart that beats in our separate bosoms< conse&uently% we are ever to"ether. ->ee Important Puotations ,+plained.

!nother problem that troubles some critics is the fact that 5ane finds happiness in the novel only throu"h marria"e% su""estin" that marria"e constitutes the only route to contentment for women -after all% the Nhappy endin"O for Diana and 4ary% also% is that they find husbands.. It could be ar"ued that% in returnin" to Bochester% 5ane sacrifices her lon"*sou"ht autonomy and independence. !nother way of lookin" at 5ane7s marria"e is that she doesn7t sacrifice everythin"% but enters into a relationship in which "ivin" and takin" occur in e&ual measure. Indeed% in order to marry Bochester 5ane has had to re;ect another marria"e% a marria"e that would have meant a much more stiflin" and suppressed life for her. 4oreover% in declinin" to marry >t. 5ohn% 5ane comes to the reali:ation that part of bein" true to Nwho she isO means bein" true to her emotions and passions< part of what makes her hersel! is manifested in her relationships with othersKin the "ivin" of herself to other human bein"s. =y enterin" into marria"e% 5ane does indeed enter into a Nbond%O but in many ways this NbondO is also the NescapeO that 5ane has sou"ht all alon". In providin" a happy endin" for 5ane% =rontJ seems to su""est that individuals who mana"e to navi"ate the pressures and hypocrisies of established social and reli"ious structures can eventually enter into lastin" love. ! woman who refuses to bend to class and "ender pre;udices% or to accept domination or oppression% mi"ht still find kindred hearts and a sense of spiritual community. ?astly% =rontJ seems to su""est a way in which a woman7s &uest for love and a feelin" of belon"in" need not encroach upon her sense of selfKneed not restrict her intellectual% spiritual% and emotional independence. Indeed% =rontJ su""ests that it is only after comin" to know oneself and one7s own stren"th that one can enter wholly into a well* rounded and lovin" relationship with another.

(ilas Marner
eor"e *liot

'ontext
6 eor"e ,liot was the pseudonym of 4ary !nn ,vans% born in 181F at the estate of her father7s employer in Chilvers Coton% 8arwickshire% ,n"land. >he was sent to boardin" school% where she developed a stron" reli"ious faith% deeply influenced by the evan"elical preacher Bev. 5ohn ,dmund 5ones. !fter her mother7s death% ,vans moved with her father to the city of Coventry. )here she met Charles and Caroline =ray% pro"ressive intellectuals who led her to &uestion her faith. In 18/# she stopped "oin" to church% and this renunciation of her faith put a strain on ,vans7s relationship with her father that did not ease for several years.

,vans became ac&uainted with intellectuals in Coventry who broadened her mind beyond a provincial perspective. )hrou"h her new associations% she traveled to 6eneva and then to ?ondon% where she worked as a freelance writer. In ?ondon she met 6eor"e ?ewes% who became her husband in all but the le"al senseKa true le"al marria"e was impossible% as ?ewes already had an estran"ed wife. !t this point in her life ,vans was still primarily interested in philosophy% but ?ewes persuaded her to turn her hand to fiction instead. )he publication of her first collection of stories in 18$2% under the male pseudonym of 6eor"e ,liot% brou"ht immediate acclaim from critics as presti"ious as Charles Dickens and 8illiam 4akepeace )hackeray% as well as much speculation about the identity of the mysterious 6eor"e ,liot. !fter the publication of her ne+t book and first novel% Adam 1ede, a number of impostors claimed authorship. In response% ,vans asserted herself as the true author% causin" &uite a stir in a society that still re"arded women as incapable of serious writin". ?ewes died in 1828% and in 188 ,vans married a banker named 5ohn 8alter Cross% who was twenty*one years her ;unior. >he died the same year. ,liot wrote the novels Adam 1ede -18$F. and The %ill on the )loss -186 . before publishin" 0ilas %arner -1861.% the tale of a lonely% miserly villa"e weaver transformed by the love of his adopted dau"hter. ,liot is best known% however% for %iddlemarch -1821G182#.. >ubtitled N! >tudy in (rovincial ?ife%O this len"thy work tells the story of a small ,n"lish villa"e and its inhabitants% centerin" on the idealistic and self*sacrificin" Dorothea =rooke. ,liot7s novels are deeply philosophical. In e+plorin" the inner workin"s of her characters and their relationship to their environment% she drew on influences that included the ,n"lish poet 8illiam 8ordsworth% the Italian poet Dante% the ,n"lish art critic 5ohn Buskin% and the (ortu"uese*Dutch philosopher =aruch >pino:a% whose work ,liot translated into ,n"lish. )he philosophical concerns and references found in her novelsKand the refusal to provide the re&uisite happy endin"Kstruck some contemporary critics as unbecomin" in a lady novelist. ,liot7s detailed and insi"htful psycholo"ical portrayals of her characters% as well as her e+ploration of the comple+ ways these characters confront moral dilemmas% decisively broke from the plot*driven domestic melodrama that had previously served as the standard for the Hictorian novel. ,liot7s break from tradition inspired the modern novel and inspired numerous future authors% amon" them 3enry 5ames% who admirered ,liot. 0ilas %arner was ,liot7s third novel and is amon" the best known of her works. 4any of the novel7s themes and concerns stem from ,liot7s own life e+periences. >ilas7s loss of reli"ious faith recalls ,liot7s own stru""le with her faith% and the novel7s settin" in the vanishin" ,n"lish countryside reflects ,liot7s concern that ,n"land was fast becomin" industriali:ed

and impersonal. )he novel7s concern with class and family can likewise be linked back to ,liot7s own life. )he voice of the novel7s narrator can thus% to some e+tent% be seen as ,liot7s own voiceKone tin"ed with sli"ht condescension% but fond of the settin" and thorou"hly empathetic with the characters. )hou"h 0ilas %arner is in a sense a very personal novel for ,liot% its treatment of the themes of faith% family% and class has nonetheless "iven it universal appeal% especially at the time of publication% when ,n"lish society and institutions were under"oin" rapid chan"e.
The Epi'raph ;A child, more than all other "ifts That earth can offer to declinin" man, (rin"s hope with it, and forward-lookin" thou"hts.< =)illiam )ordsworth

!t his death% eleven years before the publication of 0ilas %arner, 8illiam 8ordsworth was widely considered the most important ,n"lish writer of his time. 3is intensely personal poetry% with its simple lan"ua"e and rhythms% marked a revolutionary departure from the comple+% formal structures and classical sub;ect matter of his predecessors% poets such as 5ohn Dryden and !le+ander (ope. 9nlike the poetry of Dryden and (ope% 8ordsworth7s poems are meditative rather than narrative. )hey celebrate beauty and simplicity most often most often located in the natural landscape. 8ordsworth7s influence on ,n"lish poetryKat a time when poetry was un&uestionin"ly held to be the most important form of literatureKwas enormous. !lon" with >amuel )aylor Colerid"e% 8ordsworth set in motion the Bomantic era% inspirin" a "eneration of poets that included 5ohn Ieats% (ercy =ysshe >helley% and ?ord =yron. 6eor"e ,liot evidently felt a kinship with 8ordsworth and his stron" identification with the ,n"lish landscape. ?ike 8ordsworth% ,liot draws many of her metaphors from the natural world. 3owever% the 8ordsworth epi"raph she chose for 0ilas %arner also hi"hli"hts the philosophical aspect of her affinity with 8ordsworth. ?ike ,liot% 8ordsworth had tried his hand at philosophy before turnin" to more literary pursuits% and in his poetry he works out his conception of human consciousness. 1ne of 8ordsworth7s ma;or ideas% radical at the time% was that at the moment of birth% human bein"s move from a perfect% ideali:ed NotherworldO to this imperfect world% characteri:ed by in;ustice and corruption. Children% bein" closest to that otherworld% can remember its beauty and purity% seein" its traces in the natural world around them. !s they "row up% however% they lose that connection and for"et the knowled"e they had as children. 3owever% as described in the &uote ,liot has chosen% children and the memories of childhood they evoke in adults can still brin" us close to that early% idyllic state. It is not hard to ima"ine that ,liot had this model in mind when she wrote her story of a child brin"in" a man out of isolation and spiritual desolation.

Plot Overvie&
> ilas 4arner is the weaver in the ,n"lish countryside villa"e of Baveloe in the early nineteenth century. ?ike many weavers of his time% he is an outsiderKthe ob;ect of suspicion because of his special skills and the fact that he has come to Baveloe from elsewhere. )he villa"ers see >ilas as especially odd because of the curious cataleptic fits he occasionally suffers. >ilas has ended up in Baveloe because the members of his reli"ious sect in ?antern Mard% an insular nei"hborhood in a lar"er town% falsely accused him of theft and e+communicated him.

4uch shaken after the accusation% >ilas finds nothin" familiar in Baveloe to reawaken his faith and falls into a numbin" routine of solitary work. 3is one attempt at nei"hborliness backfiresA when an herbal remedy he su""ests for a nei"hbor7s illness works% he is rumored to be a sort of witch doctor. 8ith little else to live for% >ilas becomes infatuated with the money he earns for his work and hoards it% livin" off as little as possible. ,very ni"ht he pulls his "old out from its hidin" place beneath his floorboards to count it. 3e carries on in this way for fifteen years. >&uire Cass is the wealthiest man in Baveloe% and his two eldest sons are 6odfrey and Dunstan% or Dunsey. Dunsey is "reedy and cruel% and en;oys tormentin" 6odfrey% the eldest son. 6odfrey is "ood*natured but weak*willed% and% thou"h secretly married to the opium addict 4olly Darren% he is in love with Cancy ?ammeter. Dunsey talked 6odfrey into the marria"e and repeatedly blackmails him with threats to reveal the marria"e to their father. 6odfrey "ives Dunsey 1 pounds of the rent money paid to him by one of their father7s tenants. 6odfrey then finds himself in a bind when Dunsey insists that 6odfrey repay the sum himself. Dunsey once a"ain threatens to reveal 6odfrey7s marria"e but% after some ar"uin"% offers to sell 6odfrey7s pri:e horse% 8ildfire% to repay the loan. )he ne+t day% Dunsey meets with some friends who are huntin" and ne"otiates the sale of the horse. Dunsey decides to participate in the hunt before finali:in" the sale% and% in doin" so% he has a ridin" accident that kills the horse. Inowin" the rumors of >ilas7s hoard% Dunsey makes plans to intimidate the weaver into lendin" him money. 3is walk home takes him by >ilas7s cotta"e% and% findin" the cotta"e empty% Dunsey steals the money instead. >ilas returns from an errand to find his money "one. 1verwhelmed by the loss% he runs to the local tavern for help and announces the theft to a sympathetic audience of tavern re"ulars. )he theft becomes the talk of the villa"e% and a theory arises that the thief mi"ht have been a peddler who came throu"h the villa"e some time before. 6odfrey% meanwhile% is distracted by thou"hts of Dunsey% who has not returned home. !fter hearin" that 8ildfire has been found dead% 6odfrey decides to tell his father about the money% thou"h not about his marria"e. )he >&uire flies into a ra"e at the news% but does not do anythin" drastic to punish 6odfrey. >ilas is utterly disconsolate at the loss of his "old and numbly continues his weavin". >ome of the townspeople stop by to offer their condolences and advice. !mon" these visitors% Dolly 8inthrop stands out. ?ike many of the others% she encoura"es >ilas to "o to churchK somethin" he has not done since he was banished from ?antern MardKbut she is also "entler and more "enuinely sympathetic. Cancy ?ammeter arrives at >&uire Cass7s famed Cew Mear7s dance resolved to re;ect 6odfrey7s advances because of his unsound character. 3owever% 6odfrey is more direct and insistent than he has been in a lon" time% and Cancy finds herself e+hilarated by the evenin" in spite of her resolution. 4eanwhile% 4olly% 6odfrey7s secret wife% is makin" her way to the Casses7 house to reveal the secret marria"e. >he has their dau"hter% a toddler% in her arms. )irin" after her lon" walk% 4olly takes a draft of opium and passes out by the road. >eein" >ilas7s cotta"e and drawn by the li"ht of the fire% 4olly7s little "irl wanders throu"h the open door and falls asleep at >ilas7s hearth.

>ilas is havin" one of his fits at the time and does not notice the little "irl enter his cotta"e. 8hen he comes to% he sees her already asleep on his hearth% and is as stunned by her appearance as he was by the disappearance of his money. ! while later% >ilas traces the "irl7s footsteps outside and finds 4olly7s body lyin" in the snow. >ilas "oes to the >&uire7s house to find the doctor% and causes a stir at the dance when he arrives with the baby "irl in his arms. 6odfrey% reco"ni:in" his dau"hter% accompanies the doctor to >ilas7s cotta"e. 8hen the doctor declares that 4olly is dead% 6odfrey reali:es that his secret is safe. 3e does not claim his dau"hter% and >ilas adopts her. >ilas "rows increasin"ly attached to the child and names her ,ppie% after his mother and sister. 8ith Dolly 8inthrop7s help% >ilas raises the child lovin"ly. ,ppie be"ins to serve as a brid"e between >ilas and the rest of the villa"ers% who offer him help and advice and have come to think of him as an e+emplary person because of what he has done. ,ppie also brin"s >ilas out of the benumbed state he fell into after the loss of his "old. In his newfound happiness% >ilas be"ins to e+plore the memories of his past that he has lon" repressed. )he novel ;umps ahead si+teen years. 6odfrey has married Cancy and >&uire Cass has died. 6odfrey has inherited his father7s house% but he and Cancy have no children. )heir one dau"hter died at birth% and Cancy has refused to adopt. ,ppie has "rown into a pretty and spirited youn" woman% and >ilas a contented father. )he stone*pit behind >ilas7s cotta"e is drained to water nei"hborin" fields% and Dunsey7s skeleton is found at the bottom% alon" with >ilas7s "old. )he discovery fri"htens 6odfrey% who becomes convinced that his own secrets are destined to be uncovered as well. 3e confesses the truth to Cancy about his marria"e to 4olly and fatherin" of ,ppie. Cancy is not an"ry but re"retful% sayin" that they could have adopted ,ppie le"itimately if 6odfrey had told her earlier. )hat evenin"% 6odfrey and Cancy decide to visit >ilas7s cotta"e to confess the truth of ,ppie7s linea"e and claim her as their dau"hter. 3owever% after hearin" 6odfrey and Cancy7s story% ,ppie tells them she would rather stay with >ilas than live with her biolo"ical father. 6odfrey and Cancy leave% resi"nin" themselves to helpin" ,ppie from afar. )he ne+t day >ilas decides to visit ?antern Mard to see if he was ever cleared of the theft of which he was accused years before. )he town has chan"ed almost beyond reco"nition% thou"h% and >ilas7s old chapel has been torn down to make way for a new factory. >ilas reali:es that his &uestions will never be answered% but he is content with the sense of faith he has re"ained throu"h his life with ,ppie. )hat summer ,ppie is married to !aron 8inthrop% Dolly7s son. !aron comes to live in >ilas7s cotta"e% which has been e+panded and refurbished at 6odfrey7s e+pense.

'haracter /ist
(ilas Marner * ! simple% honest% and kindhearted weaver. !fter losin" faith in both 6od and his fellow man% >ilas lives for fifteen years as a solitary miser. !fter his money is stolen% his faith and trust are restored by his adopted dau"hter% ,ppie% whom he lovin"ly raises. Bead an in*depth analysis of >ilas 4arner. God"rey 'ass * )he eldest son of >&uire Cass. 6odfrey is "ood*natured but selfish and weak*willed. 3e knows what is ri"ht but is unwillin" to pay the price for obeyin" his conscience. Bead an in*depth analysis of 6odfrey Cass.

Eppie * ! "irl whom >ilas 4arner eventually adopts. ,ppie is the biolo"ical child of 6odfrey Cass and 4olly Darren% 6odfrey7s secret wife. ,ppie is pretty and spirited% and loves >ilas un&uestionin"ly. :ancy /ammeter * )he ob;ect of 6odfrey7s affection and his eventual wife. Cancy is pretty% carin"% and stubborn% and she lives her life by a code of rules that sometimes seems arbitrary and uncompromisin". Bead an in*depth analysis of Cancy ?ammeter. .unstan 'ass * 6odfrey7s youn"er brother. Dunsey% as he is usually called% is cruel% la:y% and unscrupulous% and he loves "amblin" and drinkin". (Euire 'ass * )he wealthiest man in Baveloe. )he >&uire is la:y% self*satisfied% and short* tempered. .olly +inthrop * )he wheelwri"ht7s wife who helps >ilas with ,ppie. Dolly later becomes ,ppie7s "odmother and mother*in*law. >he is kind% patient% and devout. Molly =arren * 6odfrey7s secret wife and ,ppie7s mother. 1nce pretty% 4olly has been destroyed by her addictions to opium and alcohol. +illiam .ane * >ilas7s proud and pri""ish best friend from his childhood in ?antern Mard. 8illiam Dane frames >ilas for theft in order to brin" dis"race upon him% then marries >ilas7s fiancLe% >arah. Mr. Macey * Baveloe7s parish clerk. 4r. 4acey is opinionated and smu" but means well. %aron +inthrop * Dolly7s son and ,ppie7s eventual husband. Priscilla /ammeter * Cancy7s homely and plainspoken sister. (riscilla talks endlessly but is e+tremely competent at everythin" she does. (arah * >ilas7s fiancLe in ?antern Mard. >arah is put off by >ilas7s stran"e fit and ends up marryin" 8illiam Dane after >ilas is dis"raced. Mr. /ammeter * Cancy7s and (riscilla7s father. 4r. ?ammeter is a proud and morally uncompromisin" man. Jem Rodney * ! somewhat disreputable character and a poacher. 5em sees >ilas in the midst of one of >ilas7s fits. >ilas later accuses 5em of stealin" his "old. Mr. Fimble * 6odfrey7s uncle and Baveloe7s doctor. 4r. Iimble is usually an animated conversationalist and ;oker% but becomes irritable when he plays cards. 3e has no medical de"ree and inherited the position of villa"e physician from his father. Mr. .o&las * )he town farrier% who shoes horses and tends to "eneral livestock diseases. 4r. Dowlas is a fiercely contrarian person% much taken with his own opinions. Mr. (nell * )he landlord of the Bainbow% a local tavern. =y nature a conciliatory person% 4r. >nell always tries to settle ar"uments. *he peddler * !n anonymous peddler who comes throu"h Baveloe some time before the theft of >ilas7s "old. )he peddler is a suspect in the theft because of his "ypsylike appearance Kand for lack of a better candidate. ,ryce * ! friend of both 6odfrey and Dunsey. =ryce arran"es to buy 8ildfire% Dunsey7s horse. Miss Gunns * >isters from a lar"er nearby town who come to the >&uire7s Cew Mear7s dance. )he 4isses 6unn are disdainful of Baveloe7s rustic ways% but are nonetheless impressed by Cancy ?ammeter7s beauty. (ally Oates * >ilas7s nei"hbor and the wheelwri"ht7s wife. >ilas eases the pain of >ally7s heart disease and dropsy with a concoction he makes out of fo+"love.

Silas Marner

)he title character% >ilas is a solitary weaver who% at the time we meet him% is about thirty* nine years old and has been livin" in the ,n"lish countryside villa"e of Baveloe for fifteen years. >ilas is reclusive and his nei"hbors in Baveloe re"ard him with a mi+ture of suspicion and curiosity. 3e spends all day workin" at his loom and has never made an effort to "et to know any of the villa"ers. >ilas7s physical appearance is oddA he is bent from his work at the loom% has stran"e and fri"htenin" eyes% and "enerally looks much older than his years. =ecause >ilas has knowled"e of medicinal herbs and is sub;ect to occasional cataleptic fits% many of his nei"hbors speculate that he has otherworldly powers.

Despite his antisocial behavior% however% >ilas is at heart a deeply kind and honest person. !t no point in the novel does >ilas do or say anythin" remotely malicious and% stran"ely for a miser% he is not even particularly selfish. >ilas7s love of money is merely the product of spiritual desolation% and his hidden capacity for love and sacrifice manifests itself when he takes in and raises ,ppie. >ilas7s outsider status makes him the focal point for the themes of community% reli"ion% and family that ,liot e+plores in the novel. !s an outcast who eventually becomes Baveloe7s most e+emplary citi:en% >ilas serves as a study in the relationship between the individual and the community. 3is loss and subse&uent rediscovery of faith demonstrate both the difficulty and the solace that reli"ious belief can brin". !dditionally% the unlikely domestic life that >ilas creates with ,ppie presents an unconventional but powerful portrait of family and the home. )hou"h he is the title character of the novel% >ilas is by and lar"e passive% acted upon rather than actin" on others. !lmost all of the ma;or events in the novel demonstrate this passivity. >ilas is framed for theft in his old town and% instead of proclaimin" his innocence% puts his trust in 6od to clear his name. >imilarly% Dunsey7s theft of >ilas7s "old and ,ppie7s appearance on >ilas7s doorstepKrather than any actions >ilas takes of his own accordKare the ma;or events that drive the narrative forward. >ilas si"nificantly diver"es from this pattern of passivity when he decides to keep ,ppie% thereby becomin" an a"ent of his eventual salvation.
2o)frey Cass

6odfrey is the eldest son of >&uire Cass and the heir to the Cass estate. 3e is a "ood*natured youn" man% but weak*willed and usually unable to think of much beyond his immediate material comfort. !s a youn" man he married an opium addict% 4olly Darren% with whom he had a dau"hter. )his secret marria"e and 6odfrey7s handlin" of it demonstrate the mi+ture of "uilt and moral cowardice that keep him paraly:ed for much of the novel. 6odfrey consented to the marria"e lar"ely out of "uilt and keeps the marria"e secret because he knows his father will disown him if it ever comes to li"ht. Despite his physically powerful and "raceful presence% 6odfrey is "enerally passive. In this respect he is similar to >ilas. 3owever% 6odfrey7s passivity is different from >ilas7s% as his endless wafflin" and indecisiveness stem entirely from selfishness. 6odfrey is sub;ect to constant blackmail from Dunsey% who knows of 6odfrey7s secret marria"e% and 6odfrey is finally freed of his malicious brother simply by an accident. 3e is delivered from 4olly in a similarly fortuitous way% when 4olly free:es to death while en route to Baveloe to e+pose

their marria"e to 6odfrey7s family. ,ven 6odfrey7s eventual confession to Cancy is motivated simply by his fri"ht after the discovery of Dunsey7s remains. )his confession comes years too lateKby the time 6odfrey is finally ready to take responsibility for ,ppie% she has already accepted >ilas as her father and does not want to replace him in her life.
3an(y 4ammeter

Cancy is the pretty% carin"% and stubborn youn" lady whom 6odfrey pursues and then marries. ?ike 6odfrey% Cancy comes from a family that is wealthy by Baveloe standards. 3owever% her father% unlike >&uire Cass% is a man who values moral rectitude% thrift% and hard work. Cancy has inherited these strict values and looks disapprovin"ly on what she sees as 6odfrey7s weakness of character. >he is% however% e+hilarated by 6odfrey7s attention% in part because of the status he embodies. Cancy lives her life accordin" to an infle+ible code of behavior and belief. >he seems to have already decided how she feels about every &uestion that mi"ht come up in her life% not necessarily on the basis of any reason or thou"ht% but simply because anythin" else would represent a sort of weakness in her own eyes. 8hen Cancy is youn"er% this NcodeO of hers demands that she and her sister dress alike on formal occasions. 8hen she is older% Cancy7s code forbids her to adopt a child% as in her mind such an action represents a defiance of 6od7s plan. Cancy is neither well educated nor particularly curious% and her code marks her as ;ust as much a product of Baveloe7s isolation and rusticity as Dolly 8inthrop. Cancy is% however% a "enuinely kind and carin" person% as evidenced by her for"iveness of 6odfrey after his confession.
Themes Themes are the fundamental and often universal ideas explored in a literary work. The Individual 9ersus the Community

0ilas %arner is in one sense the story of the title character% but it is also very much about the community of Baveloe in which he lives. 4uch of the novel7s dramatic force is "enerated by the tension between >ilas and the society of Baveloe. >ilas% who "oes from bein" a member of a ti"ht*knit community to utterly alone and then back a"ain% is a perfect vehicle for ,liot to e+plore the relationship between the individual and the surroundin" community.

In the early nineteenth century% a person7s villa"e or town was all*important% providin" the sole source of material and emotional support. )he notion of interconnectedness and support within a villa"e runs throu"h the novel% in such e+amples as the parish7s charitable allowance for the crippled% the donation of leftovers from the >&uire7s feasts to the villa"e7s poor% and the villa"ers who drop by >ilas7s cotta"e after he is robbed. )he community also provides its members with a structured sense of identity. 8e see this sense of identity play out in Baveloe7s public "atherin"s. !t both the Bainbow and the >&uire7s dance% interaction is rituali:ed throu"h a shared understandin" of each person7s social class and place in the community. !s an outsider% livin" apart from this social structure% >ilas initially lacks any sense of this identity. Cot able to understand >ilas in the conte+t of their community% the villa"ers see him as stran"e% re"ardin" him with a mi+ture of fear and

curiosity. >ilas is compared to an apparition both when he shows up at the Bainbow and the Bed 3ouse. )o be outside the community is to be somethin" unnatural% even otherworldly. )hou"h it takes fifteen years% the influence of the community of Baveloe does eventually seep into >ilas7s life. It does so via 6odfrey7s problems% which find their way into >ilas7s cotta"e first in the form of Dunsey% then a"ain in ,ppie. ,liot su""ests that the interconnectedness of community is not somethin" one necessarily enters into voluntarily% nor somethin" one can even avoid. In terms of social standin"% >ilas and 6odfrey are &uite far from each otherA whereas >ilas is a distrusted outsider% 6odfrey is the villa"e7s "olden boy% the heir of its most prominent family. =y braidin" to"ether the fates of these two characters and showin" how the rest of the villa"e becomes implicated as well% ,liot portrays the bonds of community at their most inescapable and pervasive.
Character as %estiny

)he plot of 0ilas %arner seems mechanistic at times% as ,liot takes care to "ive each character his or her ;ust deserts. Dunsey dies% the >&uire7s lands are divided 6odfrey wins Cancy but ends up childless% and >ilas lives happily ever after with ,ppie as the most admired man in Baveloe. )he tidiness of the novel7s resolution may or may not be entirely believable% but it is a central part of ,liot7s "oal to present the universe as morally ordered. Date% in the sense of a hi"her power rewardin" and punishin" each character7s actions% is a central theme of the novel. Dor ,liot% who we are determines not only what we do% but also what is done to us. Cearly any character in the novel could serve as an e+ample of this moral order% but perhaps the best illustration is 6odfrey. 6odfrey usually means well% but is unwillin" to make sacrifices for what he knows to be ri"ht. !t one point 6odfrey finds himself actually hopin" that 4olly will die% as his constant hemmin" and hawin" have backed him into so ti"ht a corner that his thou"hts have become truly horrible and cruel. 3owever% throu"hout the novel ,liot maintains that 6odfrey is not a bad personKhe has simply been compromised by his inaction. Dittin"ly% 6odfrey ends up with a similarly compromised destinyA in his marria"e to Cancy he "ets what he wants% only to eventually reach the dissatisfied conclusion that it is not what he wanted after all. 6odfrey ends up in this ironic situation not simply because he is deservin"% but because compromised thou"hts and actions cannot% in the moral universe of ,liot7s novel% have anythin" but compromised results.
The Interdependence of -aith and Community

In one sense 0ilas %arner can be seen simply as the story of >ilas7s loss and re"ainin" of his faith. =ut one could ;ust as easily describe the novel as the story of >ilas7s re;ection and subse&uent embrace of his community. In the novel% these notions of faith and community are closely linked. )hey are both human necessities% and they both feed off of each other. )he community of ?antern Mard is united by reli"ious faith% and Baveloe is likewise introduced as a place in which people share the same set of superstitious beliefs. In the typical ,n"lish villa"e% the church functioned as the predominant social or"ani:ation. )hus% when >ilas loses his faith% he is isolated from any sort of lar"er community. )he connection between faith and community lies in ,liot7s close association of faith in a hi"her authority with faith in one7s fellow man. >ilas7s re"ained faith differs from his former ?antern Mard faith in si"nificant ways. 3is former faith was based first and foremost on the

idea of 6od. 8hen he is un;ustly char"ed with murder% he does nothin" to defend himself% trustin" in a ;ust 6od to clear his name. )he faith >ilas re"ains throu"h ,ppie is different in that it is not even e+plicitly Christian. >ilas does not mention 6od in the same way he did in ?antern Mard% but bases his faith on the stren"th of his and ,ppie7s commitment to each other. In his words% Nsince . . . I7ve come to love her . . . I7ve had li"ht enou"h to trusten by< and now she says she7ll never leave me% I think I shall trusten till I die.O >ilas7s new faith is a reli"ion that one mi"ht ima"ine ,liot herself espousin" after her own break with formali:ed Christianity. It is a more personal faith than that of ?antern Mard% in which people :ealously and superstitiously ascribe supernatural causes to events with strai"htforward causes% such as >ilas7s fits. In a sense% >ilas7s new belief is the opposite of his earlier% simplistic world view in that it preserves the place of mystery and ambi"uity. Bather than functionin" merely as a supernatural scape"oat% >ilas7s faith comforts him in the face of the thin"s that do not make sense to him. !dditionally% as Dolly points out% >ilas7s is a faith based on helpin" others and trustin" others to do the same. =oth Dolly7s and especially >ilas7s faith consists of a belief in the "oodness of other people as much as an idea of the divine. >uch a faith is thus ine+tricably linked to the bonds of community.
Motifs !otifs are recurrin" structures, contrasts, or literary devices that can help to develop and inform the text#s ma$or themes. The +atural )orld

)hrou"hout the novel% ,liot draws on the natural world for many ima"es and metaphors. >ilas in particular is often compared to plants or animals% and these ima"es are used to trace his pro"ression from isolated loner to well*loved father fi"ure. !s he sits alone weavin" near the start of the novel% >ilas is likened to a spider% solitary and sli"htly ominous. 5ust after he is robbed% >ilas is compared to an ant that finds its usual path blockedKan ima"e of limitation and confusion% but also of searchin" for a solution. ?ater% as >ilas be"ins to reach out to the rest of the villa"e% his soul is likened to a plant% not yet buddin" but with its sap be"innin" to circulate. Dinally% as he raises ,ppie% >ilas is described as Nunfoldin"O and Ntremblin" into full consciousness%O ima"ery evokin" both the metamorphosis of an insect and the bloomin" of a flower. )his nature ima"ery also emphasi:es the preindustrial settin" of the novel% remindin" us of a time in ,n"land when the natural world was a bi""er part of daily life than it was after the Industrial Bevolution.
%omesticity

Dor the most part% the events of 0ilas %arner take place in two homes% >ilas7s cotta"e and the Cass household. )he novel7s two key events are intrusions into >ilas7s domestic space% first by Dunsey and then by ,ppie. ,liot uses the home as a marker of the state of its owner. 8hen >ilas is isolated and without faith% his cotta"e is bleak and closed off from the outside world. !s >ilas opens himself up to the community% we see that his door is more fre&uently open and he has a steady stream of visitors. Dinally% as >ilas and ,ppie become a family% the cotta"e is bri"htened and filled with new life% both fi"uratively and in the form of literal improvements and refurbishments to the house and yard. ?ikewise% the Cass household moves from slovenly and NwifelessO under the >&uire to clean and invitin" under Cancy.

Class

Baveloe% like most of nineteenth*century ,n"lish society% is or"ani:ed alon" strict lines of social class. )his social hierarchy is encoded in many waysA the forms characters use to address one another% their habits% even where they sit at social events. 8hile the Casses are not nobility% as landowners they sit atop Baveloe7s social peckin" order% while >ilas% an outsider% is at its base. Conetheless% >ilas proves himself to be the better man than his social superiors. >imilarly% in ,ppie7s view% the simple life of the workin" class is preferable to that of the landed class. ,liot is skilled in showin" how class influences the thinkin" of her characters% from Dunsey7s idea of >ilas as simply a source of easy money to 6odfrey and Cancy7s idea that% as hi"her*class landowners% their claim to ,ppie is stron"er than >ilas7s.
Symbols Symbols are ob$ects, characters, fi"ures, or colors used to represent abstract ideas or concepts. Silas#s /oom

>ilas7s loom embodies many of the novel7s ma;or themes. 1n a literal level% the loom is >ilas7s livelihood and source of income. )he e+tent to which >ilas7s obsession with money deforms his character is physically embodied by the bent frame and limited eyesi"ht he develops due to so many hours at the loom. )he loom also foreshadows the comin" of industriali:ationKthe loom is a machine in a time and place when most labor was nonmechanical% related to farmin" and animal husbandry. !dditionally% the loom% constantly in motion but never "oin" anywhere% embodies the unceasin" but unchan"in" nature of >ilas7s work and life. Dinally% the process of weavin" functions as a metaphor for the creation of a community% with its many interwoven threads% and presa"es the way in which >ilas will brin" to"ether the villa"e of Baveloe.
/antern 0ard

)he place where >ilas was raised in a ti"ht*knit reli"ious sect% ?antern Mard is a community of faith% held to"ether by a narrow reli"ious belief that ,liot su""ests is based more on superstition than any sort of rational thou"ht. ?antern Mard is the only community >ilas knows% and after he is e+communicated% he is unable to find any similar community in Baveloe. )hrou"hout the novel ?antern Mard functions as a symbol of >ilas7s past% and his "radual comin" to "rips with what happened there si"nals his spiritual thaw. 8hen >ilas finally "oes back to visit ?antern Mard% he finds that the entire nei"hborhood has disappeared% and no one remembers anythin" of it. ! lar"e factory stands in the spot where the chapel once stood. )his disappearance demonstrates the disruptive power of industriali:ation% which destroys tradition and erases memory. ?ikewise% this break with the past si"nals that >ilas has finally been able to move beyond his own embitterin" history% and that his earlier loss of faith has been replaced with newfound purpose.
The 'earth

)he hearth represents the physical center of the household and symboli:es all of the comforts of home and family. 8hen 6odfrey dreams of a life with Cancy% he sees himself Nwith all his happiness centred on his own hearth% while Cancy would smile on him as he played with the children.O ,ven in a public place such as the Bainbow% one7s importance is measured by how

close one sits to the fire. Initially% >ilas shares his hearth with no one% at least not intentionally. 3owever% the two intruders who forever chan"e >ilas7s life% first Dunsey and then ,ppie% are drawn out of inclement weather by the invitin" li"ht of >ilas7s fire. >ilas7s cotta"e can never be entirely separate from the outside world% and the li"ht of >ilas7s fire attracts both misfortune and redemption. In the end% it is >ilas7s hearth that feels the warmth of family% while 6odfrey7s is childless.

Jude the Obscure

)homas 3ardy

6et this >parkCote to "oE W (revious >ection )able of Contents Ce+t >ection X >ummary

'ontext
8hen )homas 3ardy's &ude the 2bscure was first published in 18F$% its critical reception was so ne"ative that 3ardy resolved never to write another novel. &ude the 2bscure attacked the institutions =ritain held the most dearA hi"her education% social class% and marria"e. It called% throu"h its narrative% for a new openness in marria"e laws and commonly held beliefs about marria"e and divorce. It introduced one of the first feminist characters in ,n"lish fictionA the intellectual% free*spirited >ue =ridehead. 3ardy is famous for his tra"ic heroes and heroines and the "rave% socially critical tone of his narratives. 3is best known works are Tess o! the d34rber illes, The Return o! the 5ati e, )ar !rom the %adding Crowd, and The %a#or o! Casterbridge/ !ll his novels are set in 8esse+% a fictional ,n"lish county modeled after the real Dorset county. )hey deal with moral &uestions% played out throu"h the lives of people livin" in the countryside% and point to the darker truths behind pastoral visions. 3ardy was born to a builder's family in 18/ and died in 1F#8. 3e spent much of his life workin" as an architect and was married twice.

(ummary
5ude Dawley dreams of studyin" at the university in Christminster% but his back"round as an orphan raised by his workin"*class aunt leads him instead into a career as a stonemason. 3e is inspired by the ambitions of the town schoolmaster% Bichard (hillotson% who left for Christminster when 5ude was a child. 3owever% 5ude falls in love with a youn" woman named !rabella% is tricked into marryin" her% and cannot leave his home villa"e. 8hen their marria"e "oes sour and !rabella moves to !ustralia% 5ude resolves to "o to Christminster at last. 3owever% he finds that his attempts to enroll at the university are met with little enthusiasm. 5ude meets his cousin >ue =ridehead and tries not to fall in love with her. 3e arran"es for her to work with (hillotson in order to keep her in Christminster% but is disappointed when he discovers that the two are en"a"ed to be married. 1nce they marry% 5ude is not surprised to find that >ue is not happy with her situation. >he can no lon"er tolerate the relationship and leaves her husband to live with 5ude. =oth 5ude and >ue "et divorced% but >ue does not want to remarry. !rabella reveals to 5ude that they have a son in !ustralia% and 5ude asks to take him in. >ue and 5ude serve as parents to the little boy and have two children of their own. 5ude falls ill% and when he recovers% he decides to return to Christminster with his family. )hey have trouble findin" lod"in" because they are not married% and 5ude stays in an inn separate from >ue and the children. !t ni"ht >ue takes 5ude's son out to look for a room% and the little boy decides that they would be better off without so many children. In the mornin"% >ue "oes to 5ude's room and eats breakfast with him. )hey return to the lod"in" house to find that 5ude's son has han"ed the other two children and himself. Deelin" she has been punished by 6od for her relationship with 5ude% >ue "oes back to live with (hillotson% and 5ude is tricked into livin" with !rabella a"ain. 5ude dies soon after. Jude =a&ley * ! youn" man from 4ary"reen who dreams of studyin" at Christminster but becomes a stone mason instead. (usanna ,ridehead * 5ude's cousin. >he is unconventional in her beliefs and education% but marries the schoolmaster Bichard (hillotson. %rabella .onn * 5ude's first wife. >he en;oys spendin" time in bars and in the company of men. %unt .rusilla * )he relative who raised 5ude. Richard Phillotson * )he schoolmaster who first introduces 5ude to the idea of studyin" at the university. 3e later marries >ue. /ittle =ather *ime #/ittle Jude$ * 5ude and !rabella's son% raised in !ustralia by !rabella's parents. 3e is said to have the mind of an old man% thou"h he is a youn" child.
Summary

,veryone in 4ary"reen is upset because the schoolmaster% Bichard (hillotson% is leavin" the villa"e for the town of Christminster% about twenty miles away. (hillotson does not know how to move his piano% or where he will store it% so an eleven*year*old boy of su""ests keepin" it in his aunt's fuel house. )he boy% 5ude Dawley% has been livin" with his aunt Drusilla% a baker% since his father died. Drusilla tells him that he should have asked the schoolteacher to take him to Christminster% because 5ude loves books ;ust like his cousin >ue.

5ude tires of hearin" himself talked about and "oes to the bakehouse to eat his breakfast. !fter eatin" he walks up to a cornfield and uses a clacker to scare crows away. 3owever% he decides that the birds deserve to eat and stops soundin" the clacker. 3e feels someone watchin" him and sees 4r. )routham% the farmer who hired him to scare the crows away. )he farmer fires him and 5ude walks home to tell his aunt. >he mentions Christminster a"ain% and he asks what it is and whether he will ever be able to visit (hillotson there. >he tells him that they have nothin" to do with the people of Christminster. 5ude "oes into town and asks a man where Christminster is% and the man points to the northeast. 5ude walks two or three miles toward Christminster and climbs a ladder onto a roof where two men are workin". 3e says he is lookin" for Christminster% and they tell him that sometimes it is visible% but not today. 5ude is disappointed and waits% hopin" he will see it before "oin" home. Dinally he sees it off in the distance and stares at its spires until the view disappears. 3e "oes home. 3e decides that he wants to see the ni"ht li"hts of the city and "oes back at dusk one day. 1n the road he meets men carryin" coal and asks if they are comin" from Christminster. )hey tell him that the people there read books he would never understand% and "o on to describe the town. 3earin" this% 5ude decides that it is a @place of li"ht@ where the @tree of knowled"e "rows%@ and that it would suit him perfectly. 3e runs into (hysician Hilbert% a &uack*doctor% on his way home and asks him about Christminster. Hilbert says that even the washerwomen there speak ?atin% and 5ude e+presses a desire to learn 6reek and ?atin. Hilbert promises to "ive 5ude his "rammar books if 5ude advertises his medicines in the town for two weeks. !fter two weeks% 5ude meets Hilbert and asks for the "rammar books% but the doctor does not have them. 5ude is very disappointed% but when (hillotson sends for the piano% 5ude has the idea of writin" to the schoolmaster to ask for "rammar books. (hillotson sends them% but when the books arrive% 5ude is surprised to discover that there is no easy way to learn ?atin% that each word has to be learned separately. 3e thinks that it is beyond his intellect. 5ude decides to make himself more useful to his aunt and helps her with the bakery% deliverin" bread in a horse*drawn cart. 8hile he drives the cart he studies ?atin. !t the a"e of si+teen% he decides to devote himself to =iblical te+ts and also to apprentice himself to a stonecutter for e+tra money. 3e still dreams of "oin" to Christminster% and saves his money for this possibility. 3e keeps lod"in"s in the town of !lfredston% but returns to 4ary"reen each weekend. 1ne day% when he is nineteen% he is walkin" to 4ary"reen and plannin" his education and his future as a bishop or archdeacon when he is struck in the ear by a piece of pi"'s flesh. 3e sees three youn" women washin" chitterlin"s. 3e asks one of the "irls to come "et the piece of meat% and she introduces herself as !rabella Donn. 3e asks if he can see her the ne+t day and she says yes. 3e thinks of studyin" 6reek the ne+t afternoon% but decides it would be rude not to call on !rabella as promised and takes her for a walk. 3e meets her family afterward and is struck by how serious they perceive his intentions to be. )he ne+t mornin" he "oes back to where they walked to"ether and overhears !rabella tellin" her friends that she wants to marry 5ude. 5ude finds his thou"hts turnin" more and more to her. )heir romance continues% and two months later !rabella "oes to see the &uack*doctor Hilbert. 5ude be"ins to say that he is "oin" away% but !rabella retorts that she is pre"nant. 5ude immediately proposes% and they marry &uickly. 5ude does not believe !rabella to be the ideal wife% but he knows he must marry her. 1nce they are livin" to"ether% 5ude asks when the baby will be born% and !rabella tells him it was a mistake% that she is not really pre"nant. 5ude is shocked. 3e feels depressed and trapped by the marria"e% and even considers killin" himself.

3e "oes home one day to find !rabella "one and receives a letter sayin" she is plannin" to move to !ustralia with her parents.
Commentary

,arly on in the novel% the villa"e of 4ary"reen is set in opposition to the university town of Christminster. )he youn" 5ude sees Christminster as an enli"htened place of learnin"% e&uatin" it with his dreams of hi"her education and his va"ue notions of academic success. Met while 5ude lives &uite close to Christminster and knows a man who is "oin" to live there% the city is always only a distant vision in his mind. It is nearly within his reach but at the same time unattainable% and this physical distance serves as an on"oin" metaphor for the abstract distance between the impoverished 5ude and the privile"ed Christminster students. !t the start of the novel% 5ude is portrayed as an earnest and innocent youn" man who aspires to thin"s "reater than his back"round allows. 3e resists succumbin" to the discoura"ement of those around him and does not fear the "ap he is creatin" between himself and the other people of his villa"e. 3e is seen as eccentric and perhaps impertinent% and his aspirations are dismissed as unrealistic. It is this climate% in part% that leads him to marry !rabella. !ll throu"h his youn" adult life% he avoids "oin" to Christminster. (erhaps he is afraid of the failure he mi"ht encounter there. In !rabella% he sees somethin" attainable and instantly "ratifyin"% as opposed to the university life% of which he fears he may never become a part. In this way 5ude avoids disappointment% but finds that he cannot live within the confines of an unhappy marria"e. Confinement**particularly in re"ard to marria"e**is a ma;or theme in the novel. 5ude feels trapped by a youthful mistake and !rabella's manipulation. 3e finds that the decision is irreversible and resi"ns himself to livin" with the conse&uences. )he freedom he receives after !rabella leaves is only partially liberatin"A It lets him be independent in a physical sense% but because he is still married% it forbids him from achievin" le"itimate romantic happiness with someone else.

Part <<G %t 'hristminster

Summary

)hree years after his marria"e% 5ude decides to "o to Christminster at last. 3e is motivated partly by a portrait of his cousin >ue =ridehead% who lives there. 3e finds lod"in" in a suburb called =eersheba and walks into town. 3e observes the colle"es and &uadran"les and finds himself conversin" aloud with the "reat dead philosophers memoriali:ed around him. )he ne+t mornin" he remembers that he has come to find his old schoolmaster and his cousin. 3is aunt sent the picture of >ue with the stipulation that 5ude should not try to find her% and he decides that he must wait until he is settled to find (hillotson. 3e tries to find work in the colle"es. 3e finally receives a letter from a stonemason's yard and promptly accepts employment there. 3e thinks of "oin" to see >ue% despite his aunt's continuin" entreaties not to see her. 3e walks to the shop his aunt described and sees >ue illuminatin" the word @!llelu;a@ on a scroll. 3e decides that he should not fall in love with her because marria"e between cousins is never "ood% and his family in particular is cursed with tra"ic sadness in marria"e.

5ude discovers that >ue attends church services at Cardinal Colle"e and "oes there to find her. 3e watches her but does not approach her% rememberin" that he is a married man. )he ne+t time he sees her% he is workin" on a church and sees >ue leavin" the mornin" service. 1n another afternoon% >ue "oes to the stonemason's yard and asks for 5ude Dawley. 8hen she is described to him% 5ude reco"ni:es who she was. 3e finds a note from her at his lod"in"s% sayin" that she heard of his arrival in Christminster and would have liked to meet him% but mi"ht be "oin" away soon. 3e is driven to action and writes back immediately% sayin" he will meet her in an hour. )hey introduce themselves% and 5ude asks if she knows (hillotson% whom he thinks is a parson. >he says that there is a villa"e schoolmaster named (hillotson in ?umsdon% and 5ude is struck by the reali:ation that (hillotson has failed in his ambitions. 5ude and >ue walk to (hillotson's house% and 5ude introduces himself. )he schoolmaster does not remember him% and 5ude reminds him about the ?atin and 6reek "rammars. (hillotson tells him that he "ave up the idea of attendin" the university lon" a"o% but invites them in. 3e says that he is comfortable with his current e+istence but is in need of a pupil*teacher. )hey do not stay for supper% and on the way back 5ude asks >ue why she is leavin" Christminster. >he e+plains that she is &uarrelin" with one of the women she works with% and it would be best to leave. 5ude su""ests that he ask (hillotson to take her on as a teacher% and she a"rees. (hillotson a"rees to employ her% but points out that the salary is &uite low% so it would not assist her unless she viewed the ;ob as an apprenticeship in a teachin" career. >ue be"ins workin" at (hillotson's school ri"ht away% and he is responsible for "ivin" her lessons. !ccordin" to the law% a chaperone must supervise them at all times. )he schoolmaster thinks this is unnecessary because he is so much older than she is. 3owever% one day when he is walkin" toward the villa"e% 5ude sees the two walkin" to"ether. (hillotson puts his arm around >ue's waist and she removes it% but he puts it back and this time she lets it stay. 5ude "oes back to see his aunt% who is not well. 5ude talks with a friend from home% who is surprised that 5ude has not entered colle"e yet. 5ude decides to pursue admission the university more devotedly and writes to five professors. !fter a lon" wait he finally receives an answer from a professor at =iblioll Colle"e. )he letter recommends that he remain in his current profession rather than attemptin" to study at a university. 5ude "rows depressed and "oes to a tavern to drink. !nother mason% 9ncle 5oe% challen"es him to demonstrate his academic ability by sayin" the Creed in ?atin. 5ude does% then "rows an"ry when they con"ratulate him. 3e "oes to see >ue. >he tells him to "o to sleep and that she will brin" him breakfast in the mornin". 3e leaves at dawn and "oes back to his lod"in"s% where he finds a note of dismissal from his employer. 3e walks back to 4ary"reen and sleeps in his old room. 3e hears his aunt prayin" and meets the cler"yman% 4r. 3i"hrid"e. 5ude tells 3i"hrid"e of his failed ambition to attend the university and become a minister. 3i"hrid"e says that if he wants% 5ude can become a licentiate in the church if he "ives up stron" drink.
Commentary

>ue serves to attract 5ude to Christminster% and he seeks her out with a stran"e devotion% as thou"h he is followin" an inevitable path carved out by destiny. )aken to"ether with his aunt's warnin" that marria"es in their family never end well% 5ude's haste to find and fall in love with his cousin creates a sense of forebodin" about the youn" man's fate. 3is marria"e to !rabella prevents him from pursuin" >ue fully% but she clearly captivates him.

5ude is disappointed to find that (hillotson does not remember him and has not fulfilled his ambitions. (hillotson is a foil to 5ude% his complacency set a"ainst 5ude's fervor. (hillotson represents a path more accessible to 5ude than his aspirations toward an academic career% but 5ude is loath to "ive up his Christminster ambitions. 3e also clin"s to >ue% arran"in" for her to teach with (hillotson as a way of keepin" her near him. 5ude finds that the Christminster colle"es are not welcomin" toward self*educated men% and he accepts that he may not be able to study at the university after all. 3is propensity for drinkin" emer"es. )he episode in the pub% in which he recites ?atin to a "roup of workmen and under"raduates% shows the ;u+taposition of 5ude's intellect with his outer appearance. Christminster will not accept him because he belon"s to the workin" class% yet he is intelli"ent and well*read throu"h independent study. )he reali:ation that his learnin" will help him only to perform in pubs sits heavily with 5ude% and he is comforted only by the possibility of becomin" a cler"yman throu"h apprenticeship.

Part <<<G %t Melchester

Summary

5ude decides to follow the path recommended by the cler"yman and become a low*rankin" cler"yman. 3e receives a letter from >ue sayin" that she is enterin" the )rainin" Colle"e at 4elchester% where there is also a )heolo"ical Colle"e. 3e decides to wait until the days are lon"er to travel to 4elchester himself because he will have to find work there. >ue writes that she is desperately lonely and be"s him to come at once% so he a"rees. 5ude arrives and takes >ue to dinner. >he mentions that (hillotson mi"ht find her a teachin" post after she "raduates% and 5ude e+presses his an+iety about the schoolmaster's romantic interest in her. >ue at first dismisses his fears% sayin" (hillotson is too old% but then she confesses that she has a"reed to marry (hillotson in two years% and then they plan to teach ;ointly at a school in a lar"er town.

5ude finds work at a cathedral and reads theolo"ical books in preparation for his career. 3e "oes for a walk with >ue and they find themselves far out into the countryside. ! shepherd invites them to spend the ni"ht% sayin" is too late to "o back to 4elchester if they do not know the way. )he ne+t mornin" the students at >ue's )rainin" Colle"e see that she has not returned% and the administrators decide to punish her. >he runs away and arrives% cold and soaked from the rain% at 5ude's lod"in"s. 3e takes her in and hides her from his landlady. )hey discuss their education% and >ue tells him about an under"raduate she knew in Christminster. )hey were friends and shared many ideas% but he wanted to be her lover and she did not love him. 3e died two or three years later. 5ude is struck by >ue's freethinkin" mentality and calls her @Holtairean@ -thinkin" like the Drench philosopher Holtaire.. !s they are leavin"% >ue tells 5ude that she knows he is in love with her and he is only permitted to like her% not to love her. )he ne+t mornin" she writes a letter sayin" that he can love her if he chooses. 3e writes back% but does not receive an answer. 3e "oes to find her% and she tells him she no lon"er wants to see him because there are rumors about their relationship. 3owever% she apolo"i:es in another note% callin" her words rash. (hillotson asks 5ude about >ue's history% and 5ude assures him that nothin" untoward has happened between them. 5ude tells >ue his own story% includin" his marria"e to !rabella. >he is an"ered by his previous dishonesty. )wo days later he receives a letter sayin" that >ue and (hillotson are to be married in three or four weeks. >ue also asks if 5ude will "ive her away at

the weddin"% and he a"rees. >he comes to 4elchester ten days before the weddin" and stays in 5ude's house. >ue and (hillotson marry on the appointed day. 5ude finds he can no lon"er stand livin" in 4elchester% and when he receives word that his aunt is dan"erously ill% he returns to 4ary"reen. 3e writes to >ue encoura"in" her to come and see !unt Drusilla before she dies. In the meantime% 5ude "oes to Christminster for work. 3e "oes to a pub and sees a familiar faceA !rabella's. >he tells him that she returned from !ustralia three months before. 5ude misses his train to !lfredston and instead "oes to !ldbrickham with !rabella. )hey spend the ni"ht to"ether at an inn. In the mornin"% she says that she married a hotel mana"er in >ydney. 5ude leaves her and une+pectedly encounters >ue. )he two "o to see 5ude's aunt to"ether% and >ue tells 5ude that she made a mistake in marryin" (hillotson. 5ude takes >ue to the train and asks if he can come visit% but she says no. 3e devotes himself to his studies and develops an interest in music% and on the way back from a trip to see a church composer% he finds an apolo"y and an invitation to dinner from >ue.
Commentary

>ue shows herself to be both radical in her intellectual views and conservative in her social practices. >he leaves the )rainin" Colle"e because she discovers that its rules are intolerably strict% and her supervisors' suspicions are too much for her to bear. >he comes to see 5ude as a protector% and for this reason is disturbed by the reali:ation that he is in love with her. >he wavers back and forth in her protests% sometimes wantin" to enter into a romantic relationship with 5ude and sometimes believin" it to be mis"uided. 8hen he confesses that he is married% she accuses him of dishonesty% but there is a hint of disappointment in her tone because his marria"e only adds a further obstruction to their possible romance. >he marries (hillotson in this state of an"er and frustration% and 5ude feels that he cannot and should not dissuade her. 5ude spends the ni"ht with !rabella because he feels it is his le"al ri"ht% and he wants to ease his lon"in" for >ue. 8hen !rabella tells him that she has married a second time% 5ude does not know what to do. 3e re"rets his ni"ht with her and is dismayed by the reali:ation that he has committed a form of adultery. 4eanwhile% >ue tries to push him away a"ain% then invites him to her home soon after. >ue does not know what she wants% but is slowly comin" to the understandin" that she finds (hillotson repulsive. >he does not admit to lovin" 5ude% but still turns to him to be her protector.

Part <@G %t (haston

Summary

5ude travels to >ue's school in >haston. 3e finds the schoolroom empty and be"ins playin" a tune on the piano. >ue ;oins him% and they discuss their friendship. 5ude accuses >ue of bein" a flirt% and she ob;ects. )hey discuss her marria"e% and >ue tells 5ude to come to her house the ne+t week. ?ater he walks to her house and sees her throu"h the window lookin" at a photo"raph. )he ne+t mornin" >ue writes sayin" that he should not come to dinner% and he writes back in a"reement. 1n ,aster 4onday% he hears that his aunt is dyin". 8hen he arrives% she has already passed away. >ue comes to the funeral. >he tells 5ude she is unhappy in her marria"e% but that she still must "o back to >haston on the si+ o'clock train. 5ude convinces her to spend the ni"ht at 4rs. ,dlin's house instead. 3e tells her that he is sorry he did not tell her not to marry (hillotson% and she suspects he still has tender feelin"s for her.

5ude denies it% sayin" that he no lon"er feels love since he has seen !rabella and is "oin" to live with her. >ue reali:es he is lyin". >he confesses that she likes (hillotson but finds it tortuous to live with him. 5ude asks if she would have married him if not for his marria"e to !rabella% but >ue leaves without answerin". In the middle of the ni"ht% 5ude hears the cry of a trapped rabbit and "oes outside to free it. 3e kills the rabbit and looks up to see >ue watchin" him throu"h a window. >he says she wishes there was a way to undo a mistake such as her marria"e. >he kisses 5ude on the top of his head and shuts the window. 5ude decides that he cannot in "ood conscience become a minister% considerin" his feelin"s toward >ue. 3e burns his books. =ack in >haston% >ue hints at her indiscretionary feelin"s to her husband. !t ni"ht she "oes to sleep in a closet instead of her bedroom% and (hillotson is alarmed. >he asks if he would mind livin" apart from her. 3e &uestions her motives and asks if she intends to live alone. >he says that she wants to live with 5ude. In the mornin"% (hillotson and >ue continue their discussion throu"h notes passed by their students. >he asks to live in the same house% but not as husband and wife% and he says he will consider it. )hey take separate rooms in the house% but by habit one ni"ht% (hillotson returns to the room they once shared% and sees >ue leap out the window. 3owever% she is not badly hurt and claims that she was asleep when she did it. (hillotson "oes to see his friend 6illin"ham and tells him of his marital troubles. 3e speaks of his intention to let her "o to 5ude% and 6illin"ham is shocked. 3e says that such thou"hts threaten the sanctity of the family unit. !t breakfast the ne+t day% (hillotson tells >ue that she may leave and do as she wishes. 3e says he does not wish to know anythin" about her in the future. 5ude meets >ue's train and tells her he has arran"ed for them to travel to !ldbrickham because it is a lar"er town and no one knows them there. 3e has booked one room at the )emperance 3otel% and >ue is surprised. >he e+plains that she is not prepared to have a se+ual relationship with him yet. 3e asks whether she has been teasin" him. )hey "o to a different hotel% the one where he stayed with !rabella. 8hen 5ude is out of the room% the maid tells >ue that she saw him with another woman a month earlier. >ue accuses him of deceivin" her% but he ob;ects by sayin" that if they are only friends% it does not matter. >he accuses him of treachery for sleepin" with !rabella% but he ar"ues that !rabella is his le"al wife. 5ude tells >ue that !rabella has married a second husband% but he will never inform a"ainst her. 3e adds that he is comparatively happy ;ust to be near >ue. =ack in >haston% (hillotson is threatened with dismissal for lettin" his wife commit adultery. 3e defends himself at a meetin" but falls ill. ! letter reaches >ue% and she returns to him. >he tells (hillotson that 5ude is seekin" a divorce from his wife% and (hillotson decides to attempt the same.
Commentary

)he moral implications of the friendship and romance between 5ude and >ue emer"e as an important issue. 3ardy dwells on the &uestion of marria"e and its ramifications% and his portrayal of the tra"ic effects of marital confinement% be"innin" lar"ely in (art IH% did not sit well with critics of the time. 3ardy was accused of attemptin" to undermine the institution of marria"e% and >ue in particular was thou"ht to have inappropriate beliefs for a youn" female character. In many ways% she is a feminist before her time. >he reco"ni:es her own intellect

and her potential for a satisfyin" career in teachin"% and marries (hillotson partly out of a desire for a pleasant work environment. >he resists a romantic relationship with 5ude% but falls in love with him despite her mis"ivin"s. 3owever% when it comes time to marry% she does not wish to enter into a le"al contract in which she would a"ain be confined. =y marryin" (hillotson% >ue hopes to protect her reputation and achieve the traditional lifestyle of a married woman. >he likes (hillotson despite his a"e% but is surprised at her inability to find him attractive. >he even comes to be repulsed by him and later admits to ;umpin" out of the window for fear that he would enter her bed. (hillotson tries very hard to preserve at least the e+ternal appearance of a typical marria"e. !s a man% he is le"ally permitted to force her to stay in his bed and even sleep with him. Dor this reason he is viewed with contempt for lettin" her leave him. 3owever% his understandin" brin"s him only more difficulty% as he is personally blamed for >ue's disobedience of convention. 5ude's relationship with !rabella is e&ually complicated. 3e does not love her as much as he cares for >ue% but he sleeps with her when she returns from !ustralia. !"ain% 3ardy's casual depiction of people actin" a"ainst established societal norms of marital and se+ual behavior aroused controversy in =ritain and the 9nited >tates% and 3ardy resolved to "ive up writin" fiction as a result.

Part @G %t %ldbric ham and Else&here

Summary

>ome months later% 5ude receives word that >ue's divorce has been made official% ;ust one month after his own divorce was similarly ratified. 5ude asks >ue if she will consent to marry him after a respectable interval% but she tells him that she worries it would harm their relationship. 5ude worries because >ue has still not declared her love for him. 1ne ni"ht% 5ude returns home to find that a woman has come to see him while he was away. >ue suspects it was !rabella. ! knock comes on the door and >ue knows it is !rabella a"ain. !rabella tells 5ude she needs help. >ue be"s him not to "o see her at her lod"in"s% as she asks. 5ude hesitates% and >ue says she will marry him immediately. 5ude stays home. In the mornin"% >ue feels "uilty about her treatment of !rabella and decides to check on her at the inn. !rabella treats >ue rudely but asks if 5ude will meet her at the station. >ue and 5ude postpone their weddin" and one day receive a letter from !rabella. It e+plains that !rabella "ave birth to 5ude's child in !ustralia% and their son has been livin" with her parents in !ustralia% but they can no lon"er care for him. >ue says she would like to adopt him so 5ude writes to !rabella. )he boy arrives sooner than they e+pected and walks to their house on his own. >ue tells him to call her @mother.@

!t an a"ricultural show in early 5une% !rabella spots 5ude and >ue with her son% who is called ?ittle Dather )ime because of his adult demeanor. !rabella attends the show with her new husband% Cartlett. >he points out the family% and Cartlett remarks that they seem to like each other and their child very much. !rabella declares that it cannot be their child because they have not been married lon" enou"h. 5ude has trouble "ettin" work% so he proposes that they move a"ain. )hey find that people do not believe they are married. 5ude wants to live in ?ondon because it would allow them more anonymity.

)wo and a half years later% at the Iennetbrid"e sprin" fair% >ue encounters !rabella in mournin" for her husband. >ue is sellin" cakes at the fair. >he e+plains that 5ude cau"ht a chill while doin" stone work and has been ill. !rabella is ;ealous and discusses her feelin"s with a friend as they drive toward !lfredston. >he reco"ni:es (hillotson on the road and offers him a lift. 3e says he is the schoolmaster at 4ary"reen a"ain. >ue "oes home and tells 5ude about !rabella. 3e says that when he recovers he would like to "o back to Christminster% thou"h he knows the town despises him< perhaps he will die there.
Commentary

5ude and >ue are both able to obtain divorces from their first marria"es% so le"ally they can marry each other. 5ude decides that he can be happy without bein" le"ally married to >ue as lon" as he is with her% and the two do not tell their nei"hbors whether they are married or not. 3owever% they live as thou"h they are married and are therefore considered sinful by people around them. )he idea of raisin" 5ude's son prompts >ue to think about formali:in" their marria"e% but ultimately they do not marry. )he uncertainty surroundin" their status foreshadows difficulties to come% as there is a sense of ille"itimacy lin"erin" in their relationship.

8hen !rabella sees 5ude and >ue with her son she immediately points out to her new husband that the child is too old to be >ue's son% as thou"h claimin" motherhood from a distance. >ue immediately develops a relationship with the boy% althou"h she dislikes the fact that he was born of 5ude's first marria"e. )he child's old% world*weary face points to both his premature wisdom and his ability to see beyond childish thin"s. In his eyes there is a dan"er that >ue senses but cannot% at this sta"e% define.

Part @<G %t 'hristminster %gain

Summary

5ude and >ue return to Christminster with ?ittle Dather )ime% who is now also named 5ude% and the other two children they have had to"ether. )hey encounter a procession and see 5ude's old friends )inker )aylor and 9ncle 5oe. 5ude tells them he is a poor% ill man and an e+ample of how not to live. )he family "oes to look for lod"in"% but finds that people are reluctant to take them in. 1ne woman rents them a room for the week provided 5ude stays elsewhere% thou"h when she discovers >ue's history and tells her husband% her husband orders her to send them away. >ue puts the youn"er children to bed and takes little )ime out to look for other lod"in"s% but with no success. )he boy remarks that he @ou"ht not to have been born@ and "rows irate when >ue tells him that she is pre"nant a"ain.

In the mornin" >ue wakes early and "oes to see 5ude. )hey have a hasty breakfast to"ether and then return to >ue's lod"in"s to make breakfast for the children. )hey "et some e""s and place them in the kettle to boil. 5ude is watchin" the e""s when he hears >ue cry out. 3e rushes in to find >ue unconscious on the floor% havin" fainted. 3e cannot find the children. 3e looks inside the door to the closet% where >ue collapsed% and sees all three children han"in" from clothes hooks. =eneath little )ime's feet lies a chair that has been pushed over. 5ude cuts

down the three children and lays them down on the bed. 3e runs out for a doctor and returns to find >ue and the landlady attemptin" to revive the corpses. 1n the floor they find a note% written by little 5ude% that reads @Done because we are too menny.@ 5ude and >ue find lod"in"s toward the town of =eersheba% but >ue is despondent. >he decides that she is ri"htly married to (hillotson% and it becomes clear that she and 5ude never le"ally married at all. !rabella visits the house and e+plains that she did not feel she belon"ed at the children's funeral. >ue ima"ines that 6od punished her by usin" !rabella's son% born in wedlock% to kill her children% who were born out of wedlock. (hillotson a"rees to take >ue back as his wife% and she moves into his house. !rabella decides she will do the same and takes 5ude% who is drunk% back to the house they lived in when they were married. !fter a few days% she and her father coerce him into marryin" her a"ain by su""estin" that he has been livin" with them on that prete+t. 3e a"rees% and they are married. 5ude is ill with an inflammation of the lun"s. 3e decides that he wants to die but to see >ue first% so he travels to her home in the rain. >ue tells him that she still loves him but must stay with (hillotson% and he kisses her. !t ni"ht she tells (hillotson that she saw 5ude% but swears she will never see him a"ain. >he ;oins (hilloston in his bed despite her lack of feelin" for him% sayin" it is her duty. In the summer% 5ude is sleepin" when !rabella "oes outside to observe the Bemembrance 8eek festivities. >he wants to see the boat races% but "oes upstairs to check on 5ude first. Dindin" him dead% she decides that she can afford to watch the boat races before dealin" with his body. >tandin" before his casket two days later% she asks the 8idow ,dlin if >ue will be comin" to the funeral. )he widow says that >ue promised never to see 5ude a"ain% thou"h she can hardly bear her le"al husband. >he says that >ue probably found peace% but !rabella ar"ues that >ue will not have peace until she has ;oined 5ude in death.
Commentary

)he tra"ic conclusion of the novel arises as the inevitable result of the difficulties faced by the two cousins. >ue sees youn" 5ude's terrible murder*suicide as the result of her trans"ressions a"ainst the institution of marria"e% and her only solution is to return to her e+*husband. >ue sees all the forces of nature workin" a"ainst her and comes to re"ard her love for 5ude as a sin in itself.

!rabella is heartless where >ue is passionate. 5ude dies after a"ain bein" tricked into marryin" her% but she is unwillin" to sacrifice the diversion of a boat race to be with him while he is dyin" or even to take care of his body after he dies. >he personifies the dan"er of a bad marria"e in the novel% and the murder of >ue's children by !rabella's child perhaps more ri"htly represents the destruction of true love by adolescent infatuation.

Overall %nalysis and *hemes

&ude the 2bscure focuses on the life of a country stonemason% 5ude% and his love for his cousin >ue% a schoolteacher. Drom the be"innin" 5ude knows that marria"e is an ill*fated venture in his family% and he believes that his love for >ue curses him doubly% because they are both members of a cursed clan. 8hile love could be identified as a central theme in the novel% it is the institution of marria"e that is the work's central focus. 5ude and >ue are

unhappily married to other people% and then drawn by an inevitable bond that pulls them to"ether. )heir relationship is beset by tra"edy% not only because of the family curse but also by society's reluctance to accept their marria"e as le"itimate. )he horrifyin" murder*suicide of 5ude's children is no doubt the clima+ of the book's action% and the other events of the novel rise in a crescendo to meet that one act. Drom there% 5ude and >ue feel they have no recourse but to return to their previous% unhappy marria"es and die within the confinement created by their youthful errors. )hey are drawn into an endless cycle of self*erected oppression and cannot break free. In a society unwillin" to accept their re;ection of convention% they are ostraci:ed. 5ude's son senses wron"doin" in his own conception and acts in a way that he thinks will help his parents and his siblin"s. )he children are the victims of society's unwillin"ness to accept 5ude and >ue as man and wife% and >ue's own feelin"s of shame from her divorce. 5ude's initial failure to attend the university becomes less important as the novel pro"resses% but his obsession with Christminster remains. Christminster is the site of 5ude's first encounters with >ue% the tra"edy that dominates the book% and 5ude's final moments and death. It acts upon 5ude% >ue% and their family as a representation of the unattainable and dan"erous thin"s to which 5ude aspires.

*he Picture o" .orian Gray

1scar 8ilde

'ontext
1 scar 8ilde was born on 1ctober 16% 18$/% in Dublin% Ireland. 3e was educated at )rinity Colle"e in Dublin and at 4a"dalen Colle"e% 1+ford% and settled in ?ondon% where he married Constance ?loyd in 188/. In the literary world of Hictorian ?ondon% 8ilde fell in with an artistic crowd that included 8. =. Meats% the "reat Irish poet% and ?illie ?an"try% mistress to the (rince of 8ales. ! "reat conversationalist and a famous wit% 8ilde be"an by publishin" mediocre poetry but soon achieved widespread fame for his comic plays. )he first% 6era7 or, The 5ihilists, was published in 188 . 8ilde followed this work with .ad# "indermere$s )an -18F#.% A "oman o! 5o 8mportance -18F0.% An 8deal 'usband -18F$.% and his most famous play% The 8mportance o! 1eing Earnest -18F$.. !lthou"h these plays relied upon relatively simple and familiar plots% they rose well above convention with their brilliant dialo"ue and bitin" satire.

8ilde published his only novel% The Picture o! Dorian Gra#, before he reached the hei"ht of his fame. )he first edition appeared in the summer of 18F in .ippincott$s %onthl# %aga9ine/ It was critici:ed as scandalous and immoral. Disappointed with its reception% 8ilde revised the novel in 18F1% addin" a preface and si+ new chapters. )he (reface -as 8ilde calls it. anticipates some of the criticism that mi"ht be leveled at the novel and answers critics who char"e The Picture o! Dorian Gra# with bein" an immoral tale. It also succinctly sets forth the tenets of 8ilde7s philosophy of art. Devoted to a school of thou"ht and a mode of sensibility known as aestheticism% 8ilde believed that art possesses an intrinsic valueKthat it is beautiful and therefore has worth% and thus needs serve no other purpose% be it moral or political. )his attitude was revolutionary in Hictorian ,n"land% where popular belief held that art was not only a function of morality but also a means of enforcin" it. In the (reface% 8ilde also cautioned readers a"ainst findin" meanin"s Nbeneath the surfaceO of art. (art "othic novel% part comedy of manners% part treatise on the relationship between art and morality% The Picture o! Dorian Gra# continues to present its readers with a pu::le to sort out. )here is as likely to be as much disa"reement over its meanin" now as there was amon" its Hictorian audience% but% as 8ilde notes near the end of the (reface% NDiversity of opinion about a work of art shows that the work is new% comple+% and vital.O In 18F1% the same year that the second edition of The Picture o! Dorian Gra# was published% 8ilde be"an a homose+ual relationship with ?ord !lfred Dou"las% an aspirin" but rather untalented poet. )he affair caused a "ood deal of scandal% and Dou"las7s father% the mar&uess of Pueensberry% eventually critici:ed it publicly. 8hen 8ilde sued the mar&uess for libel% he himself was convicted under ,n"lish sodomy laws for acts of N"ross indecency.O In 18F$% 8ilde was sentenced to two years of hard labor% durin" which time he wrote a lon"% heartbreakin" letter to ?ord !lfred titled De Pro!undis -?atin for N1ut of the DepthsO.. !fter his release% 8ilde left ,n"land and divided his time between Drance and Italy% livin" in poverty. 3e never published under his own name a"ain% but% in 18F8% he did publish under a pseudonym The 1allad o! Reading Gaol, a len"thy poem about a prisoner7s feelin"s toward another prisoner about to be e+ecuted. 8ilde died in (aris on Covember 0 % 1F % havin" converted to Boman Catholicism on his deathbed.

Plot Overvie&
I n the stately ?ondon home of his aunt% ?ady =randon% the well*known artist =asil 3allward meets Dorian 6ray. Dorian is a cultured% wealthy% and impossibly beautiful youn" man who immediately captures =asil7s artistic ima"ination. Dorian sits for several portraits% and =asil often depicts him as an ancient 6reek hero or a mytholo"ical fi"ure. 8hen the novel opens% the artist is completin" his first portrait of Dorian as he truly is% but% as he admits to his friend ?ord 3enry 8otton% the paintin" disappoints him because it reveals too much of his feelin" for his sub;ect. ?ord 3enry% a famous wit who en;oys scandali:in" his friends by celebratin" youth% beauty% and the selfish pursuit of pleasure% disa"rees% claimin" that the portrait is =asil7s masterpiece. Dorian arrives at the studio% and =asil reluctantly introduces him to ?ord 3enry% who he fears will have a dama"in" influence on the impressionable% youn" Dorian. =asil7s fears are well founded< before the end of their first conversation% ?ord 3enry upsets Dorian with a speech about the transient nature of beauty and youth. 8orried that these% his most impressive characteristics% are fadin" day by day% Dorian curses his portrait% which he believes will one day remind him of the beauty he will have lost. In a fit of distress% he pled"es his soul if only the paintin" could bear the burden of a"e and infamy% allowin" him to

stay forever youn". !fter Dorian7s outbursts% ?ord 3enry reaffirms his desire to own the portrait< however% =asil insists the portrait belon"s to Dorian. 1ver the ne+t few weeks% ?ord 3enry7s influence over Dorian "rows stron"er. )he youth becomes a disciple of the Nnew 3edonismO and proposes to live a life dedicated to the pursuit of pleasure. 3e falls in love with >ibyl Hane% a youn" actress who performs in a theater in ?ondon7s slums. 3e adores her actin"< she% in turn% refers to him as N(rince Charmin"O and refuses to heed the warnin"s of her brother% 5ames Hane% that Dorian is no "ood for her. 1vercome by her emotions for Dorian% >ibyl decides that she can no lon"er act% wonderin" how she can pretend to love on the sta"e now that she has e+perienced the real thin". Dorian% who loves >ibyl because of her ability to act% cruelly breaks his en"a"ement with her. !fter doin" so% he returns home to notice that his face in =asil7s portrait of him has chan"edA it now sneers. Dri"htened that his wish for his likeness in the paintin" to bear the ill effects of his behavior has come true and that his sins will be recorded on the canvas% he resolves to make amends with >ibyl the ne+t day. )he followin" afternoon% however% ?ord 3enry brin"s news that >ibyl has killed herself. !t ?ord 3enry7s ur"in"% Dorian decides to consider her death a sort of artistic triumphKshe personified tra"edyKand to put the matter behind him. 4eanwhile% Dorian hides his portrait in a remote upper room of his house% where no one other than he can watch its transformation. ?ord 3enry "ives Dorian a book that describes the wicked e+ploits of a nineteenth*century Drenchman< it becomes Dorian7s bible as he sinks ever deeper into a life of sin and corruption. 3e lives a life devoted to "arnerin" new e+periences and sensations with no re"ard for conventional standards of morality or the conse&uences of his actions. ,i"hteen years pass. Dorian7s reputation suffers in circles of polite ?ondon society% where rumors spread re"ardin" his scandalous e+ploits. 3is peers nevertheless continue to accept him because he remains youn" and beautiful. )he fi"ure in the paintin"% however% "rows increasin"ly wi:ened and hideous. 1n a dark% fo""y ni"ht% =asil 3allward arrives at Dorian7s home to confront him about the rumors that pla"ue his reputation. )he two ar"ue% and Dorian eventually offers =asil a look at his -Dorian7s. soul. 3e shows =asil the now*hideous portrait% and 3allward% horrified% be"s him to repent. Dorian claims it is too late for penance and kills =asil in a fit of ra"e. In order to dispose of the body% Dorian employs the help of an estran"ed friend% a doctor% whom he blackmails. )he ni"ht after the murder% Dorian makes his way to an opium den% where he encounters 5ames Hane% who attempts to aven"e >ibyl7s death. Dorian escapes to his country estate. 8hile entertainin" "uests% he notices 5ames Hane peerin" in throu"h a window% and he becomes wracked by fear and "uilt. 8hen a huntin" party accidentally shoots and kills Hane% Dorian feels safe a"ain. 3e resolves to amend his life but cannot muster the coura"e to confess his crimes% and the paintin" now reveals his supposed desire to repent for what it isKhypocrisy. In a fury% Dorian picks up the knife he used to stab =asil 3allward and attempts to destroy the paintin". )here is a crash% and his servants enter to find the portrait% unharmed% showin" Dorian 6ray as a beautiful youn" man. 1n the floor lies the body of their masterKan old man% horribly wrinkled and disfi"ured% with a knife plun"ed into his heart.

'haracter /ist
.orian Gray * ! radiantly handsome% impressionable% and wealthy youn" "entleman% whose portrait the artist =asil 3allward paints. 9nder the influence of ?ord 3enry 8otton% Dorian becomes e+tremely concerned with the transience of his beauty and be"ins to pursue his own

pleasure above all else. 3e devotes himself to havin" as many e+periences as possible% whether moral or immoral% ele"ant or sordid. Bead an in*depth analysis of Dorian 6ray. /ord !enry +otton * ! nobleman and a close friend of =asil 3allward. 9rbane and witty% ?ord 3enry is perpetually armed and ready with well*phrased epi"rams critici:in" the moralism and hypocrisy of Hictorian society. 3is pleasure*seekin" philosophy of Nnew 3edonism%O which espouses "arnerin" e+periences that stimulate the senses without re"ard for conventional morality% plays a vital role in Dorian7s development. Bead an in*depth analysis of ?ord 3enry 8otton. ,asil !all&ard * !n artist% and a friend of ?ord 3enry. =asil becomes obsessed with Dorian after meetin" him at a party. 3e claims that Dorian possesses a beauty so rare that it has helped him reali:e a new kind of art< throu"h Dorian% he finds Nthe lines of a fresh school.O Dorian also helps =asil reali:e his artistic potential% as the portrait of Dorian that =asil paints proves to be his masterpiece. Bead an in*depth analysis of =asil 3allward. (ibyl @ane * ! poor% beautiful% and talented actress with whom Dorian falls in love. >ibyl7s love for Dorian compromises her ability to act% as her e+perience of true love in life makes her reali:e the falseness of affectin" emotions onsta"e. James @ane * >ibyl7s brother% a sailor bound for !ustralia. 5ames cares deeply for his sister and worries about her relationship with Dorian. Distrustful of his mother7s motives% he believes that 4rs. Hane7s interest in Dorian7s wealth disables her from properly protectin" >ibyl. !s a result% 5ames is hesitant to leave his sister. Mrs. @ane * >ibyl and 5ames7s mother. 4rs. Hane is a faded actress who has consi"ned herself and her dau"hter to a tawdry theater company% the owner of which has helped her to pay her debts. >he conceives of Dorian 6ray as a wonderful alliance for her dau"hter because of his wealth< this ulterior motive% however% clouds her ;ud"ment and leaves >ibyl vulnerable. %lan 'ampbell * 1nce an intimate friend% !lan Campbell is one of many promisin" youn" men who have severed ties with Dorian because of Dorian7s sullied reputation. /ady %gatha * ?ord 3enry7s aunt. ?ady !"atha is active in charity work in the ?ondon slums. /ord =ermor * ?ord 3enry7s irascible uncle. ?ord Dermor tells 3enry the story of Dorian7s parenta"e. .uchess o" Monmouth * ! pretty% bored youn" noblewoman who flirts with Dorian at his country estate. @ictoria +otton * ?ord 3enry7s wife. Hictoria appears only once in the novel% "reetin" Dorian as he waits for ?ord 3enry. >he is described as an untidy% foolishly romantic woman with Na perfect mania for "oin" to church.O @ictor * Dorian7s servant. !lthou"h Hictor is a trustworthy servant% Dorian becomes suspicious of him and sends him out on needless errands to ensure that he does not attempt to steal a "lance at Dorian7s portrait. Mrs. /ea" * Dorian 6ray7s housekeeper. 4rs. ?eaf is a bustlin" older woman who takes her work seriously.

%nalysis o" Ma3or 'haracters

5orian 2ray

!t the openin" of the novel% Dorian 6ray e+ists as somethin" of an idealA he is the archetype of male youth and beauty. !s such% he captures the ima"ination of =asil 3allward% a painter% and ?ord 3enry 8otton% a nobleman who ima"ines fashionin" the impressionable Dorian into an unremittin" pleasure*seeker. Dorian is e+ceptionally vain and becomes convinced% in the course of a brief conversation with ?ord 3enry% that his most salient characteristicsKhis youth and physical attractivenessKare ever wanin". )he thou"ht of wakin" one day without these attributes sends Dorian into a tailspinA he curses his fate and pled"es his soul if only he could live without bearin" the physical burdens of a"in" and sinnin". 3e lon"s to be as youthful and lovely as the masterpiece that =asil has painted of him% and he wishes that the portrait could a"e in his stead. 3is vulnerability and insecurity in these moments make him e+cellent clay for ?ord 3enry7s willin" hands.

Dorian soon leaves =asil7s studio for ?ord 3enry7s parlor% where he adopts the tenets of Nthe new 3edonismO and resolves to live his life as a pleasure*seeker with no re"ard for conventional morality. 3is relationship with >ibyl Hane tests his commitment to this philosophyA his love of the youn" actress nearly leads him to dispense with ?ord 3enry7s teachin"s% but his love proves to be as shallow as he is. 8hen he breaks >ibyl7s heart and drives her to suicide% Dorian notices the first chan"e in his portraitKevidence that his portrait is showin" the effects of a"e and e+perience while his body remains ever youthful. Dorian e+periences a moment of crisis% as he wei"hs his "uilt about his treatment of >ibyl a"ainst the freedom from worry that ?ord 3enry7s philosophy has promised. 8hen Dorian decides to view >ibyl7s death as the achievement of an artistic ideal rather than a needless tra"edy for which he is responsible% he starts down the steep and slippery slope of his own demise. !s Dorian7s sins "row worse over the years% his likeness in =asil7s portrait "rows more hideous. Dorian seems to lack a conscience% but the desire to repent that he eventually feels illustrates that he is indeed human. Despite the beautiful thin"s with which he surrounds himself% he is unable to distract himself from the dissipation of his soul. 3is murder of =asil marks the be"innin" of his endA althou"h in the past he has been able to sweep infamies from his mind% he cannot shake the thou"ht that he has killed his friend. Dorian7s "uilt tortures him relentlessly until he is forced to do away with his portrait. In the end% Dorian seems punished by his ability to be influencedA if the new social order celebrates individualism% as ?ord 3enry claims% Dorian falters because he fails to establish and live by his own moral code.
4or) Henry 6otton

?ord 3enry is a man possessed of Nwron"% fascinatin"% poisonous% deli"htful theories.O 3e is a charmin" talker% a famous wit% and a brilliant intellect. 6iven the seductive way in which he leads conversation% it is little wonder that Dorian falls under his spell so completely. ?ord 3enry7s theories are radical< they aim to shock and purposefully attempt to topple established% untested% or conventional notions of truth. In the end% however% they prove naVve% and ?ord 3enry himself fails to reali:e the implications of most of what he says. ?ord 3enry is a relatively static characterKhe does not under"o a si"nificant chan"e in the course of the narrative. 3e is as coolly composed% unshakable% and possessed of the same dry wit in the final pa"es of the novel as he is upon his introduction. =ecause he does not chan"e while Dorian and =asil clearly do% his philosophy seems amusin" and enticin" in the first half

of the book% but improbable and shallow in the second. ?ord 3enry muses in Chapter Cineteen% for instance% that there are no immoral books< he claims that N[t]he books that the world calls immoral are books that show the world its own shame.O =ut since the decadent book that ?ord 3enry lends Dorian facilitates Dorian7s downfall% it is difficult to accept what ?ord 3enry says as true. !lthou"h ?ord 3enry is a self*proclaimed hedonist who advocates the e&ual pursuit of both moral and immoral e+perience% he lives a rather staid life. 3e participates in polite ?ondon society and attends parties and the theater% but he does not indul"e in sordid behavior. 9nlike Dorian% he does not lead innocent youths to suicide or travel inco"nito to the city7s most despised and desperate &uarters. ?ord 3enry thus has little notion of the practical effects of his philosophy. 3is claim that Dorian could never commit a murder because N[c]rime belon"s e+clusively to the lower ordersO demonstrates the limitations of his understandin" of the human soul. It is not surprisin"% then% that he fails to appreciate the profound meanin" of Dorian7s downfall.
1asil Hall.ar)

=asil 3allward is a talented% thou"h somewhat conventionally minded% painter. 3is love for Dorian 6ray chan"es the way he sees art< indeed% it defines a new school of e+pression for him. =asil7s portrait of Dorian marks a new phase of his career. =efore he created this masterwork% he spent his time paintin" Dorian in the veils of anti&uityKdressed as an ancient soldier or as various romantic fi"ures from mytholo"y. 1nce he has painted Dorian as he truly is% however% he fears that he has put too much of himself into the work. 3e worries that his love% which he himself describes as Nidolatry%O is too apparent% and that it betrays too much of himself. )hou"h he later chan"es his mind to believe that art is always more abstract than one thinks and that the paintin" thus betrays nothin" e+cept form and color% his emotional investment in Dorian remains constant. 3e seeks to protect Dorian% voicin" his ob;ection to ?ord 3enry7s in;urious influence over Dorian and defendin" Dorian even after their relationship has clearly dissolved. =asil7s commitment to Dorian% which ultimately proves fatal% reveals the "enuineness of his love for his favorite sub;ect and his concern for the safety and salvation of Dorian7s soul.

*hemes4 Moti"s 5 (ymbols

Themes Themes are the fundamental and often universal ideas explored in a literary work. The 7urpose of Art

8hen The Picture o! Dorian Gra# was first published in .ippincott$s %onthl# %aga9ine in 18F % it was decried as immoral. In revisin" the te+t the followin" year% 8ilde included a preface% which serves as a useful e+planation of his philosophy of art. )he purpose of art% accordin" to this series of epi"rams% is to have no purpose. In order to understand this claim fully% one needs to consider the moral climate of 8ilde7s time and the Hictorian sensibility re"ardin" art and morality. )he Hictorians believed that art could be used as a tool for social education and moral enli"htenment% as illustrated in works by writers such as Charles Dickens and 6eor"e 6issin". )he aestheticism movement% of which 8ilde was a ma;or proponent% sou"ht to free art from this responsibility. )he aestheticists were motivated as much by a

contempt for bour"eois moralityKa sensibility embodied in Dorian Gra# by ?ord 3enry% whose every word seems desi"ned to shock the ethical certainties of the bur"eonin" middle classKas they were by the belief that art need not possess any other purpose than bein" beautiful.

If this philosophy informed 8ilde7s life% we must then consider whether his only novel bears it out. )he two works of art that dominate the novelK=asil7s paintin" and the mysterious yellow book that ?ord 3enry "ives DorianKare presented in the vein more of Hictorian sensibilities than of aesthetic ones. )hat is% both the portrait and the Drench novel serve a purposeA the first acts as a type of mysterious mirror that shows Dorian the physical dissipation his own body has been spared% while the second acts as somethin" of a road map% leadin" the youn" man farther alon" the path toward infamy. 8hile we know nothin" of the circumstances of the yellow book7s composition% =asil7s state of mind while paintin" Dorian7s portrait is clear. ?ater in the novel% he advocates that all art be Nunconscious% ideal% and remote.O 3is portrait of Dorian% however% is anythin" but. )hus% =asil7s initial refusal to e+hibit the work results from his belief that it betrays his idoli:ation of his sub;ect. 1f course% one mi"ht consider that these breaches of aesthetic philosophy mold The Picture o! Dorian Gra# into somethin" of a cautionary taleA these are the prices that must be paid for insistin" that art reveals the artist or a moral lesson. =ut this warnin" is% in itself% a moral lesson% which perhaps betrays the impossibility of 8ilde7s pro;ect. If% as Dorian observes late in the novel% the ima"ination orders the chaos of life and invests it with meanin"% then art% as the fruit of the ima"ination% cannot help but mean somethin". 8ilde may have succeeded in freein" his art from the confines of Hictorian morality% but he has replaced it with a doctrine that is% in its own way% ;ust as restrictive.
The Supremacy of 0outh and (eauty

)he first principle of aestheticism% the philosophy of art by which 1scar 8ilde lived% is that art serves no other purpose than to offer beauty. )hrou"hout The Picture o! Dorian Gra#, beauty rei"ns. It is a means to revitali:e the wearied senses% as indicated by the effect that =asil7s paintin" has on the cynical ?ord 3enry. It is also a means of escapin" the brutalities of the worldA Dorian distances himself% not to mention his consciousness% from the horrors of his actions by devotin" himself to the study of beautiful thin"sKmusic% ;ewels% rare tapestries. In a society that pri:es beauty so hi"hly% youth and physical attractiveness become valuable commodities. ?ord 3enry reminds Dorian of as much upon their first meetin"% when he laments that Dorian will soon enou"h lose his most precious attributes. In Chapter >eventeen% the Duchess of 4onmouth su""ests to ?ord 3enry that he places too much value on these thin"s< indeed% Dorian7s eventual demise confirms her suspicions. Dor althou"h beauty and youth remain of utmost importance at the end of the novelKthe portrait is% after all% returned to its ori"inal formKthe novel su""ests that the price one must pay for them is e+ceedin"ly hi"h. Indeed% Dorian "ives nothin" less than his soul.
The Superficial +ature of Society

It is no surprise that a society that pri:es beauty above all else is a society founded on a love of surfaces. 8hat matters most to Dorian% ?ord 3enry% and the polite company they keep is not whether a man is "ood at heart but rather whether he is handsome. !s Dorian evolves into the reali:ation of a type% the perfect blend of scholar and socialite% he e+periences the freedom to abandon his morals without censure. Indeed% even thou"h% as =asil warns% society7s elite

&uestion his name and reputation% Dorian is never ostraci:ed. 1n the contrary% despite his Nmode of life%O he remains at the heart of the ?ondon social scene because of the NinnocenceO and Npurity of his face.O !s ?ady Carborou"h notes to Dorian% there is little -if any. distinction between ethics and appearanceA Nyou are made to be "oodKyou look so "ood.O
The +e"ative Conse>uences of Influence

)he paintin" and the yellow book have a profound effect on Dorian% influencin" him to predominantly immoral behavior over the course of nearly two decades. Beflectin" on Dorian7s power over =asil and decidin" that he would like to seduce Dorian in much the same way% ?ord 3enry points out that there is Nsomethin" terribly enthrallin" in the e+ercise of influence.O Dallin" under the sway of such influence is% perhaps% unavoidable% but the novel ultimately censures the sacrifice of one7s self to another. =asil7s idolatry of Dorian leads to his murder% and Dorian7s devotion to ?ord 3enry7s hedonism and the yellow book precipitate his own downfall. It is little wonder% in a novel that pri:es individualismKthe uncompromised e+pression of selfKthat the sacrifice of one7s self% whether it be to another person or to a work of art% leads to one7s destruction.
Motifs !otifs are recurrin" structures, contrasts, and literary devices that can help to develop and inform the text#s ma$or themes. The 7icture of %orian ray

)he picture of Dorian 6ray% Nthe most ma"ical of mirrors%O shows Dorian the physical burdens of a"e and sin from which he has been spared. Dor a time% Dorian sets his conscience aside and lives his life accordin" to a sin"le "oalA achievin" pleasure. 3is painted ima"e% however% asserts itself as his conscience and hounds him with the knowled"e of his crimesA there he sees the cruelty he showed to >ibyl Hane and the blood he spilled killin" =asil 3allward.
'omoerotic !ale 8elationships

)he homoerotic bonds between men play a lar"e role in structurin" the novel. =asil7s paintin" depends upon his adoration of Dorian7s beauty< similarly% ?ord 3enry is overcome with the desire to seduce Dorian and mold him into the reali:ation of a type. )his camaraderie between men fits into 8ilde7s lar"er aesthetic values% for it returns him to anti&uity% where an appreciation of youth and beauty was not only fundamental to culture but was also e+pressed as a physical relationship between men. !s a homose+ual livin" in an intolerant society% 8ilde asserted this philosophy partially in an attempt to ;ustify his own lifestyle. Dor 8ilde% homose+uality was not a sordid vice but rather a si"n of refined culture. !s he claimed rather romantically durin" his trial for N"ross indecencyO between men% the affection between an older and youn"er man places one in the tradition of (lato% 4ichelan"elo% and >hakespeare.
The Color )hite

Interestin"ly% Dorian7s tra;ectory from fi"ure of innocence to fi"ure of de"radation can be charted by 8ilde7s use of the color white. 8hite usually connotes innocence and blankness% as it does when Dorian is first introduced. It is% in fact% Nthe white purityO of Dorian7s boyhood that ?ord 3enry finds so captivatin". =asil invokes whiteness when he learns that

Dorian has sacrificed his innocence% and% as the artist stares in horror at the ruined portrait% he &uotes a biblical verse from the =ook of IsaiahA N)hou"h your sins be as scarlet% yet I will make them as white as snow.O =ut the days of Dorian7s innocence are over. It is a &uality he now eschews% and% tellin"ly% when he orders flowers% he demands Nas few white ones as possible.O 8hen the color appears a"ain% in the form of 5ames Hane7s faceKNlike a white handkerchiefOKpeerin" in throu"h a window% it has been transformed from the color of innocence to the color of death. It is this threatenin" pall that makes Dorian lon"% at the novel7s end% for his Nrose*white boyhood%O but the hope is in vain% and he proves unable to wash away the stains of his sins.
Symbols Symbols are ob$ects, characters, fi"ures, and colors used to represent abstract ideas or concepts. The &pium %ens

)he opium dens% located in a remote and derelict section of ?ondon% represent the sordid state of Dorian7s mind. 3e flees to them at a crucial moment. !fter killin" =asil% Dorian seeks to for"et the awfulness of his crimes by losin" consciousness in a dru"*induced stupor. !lthou"h he has a canister of opium in his home% he leaves the safety of his neat and proper parlor to travel to the dark dens that reflect the de"radation of his soul.
.ames 9ane

5ames Hane is less a believable character than an embodiment of Dorian7s tortured conscience. !s >ibyl7s brother% he is a rather flat caricature of the aven"in" relative. >till% 8ilde saw him as essential to the story% addin" his character durin" his revision of 18F1. !ppearin" at the dock and later at Dorian7s country estate% 5ames has an almost spectral &uality. ?ike the "host of 5acob 4arley in Charles Dickens7s A Christmas Carol, who warns >croo"e of the sins he will have to face% 5ames appears with his face Nlike a white handkerchiefO to "oad Dorian into acceptin" responsibility for the crimes he has committed.
The 0ellow (ook

?ord 3enry "ives Dorian a copy of the yellow book as a "ift. !lthou"h he never "ives the title% 8ilde describes the book as a Drench novel that charts the outra"eous e+periences of its pleasure*seekin" prota"onist -we can fairly assume that the book in &uestion is 5oris*Iarl 3uysman7s decadent nineteenth*century novel : Rebours, translated as N!"ainst the 6rainO or N!"ainst CatureO.. )he book becomes like holy scripture to Dorian% who buys nearly a do:en copies and bases his life and actions on it. )he book represents the profound and dama"in" influence that art can have over an individual and serves as a warnin" to those who would surrender themselves so completely to such an influence.

*he Pre"ace8'hapter *&o

8e are punished for our refusals. ,very impulse that we strive to stran"le broods in the mind% and poisons us. ->ee Important Puotations ,+plained.

Summary: The Prefa(e

)he (reface is a series of epi"rams% or concise% witty sayin"s% that e+press the ma;or points of 1scar 8ilde7s aesthetic philosophy. In short% the epi"rams praise beauty and repudiate the notion that art serves a moral purpose.
Summary: Chapter 7ne

)he novel be"ins in the ele"antly appointed ?ondon home of =asil 3allward% a well*known artist. =asil discusses his latest portrait with his friend% the clever and scandalously amoral ?ord 3enry 8otton. ?ord 3enry admires the paintin"% the sub;ect of which is a "or"eous% "olden*haired youn" man. =elievin" it to be =asil7s finest work% he insists that the painter e+hibit it. =asil% however% refuses% claimin" that he cannot show the work in public because he has put too much of himself into it. 8hen ?ord 3enry presses him for a more satisfyin" reason% =asil reluctantly describes how he met his youn" sub;ect% whose name is Dorian 6ray% at a party. 3e admits that% upon seein" Dorian for the first time% he was terrified< indeed% he was overcome by the feelin" that his life was Non the ver"e of a terrible crisis.O Dorian has become% however% an ob;ect of fascination and obsession for =asil% who sees the youn" man every day and declares him to be his sole inspiration. =asil admits that he cannot brin" himself to e+hibit the portrait because the piece betrays the Ncurious artistic idolatryO that Dorian inspires in him. ?ord 3enry% astonished by this declaration% remembers where he heard the name Dorian 6ray beforeA his aunt% ?ady !"atha% mentioned that the youn" man promised to help her with charity work in the slums of ?ondon. !t that moment% the butler announces that Dorian 6ray has arrived% and ?ord 3enry insists on meetin" him. =asil reluctantly a"rees but be"s his friend not to try to influence the youn" man. !ccordin" to =asil% Dorian has a Nsimple and a beautiful natureO that could easily be spoiled by ?ord 3enry7s cynicism.
Summary: Chapter T.o

Dorian 6ray proves to be every bit as a handsome as his portrait. =asil introduces him to ?ord 3enry% and Dorian be"s ?ord 3enry to stay and talk to him while he sits for =asil. =asil warns Dorian that ?ord 3enry is a bad influence% and Dorian seems intri"ued by this idea. ?ord 3enry a"rees to stay and% while =asil puts the finishin" touches on the portrait% discusses his personal philosophy% which holds that Nthe hi"hest of all duties [is] the duty that one owes to one7s self.O 8hile =asil continues to work% ?ord 3enry escorts Dorian into the "arden% where he praises Dorian7s youth and beauty and warns him how surely and &uickly those &ualities will fade. 3e ur"es Dorian to live life to its fullest% to spend his time Nalways searchin" for new sensationsO rather than devotin" himself to NcommonO or Nvul"arO pastimes. =asil calls the men inside% and Dorian sits for another &uarter of an hour until the portrait is complete. It is a thin" of remarkable beautyKNthe finest portrait of modern times%O ?ord 3enry tells =asilKbut lookin" at it makes Dorian unhappy. Bememberin" ?ord 3enry7s warnin" about the advance of a"e% he reflects that his portrait will remain youn" even as he himself "rows old and wrinkled. 3e curses this fate and pled"es his soul N[i]f it were only the other way.O =asil tries to comfort the youn" man% but Dorian pushes him away. Declarin" that he will not allow the paintin" to ruin their friendship% =asil makes a move to destroy it. Dorian stops him% sayin" that he loves the paintin"% and a relieved =asil promises to "ive it to

him as a "ift. Dorian and ?ord 3enry depart after Dorian promises% despite =asil7s ob;ections% to "o to the theater with ?ord 3enry later that evenin".
Analysis: The Prefa(eChapter T.o

)he (reface to The Picture o! Dorian Gra# is a collection of epi"rams that aptly sums up the philosophical tenets of the artistic and philosophical movement known as aestheticism. !estheticism% which found its footin" in ,urope in the early nineteenth century% proposed that art need not serve moral% political% or otherwise didactic ends. 8hereas the romantic movement of the early and mid*nineteenth century viewed art as a product of the human creative impulse that could be used to learn more about humankind and the world% the aesthetic movement denied that art must necessarily be an instructive force in order to be valuable. Instead% the aestheticists believed% art should be valuable in and of itselfKart !or art$s sake/ Cear the end of the nineteenth century% 8alter (ater% an ,n"lish essayist and critic% su""ested that life itself should be lived in the spirit of art. 3is views% especially those presented in a collection of essays called The Renaissance, had a profound impact on the ,n"lish poets of the 18F s% most notably 1scar 8ilde.

!estheticism flourished partly as a reaction a"ainst the materialism of the bur"eonin" middle class% assumed to be composed of philistines -individuals i"norant of art. who responded to art in a "enerally unrefined manner. In this climate% the artist could assert him* or herself as a remarkable and rarefied bein"% one leadin" the search for beauty in an a"e marked by shameful class ine&uality% social hypocrisy% and bour"eois complacency. Co one latched onto this attitude more boldly% or with more flair% than 1scar 8ilde. 3is determination to live a life of beauty and to mold his life into a work of art is reflected in the beliefs and actions of several characters in 8ilde7s only novel. The Picture o! Dorian Gra# has often been compared to the famous 6erman le"end of Daust% immortali:ed in Christopher 4arlowe7s si+teenth*century play Doctor )austus and in 5ohann 8olf"an" von 6oethe7s nineteenth*century poem )aust/ )he le"end tells of a learned doctor who sells his soul to the devil in return for knowled"e and ma"ical abilities. !lthou"h Dorian 6ray never contracts with the devil% his sacrifice is similarA he trades his soul for the lu+ury of eternal youth. Dor its overtones of supernaturalism% its refusal to satisfy popular morality% and its portrayal of homoerotic culture% The Picture o! Dorian Gra# was met with harsh criticism. 4any considered the novel dan"erously subversive% one offended critic callin" it Na poisonous book% the atmosphere of which is heavy with the mephitic odours of moral and spiritual putrefaction.O )he fear of a badKor "oodKinfluence is% in fact% one of the novel7s primary concerns. !s a work that sets forth a philosophy of aestheticism% the novel &uestions the de"ree and kind of influence a work of art can have over an individual. Durthermore% since the novel conceives of art as includin" a well*lived life% it is also interested in the kind of influence one person can have over another. !fter all% the artful ?ord 3enry himself has as profound an effect upon Dorian7s life as =asil7s paintin" does. 8hile ?ord 3enry e+ercises influence over other characters primarily throu"h his skillful use of lan"ua"e% it is Dorian7s beauty that seduces the characters with whom he associates. =asil% a serious artist and rather dull moralist% admits that Dorian has had N[s]ome subtle influenceO over him< it is this influence that =asil is certain that his paintin" reveals. !s he confides to

?ord 3enry% NI have put into it some e+pression of all this curious artistic idolatry.O 9ltimately% however% ?ord 3enry7s brilliant speech is a much more influential force than aesthetic beauty. 3is witty and bitin" epi"rams threaten to seduce not only the impressionable youn" Dorian but the reader as well. ?ord 3enry7s ironic speech cuts throu"h social convention and hypocrisy to reveal une+pected% unpleasant truths. )he characters whose lifestyles ?ord 3enry critici:es resist his e+treme theories. =asil7s resistance to ?ord 3enry7s ar"ument that scandal is a function of class typifies the reactions of the characters whom ?ord 3enry critici:es< after all% their position and comfort depend upon the hypocrisies he tends to e+pose. )o some de"ree% every character in the novel is seduced by ?ord 3enry7s philosophies% Dorian 6ray more so than anyone else. In these openin" chapters% Dorian emer"es as an incredibly impressionable youn" man% someone who =asil fears is open to the NinfluenceO of ?ord 3enry% which will NspoilO him. =asil7s fear is well founded% as before the end of his first conversation with ?ord 3enry% Dorian is Ndimly conscious that entirely fresh influences were at work within him.O

'hapters *hree8=our
Summary: Chapter Three

>hortly after his first meetin" with Dorian 6ray% ?ord 3enry visits his uncle% ?ord Dermor% a N"enial if somewhat rou"h*manneredO old nobleman. 8hen ?ord 3enry asks his uncle about Dorian 6ray7s past% the old man tells him that Dorian comes from an unhappy family with a dark% tan"led history. 3e relates that Dorian7s mother% a noblewoman% eloped with a poor soldier< the woman7s father% a villainous old lord% arran"ed to have his dau"hter7s husband killed ;ust before Dorian was born. )he "rievin" widow died soon thereafter% leavin" Dorian to be raised by a loveless tyrant. 8ith this information% ?ord 3enry becomes increasin"ly fascinated with Dorian< he finds the story romantic and deli"hts in the thou"ht that he mi"ht influence the youn" man% makin" Nthat wonderful spirit his own.O

>hortly thereafter% ?ord 3enry "oes to dine at the home of his aunt% ?ady !"atha% where several of ?ondon7s elite upper classKDorian includedKhave "athered. ?ord 3enry scandali:es the "roup by "oin" on at len"th about the virtues of hedonism and selfishness and mockin" his aunt7s philanthropic efforts. NI can sympathi:e with everythin"%O he remarks at one point% Ne+cept sufferin".O 3e insists that one7s life should be spent appreciatin" beauty and seekin" out pleasure rather than searchin" for ways to alleviate pain and tra"edy. 4any of the "uests are appalled by his selfishness% but he is so clever and witty that they are charmed in spite of themselves. Dorian 6ray is particularly fascinated% so much so that he leaves with ?ord 3enry and abandons his earlier plans to visit =asil.
Summary: Chapter 8our

1ne month later% while waitin" in ?ord 3enry7s home for his host to arrive% Dorian discusses music with ?ord 3enry7s wife% Hictoria. 8hen ?ord 3enry arrives% Dorian rushes to him% ea"er to share the news that he has fallen in love. )he "irl% he reports% is >ibyl Hane% an actress who plays >hakespeare7s heroines in repertoire in a cheap ?ondon theater. Dorian admits to discoverin" her while wanderin" throu"h the slumsA inspired by ?ord 3enry7s advice to Nknow everythin" about life%O he had entered a playhouse. Despite the tawdriness of the locale and his disdain for the theater owner% Dorian decided that the star% >ibyl Hane% was

the finest actress he had ever seen. !fter several trips to the theater% the owner insisted that Dorian meet 4s. Hane% who% awed by the attentions of such a handsome "entleman% declared that she would refer to him as N(rince Charmin".O ?ord 3enry% amused by this development% a"rees to accompany Dorian to see >ibyl Hane play the lead in Romeo and &uliet the followin" ni"ht. =asil is to ;oin them% and Dorian remarks that =asil sent him his portrait% framed% a few days earlier. !fter Dorian leaves% ?ord 3enry muses on his influence over the youn" man% reflectin" on how fascinatin" the psycholo"y of another human bein" can be. 3e then dresses and "oes out to dinner. 3e comes home late that ni"ht and finds a tele"ram from Dorian waitin" for him. It states that he is en"a"ed to be married to >ibyl Hane.
Analysis: Chapters Three8our

The Picture o! Dorian Gra# is a curious mi+ture of different "enres. It displays 8ilde7s incomparable talent for social comedy and satire% even as it veers toward the formula for 6othic literature. 6othic fiction% which was tremendously popular in the late ei"hteenth and early nineteenth centuries% focused on tales of romance% cruelty% and horror. =y the end of the nineteenth century% the formula had chan"ed considerably% but these basic tenets remained intact. Dorian7s mysterious and melodramatic herita"e alludes to conventions of the 6othic novelA his wicked "randfather% his parents7 cursed elopement% his father7s murder% and his mother7s early death represent a type of moody romance popular amon" 6othic authors. !s the critic Donald ?awler points out% Dorian7s ancestry is identical to that of the main characters in three of 8ilde7s short stories. )he first two chapters of the novel show ?ord 3enry7s powers of seduction% but in Chapters )hree and Dour ?ord 3enry himself is seduced. >trictly speakin"% it is not a person who draws ?ord 3enry in% but the possibility of havin" a profound effect on a person% namely DorianA Nthere was somethin" terribly enthrallin" in the e+ercise of influence.O )o pro;ect his soul onto Dorian and sei:e his spirit ;ust as Dorian has sei:ed =asil7s ima"ination becomes ?ord 3enry7s "reatest desire. In ?ord 3enry7s mind% life and art are not only connected but interchan"eable. =y moldin" Dorian into Na marvellous typeO of boy% ?ord 3enry believes that he is counterin" the effects of Nan a"e so limited and vul"arO as his own. 3e ima"ines that he will take his place amon" such masters as the "reat Italian artist 4ichelan"elo% with whom he shares the imperative to create somethin" of beauty. )he fact that ?ord 3enry considers the life of another human bein" a viable medium for artistic e+pression indicates N[t]he new manner in artO that 8ilde so tirelessly advocated. Indeed% many readers mi"ht find ?ord 3enry heartless% "iven his willin"ness to watch Dorian7s development with practically no thou"ht of conse&uence. !fter all% Dorian7s beauty is all that matters to him% and N[i]t was no matter [to ?ord 3enry] how it all ended% or was destined to end.O )his behavior merely links ?ord 3enry to the tenets of aestheticism% whereby beauty is of primary importance% and vice and virtueKas 8ilde states in the novel7s prefaceKare nothin" more than Nmaterials for an art.O

If the openin" chapters position the three main characters in a trian"ular relationship% wherein ?ord 3enry and =asil vie for Dorian7s soul and affections% ?ord 3enry &uickly wins at the end of Chapter )hree. In Dorian7s declaration that he will miss his appointment with =asil in order to hear ?ord 3enry speak% we see that ?ord 3enry7s hopes to dominate and influence the youn" man have more or less been fulfilled. Dorian "ives his affections over lar"ely

because of ?ord 3enry7s conversational skill< he asks ?ord 3enry to Npromise to talk to me all the time.O Indeed% ?ord 3enry is a "reat talker% a wonderful philosopher of Nthe new 3edonism%O but% unlike Dorian% he acts on nothin" that would dama"e his respectable reputation or life.

'hapters =ive8(ix
4odern morality consists in acceptin" the standard of one7s a"e. I consider that for any man of culture to accept the standard of his a"e is a form of the "rossest immorality. ->ee Important Puotations ,+plained.
Summary: Chapter 8ive

!t the Hane household% >ibyl Hane is deliriously happy over her romance with Dorian 6ray. 4rs. Hane% her mother% is less enthusiastic% and she alternately worries over Dorian7s intentions and hopes that her dau"hter will benefit from his obvious wealth. >ibyl7s brother% 5ames% is also rather cautious re"ardin" the match. !s a sailor preparin" to depart for !ustralia% 5ames arrives to say his "ood*byes and warns his mother that she must watch over >ibyl. 4rs. Hane assures him that admirers such as Dorian 6ray are not uncommon to actresses% and that there is no reason not to Ncontract an allianceO with one so wealthy. Impatient with his mother7s Naffectations%O 5ames takes >ibyl on a walk. Bather than discuss her (rince Charmin"% >ibyl chatters on about the adventures 5ames is certain to find in !ustralia. >he ima"ines him discoverin" "old but then% thinkin" this life too dan"erous% states that he will be better off as a &uiet sheep farmer.

5ames cannot shake the feelin" that he is leavin" his sister at an inopportune time. 3e doubts both Dorian7s intentions and his mother7s ability to protect >ibyl from them. Dinally% 5ames asks >ibyl about her suitor. 3e warns her a"ainst Dorian% and >ibyl carries on about the ecstasy of her new love. !s the two sit and watch Nthe smart people "o by%O >ibyl sees Dorian pass in an open carria"e. >he points him out% but he is "one before 5ames sees him. 5ames swears fiercely that if Dorian ever wron"s her% he will track down her N(rince Charmin"O and kill him. >ibyl pled"es undyin" devotion to Dorian. ?ater that ni"ht% 5ames confronts his mother% askin" her whether she was ever married to his father. 4rs. Hane answers no% and 5ames be"s her not to let >ibyl meet the same fate. =efore departin"% 5ames a"ain pled"es to kill Dorian should >ibyl ever come to harm by him.
Summary: Chapter Si9

)hat evenin" over dinner% ?ord 3enry announces to =asil Dorian7s plan to marry >ibyl. =asil e+presses concern that Dorian has decided to marry so far beneath his social position. ?ord 3enry claims that he himself cannot pass such ;ud"ment and that he is simply interested in observin" the boy and his e+periences% re"ardless of the outcome. =asil doubts that ?ord 3enry would be so cavalier if Dorian7s life was% in fact% Nspoiled%O but ?ord 3enry insists that Nno life is spoiled but one whose "rowth is arrested.O Dorian enters% and he relates the story of his en"a"ement% which was precipitated by his seein" >ibyl play the >hakespearean heroine Bosalind -in As You .ike 8t.. Dorian% in a state of tremendous e+citement% remarks that his love for >ibyl and his desire to live only for her have

shown him the falsehood of all of ?ord 3enry7s seductive theories about the virtues of selfishness. ?ord 3enry% by no means discoura"ed by Dorian7s speech% defends his point of view by claimin" that it is nature% not he% who dictates the pursuit of pleasure. )he three men make their way to a theater in the slums where >ibyl Hane is to perform that ni"ht.
Analysis: Chapters 8iveSi9

Critical reception of The Picture o! Dorian Gra# was mi+ed% with many readers condemnin" the novel as decadent or unmanly. )he relationship between ?ord 3enry and Dorian% as well the one of =asil and Dorian% is clearly homoerotic% and must have shocked readers who valued Hictorian respectability. !lthou"h 8ilde stops short of statin" that =asil and ?ord 3enry have se+ual feelin"s for Dorian% the lan"ua"e he uses to describe their devotion to Dorian is unmistakably the lan"ua"e of deep% romantic intimacy. 8ilde7s lan"ua"e of irony facilitates dod"in" direct statements< in one scene% for e+ample% althou"h the ostensible topic of conversation is Dorian as a sub;ect for portraits% the e+chan"e between =asil and ?ord 3enry betrays the romantic nature of =asil7s feelin"sA
?/ord 'enry:@ ;Tell me more about !r %orian ray. 'ow often do you see himA< ?(asil 'allward:@ ;*very day. I couldn#t be happy if I didn#t see him everyday. 'e is absolutely necessary to me.<

4en do have relationships with women in the novelKDorian falls in love with >ibyl and ?ord 3enry himself is marriedKbut the novel7s heterose+ual relationships prove to be rather superficial and short*lived. If the novel is homoerotic% it is also miso"ynistic. Hictoria 8otton% like most of the women in the novel% is depicted with no real depthA she is briefly -and not kindly. introduced% never to be heard from a"ain. )he most si"nificant female character in the novel is >ibyl% who seems to fulfill ?ord 3enry7s observation that N[w]omen are a decorative se+.O )here is precious little substance to >ibyl7s character% as becomes clear in followin" chapters when she so easily "ives up her "reatest talent in order to pursue a relationship with Dorian. In this section% as she strolls throu"h the park with 5ames% she emer"es as a rather foolishly romantic youn" woman. >he is perfectly content to fall in love with a stran"er whom she knows only by the fairy*tale name with which she has christened him. Indeed% >ibyl is little more than a placeholder in a prefabricated romance. Dorian says nearly as much when he describes the thrill of seein" her placed Non a pedestal of "old . . . to see the world worship the woman who is mine.O )his sentiment confirms ?ord 3enry7s e"o*driven philosophy of women as ornaments as well as the male*centered focus of 8ilde7s narrative "a:eA menK particularly their relationships and the influence they brin" to bear upon one anotherKmatter most in The Picture o! Dorian Gra#/

4ore important than ?ord 3enry7s philosophy of the role of women% however% is his insistence on the necessity of individualism. !s a mode of thinkin"% individualism took center sta"e durin" the nineteenth century. It was first celebrated by the Bomantics% who% in the early 18 s% decided that free and spontaneous e+pression of the self was the true source of art and literature. )he Bomantics re;ected the ei"hteenth*century sensibility that sou"ht to imitate and reproduce the classical models of ancient 6reece and Bome% which were perceived as too styli:ed to allow for the e+pression of anythin" "enuine or relevant. 3oldin" the self as the center of creation% Bomanticism inevitably emphasi:ed personal freedom% sensory e+perience% and the special status of the artist. =y the time 8ilde wrote The Picture o! Dorian Gra#, however% the romantic belief that man could reali:e these thin"s in himself by returnin" to

nature had lar"ely faded. Indeed% 8ilde7s novel marks an interestin" shift in the chan"in" philosophy of the times. Dor althou"h the residue of the Bomantic movement can be seen in Dorian7s storyK?ord 3enry advocates that nothin" should hinder the freedom of the artistic individual7s developmentKthe means by which that development occurs in the story is noticeably different. In the world of The Picture o! Dorian Gra#, art is to be made by submer"in" oneself in society rather than escapin" from it.
Summary: Chapter Seven

)he theater is crowded when the men arrive. Dorian continues to wa+ elo&uent about >ibyl7s beauty% and =asil assures Dorian that he will support the marria"e wholeheartedly since Dorian is so obviously in love. 8hen the play be"ins% however% >ibyl is terrible% and her actin" only worsens as the evenin" wears on. 9nable to understand the chan"e that has come over his beloved% Dorian is heartbroken. =asil and ?ord 3enry leave him% and he makes his way backsta"e to find >ibyl% who is &uite happy despite her dreadful performance. >he e+plains that before she met Dorian and e+perienced true love% she was able to inhabit other characters and feel their emotions easily% which made possible her success as an actress. Cow% however% these pretend emotions no lon"er interest her% since they pale in relation to her real feelin"s for Dorian. >he reali:es that Nthe words I had to speak were unreal% were not my words% were not what I wanted to say.O !s a result% she declares that her career on the sta"e is over. Dorian% horrified by this decision% reali:es that he was in love not with her but with her actin". 3e spurns her cruelly and tells her that he wishes never to see her a"ain.

!fter a ni"ht spent wanderin" the streets of ?ondon% Dorian returns to his home. )here% he looks at =asil7s portrait of him and notices the paintin" has chan"edKa faint sneer has appeared at the corner of his likeness7s mouth. 3e is astonished. Bememberin" his wish that the paintin" would bear the burden and marks of a"e and lifestyle for him% Dorian is suddenly overcome with shame about his behavior toward >ibyl. 3e pulls a screen in front of the portrait and "oes to bed% resolvin" to make amends with >ibyl in the mornin".
Summary: Chapter Ei'ht

Dorian does not awake until well after noon the ne+t day. 8hen he "ets up% he "oes to check the paintin". In the li"ht% the chan"e is unmistakable< the face in the portrait has become crueler. 8hile the stunned Dorian tries to come up with some rational e+planation for the chan"e% ?ord 3enry arrives with terrible newsA >ibyl committed suicide the previous ni"ht. Dorian is stunned% but ?ord 3enry mana"es to convince him that he should not "o to the police and e+plain his part in the "irl7s death. ?ord 3enry ur"es Dorian not to wallow in "uilt but% rather% to re"ard >ibyl7s suicide as a perfect artistic representation of undyin" love and appreciate it as such. Dorian% who feels numb rather than an"uished% is convinced by his friend7s seductive words and a"rees to "o to the opera with him that very ni"ht. 8hen ?ord 3enry is "one% Dorian reflects that this incident is a turnin" point in his e+istence% and he resolves to accept a life of N[e]ternal youth% infinite passion% pleasures subtle and secret% wild ;oy and wilder sins%O in which his portrait% rather than his own body% will bear the marks of a"e and e+perience. 3avin" made this resolution% he ;oins ?ord 3enry at the opera.

Analysis: Chapters SevenEi'ht

Dorian7s romance with >ibyl represents the possibility that he will not accept ?ord 3enry7s philosophy and will instead learn to pri:e human bein"s and emotions over art. 3is love for her allows him to resist ?ord 3enry7s seductive words% notin" to ?ord 3enry% N8hen I am with her% I re"ret all that you have tau"ht me. . . . [)]he mere touch of >ibyl Hane7s hand makes me for"et you and all your wron"% fascinatin"% poisonous% deli"htful theories.O =ut ;ust as ?ord 3enry appreciates Dorian as a work of art rather than as a human bein"% what Dorian values most about >ibyl is her talent as an actressKher ability to portray an ideal% not her true self. )he e+tent of ?ord 3enry7s influence is painfully clear as Dorian heartlessly snubs >ibyl% who claims that her real love for him prohibits her from actin" out such emotions onsta"e. >urely% to modern readers% >ibyl7s devotion to DorianKnot to mention her "rief over losin" himKseems a bit melodramatic. >he is a rather thinly drawn character% but she serves two important functions. Dirst% she forces us to &uestion what precisely art is and when its effects are "ood. >econd% she shows the pernicious conse&uences of a philosophy that places beauty and self*pleasure above consideration for others. >ibyl7s tra"ic fate enables us to be as critical of 8ilde7s philosophies as he himself was at the end of his life. >ibyl7s claim that Dorian "ives her Nsomethin" hi"her% somethin" of which all art is but a reflectionO stands in undeniable contrast to ?ord 3enry7s philosophy% in which art is the hi"hest e+perience and life imitates art rather than vice versa. Indeed% time and a"ain% ?ord 3enry deli"hts in i"norin" the si"nificance of human emotions. ,ven thou"h >ibyl7s conception of art as a reflection of "rand emotions counters ?ord 3enry7s -and 8ilde7s. philosophy of art% it resonates throu"hout the remainder of the novel. Indeed% >ibyl7s philosophy is echoed in the very portrait of Dorian% since it is a reflection of Dorian7s true self. )he answer to the narrator7s &uestion as to whether the chan"in" portrait N[w]ould Z teach [Dorian] to loathe his own soulO is yes% as Dorian "rows increasin"ly uncomfortable over the course of the novel with what the disfi"ured portrait si"nifies about himself. !s the novel pro"resses and the paintin" continues to re"ister the effects of time and dissipation% we see the de"ree to which Dorian is undone by the sins that his portrait reflects and the de"ree to which he suffers for allowin" the paintin" to act as a Nvisible emblem of conscience.O )he a"in" of Dorian7s likeness in the portrait ultimately contradicts some of ?ord 3enry7sKand 8ilde7sK beliefs about artA the paintin" does not e+ist in a moral vacuum. Instead% the paintin" both shows the deleterious effects of sin and "ives Dorian a sense of freedom from morality< it thus influences and is influenced by morality.

'hapters :ine8*en
MesA there was to be . . . a new 3edonism that was to re*create life% and to save it from that harsh% uncomely puritanism. . . . ->ee Important Puotations ,+plained.
Summary: Chapter 3ine

)he ne+t day% =asil comes to offer his condolences to Dorian% but Dorian dismisses the memory of >ibyl li"htly and easily% remarkin"% N8hat is done is done. 8hat is past is past.O 3orrified at the chan"e in Dorian% =asil blames ?ord 3enry for Dorian7s heartless attitude.

Indeed% in discussin" >ibyl7s death% Dorian uses many of the same phrases and ar"uments that ?ord 3enry favors and evokes a similar air of unaffected composure. 3e claims that >ibyl7s death elevates her Ninto the sphere of art.O Dorian asks =asil to do a drawin" of >ibyl so that he has somethin" by which to remember her. =asil a"rees and be"s Dorian to return to his studio for a sittin". 8hen Dorian refuses% =asil asks if he is displeased with his portrait% which =asil means to show at an e+hibition. 8hen =asil "oes to remove the screen with which Dorian has covered the paintin"% Dorian7s composure cracks. Dorian insists that the work never appear in public and pled"es never to speak to =asil a"ain should he touch the screen. Bememberin" =asil7s ori"inal refusal to show the paintin"% Dorian asks why he has chan"ed his mind. =asil confesses that he was worried that the paintin" would reveal his obsession with Dorian. Cow% however% =asil believes that the paintin"% like all art% Nconceals the artist far more completely than it ever reveals him.O =asil a"ain asks Dorian to sit for him% and Dorian a"ain refuses. 8hen =asil leaves% Dorian decides to hide his portrait.
Summary: Chapter Ten

1nce =asil is "one% Dorian orders his servant% Hictor% to "o to a nearby frame*maker and brin" back two men. 3e then calls his housekeeper% 4rs. ?eaf% whom he asks for the key to the schoolroom% which sits at the top of the house and has been unused for nearly five years. Dorian covers the portrait with an ornate satin coverlet% reflectin" that the sins he commits will mar its beauty ;ust as worms mar the body of a corpse. )he men from the frame*maker7s arrive% and Dorian employs them to carry the paintin" to the schoolroom. 3ere% Dorian muses% the paintin" will be safe from pryin" eyes% and if no one can actually see his deterioration% then it bears no importance. !fter lockin" the room% he returns to his study and settles down to read a book that ?ord 3enry has sent him. )his yellow book is accompanied by a newspaper account of >ibyl7s death. 3orrified by the u"liness of the report% Dorian turns to the book% which traces the life of a youn" (arisian who devotes his life to Nall the passions and modes of thou"ht that belon"ed to every century e+cept his own.O !fter readin" a few pa"es% Dorian becomes entranced. 3e finds the work to be Na poisonous book%O one that confuses the boundaries between vice and virtue. 8hen Dorian meets ?ord 3enry for dinner later that evenin"% he pronounces the work fascinatin". Is insincerity such a terrible thin"Q I think not. It is merely a method by which we can multiply our personalities. ->ee Important Puotations ,+plained.
Analysis: Chapters 3ineTen

>ibyl7s death compels Dorian to make the conscious decision to embrace ?ord 3enry7s philosophy of selfishness and hedonism wholeheartedly. )he contrast between Dorian7s and =asil7s reactions to >ibyl7s death demonstrates the de"ree to which ?ord 3enry has chan"ed Dorian. Dorian dismisses the need for "rief in words that echo ?ord 3enry7sA >ibyl need not be mourned% he proclaims% for she has Npassed . . . into the sphere of art.O In other words% Dorian thinks of >ibyl7s death as he would the death of a character in a novel or paintin"% and chooses not to be affected emotionally by her passin". )his attitude reveals one way in which the novel blurs the distinction between life and art. Dorian himself passes Ninto the sphere of artO when his portrait reflects the physical manifestations of a"e and sin. 8hile it is usually paintin"s that never a"e and people who do% it is the other way around with Dorian% as he has become more like a work of art than a human.

=asil7s declaration of his obsession with Dorian is in many ways a defense and ;ustification of homose+ual love. In 18F$% five years after Dorian Gra# was published% 8ilde was famously convicted of sodomy for his romantic relationship with ?ord !lfred Dou"las. 8ilde defended homose+ual love as an emotion e+perienced by some of the world7s "reatest men. 3e insisted that it had its roots in ancient 6reece and was% therefore% fundamental to the development of 8estern thou"ht and culture. In his trial% when asked to describe the Nlove that dare not speak its name%O 8ilde e+plained it as
such a "reat affection of an elder for a youn"er man as there was between %avid and .onathan, such as 7lato made the very basis of his philosophy, and such as you find in the sonnets of !ichelan"elo and Shakespeare. . . . It is beautiful, it is fine, it is the noblest form of affection. There is nothin" unnatural about it.

)his testimony is strikin"ly similar to Dorian7s reflection upon the kind of affection that =asil shows himA
?I@t was really love=?it@ had nothin" in it that was not noble and intellectual. It was not that mere physical admiration of beauty that is born of the senses, and that dies when the senses tire. It was such love as !ichael An"elo had known, and !ontai"ne, and )inckelmann, and Shakespeare himself.

=asil translates these hi"hly emotional and physical feelin"s into his art< his act of paintin" is an e+pression of his love for Dorian. )his romantic devotion to Dorian becomes clear when he admits his reason for not wantin" to e+hibit the paintin"A he fears that people will see his Nidolatry.O

Dorian reflects% for a moment% that with this love =asil mi"ht have saved him from ?ord 3enry7s influence% but he soon resi"ns himself to livin" a life dictated by the pursuit of passion. 3e devours the mysterious Nyellow bookO that ?ord 3enry "ives him% which acts almost as a "uide for the ;ourney on which he is to travel. ?ike the prota"onist of that novel% Dorian spirals into a world of self*"ratification and e+otic sensations. !lthou"h 8ilde% in letters% identified the novel as ima"inary% it is based in part on the nineteenth*century Drench novel : Rebours -N!"ainst the 6rainO or N!"ainst CatureO.% by 5oris*Iarl 3uysmans% in which a decadent and wealthy Drenchman indul"es himself in a host of bi:arre sensory e+periences. )he yellow book has profound influence on Dorian< one mi"ht ar"ue that it leads to his downfall. )his downfall occurs not because the book itself is immoral -one need only recall the (reface7s insistence that N[t]here is no such thin" as a moral or an immoral bookO. but because Dorian allows the book to dominate and determine his actions so completely. It becomes% for Dorian% a doctrine as limitin" and stultifyin" as the common Hictorian morals from which he seeks escape. !fter all% ?ord 3enry is a "reat fan of the yellow book% but% to his mind% it is no "reater or more important than any other work of notable art. 3e does not let it dominate his life or determine his actions% which% in turn% allows him to retain the respectability that Dorian soon loses.
Summary: Chapter Eleven

9nder the influence of the Nyellow book%O Dorian7s character be"ins to chan"e. 3e orders nearly a do:en copies of the first edition and has them bound in different colors to suit his

shiftin" moods. Mears pass. Dorian remains youn" and beautiful% but he is trailed by rumors that he indul"es in dark% sordid behavior. 4ost people cannot help but dismiss these stories% since Dorian7s face retains an unblemished look of NpurityO and Ninnocence.O Dorian deli"hts in the ever*widenin" "ulf between the beauty of his body and the corruption of his soul. 3e reflects that too much of human e+perience has been sacrificed to NasceticismO and pled"es to live a life devoted to discoverin" Nthe true nature of the senses.O !lways intellectually curious% Dorian keeps up on the theories of the dayKfrom mysticism to antinomianism to DarwinismKbut he never lets these theories dominate him or interfere with his e+periences. 3e devotes himself to the study of beautiful thin"sA perfumes and their psycholo"ical effects% music% ;ewelry% embroideries% and tapestries.

Dorian continues to watch the painted ima"e of himself a"e and deteriorate. >ometimes the si"ht of the portrait fills him with horror% while other times he reflects ;oyfully on the burdens that his body has been spared. =ut he fears that someone will break into his house and steal the paintin"< he knows many men who whisper of scandal behind his back and would deli"ht in his downfall.
Summary: Chapter T.elve

1n the eve of his thirty*ei"hth birthday% Dorian runs into =asil on a fo"*covered street. 3e tries to pass him unreco"ni:ed% but =asil calls out to him and accompanies him home. =asil mentions that he is about to leave for a si+*month stay in (aris but felt it necessary to stop by and warn Dorian that terrible rumors are bein" spread about his conduct. =asil reminds Dorian that there are no such thin"s as Nsecret vicesOA sin% he claims% Nwrites itself across a man7s face.O 3avin" said these words% he demands to know why so many of Dorian7s friendships have ended disastrously. 8e learn that one boy committed suicide% and others had their careers or reputations ruined. =asil chastises Dorian for his influence over these unfortunate youths and ur"es him to use his considerable sway for "ood rather than evil. 3e adds that he wonders if he knows Dorian at all and wishes he were able to see the man7s soul. Dorian lau"hs bitterly and says that the artist shall have his wish. 3e promises to show =asil his soul% which% he notes% most people believe only 6od can see. =asil decries Dorian7s speech as blasphemous% and he be"s Dorian to deny the terrible char"es that have been made a"ainst him. >milin"% Dorian offers to show =asil the diary of his life% which he is certain will answer all of =asil7s &uestions.
Analysis: Chapters ElevenT.elve

In the ei"hteen years that pass over the course of these two chapters% Dorian under"oes a profound psycholo"ical and behavioral transformation% thou"h he remains the same physically. !lthou"h his behavior is% in part% a function of the 6othic nature of 8ilde7s taleK his mysterious% potentially dan"erous behavior contributes to the novel7s darknessKDorian does not simply devolve into a villain. )hou"h he e+hibits inhuman behavior as he carelessly tosses aside his protL"Ls -and his sins are only to become worse.% he never completely sheds his conscience. )his divide further manifests itself in that when Dorian looks at the paintin" of his dissipated self% he Nsometimes loath[es] it and himself%O while at other times he is overwhelmed by Nthat pride of individualism that is half the fascination of sin% and smil[es] with secret pleasure at the misshapen shadow that had to bear the burden that should have been his own.O )his tension points to the conflicted nature of Dorian7s character.

8e mi"ht consider Dorian7s search for artistic and intellectual enli"htenmentKmuch of which is catalo"ued in Chapter ,levenKan attempt to find refu"e from the stru""le between mindless e"otism and "nawin" "uilt. Indeed% Dorian lives a life marked by fear and suspicion. 3e finds it difficult to leave ?ondon% "ivin" up the country villa he shares with ?ord 3enry for fear that someone will stumble upon the dreaded portrait in his absence. 1ne can ar"ue that Dorian turns to the study of perfumes% ;ewels% musical instruments% and tapestries as a source of comfort. Certainly Dorian7s "reatest reason for indul"in" in the studies that 8ilde describes at len"th is his disenchantment with the a"e in which he lives. Commonly referred to as the fin*de*siYcle -Drench for Nend of the centuryO. period% the 18F s in ,n"land and ,urope were marked by a world*weary sensibility that sou"ht to free humanity from Nthe asceticism that deadens the senses.O In art% this so*called asceticism referred primarily to artistic styles known as naturalism and realism% both of which aimed at reproducin" the world as it is and ascribed a moral purpose to art. Dorian% takin" the teachin"s of ?ord 3enry and the mysterious yellow book as scripture% believes that hedonism is the means by which he will rise above the Nharsh% uncomely puritanismO of his a"e. )his philosophy counters Nany theory or system that would involve the sacrifice of any mode of passionate e+perience%O which echoes the (reface7s insistence that artists should not make distinctions between virtue and vice. !ccordin" to this line of thinkin"% an e+perience is valuable in and of itself% re"ardless of its moral implications. Certainly% as Dorian lives his life under the rubric of aesthetic philosophy% he comes to appreciate the seductive beauty of the darker side of life% feelin" Na curious deli"ht in the thou"ht that !rt% like Cature% has her monsters% thin"s of bestial shape and with hideous voices.O

! possible seed of Dorian7s undoin" mi"ht be his intellectual development. Dorian is supposedly the personification of a typeKa perfect blend of the scholar and the socialiteK who lives his life% as ?ord 3enry dictates% as an individualist. Indeed% we are told that Nno theory of life seemed to him to be of any importance compared with life itself.O =ut% parado+ically% even the tenets of Dorian7s Nnew 3edonismO prove constrictin". It appears that he may have allowed himself to be too stron"ly influenced by ?ord 3enry and the yellow book% and that the philosophy of hedonism% meant to spare its followers from the conformities of dullin" Hictorian morality% may have simply become another% e&ually limitin" doctrine.

'hapters *hirteen8=ourteen
Summary: Chapter Thirteen

Dorian leads =asil to the room in which he keeps the paintin" locked. Inside% Dorian li"hts a candle and tears the curtain back to reveal the portrait. )he paintin" has become hideous% a Nfoul parodyO of its former beauty. =asil stares at the horrifyin" paintin" in shockA he reco"ni:es the brushwork and the si"nature as his own. Dorian stands back and watches =asil with Na flicker of triumph in his eyes.O 8hen =asil asks how such a thin" is possible% Dorian reminds him of the day he met ?ord 3enry% whose cautionary words about the ephemeral nature of beauty caused Dorian to pled"e his soul for eternal% unblemished youth. =asil curses the paintin" as Nan awful lesson%O believin" he worshipped the youth too much and is now bein" punished for it. 3e be"s Dorian to kneel and pray for for"iveness% but Dorian claims it is too late. 6lancin" at his picture% Dorian feels hatred wellin" up within him. 3e sei:es a knife and stabs =asil repeatedly. 3e then opens the door and listens for the sound of anyone

stirrin". 8hen he is satisfied that no one has heard the murder% he locks the room and returns to the library. Dorian hides =asil7s belon"in"s in a secret compartment in the wall% then slips &uietly out to the street. !fter a few moments% he returns% wakin" his servant and thus creatin" the impression that he has been out all ni"ht. )he servant reports that =asil has been to visit% and Dorian says he is sorry to have missed him.
Summary: Chapter 8ourteen

)he ne+t mornin"% Dorian wakes from a restful sleep. 1nce the events of the previous ni"ht sink in% he feels the return of his hatred for =asil. 3e decides not to brood on these thin"s for fear of makin" himself ill or mad. !fter breakfast% he sends for !lan Campbell% a youn" scientist and former friend from whom he has "rown distant. 8hile waitin" for Campbell to arrive% Dorian passes the time with a book of poems and reflects on his once intimate relationship with the scientistA the two were% at one point% inseparable. 3e also draws pictures and reflects on his drawin"s7 similarity to =asil7s likeness. Dorian then wonders if Campbell will come and is relieved when the servant announces his arrival. Campbell has come reluctantly% havin" been summoned on a matter of life and death. Dorian confesses that there is a dead man locked in the uppermost room of his house% thou"h he refrains from discussin" the circumstances of the man7s death. 3e asks Campbell to use his knowled"e of chemistry to destroy the body. Campbell refuses. Dorian admits that he murdered the man% and Campbell reiterates that he has no interest in becomin" involved. Dorian blackmails Campbell% threatenin" to reveal a secret that would brin" "reat dis"race on him. 8ith no alternative% Campbell a"rees to dispose of the body and sends a servant to his home for the necessary e&uipment. Dorian "oes upstairs to cover the portrait and notices that one of the hands on the paintin" is drippin" with red% Nas thou"h the canvas had sweated blood.O Campbell works until evenin"% then leaves. 8hen Dorian returns to the room% the body is "one% and the odor of nitric acid fills the room.
Analysis: Chapters Thirteen8ourteen

Chapters )hirteen and Dourteen take a decided turn for the macabreA the murder of =asil and the "ruesome way it is reflected in the portraitKNas thou"h the canvas had sweated bloodOK root the novel firmly in the 6othic tradition% where darkness and supernatural horrors rei"n. In this settin"% it becomes a challen"e for 8ilde to keep his hero from becomin" a flat archetype of menacin" evil. 4uch to his credit% he mana"es to keep Dorian a somewhat sympathetic character% even as he commits an unspeakable crime and blackmails a once dear friend to help him cover it up. Dorian remains worthy of sympathy because we see clearly the failure of his stru""le to rise above a troubled conscience. 8ith a murder added to his "rowin" list of sins% Dorian wants nothin" more than to be able to shru" off his "uiltA he perceives =asil7s corpse as a Nthin"O sittin" in a chair and tries to lose himself in the lines of a Drench poet. )he most tellin" evidence of Dorian7s "uilt can be seen as he sits waitin" for the arrival of !lan Campbell< Dorian draws and soon remarks that Nevery face that he drew seemed to have a fantastic likeness to =asil 3allward.O )his scene resonates with the Chapter Cine scene in which Dorian asks the artist to draw a picture of >ibyl Hane so that he may better remember herA in both instances% the hedonistic Dorian betrays his "nawin" conscience. )hrou"hout the novel% =asil acts as a sort of moral ballast% remindin" ?ord 3enry and Dorian of the price that must be paid for their pleasure seekin". In these chapters% he provides a fascinatin" counterpoint to the philosophy by which Dorian lives. Befusin" to believe that the

dissipation of a soul can occur without notice% he claims that N[i]f a wretched man has a vice% it shows itself in the lines of his mouth% the droop of his eyelids% the mouldin" of his hands even.O )he introduction of such an opposin" view discloses 8ilde7s love of contradiction. In his essay N)he )ruth of 4asks%O 8ilde wrote that N[a] )ruth in art is that whose contradictory is also true.O Indeed% the truth of The Picture o! Dorian Gra#, if one is to be found% emer"es from oppositions. !fter all% as Dorian reflects while "a:in" upon his ruined portrait% art depends as much upon horror as it does upon Nmarvellous beauty%O ;ust as one7s bein" is always the synthesis of a N3eaven and 3ell.O ?ike the other secondary characters in the novel% !lan Campbell is introduced and rather &uickly i"nored. 3is appearance% however% plays a vital role in establishin" the darkenin" mood of the novel. )he macabre e+periments that he is accustomed to conductin" as a chemist provide him with the knowled"e that Dorian finds so necessary. Durthermore% the secrets that surround his personal life contribute to the air of mystery that surrounds Dorian. It is si"nificant that the reader never learns the details of the circumstances by which Dorian blackmails Campbell. 6iven 8ilde7s increasin"ly indiscreet lifestyle and the increasin"ly hostile social attitudes toward homose+uality that flourished at the end of the nineteenth century% the reader can assume that Campbell7s trans"ression is of a se+ual nature. In 188$% the =ritish (arliament passed the ?abouchere !mendment% which widened prohibitions a"ainst male homose+ual acts to include not only sodomy -which was punishable by death until 1861. but also N"ross indecencyO -meanin" oral se+.% an offense that carried a two*year prison term. 1scar 8ilde himself was eventually found "uilty of the latter offense. )his new law was commonly known as the =lackmailer7s Charter. )hus% !lan Campbell% a seemin"ly inconse&uential character% serves as an important indicator of the social pre;udices and punishments in 8ilde7s time.
Summary: Chapter 8ifteen

)hat evenin"% Dorian "oes to a dinner party% at which he flirts with bored noblewomen. Beflectin" on his calm demeanor% he feels Nkeenly the terrible pleasure of a double life.O ?ady Carborou"h% the hostess% discusses the sad life of her dau"hter% who lives in a re"ion of the countryside that has not witnessed a scandal since the time of Pueen ,li:abeth. Dorian finds the party tedious and bri"htens only when he learns ?ord 3enry will be in attendance.

Durin" dinner% after ?ord 3enry has arrived% Dorian finds it impossible to eat. ?ord 3enry asks him what is the matter. ?ady Carborou"h su""ests that Dorian is in love% thou"h Dorian assures her that she is wron". )he party*"oers talk wittily about marria"e% and the ladies then leave the "entlemen to their Npolitics and scandal.O ?ord 3enry and Dorian discuss a party to be held at Dorian7s country estate. ?ord 3enry then casually asks about Dorian7s whereabouts the ni"ht before< Dorian7s calm facade cracks a bit and he snaps out a stran"e% defensive response. Bather than ;oin the women upstairs% Dorian decides to "o home early. 1nce Dorian arrives home% he retrieves =asil7s belon"in"s from the wall compartment and burns them. 3e "oes to an ornate cabinet and% openin" one of its drawers% draws out a canister of opium. !t midni"ht% he dresses in common clothes and hires a coach to brin" him to a ?ondon nei"hborhood where the city7s opium dens prosper.

Summary: Chapter Si9teen

!s the coach heads toward the opium dens% Dorian recites to himself ?ord 3enry7s credoA N)o cure the soul by means of the senses% and the senses by means of the soul.O 3e decides that if he cannot be for"iven for his sins% he can at least for"et them< herein lies the appeal of the opium dens and the oblivion they promise. )he coach stops% and Dorian e+its. 3e enters a s&ualid den and finds a youth named !drian >in"leton% whom rumor says Dorian corrupted. !s Dorian prepares to leave% a woman addresses him as Nthe devil7s bar"ainO and N(rince Charmin".O !t these words% a sailor leaps to his feet and follows Dorian to the street. !s he walks alon"% Dorian wonders whether he should feel "uilty for the impact he has had on !drian >in"leton7s life. 3is meditation is cut short% however% when he is sei:ed from behind and held at "unpoint. Dacin" him is 5ames Hane% >ibyl7s brother% who has been trackin" Dorian for years in hopes of aven"in" >ibyl7s death. 5ames does not know Dorian7s name% but the reference to N(rince Charmin"O makes him decide that it must be the man who wron"ed his sister. Dorian points out% however% that the man 5ames seeks was in love with >ibyl ei"hteen years a"o< since he% Dorian% has the face of a twenty*year*old man% he cannot possibly be the man who wron"ed >ibyl. 5ames releases him and makes his way back to the opium den. )he old woman tells 5ames that Dorian has been comin" there for ei"hteen years and that his face has never a"ed a day in all that time. Durious at havin" let his prey escape% 5ames resolves to hunt him down a"ain.
Analysis: Chapters 8ifteeenSi9teen

8hen ?ord 3enry alludes to the N;!<in de si=cleO -or Nend of the centuryO. in Chapter Difteen% he refers more to the sensibilities that flourished in the 18F s than the chronolo"ical time period. In this decade% many people in continental ,urope and ,n"land felt an unshakable sense of discontent. )he values that once seemed to structure life and "ive it meanin" were apparently lost. )wo main reasons for this disenchantment were linked to the public functions of art and morality% which% in Hictorian ,n"land% seemed ine+tricably connected. !rt% it was thou"ht% should function as a moral barometer< to the minds of many% this dictum left room for only the most restrictive morals and the most unima"inative art. )he term Nfin de siYcleO therefore came to describe a mode of thinkin" that sou"ht to escape this disenchantment and restore beauty to art and reshape -and broaden. public understandin"s of morality. In a way% thou"h Dorian lives a life very much in tune with fin*de*siYcle thinkin"% he re;ects Hictorian morals in favor of self*determined ethics based on pleasure and e+perience% and he retainsKand is tortured byKa very Hictorian mind*set. Indeed% by viewin" the paintin" of himself as Nthe most ma"ical of mirrors%O Dorian disavows the tenets of aestheticism that demand that art be completely freed of its connection to morality. )he picture becomes the "au"e by which Dorian measures his downfall and serves as a constant reminder of the sins that pla"ue his conscience. If we understand Dorian as a victim of this Hictorian circumstance% we can read his drastic course of action in a more sympathetic li"ht. Indeed% by Chapter >i+teen% he is a man desperate to for"et the sins for which he believes he can never be for"iven. !s he sinks into the sordidness of the ?ondon docks and their opium dens% he reflectsA
B"liness was the one reality. The coarse brawl, the loathsome den, the crude violence of disordered life, the very vileness of thief and outcast, were more vivid, in their intense actuality of impression, than all the "racious shapes of Art, the dreamy shadows of Son".

3ere% Dorian7s thou"hts echo Drench poets like Charles =audelaire and !rthur Bimbaud% who believed that the description of intense e+perience was the key to true beauty% even -or perhaps especially. when the e+perience itself was somethin" sordid% u"ly% or "rotes&ue. Indeed% in this trip to the opium den% Dorian intends to do nothin" less than Ncure the soul by means of the senses% and the senses by means of the soul.O 1f course% what Dorian finds in the opium den has a far less curative effect than he hopes. )he presence of !drian >in"leton% a youn" man whose downfall and subse&uent dru" addiction is at least partially Dorian7s fault% pains Dorian7s conscience and makes it impossible for him to Nescape from himself.O )he reintroduction of 5ames Hane makes this idea of escape &uite literal. )he aven"in" brother is% admittedly% a rather weak -albeit convenient. plot device that 8ilde added to his 18F1 revision of the novel. If Dorian fears and wishes to escape from himself% we can consider 5ames the physical incarnation of that fearA 5ames e+ists to precipitate the troubled Dorian7s final breakdown.

'hapters (eventeen8Eighteen
Summary: Chapter Seventeen

! week later% Dorian entertains "uests at his estate at >elby. 3e talks with ?ord 3enry% the Duchess of 4onmouth% and her husband< they discuss the nature and importance of beauty. )he duchess critici:es ?ord 3enry for placin" too "reat a value on beauty. )he conversation turns to love< ?ord 3enry maintains that love% like life% depends upon repeatin" a "reat e+perience over and over a"ain. Dorian a"rees and e+cuses himself from his company. ?ord 3enry chastises the duchess for her flirtations. >oon% they hear a "roan from the other end of the conservatory. )hey rush to find that Dorian has fallen in a swoon. !t dinner% Dorian feels occasional chills of terror as he recalls that% before faintin"% he saw the face of 5ames Hane pressed a"ainst the conservatory window.
Summary: Chapter Ei'hteen

)he followin" day% Dorian does not leave the house. )he thou"ht of fallin" prey to 5ames Hane dominates himA every time he closes his eyes% the ima"e of 5ames7s face in the window reappears. 3e be"ins to wonder% thou"h% if this apparition is a fi"ment of his ima"ination. )he idea that his conscience could assert such fearful visions terrifies Dorian and makes him wonder if he will "et any rest. 1n the third day after the incident% Dorian ventures out. 3e strolls alon" the "rounds of his estate and feels reinvi"orated. 3e reflects to himself that the an"uish that recently kept him in bed is completely a"ainst his nature. 3e has breakfast with the duchess and then ;oins a shootin" party in the park. 8hile strollin" alon" with the hunters% Dorian is captivated by the "raceful movement of a hare and be"s his companions not to shoot it. Dorian7s companion lau"hs at Dorian7s silliness and shoots at the hare. )he "unshot is followed by the cry of a man in a"ony. >everal men thrash their way into the bushes to discover that a man has been shot. 3avin" taken Nthe whole char"e of shot in his chest%O the man has died instantly. !s the hunters head back toward the house% Dorian shares his worry with ?ord 3enry that this episode is a Nbad omen.O ?ord 3enry dismisses such notions% assurin" Dorian that destiny is Ntoo wise or too cruelO to send us omens.

!ttemptin" to li"hten the mood% ?ord 3enry teases Dorian about his relationship with the duchess. Dorian assures 3enry that there is no scandal to be had and utters% &uite pathetically% NI wish I could love.O 3e bemoans the fact that he is so concentrated on himself% on his own personality% that he is thus unable to love another person. 3e entertains the idea of sailin" away on a yacht% where he will be safe. 8hen the "entlemen come upon the duchess% Dorian leaves ?ord 3enry to talk to her and retires to his room. )here% the head keeper comes to speak to Dorian. Dorian in&uires about the man who was shot% assumin" him to have been a servant% and offers to make provisions for the man7s family. )he head keeper reports that the man7s identity remains a mystery. !s soon as he learns that the man is an anonymous sailor% Dorian demands to see him. 3e rides to a farm where the body is bein" kept and identifies it as that of 5ames Hane. 3e rides home with tears in his eyes% feelin" safe.
Analysis: Chapters SeventeenEi'hteen

?ord 3enry7s belief% uttered after the fatal huntin" accident% that N[d]estiny does not send us heralds. >he is too wise or too cruel for that%O contrasts with Dorian7s e+perience. In many ways% =asil7s portrait of Dorian illustrates how destiny shapes Dorian7s life% for while Dorian himself remains immune to the effects of time% his ever*deterioratin" likeness in the portrait is indeed an undeniable herald of his ultimate downfall. )he picture interrupts the pleasant reality of Dorian7s life to remind him of his soul7s dissipation. !lthou"h the aestheticists believed that art e+isted for its own sake% Dorian7s e+perience demonstrates the limitations of that view. )he paintin" becomes almost immediately a physical manifestation of conscience< it shows Dorian what is ri"ht and what is wron" in a very literal sense% and he fre&uently inspects the paintin" after committin" an immoral or unethical act to see e+actly how his conscience interprets that act. 9ltimately% then% and in contrast to ?ord 3enry7s philosophies% The Picture o! Dorian Gra# emphasi:es the relationship between art and morality. In addition to complicatin" the reader7s understandin" of art% which% as the novel draws to its close% becomes comple+ and somewhat parado+ical% 8ilde demonstrates his characteristic flair for comedy and bitin" social satire. In Chapter >eventeen% Dorian7s conversation with the Duchess of 4onmouth and ?ord 3enry testifies to one of the skills that made 8ilde the most celebrated playwri"ht of his day. 3is brilliantly witty dialo"ue is responsible for his status as one of the most effective practitioners of the comedy of manners. ! comedy of manners revolves around the comple+ and sophisticated behavior of the social elite% amon" whom one7s character is determined more by appearance than by moral behavior. Certainly% by this definition% ?ord 3enry becomes somethin" of a hero in the novel% as% even by his own admission% he cares much more for the beautiful than for the "ood.

6iven the increasin" seriousness of Dorian7s pli"ht and the ever*darkenin" state of his mind% the bulk of Chapter >eventeen serves as comic relief% as the dialo"ue between the duchess and ?ord 3enry is li"ht and full of witticisms. )heir e+chan"e points to the relatively shallow nature of their society% in which love and morality amount to an appreciation of surfacesA as another lady of society reminds Dorian in Chapter Difteen% Nyou are made to be "oodKyou look so "ood.O 3ere% morality is a function not of action or belief but of mere appearances. ?ord 3enry7s dismissive conception of ,n"land as a land founded on beer% the =ible% and repressive% unima"inative virtues serves as bitin" commentary of traditional% middle*class ,n"lish morality. !ccordin" to ?ord 3enry% a population whose tastes run to malt li&uor and whose morality is determined by Christian do"ma is doomed to produce little of artistic value.

3is sentiments ali"n with the aesthetics7 desire to free themselves -and art. from the bonds of conventional morality and sensibilities. >ympathetic as 8ilde himself was to ?ord 3enry7s opinions% he provides here a vital counterpoint to these opinionsA the duchess7s criticism that ?ord 3enry values beauty too hi"hly be"s us to ask the same &uestion of Dorian and the aesthetic philosophy that dominates his life.

'hapters :ineteen8*&enty
!rt has no influence upon action. . . . )he books that the world calls immoral are books that show the world its own shame. ->ee Important Puotations ,+plained.
Summary: Chapter 3ineteen

>everal weeks have passed% it seems% and Dorian visits ?ord 3enry. Dorian claims that he wants to reform himself and be virtuous. !s evidence of his newfound resolve% Dorian describes a recent trip to the country durin" which he passed up an opportunity to seduce and defile an innkeeper7s innocent dau"hter. ?ord 3enry dismisses Dorian7s intentions to reform% and he turns the conversation to other sub;ectsK!lan Campbell7s recent suicide and the continued mystery of =asil 3allward7s disappearance. Dorian asks if ?ord 3enry has ever considered that =asil mi"ht have been murdered. ?ord 3enry dismisses the idea% notin" that =asil lacked enemies. Dorian then asksA N8hat would you say% 3arry% if I told you that I had murdered =asilQO ?ord 3enry lau"hs and responds that murder is too vul"ar for a man like Dorian.

)he conversation drifts away from =asil. ?ord 3enry then asks Dorian% NR[8]hat does it profit a man if he "ain the whole world and lose7Khow does the &uotation runQKRhis own soul7QO Dorian starts nervously< ?ord 3enry e+plains that he heard a street preacher posin" this &uestion to a crowd. 3e mocks the man in his typical fashion% but Dorian cuts him short% insistin" that the soul is very real. ?ord 3enry lau"hs at the su""estion% wonderin" aloud how Dorian has mana"ed to remain so youn" after all these years. 3e wishes he knew Dorian7s secret and praises Dorian7s life as bein" Ne+&uisite.O 3e commends Dorian7s mode of livin" and be"s him not to spoil it by tryin" to be virtuous. Dorian somberly asks his friend not to loan anyone else the Nyellow book%O which has had such a corruptin" effect upon his own character% but ?ord 3enry discounts his Nmorali:[in"]O and remarks that N[a]rt has no influence upon action. . . . )he books that the world calls immoral are books that show the world its own shame.O =efore leavin"% ?ord 3enry invites Dorian to visit him the ne+t day.
Summary: Chapter T.enty

)hat ni"ht% Dorian "oes to the locked room to look at his portrait. 3e hopes his decision to amend his life will have chan"ed the paintin"% and he considers that perhaps his decision not to ruin the innkeeper7s dau"hter7s reputation will be reflected in the painted face. =ut when Dorian looks at his portrait% he sees there is no chan"eKe+cept that Nin the eyes there was a look of cunnin"% and in the mouth the curved wrinkle of the hypocrite.O 3e reali:es his pitiful attempt to be "ood was no more than hypocrisy% an attempt to minimi:e the seriousness of his crimes that falls far short of atonement. Durious% he sei:es a knifeKthe same weapon with which he killed =asilKand drives it into the portrait in an attempt to destroy it.

Drom below% Dorian7s servants hear a cry and a clatter. =reakin" into the room% they see the portrait% unharmed% showin" Dorian 6ray as a beautiful youn" man. 1n the floor is the body of an old man% horribly wrinkled and disfi"ured% with a knife plun"ed into his heart. It is not until the servants e+amine the rin"s on the old man7s hands that they identify him as Dorian 6ray.
Analysis: Chapters 3ineteenT.enty

)he contrast between ?ord 3enry and Dorian in Chapter Cineteen is instructive. 8hen the novel be"ins% ?ord 3enry appears as a fi"ure of worldly wisdom who seduces the naVve Dorian with fawnin" compliments and a celebration of selfishness and hedonism. Cow that Dorian has actually li ed the philosophy that ?ord 3enry so elo&uently champions% however% he stands as proof of the limitationsKindeed% even the mis"uided notionsKof that philosophy. In the novel7s final pa"es% Dorian is world*weary and borne down by the wei"ht of his sins% while ?ord 3enry seems almost childishly naVve as he repeats his lon"*held but poorly informed beliefs. 8hen Dorian all but confesses to =asil7s murder% ?ord 3enry flippantly dismisses him% since his worldview holds that N[c]rime belon"s e+clusively to the lower orders.O 1nly ?ord 3enry% who has never actually done any of the thin"s he has inspired Dorian to do% could have the lu+ury of this thou"ht. =y keepin" himself free from sin% even as he ar"ues the virtues of sinnin"% ?ord 3enry lacks the terrible awareness of "uilt and its debilitatin" effects. 8hile the street preacher7s rhetorical &uestion about earthly "ain at the cost of spiritual loss -from the Cew )estament% 4ark 8A06. haunts Dorian% it holds no real meanin" for ?ord 3enry. !t this sta"e% however% not even truthful self*awareness is enou"h to save Dorian. In his final moments% he attempts to repent the murder of =asil% the suicides of >ibyl Hane and !lan Campbell% and his countless other sins by refrainin" from seducin" and ruinin" a naVve villa"e "irl. )he discrepancy between the enormity of his crimes and this minor act of contrition is too "reat. Durthermore% he reali:es that he does not want to confess his sins but rather have them simply "o away. )he portrait reflects this hypocrisy and drives him to his final% desperate act. 3e decides it is better to destroy the last evidence of his sinKthe paintin" of his soulKthan face up to his own depravity. )he depravity he seeks to destroy is% in essence% himself< therefore% by killin" it% he kills himself.

)he end of the novel su""ests a number of possible interpretations of Dorian7s death. It may be his punishment for livin" the life of a hedonist% and for pri:in" beauty too hi"hly% in which case the novel would be a criticism of the philosophy of aestheticism. =ut it is ;ust as possible that Dorian is sufferin" for havin" violated the creeds of aestheticism. In other words% one can ar"ue that Dorian7s belief that his portrait reflects the state of his soul violates the principles of aestheticism% since% within that philosophy% art has no moral component. )his readin" is more in keepin" with 8ilde7s personal philosophies and with the events of his life. In fact% elements of The Picture o! Dorian Gra# have an almost prophetic rin" to them. ?ike =asil 3allward% 8ilde would meet a tra"ic end brou"ht about by his unrestrained worship of a beautiful youn" man. !dditionally% like !lan Campbell% whom Dorian blackmails with va"ue threats of e+posed secrets% 8ilde would be punished for se+ual indiscretions. 6iven the public nature of 8ilde7s trial and entire lifeKhe was% in many ways% the first celebrity personalityK it is impossible to i"nore these parallels while readin" The Picture o! Dorian Gra#. In De Pro!undis, 8ilde7s lon" letter to his lover% written from prison% he admits the limitations of the modes of thou"ht and livin" that structured his lifeA

I let myself be lured into lon" spells of senseless and sensual ease. I amused myself with bein" a flaneur, a dandy, a man of fashion. . . . Tired of bein" on the hei"hts, I deliberately went to the depths in the search for new sensation. )hat the paradox was to me in the sphere of thou"ht, perversity became to me in the sphere of passion. %esire, at the end, was malady, or a madness, or both. I "rew careless of the lives of others, I took pleasure where it pleased me, and passed on. I for"ot that every little action of the common day makes or unmakes character, and that therefore what one has done in the secret chamber one has someday to cry aloud on the house-tops. I ceased to be lord over myself. I was no lon"er the captain of my soul, and did not know it. I allowed pleasure to dominate me. I ended in horrible dis"race.

)he philosophy that The Picture o! Dorian Gra# proposes can be e+tremely seductive and liberatin". =ut 8ilde7s words here reveal that society% conscience% or more likely both to"ether ultimately make livin" that philosophy e+tremely difficult and even painful.

%l"red *ennyson)s -2lysses2eor'e P0 4an)o.: Professor of En'lish an) Art History: 1ro.n ;niversity

[Hictorian 8eb 3ome KX !uthors KX !lfred )ennyson KX 8orks KX )heme and >ub;ect KX Ima"e% >ymbol% and 4otif] DormA 2 lines in four blank verse para"raphs. Dirst published in (oems -18/#.% the poem was written in the first few weeks after )ennyson learned of his friend !rthur 3enry 3allam's death. Hictorians tended to read this poem pretty strai"htforwardly% as an avowal of faith in the necessity of strivin" ever onward. )hey were supported by )ennyson's own statement that this poem @"ave my feelin" about 3allam's death perhaps more simply than anythin" in In 4emoriam%@ his "reat ele"aic lament. =ut modern critics have found @9lysses@ anythin" but simple. (erhaps more than any other sin"le poem% how you read it depends upon your theoretical assumptions about the nature of poetry. 3ere follow a few of the critical appraisals. 4ake up your own &uestions.

1. ,ven thou"h )ennyson said @9lysses@ "ave his feelin" about 3allam's death and @the need for "oin" forward% and bravin" the stru""le of life%@ this account of the poem's meanin" is inconsistent with the desolate melancholy music of the words themselves. #. )ennyson is espousin" a ;ovial a"nosticism totally opposed to the faith endorsed in In 4emoriam. )hus the poem is a dramatic representation of a man who has faith neither in the "ods nor in the necessity of preservin" order in his kin"dom and his own life. 0. )he whole thin" is a monolo"ue interieur% and there is no &uest. It is merely the utterance of a super*annuated hero indul"in" himself in the fantasy that his beloved mariners are still alive. It is a kind of dream% a means of escape momentarily from the uncon"enial environment of Ithaca. /. )he whole thin" is a monolo"ue interieur that takes place on 9lysses's death*bed. )hus he can "reet his dead sailors% and thus he can look forward to e+olorin" the last "reat mysetry% death. -)hese last three possibilities do not necessarily contradict the previous su""estions.. $. )he idea that here )ennyson unlocked his heart depends upon stock responses. If we simply read it as a dramatic poem% one comes to see its speaker as a hi"hly comple+ individual. 6. 9lysses is heroic but bewildered% and the structural inconsistencies in the poem are evidence of the author's -or character's. muddled thinkin". 2. 9lysses is an !ncient 4ariner who has never learned his lesson.

.iscussion Huestions "or %l"red /ord *ennyson)s -2lysses- #&ritten4 6IJJK published4 6ILC$
Philip +0 Allin'ham: Contributin' E)itor: Victorian Web; Asso(iate Professor of En'lish: 4a<ehea) ;niversity: Thun)er 1ay: 7ntario

[Hictorian 8eb 3ome KX !uthors KX !lfred )ennyson KX 8orks KX )heme and >ub;ect KX Ima"e% >ymbol% and 4otif]

[@9lysses@ was first published in (oems. =y !lfred )ennyson.?ondonA ,dward 4o+on% Dover >treet. 18/#. # vols.% pp. vii% #00< vii% #01.] 1. Dante introduces the @crafty@ 9lysses as a @false counsellor@ in Canto UUHI of )he Inferno in )he Divine Comedy< the poet and his "uide% Hir"il% meet the illustrious hero and deviser of the )ro;an 3orse in Circle HIII% =ow"e viii% as a @double*flame@ which he shares with his

compatriot from the )ro;an 8ar% Diomedes. Dante's Hir"il compels 9lysses to narrate the story of his last voya"eA )hen of that a"e*old fire the loftier horn =e"an to mutter and move% as a waverin" flame 8restles a"ainst the wind and is over*worn< !nd% like a speakin" ton"ue vibrant to frame lan"ua"e% the tip of it flickerin" to and fro )hrew out a voice and answered . . . . [lines 88*F0] (en"uin translator Dorothy ?. >ayers' note indicates that the narrative of the last voya"e derives from no known classical source% althou"h an ambi"uous prediction in the 1dyssey implies that the hero will set out a"ainA @from the sea shall thine own death come.@ >ayers describes the inset narrative as @Dante's own invention@ -#0F.% but sees in it the influences of the Celtic voya"es of the 4aelduin and >t. =rendan. Dor the hubristic act of darin" to challen"e the divinely ordained limits of the world% the (illars of 3ercules -6ibraltar.% the hero% his ship% and crew are smashed by a "reat wave ;ust as he catches si"ht of @the mountain of the ,arthly (aradise% which% after Christ's 3arrowin" of 3ell% becomes 4ount (ur"atory K the only land% accordin" to Dante% in the >outhern 3emisphere.@ ->ayers #0F.. !ccordin" to Dante's 9lysses% the voya"e of southern e+ploration ended disastrously when from @out of the unknown land there blew foul weather% [ !nd a whirlwind struck the forepart of the ship@ -lines 102*8.. (erhaps the most si"nificant lines for )ennyson were theseA Co tenderness for my son% nor piety )o my old father% nor the wedded love )hat should have comforted (enelope Could con&uer in me the restless itch to rove !nd rumma"e throu"h the world e+plorin" it . . . .[lines F/*F8] Puestion #A 8hat is the relationship between )ennyson's characteri:ation of 9lysses and the 3omeric and Dantes&ue versions of the le"endary heroQ !nd how does one's decision about that relationship affect the sub;ect and meanin" of the poemQ 0. In this poem )ennyson is elaboratin" upon a conviction he formed at 3allam's death @that life without faith leads to personal and social dislocation@ -Chiasson 16$.. 8hat aspects of the poem support this interpretationQ /. Chiasson believes that )ennyson's persona in @9lysses@ is not the admirable and resourceful hero of the 1dyssey of 3omer but a dramatic renderin" @of a type of human bein" who held a set of ideas which . . . [are] destructive of the whole fabric of his society@ -16$*6.. 8hat evidence from within the poem can you cite to defend or attack Chaisson's assertionQ $. !ccordin" to Chiasson% in @9lysses@ )ennyson e+presses his reali:ation @that 9lyssean determination and coura"e . . . are to be valued only if they contribute to the "ood life% personal and social@ -12#.. )hus% if we are to re"ard )ennyson's persona in a positive li"ht% we must see his final voya"e as potentially productive% as a ;ourney of e+ploration. 8ith what contemporary fi"ures% then% mi"ht Hictorian readers have tended to identify )ennyson's persona in @9lysses@ and whyQ

6. !lthou"h this poem may be classed as a dramatic monolo"ue% it involves a shift in the implied auditor-s. and in tone. Initially% the lan"ua"e of )ennyson's persona has @a hard and incisive &uality% . . . a hardness which includes the startlin" an un*)ennysonian connubial insensitivity of the phrase 'match'd with an a"ed wife'@ -Chiasson 162.. 8hat other e+amples of @a hard and incisive@ lan"ua"e do you detect in the first part of the poemQ !t what point does the tonal &uality be"in to shiftQ 8hat is the nature of this chan"eQ 2. 8hereas )ennyson's persona in @9lysses@ may be said to represent @the life of infinite search%@ )ennyson's )elemachus acts as a foil to the persona by standin" for @the life of conscientious absorption in duty@ -Chiasson 16F.. Is 9lysses' attitude towards his son one of "rud"in" admiration or thinly dis"uised contemptQ Is 9lysses trustworthy when he praises his son's ability to compromise% his patience% prudence% and administrative capabilities% or is he merely rationali:in" his own abandonment of the people of IthacaQ 9lysses% after all% was renowned for his "uilefulness and deception% even in Dante's Inferno % which is the basis for )ennyson's @last voya"e@ motivatin" circumstance for the poem. 8. !pparently% the ob;ect of the last voya"e is the le"endary @3appy Isles@ -line 60.% which =uckley and 8oods "loss as @the Islands of the =lest% identified with the ,lysian Dields as the abode of ;ust men after death@ -//.. 8hat is ironic about the hero's determination to reach this destination by shipQ 8hat is the si"nificance of the hero's usin" the term @touch@ -line 60. in con;unction with this final voya"eQ F. Charles )ennyson in his bio"raphy of the poet !lfred )ennyson -1F/F. contends that in @9lysses@ )ennyson @e+pressed his reali:ation of the need for "oin" forward and bravin" the battle of life% in spite of the crushin" blow of !rthur's [!. 3enry 3allam's] death.@ -Chiasson 16$. 8hat "oals does 9lysses specifically mention that mi"ht symboli:e @the battle of life@Q 8ho in the poem do you feel parallels !rthur 3enry 3allam% and whyQ 1 . 4ake the case that )ennyson's 9lysses is a =yronic e"otist who places his own desires and feelin"s above the common "ood. 11. If 9lysses may be taken as @the sheer incarnation of 'Benaissance' superbia@ -Chiasson 168.% where is this overweenin" pride most clearly e+pressed% and what seems to be )ennyson's attitude towards itQ 1#. In )ennysonA 3is !rt and Belation to 4odern ?ife -18F$.% >topford ! =rooke describes the scene in @9lysses@ as bein" on the shore of Ithaca% at the port. )he time is evenin". )he moon is risin" and the sea is "loomed by the shadows of the comin" ni"ht. )here is no description of the landscape% but enou"h is "iven to make us feel the time and the place. [1#/] 8hy has )ennyson chosen this time and this place for the poem's settin"Q 8hat aspects of the settin" are describedQ 3ow does the settin" contribute to the poem's dominant tone and moodQ 10. >topford =rooke speaks of )ennyson's strikin"

the note of that profound melancholy which lay underneath the intense and hopeless curiosity of the Benaissance% the same kind of curiosity which 9lysses feels in this poem. [1#/*#$] (recisely how does )ennyson strike this noteQ 3ow does the poem sum up @the temper of the hi"her spirits of the Benaissance in Italy@ -1#$.Q 1/. !lastair )homson tersely remarks of @9lysses@ that such a sin"le*voiced poem is in fact @reco"ni:ably the product of internal debate@ -$8.. 8hat is the &uestion bein" debated% and what two sides of the issue does the persona articulateQ 1$. )homson asserts that @the most revealin" phrase in 9lysses is its last four words . . . . It has been said that the resoluteness is undercut by irony@ -66. since the line echoes >atan's determination in 4ilton's (aradise ?ost @never to submit or yield@A X4ore important than the literary allusion is the fact that 'not to yield' seems less a condition of strivin"% seekin"% and findin" than a separate statement. [)homson 66] 6ive a close readin" of the conclusion of the poem that addresses the issue of )ennyson's ironic &uotin" 4ilton's >atan. 16. )homson states that 4ost of the last para"raph% e+cept for the lines about the wanin" day and the moanin" deep% is not only fine poetry% but fine rhetoric% by a leader of men who was traditionally a master of persuasion. -6F. 8hat is 9lysses attemptin" to persuade his former crewmates to doQ 8hat specific e+amples of @fine rhetoric@ do you detectQ 3ow do the ima"es of 'the wanin" day and the moanin" deep' ironically undercut 9lysses' caseQ 12. 5erome 3. =uckley asserts that the poem does not in fact convey a will to "o forward . . . but a determined retreat% a yearnin"% behind alle"edly tired rhythms% to ;oin the "reat !chilles -or possibly !rthur 3allam. in an ,lysian retreat from life's ve+ations. [6/] 8hich details in the poem support the notion that 9lysses' wish is for oblivion rather than further adventureQ 8hich interpretation do you find more plausible and whyQ 18. 5ames D. Iissane emphasi:es @)ennyson's fundamental sympathy with his hero@ -10/. because the poet reco"ni:ed in himself that same desire to escape the wearisome present . . . < but it is after all the counter*melody to the main theme% a ne"ative emotion which an affirmative must transcend. )hus the mood of '9lysses' is resolute thou"h rooted in a sense of weakness as well as stren"th. [10/] ,+plain what Iisane refers to as 'the main theme%@ and how the hero's resolution is @rooted in a sense of weakness.@

1F. >ince -a. the poem takes place at twili"ht% -b. and since )ennyson emphasi:ed its connection with 3allam's death% and since all of 9lysses' sailors are dead K remember% he returned alone to Ithaka K another possible interpretation appearsA 9lysses% the speaker% is on his deathbed% and he is makin" the last voya"e . . . towards death. 8hy would a "rievin" )ennyson find this kind of last voya"e heroicQ relevantQ 3ow does this deathbed speech compare to those in =rownin"'s @)he =ishop 1rders 3is )omb at >t (ra+ed's@ and in Dickens's novelsQ

2lysses #poem$
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!lfred% ?ord )ennyson% author of @9lysses@% painted by 6eor"e Drederic 8atts @2lysses@ is a poem in blank verse by the Hictorian poet !lfred% ?ord )ennyson -18 FG18F#.% written in 1800 and published in 18/# in )ennyson's well*received second volume of poems. !n oft*&uoted poem% it is popularly used to illustrate the dramatic monolo"ue poetic form. In the poem% 9lysses describes% to an unspecified audience% his discontent and restlessness upon returnin" to his kin"dom% Ithaca% after his far*ran"in" travels. Dacin" old a"e% 9lysses yearns to e+plore a"ain% despite his reunion with his wife (enelope and son )elemachus. )he character of 9lysses -6reekA 2d#sseus. has been e+plored widely in literature. )he adventures of 1dysseus were first recorded in 3omer's 8liad and 2d#sse# -c. 8 G2 =C.% and )ennyson draws on 3omer's narrative in the poem< most critics% however% find that )ennyson's 9lysses recalls the character 9lisse in Dante's 8n!erno -c. 10# .. In Dante's re* tellin"% 9lisse is condemned to hell amon" the false counsellors% both for his pursuit of knowled"e beyond human bounds and for his adventures in disre"ard of his family. Dor most of this poem's history% readers viewed 9lysses as resolute and heroic% admirin" him for his determination @)o strive% to seek% to find% and not to yield@.[1] )he view that )ennyson intended a heroic character is supported by his statements about the poem% and by the events in his life K the death of his closest friend K that prompted him to write it. In the twentieth century% some new interpretations of @9lysses@ hi"hli"hted potential ironies in the poem. )hey ar"ued% for e+ample% that 9lysses wishes to selfishly abandon his kin"dom and family% and they &uestioned more positive assessments of 9lysses' character by demonstratin" how he resembles flawed prota"onists in earlier literature.

'ontents
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1 >ynopsis and structure o 1.1 (rosody

o o

1.# Dorm 1.0 (ublication history

# Interpretations
o o o

#.1 !utobio"raphical elements #.# ?iterary conte+t #.0 Drom affirmation to irony

0 ?e"acy
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0.1 Contemporary appraisal 0.# Canoni:ation 0.0 ?iterary and cultural le"acy

/ Cotes $ Beferences 6 ,+ternal links

[edit] (ynopsis and structure

(lease visit 8ikisource for the text o" -2lysses-. !s the poem be"ins% 9lysses has returned to his kin"dom% Ithaca% havin" had a lon"% eventful ;ourney home after fi"htin" in the )ro;an 8ar. Confronted a"ain by domestic life% 9lysses e+presses his lack of contentment% includin" his indifference toward the @sava"e race@ -line /. that he "overns. 9lysses contrasts his restlessness and boredom with his heroic past. 3e contemplates his a"e and eventual death K @?ife piled on life [ 8ere all too little% and of one to me [ ?ittle remains@ -#/G#6. * and lon"s for further e+perience and knowled"e. 3is son )elemachus will inherit the throne that 9lysses finds burdensome. 8hile 9lysses thinks )elemachus will be an ade&uate kin"% he seems to have little empathy for his sonK@3e works his work% I mine@ -/0.Kand the necessary methods of "overnin"K@by slow prudence@ -06. and @throu"h soft de"rees@ -02.. In the final section% 9lysses turns his attention to his mariners and calls on them to ;oin him on another &uest% makin" no "uarantees as to their fate but attemptin" to con;ure their heroic pastA

Z Come% my friends% ')is not too late to seek a newer world. (ush off% and sittin" well in order smite )he soundin" furrows< for my purpose holds )o sail beyond the sunset% and the baths 1f all the western stars% until I die. It may be that the "ulfs will wash us down< It may be we shall touch the 3appy Isles% !nd see the "reat !chilles% whom we knew. -$6G6/.

[edit] Prosody
)he speaker's lan"ua"e is unadorned and forceful% and it e+presses 9lysses' conflictin" moods as he searches for continuity between his past and future. )here is often a marked contrast between the sentiment of 9lysses' words and the sounds that e+press them.[#] Dor e+ample% the poem's insistent iambic pentameter is often interrupted by spondees -metrical feet consistin" of two lon" syllables.% which slow down the movement of the poem< the labourin" lan"ua"e casts into doubt the reliability of 9lysses' sentiments. Coteworthy are lines 1FG#1A Met all e+perience is an arch wherethro' 6leams that untravell'd world% whose mar"in fades Dor ever and for ever when I move. -1FG#1. 1bservin" their burdensome prosodic effect% the poet 4atthew !rnold remarked% @these three lines by themselves take up nearly as much time as a whole book of the 8liad.@[0] 4any of the poem's clauses carry over into the followin" line< this en;ambment emphasi:es 9lysses' restlessness and dissatisfaction.[/]

[edit] =orm
)he poem's seventy lines of blank verse are presented as a dramatic monolo"ue. >cholars disa"ree on how 9lysses' speech functions in this format< it is not necessarily clear to whom 9lysses is speakin"% if anyone% and from what location. >ome see the verse turnin" from a solilo&uy to a public address% as 9lysses seems to speak to himself in the first movement% then to turn to an audience as he introduces his son% and then to relocate to the seashore where he addresses his mariners.[$] In this interpretation% the comparatively direct and honest lan"ua"e of the first movement is set a"ainst the more politically minded tone of the last two movements. Dor e+ample% the second para"raph -00G/0. about )elemachus% in which 9lysses muses a"ain about domestic life% is a @revised version [of lines 1G$] for public consumption@A [6] a @sava"e race@ is revised to a @ru""ed people@. )he ironic interpretations of @9lysses@ may be the result of the modern tendency to consider the narrator of a dramatic monolo"ue as necessarily @unreliable@. !ccordin" to critic Dwi"ht Culler% the poem has been a victim of revisionist readin"s in which the reader e+pects to reconstruct the truth from a misleadin" narrator's accidental revelations.[2] Culler himself views @9lysses@ as a dialectic in which the speaker wei"hs the virtues of a contemplative and an active approach to life<[8] 9lysses moves throu"h four emotional sta"es that are self* revelatory% not ironicA be"innin" with his re;ection of the barren life to which he has returned in Ithaca% he then fondly recalls his heroic past% reco"ni:es the validity of )elemachus' method of "overnin"% and with these thou"hts plans another ;ourney.[F]

[edit] Publication history

)ennyson completed the poem on # 1ctober 1800%[1 ] but it was not published until 18/#% in his second collection of Poems. 9nlike many of )ennyson's other important poems% @9lysses@ was not revised after its publication.[11] )ennyson ori"inally blocked out the poem in four para"raphs< it has% however% been printed with both three and four para"raphs% structures that affect the analysis of 9lysses' narration. 8ith three para"raphs% the poem is divided at lines 00 and //< with four% the five*line introduction becomes its own movement. In this four* movement version% the first and third are thematically parallel% but may be read as interior and e+terior monolo"ues% respectively.[6]

[edit] <nterpretations
[edit] %utobiographical elements

@9lysses@ was written after the death of )ennyson's close friend% !rthur 3enry 3allam -1811G 1800.. )ennyson penned @9lysses@ after the death of his close Cambrid"e friend% the poet !rthur 3enry 3allam -1811G1800.% with whom )ennyson had a stron" emotional bond. )he two friends had spent much time discussin" poetry and philosophy% writin" verse% and travellin" in southern Drance% the (yrenees% and 6ermany. )ennyson considered 3allam destined for "reatness% perhaps as a statesman.[1#] 8hen )ennyson heard on 1 1ctober 1800 of his friend's death% he was livin" in >omersby% ?incolnshire% in cramped &uarters with his mother and nine of his ten siblin"s. 3is father had died in 1801% re&uirin" )ennyson to return home and take responsibility for the family. )ennyson's friends were becomin" increasin"ly concerned about his mental and physical health durin" this time. )he family had little income% and three of )ennyson's brothers were mentally ill. 5ust as )ennyson's outlook was improvin"Khe was ad;ustin" to his new domestic duties% re"ainin" contact with friends% and had published his 180# book of poemsK the news of 3allam's death arrived. )ennyson shared his "rief with his sister% ,mily% who had been en"a"ed to 3allam. !ccordin" to Hictorian scholar ?inda 3u"hes% the emotional "ulf between the state of his domestic affairs and the loss of his special friendship informs the readin" of @9lysses@K particularly its treatment of domesticity.[10] !t one moment% 9lysses' discontent seems to mirror that of )ennyson% who would have been frustrated with mana"in" the house in such a state of "rief. !t the ne+t% 9lysses is determined to transcend his a"e and his environment by

travellin" a"ain. It may be that 9lysses' determination to defy circumstance attracted )ennyson to the myth<[1/] he said that the poem @"ave my feelin" about the need of "oin" forward and bravin" the stru""le of life@.[1$] 1n another occasion% the poet stated% @)here is more about myself in 4l#sses% which was written under the sense of loss and that all had "one by% but that still life must be fou"ht out to the end. It was more written with the feelin" of [3allam's] loss upon me than many poems in 8n %emoriam.@[16] 3allam's death influenced much of )ennyson's poetry% includin" perhaps his most hi"hly re"arded work% 8n %emoriam A/'/'/% be"un in 1800 and completed seventeen years later. 1ther critics find stylistic incon"ruities between the poem and its author that make @9lysses@ e+ceptional. 8. 8. Bobson writes% @)ennyson% the responsible social bein"% the admirably serious and 'committed' individual% is utterin" strenuous sentiments in the accent of )ennyson the most un*strenuous% lonely and poi"nant of poets.@[12] 3e finds that )ennyson's two widely noted personae% the @responsible social bein"@ and the melancholic poet% meet uni&uely in @9lysses@% yet seem not to reco"ni:e each other within the te+t.

[edit] /iterary context

)ennyson adopts aspects of the 9lysses character and narrative from many sources< his treatment of 9lysses is the first modern account.[18] )he ancient 6reek poet 3omer introduced 9lysses -1dysseus in 6reek[1F].% and many later poets took up the character% includin" ,uripides%[# ] 3orace% Dante% 8illiam >hakespeare% and !le+ander (ope. 3omer's 2d#sse# provides the poem's narrative back"roundA in its eleventh book the prophet )iresias foretells that 9lysses will return to Ithaca after a difficult voya"e% then be"in a new% mysterious voya"e% and later die a peaceful% @unwarlike@ death that comes va"uely @from the sea@. !t the conclusion of )ennyson's poem% his 9lysses is contemplatin" undertakin" this new voya"e.

In one of 8illiam =lake's watercolors -18#/G18#2. illustratin" Dante's 8n!erno% 9lysses and Diomedes are condemned to the ,i"hth Circle.[#1] )ennyson's character% however% is not the lover of public affairs seen in 3omer's poems. Bather% @9lisse@ from Dante's 8n!erno is )ennyson's main source for the character%[##] which has an important effect on the poem's interpretation. 9lisse recalls his voya"e in the 8n!erno3s #6th canto% in which he is condemned to the ,i"hth Circle of false counsellors for misusin" his "ift of reason. Dante treats 9lisse% with his @:eal Z[ )'e+plore the world@% as an evil counselor who lusts for adventure at the e+pense of his family and his duties in Ithaca.[#0] )ennyson pro;ects this :eal into 9lysses' un&uenched desire for knowled"eA[#/]

!nd this "ray spirit yearnin" in desire )o follow knowled"e like a sinkin" star% =eyond the utmost bound of human thou"ht. -0 G0#. )he poet's intention to recall the 3omeric character remains evident in certain passa"es. @I am become a name@ -11. recalls an episode in the 2d#sse# in which Demodocus sin"s about 1dysseus' adventures in the kin"'s presence% acknowled"in" his fame. 8ith phrases such as @)here "loom the dark broad seas@ -/$. and @)he deep [ 4oans round with many voices@ -$$G $6.% )ennyson seems to be consciously invokin" 3omer.[#$] Critics have also noted the influence of >hakespeare in two passa"es. In the early movement% the sava"e race @)hat hoard% and sleep% and feed% and know not me@ -$. echoes 3amlet's solilo&uyA @8hat is a man% [ If his chief "ood and market of his time [ =e but to sleep and feedQ ! beast% no more.@[#6] )ennyson's @3ow dull it is to pause% to make an end% [ )o rust unburnish7d% not to shine in useE@ -##G#0. recalls >hakespeare's 9lysses in Troilus and Cressida -c. 16 #.A[#2] (erserverance% my dear lord% Ieeps honour bri"htA to have done is to han" Puite out of fashion% like a rusty mail% In monumental mockery. )he last movement of @9lysses@% which is amon" the most familiar passa"es in nineteenth* century ,n"lish*lan"ua"e poetry% presents decisive evidence of the influence of Dante.[#8] 9lysses turns his attention from himself and his kin"dom and speaks of ports% seas% and his mariners. )he strains of discontent and weakness in old a"e remain throu"hout the poem% but )ennyson finally leaves 9lysses @)o strive% to seek% to find% and not to yield@ -2 .% recallin" the Dantes&ue damnable desire for knowled"e beyond all bounds. )he words of Dante's character as he e+horts his men to the ;ourney find parallel in those of )ennyson's 9lysses% who calls his men to ;oin him on one last voya"e. Puotin" Dante's 9lisseA '1 brothers'% said I% 'who are come despite )en thousand perils to the 8est% let none% 8hile still our senses hold the vi"il sli"ht Bemainin" to us ere our course is run% =e willin" to for"o e+perience 1f the unpeopled world beyond the sun. Be"ard your ori"in%Kfrom whom and whenceE Cot to e+ist like brutes% but made were ye )o follow virtue and intelli"ence'.[#F] 3owever% critics note that in the 3omeric narrative% 9lysses' ori"inal mariners are dead. ! si"nificant irony therefore develops from 9lysses' speech to his sailorsK@Come% my friends% [ ')is not too late to seek a newer world@ -$6G$2.. >ince Dante's 9lisse has already undertaken this voya"e and recounts it in the 8n!erno% 9lysses' entire monolo"ue can be envisioned as his recollection while situated in 3ell.[0 ]

[edit] =rom a""irmation to irony

@>atan rises from the burnin" lake@ -1866. by 6ustave DorL< a critical interpretation of the poem compares 9lysses' final sentiments with >atan's @coura"e never to submit or yield@ in 5ohn 4ilton's Paradise .ost. )he de"ree to which )ennyson identifies with 9lysses has provided one of the "reat debates amon" scholars of the poem.[10] Critics who find that )ennyson identifies with the speaker read 9lysses' speech @affirmatively@% or without irony. 4any other interpretations of the poem have developed from the ar"ument that )ennyson does not identify with 9lysses% and further criticism has su""ested that the purported inconsistencies in 9lysses' character are the fault of the poet himself. Iey to the affirmative readin" of @9lysses@ is the bio"raphical conte+t of the poem. >uch a readin" takes into account )ennyson's statements about writin" the poemK@the need of "oin" forward@Kand considers that he would not undermine 9lysses' determination with irony when he needed a similar stalwartness to face life after 3allam's death. 9lysses is thus seen as an heroic character whose determination to seek @some work of noble note@ -$#. is coura"eous in the face of a @still hearth@ -#. and old a"e.[01][0#] )he passion and conviction of )ennyson's lan"ua"eKand even his own comments on the poemKsi"nify that the poet% as was typical in the Hictorian a"e% admired coura"e and persistence. Bead strai"htforwardly% @9lysses@ promotes the &uestin" spirit of youth% even in old a"e% and a refusal to resi"n and face life passively. 9ntil the early twentieth century% readers reacted to @9lysses@ sympathetically. )he meanin" of the poem was increasin"ly debated as )ennyson's stature rose. !fter (aull D. =aum critici:ed 9lysses' inconsistencies and )ennyson's conception of the poem in 1F/8%[00] the ironic interpretation became dominant.[0/] =aum finds in 9lysses echoes of ?ord =yron's flawed heroes% who similarly display conflictin" emotions% self*critical introspection% and a re;ection of social responsibility. ,ven 9lysses' resolute final utteranceK@)o strive% to seek% to find% and not to yield@Kis undercut by irony% when =aum and later critics compare this line to >atan's @coura"e never to submit or yield@ in 5ohn 4ilton's Paradise .ost -1662..[0$][06] 9lysses' apparent disdain for those around him is another facet of the ironic perspective. 3e declares that he is @matched with an a"ed wife@ -0.% indicates his weariness in "overnin" a @sava"e race@ -/.% and su""ests his philosophical distance from his son )elemachus. ! sceptical readin" of the second para"raph finds it a condescendin" tribute to )elemachus and a re;ection of his @slow prudence@ -06.. 3owever% the ad;ectives used to describe )elemachus K@blameless@% @discernin"@% and @decent@Kare words with positive connotations in other of

)ennyson's poetry and within the classical tradition%[0#] where @blameless@ is an attribute of "ods and heroes. Critic ,. 5. Chiasson ar"ued in 1F$/ that 9lysses is without faith in an afterlife% and that )ennyson uses a @method of indirection@ to affirm the need for reli"ious faith by showin" how 9lysses' lack of faith leads to his ne"lect of kin"dom and family. Chiasson re"ards the poem as @intractable@ in )ennyson's canon% but finds that the poem's meanin" resolves itself when this indirection is understoodA it illustrates )ennyson's conviction that @disre"ardin" reli"ious sanctions and 'submittin" all thin"s to desire' leads to either a sybaritic or a brutal repudiation of responsibility and 'life'.@[02] 1ther ironic readin"s have found 9lysses lon"in" for withdrawal% even death% in the form of his proposed &uest. In notin" the sense of passivity in the poem% critics hi"hli"ht )ennyson's tendency toward the melancholic. ). >. ,liot opines that @)ennyson could not tell a story at all@.[08] 3e finds Dante's treatment of 9lysses e+citin"% while )ennyson's piece is @an ele"iac mood@.[08] @9lysses@ is found lackin" in narrative action< the hero's "oal is va"ue% and by the poem's famous last line% it is not clear for what he is @strivin"@% or to what he refuses to yield. !ccordin" to Hictorian scholar 3erbert )ucker% )ennyson7s characters @move@ throu"h time and space to be moved inwardly.[0F] )o 9lysses% e+perience is @somewhere out there@%[0F] Z an arch wherethro' 6leams that untravell'd world whose mar"in fades Dor ever and for ever when I move. -1FG#1.

[edit] /egacy

)ennyson% as (oet ?aureate% used verse to promote ,mpireA @9lysses@ has been interpreted as anticipatin" the concept of imperialism.

[edit] 'ontemporary appraisal

)he contemporary reviews of @9lysses@ were positive and found no irony in the poem. !uthor 5ohn >terlin"Klike )ennyson a member of the Cambrid"e !postlesKwrote in the >uarterl# Re iew in 18/#% @3ow superior is '9lysses'E )here is in this work a deli"htful epic tone% and a

clear impassioned wisdom &uietly carvin" its sa"e words and "raceful fi"ures on pale but lastin" marble.@[/ ] )ennyson's 18/# volume of poetry impressed >cottish writer )homas Carlyle. Puotin" three lines of @9lysses@ in an 18/# letter to )ennysonK It may be that the "ulfs will wash us down% It may be we shall touch the happy Isles !nd see the "reat !chilles whom we knewE [sic] -6#G6/. KCarlyle remarked% @)hese lines do not make me weep% but there is in me what would fill whole ?achrymatories as I read.@[/1] ,n"lish writer and theolo"ian Bichard 3olt 3utton summari:ed the poem as @[)ennyson's] friendly picture of the insatiable cravin" for new e+perience% enterprise% and adventure% when under the control of a luminous reason and a self* controlled will.@[/#] )he contemporary poet 4atthew !rnold was early in observin" the narrative irony of the poemA he found 9lysses' speech @the least plain% the most un?'omeric% which can possibly be conceived. 3omer presents his thou"ht to you ;ust as it wells from the source of his mindA 4r. )ennyson carefully distils his thou"ht before he will part with it. 3ence comes Z a hei"htened and elaborate air.@[/ ]

[edit] 'anoniAation
@9lysses@ was well*received by critics% yet its rise within the )ennyson canon took decades. )ennyson did not usually select it for publication in poetry antholo"ies< in teachin" antholo"ies% however% the poem was usually includedKand it remains a popular teachin" poem today. Its current prominence in )ennyson's oeu re is the result of two trends% accordin" to )ennyson scholar 4atthew BowlinsonA the rise of formal ,n"lish poetry studies in the late nineteenth century% and the Hictorian effort to articulate a =ritish culture that could be e+ported.[/0] 3e ar"ues that @9lysses@ forms part of the prehistory of imperialismKa term that only appeared in the lan"ua"e in 18$1. )he prota"onist sounds like a @colonial administrator@% and his reference to seekin" a newer world -$2. echoes the phrase @Cew 8orld@% which became common durin" the Benaissance. 8hile @9lysses@ cannot be read as overtly imperialistic% )ennyson's later work as (oet ?aureate sometimes ar"ues for the value of =ritain's colonies% or was accused of ;in"oism. Bowlinson invokes the 4ar+ist theorist ?ouis !lthusser's e+tension of the ar"ument that ideolo"y is ahistorical% findin" that )ennyson's poem @comes before an ideolo"ical construction for which it nonetheless makes people nostal"ic@.[/0]

[edit] /iterary and cultural legacy

In a 1F#F essay% ). >. ,liot called @9lysses@ a @perfect poem@.[//] !n analo"ue of 9lysses is found in ,liot's @6erontion@ -1F# .. =oth poems are narrated by an a"ed man contemplatin" life's end. !n e+cerpt from @6erontion@ reads as an ironic comment on the introductory lines of @9lysses@A[/$] Bocks% moss% stonecrop% iron% merds. )he woman keeps the kitchen% makes tea% >nee:es at evenin"% pokin" the peevish "utter. I am an old man% ! dull head amon" windy places. -10G12.

)he Italian poet 6iovanni (ascoli -18$$G1F1#. stated that his lon" lyric poem .3ultimo iaggio was an attempt to reconcile the portrayals of 9lysses in Dante and )ennyson with the classical prophecy that 9lysses would die @a mild death off the sea@.[/6] (ascoli's 9lysses leaves Ithaca to retrace his epic voya"e rather than be"in another. @9lysses@ remains much admired% even as the twentieth century brou"ht new interpretations of the poem.[/2] (rofessor of literature =asil 8illey commented in 1F$6% @In '9lysses' the sense that he must press on and not moulder in idleness is e+pressed ob;ectively% throu"h the classical story% and not sub;ectively as his own e+perience. [)ennyson] comes here as near perfection in the "rand manner as he ever did< the poem is flawless in tone from be"innin" to end< spare% "rave% free from e+cessive decoration% and full of firmly controlled feelin".@[/#] In the fifteenth edition of 1artlett3s )amiliar >uotations -1F8 .% nine sections of @9lysses@% comprisin" 06 of the poem's 2 lines% are &uoted%[/8] compared to but si+ in the ninth edition -18F1.. 4any readers have accepted the acclaimed last lines of @9lysses@ as inspirational. )he poem's endin" line has been used as a motto by schools and other or"anisations. )he final three lines are inscribed on a cross at 1bservation 3ill% !ntarctica% to commemorate e+plorer Bobert Dalcon >cott and his party% who died on their return trek from the >outh (ole in 1F1#A[/F] 1ne e&ual temper of heroic hearts% 4ade weak by time and fate% but stron" in will )o strive% to seek% to find% and not to yield. -68G2 .
Summary

9lysses -1dysseus. declares that there is little point in his stayin" home Nby this still hearthO with his old wife% dolin" out rewards and punishments for the unnamed masses who live in his kin"dom.

>till speakin" to himself he proclaims that he Ncannot rest from travelO but feels compelled to live to the fullest and swallow every last drop of life. 3e has en;oyed all his e+periences as a sailor who travels the seas% and he considers himself a symbol for everyone who wanders and roams the earth. 3is travels have e+posed him to many different types of people and ways of livin". )hey have also e+posed him to the Ndeli"ht of battleO while fi"htin" the )ro;an 8ar with his men. 9lysses declares that his travels and encounters have shaped who he isA NI am a part of all that I have met%O he asserts. !nd it is only when he is travelin" that the Nmar"inO of the "lobe that he has not yet traversed shrink and fade% and cease to "oad him. 9lysses declares that it is borin" to stay in one place% and that to remain stationary is to rust rather than to shine< to stay in one place is to pretend that all there is to life is the simple act of breathin"% whereas he knows that in fact life contains much novelty% and he lon"s to encounter this. 3is spirit yearns constantly for new e+periences that will broaden his hori:ons< he wishes Nto follow knowled"e like a sinkin" starO and forever "row in wisdom and in learnin". 9lysses now speaks to an unidentified audience concernin" his son )elemachus% who will act as his successor while the "reat hero resumes his travelsA he says% N)his is my son% mine own )elemachus% to whom I leave the scepter and the isle.O 3e speaks hi"hly but also patroni:in"ly of his son7s capabilities as a ruler% praisin" his prudence% dedication% and

devotion to the "ods. )elemachus will do his work of "overnin" the island while 9lysses will do his work of travelin" the seasA N3e works his work% I mine.O In the final stan:a% 9lysses addresses the mariners with whom he has worked% traveled% and weathered life7s storms over many years. 3e declares that althou"h he and they are old% they still have the potential to do somethin" noble and honorable before Nthe lon" day wanes.O 3e encoura"es them to make use of their old a"e because N7tis not too late to seek a newer world.O 3e declares that his "oal is to sail onward Nbeyond the sunsetO until his death. (erhaps% he su""ests% they may even reach the N3appy Isles%O or the paradise of perpetual summer described in 6reek mytholo"y where "reat heroes like the warrior !chilles were believed to have been taken after their deaths. !lthou"h 9lysses and his mariners are not as stron" as they were in youth% they are Nstron" in willO and are sustained by their resolve to push onward relentlesslyA N)o strive% to seek% to find% and not to yield.O
8orm

)his poem is written as a dramatic monolo"ueA the entire poem is spoken by a sin"le character% whose identity is revealed by his own words. )he lines are in blank verse% or unrhymed iambic pentameter% which serves to impart a fluid and natural &uality to 9lysses7s speech. 4any of the lines are en;ambed% which means that a thou"ht does not end with the line*break< the sentences often end in the middle% rather than the end% of the lines. )he use of en;ambment is appropriate in a poem about pushin" forward Nbeyond the utmost bound of human thou"ht.O Dinally% the poem is divided into four para"raph*like sections% each of which comprises a distinct thematic unit of the poem.
Commentary

In this poem% written in 1800 and revised for publication in 18/#% )ennyson reworks the fi"ure of 9lysses by drawin" on the ancient hero of 3omer7s 2d#sse# -N9lyssesO is the Boman form of the 6reek N1dysseusO. and the medieval hero of Dante7s 8n!erno/ 3omer7s 9lysses% as described in >croll UI of the 1dyssey% learns from a prophecy that he will take a final sea voya"e after killin" the suitors of his wife (enelope. )he details of this sea voya"e are described by Dante in Canto UUHI of the 8n!ernoA 9lysses finds himself restless in Ithaca and driven by Nthe lon"in" I had to "ain e+perience of the world.O Dante7s 9lysses is a tra"ic fi"ure who dies while sailin" too far in an insatiable thirst for knowled"e. )ennyson combines these two accounts by havin" 9lysses make his speech shortly after returnin" to Ithaca and resumin" his administrative responsibilities% and shortly before embarkin" on his final voya"e. 3owever% this poem also concerns the poet7s own personal ;ourney% for it was composed in the first few weeks after )ennyson learned of the death of his dear colle"e friend !rthur 3enry 3allam in 1800. ?ike 8n %emoriam, then% this poem is also an ele"y for a deeply cherished friend. 9lysses% who symboli:es the "rievin" poet% proclaims his resolution to push onward in spite of the awareness that Ndeath closes allO -line $1.. !s )ennyson himself stated% the poem e+presses his own Nneed of "oin" forward and bravin" the stru""le of lifeO after the loss of his beloved 3allam. )he poem7s final line% Nto strive% to seek% to find% and not to yield%O came to serve as a motto for the poet7s Hictorian contemporariesA the poem7s hero lon"s to flee the tedium of daily life Namon" these barren cra"sO -line #. and to enter a mythical dimension Nbeyond the sunset%

and the baths of all the western starsO -lines 6 *61.< as such% he was a model of individual self*assertion and the Bomantic rebellion a"ainst bour"eois conformity. )hus for )ennyson7s immediate audience% the fi"ure of 9lysses held not only mytholo"ical meanin"% but stood as an important contemporary cultural icon as well. N9lysses%O like many of )ennyson7s other poems% deals with the desire to reach beyond the limits of one7s field of vision and the mundane details of everyday life. 9lysses is the antithesis of the mariners in N)he ?otos*,aters%O who proclaim Nwe will no lon"er roamO and desire only to rela+ amidst the ?otos fields. In contrast% 9lysses Ncannot rest from travelO and lon"s to roam the "lobe -line 6.. ?ike the ?ady of >hallot% who lon"s for the worldly e+periences she has been denied% 9lysses hun"ers to e+plore the untraveled world. !s in all dramatic monolo"ues% here the character of the speaker emer"es almost unintentionally from his own words. 9lysses7 incompetence as a ruler is evidenced by his preference for potential &uests rather than his present responsibilities. 3e devotes a full #6 lines to his own e"otistical proclamation of his :eal for the wanderin" life% and another #6 lines to the e+hortation of his mariners to roam the seas with him. 3owever% he offers only 11 lines of lukewarm praise to his son concernin" the "overnance of the kin"dom in his absence% and a mere two words about his Na"ed wifeO (enelope. )hus% the speaker7s own words betray his abdication of responsibility and his specificity of purpose.

'haracter and Environment in -*he Palace o" %rt- and Great Expectations
May 4ee =%# >En'lish #3: 1ro.n ;niversity: 1%%!?

[3ome KX !uthors KX Charles Dickens KX 8orks KX 6reat ,+pectations KX ?iterary Belations KX >ettin"]

In both 6reat ,+pectations and @)he (alace of !rt%@ the author takes up themes of environment and boundary. In @)he (alace of the !rt%@ the poet tries to create an isolated paradise for the soul% the (alace of !rt. )ennyson describes the palace usin" a tone of ownership and pride. @Dull of "reat rooms and small the palace stood%[ !ll various% each a perfect whole[ Drom livin" Cature% fit for every mood[ !nd chan"e of my still soul.@ -)ennyson% @)he (alace of !rt@.. )he careful description results in a tone similar to that of a host showin" a new home to "uests. Dor some were hun" with arras "reen and blue >howin" a "audy summer*morn'

8here with puff'd cheek the belted hunted blew 3is wreathed bu"le*horn. 1ne seem'd all dark and red K a tract of sand% !nd some one pacin" there alon"% 8ho paced for ever in a "limmerin" land% ?it with a low lar"e moon. 1ne show'd an iron coast and an"ry waves Mou seem'd to hear them climb and call !nd roar rock*thwarted under bellowin" caves% =eneath the windy wall. In 6reat ,+pectations% 4iss 3avisham also creates her own isolated sphere% althou"h whether a paradise or a hell depends on interpretation. )he reader is introduced to this sphere throu"h (ip's eyes% resultin" in a descriptive tone tin"ed with fear and disconcertedness. )he tone is more uncomfortable% that of a person stumblin" into an unfamiliar scene and takin" in the bi:arreness. !s opposed to the tone in )he (alace of !rt% a real sense of lookin" around for the first time e+ists. )he different tone in describin" each isolated ,den contributes towards the themes of boundaries and environment in 6reat ,+pectations and @)he (alace of !rt.@ =oth works stress the importance and relation between characters and their environments. 6reat ,+pectations seems to send two different messa"es about roles and social mobility and isolation. 1n one hand% Dickens ties characters very closely to their environments. 5oe% for e+ample% is out of place in ?ondon or tryin" to be a "entleman% as he himself acknowled"es. @I'm wron" in these clothes. I'm wron" out of the for"e% the kitchen% or off th'meshes@ -Dickens #/6.. 8emmick's personality at his home and at the office differ so vastly that it almost seems as thou"h there are two 8emmicks. 4r. (umblechook and 4r. 8opsle are so tied to the villa"e that when 4r. 8opsle leaves the Church to pursue his actin" career in ?ondon% he is an abysmal failure. >imilarly% 5a""ers no more fits in the villa"e than 4a"witch fits into ?ondon with his dis"uise of @a seafarin" slop suit% in which he looked as if he had some parrots and ci"ars to dispose of ...@ -Dickens 0/F.. 8ith these characteri:ations% Dickens does not so much emphasi:e the limitations of roles% but acknowled"es the importance of proper environments for different characters. 1n the other hand% 4iss 3avisham represents the e+tremes of a character tied to environment. Cever seein" sunli"ht or venturin" outside of her dusty rooms% 4iss 3avisham is a warped and ultimately destructive character% who Dickens clearly treats as unhealthy. 8hile 8emmick's roles are perhaps e+a""erated and satiri:ed% he is at least healthier% happier% and less destructive than 4iss 3avisham. Dickens uses 4iss 3avisham to show isolation's dan"er. )hematically% 4iss 3avisham's counterpart in )he (alace of !rt is essentially the soul% who% in its e+treme% perfect isolation% also "oes mad and cannot survive there. )hese characteri:ations seem to challen"e the theme of healthy boundaries for the separation of different people. )ennyson's poem seems to address a crisis that faced writers after the Bomantic eraA a "eneral @mood of aimlessness and despair cast its shadow over ,urope's most advanced minds@ -4adden% #/8.. )his crisis made writers% especially poets% &uestion their role in society. )hrou"h his description of an ideal for the aesthetic soul as an ideal that the soul can not e+ist in% )ennyson "rapples with this dilemma in @)he (alace of !rt.@ 8hile @)he (alace of !rt@

addresses this &uestion of where the aesthetic soul belon"s directly -even thou"h it can not resolve the dilemma.% Dickens's e+ploration of his role in society as a writer is much more subtle. )hrou"hout his novel% despite settin" the story in a sli"htly earlier time period% Dickens critici:es many aspects of society and points out many of the problems facin" ,n"land durin" the Industrial Bevolution. )hrou"h his "roundin" in realism and relatively contemporary issues% Dickens levels many criti&ues towards the conditions of his day. >ince many ar"ue that )ennyson's constant use of !rthurian le"end represents a criticism of his contemporary society as well% Dickens and )ennyson may have both seen a certain obli"ation to raise consciousness to the problems in society throu"h their works. In )ennyson's @)he (alace of !rt%@ the speaker is interested in art only for art's sake. In her @lordly pleasure*house%@ she devotes herself to every form of beauty% includin" knowled"e. >he has become so en"rossed in aesthetic pleasures that she e+cludes the e+terior world. )he poem asserts that a soul which loves only beauty will fall into despair% self*loathin" and hatred of both @death and life@ -#6$.. )he poet e+presses the bitter loneliness and helpless sta"nation that the soul feels within the confines of its palaceA ! still salt pool% lock'd in with bars of sand% ?eft on the shore% that hears all ni"ht )he plun"in" seas draw backward from the land )heir moon*led waters white -#/F*#$#.. @)he (alace of !rt@ -te+t. seems to illustrate a pattern -similar to that of @)he ?ady of >halott@. in which the poem slowly paints an idyllic world which is ultimately shattered in the final stan:as. 8hat appears to be the most interestin" transition at the end of the poem is the speaker's sudden loss of place and identity. 3ere% we do not simply come to see the artist as a slave to timeA !nd death and life she hated e&ually% !nd nothin" saw% for her despair% =ut dreadful time% dreadful eternity% Co comfort anywhere 8e also be"in to see the artist as a romantic pursuer of illusions. )he palace suddenly becomes irrelevant% or perhaps none+istent% in the lar"er conte+t of the poem% and the artist who occupies him or herself with "odlike aspirations is left to his or her own mortal demise. !t this point% we reali:e that the soul's removal from the more realistic and human world becomes not only its vice but its downfall. In lines #61*#6/% the soul[artist becomes disorientedA >he% moulderin" with the dull earth's moulderin" sod% Inwrapt tenfold in slothful shame% ?ay there e+iled from eternal 6od% ?ost to her place and name. )ime here plays an important role in the demise of the artist who althou"h he is a creator is not immortal as is @the eternal 6od.@ 3owever% it is not only time% but place which ceases to e+ist for the soul at this point in the poem. 3ere% we see a sharp chan"e from the be"innin" of the poem which takes care to create a detailed sense of place with its descriptions of the palace's rooms. 8e thus come to see that the artist's "odlike e+istence entails a de"ree of

romantici:ed isolation. )his removal from humanity then causes the artist to lose a fi+ed identity< the soul no lon"er feels a definite notion of placement and name within the lar"er world. )hus the artist% bein" so ensconced in his or her own visionary world loses his or her humanity. 8e must then ask% if the artist is not a "od and if he or she does not benefit from the definin"% human characteristics of place and name% does the artist even e+istQ 3avin" reveled in the palace that was built for her% the soul in )ennyson's @)he (alace of !rt@ "radually be"ins to reali:e the detriments of her isolation. )he creation of her beautiful son" is not shared and appreciated by the world around her% but rather it reverberates throu"h the palace% hauntin" her throu"h its inability to escape and simultaneously reflectin" her own predicament. 8hile the palace offers her a seemin"ly rich and inspirin" atmosphere for artistic creation% it suffocates her and morbid visions surround her. )he soul's initial confidence is shattered and she retreats into herself. =ack on herself her serpent pride had curl'd. @Co voice%@ she shriek'd in that lone hall% @Co voice breaks thro' the stillness of this world< 1ne deep% deep silence allE@ >he% moulderin" with the dull earth's moulderin" sod% Inwrapt tenfold in slothful shame% ?ay there e+iled from eternal 6od% ?ost to her place and name< !nd death and life she hated e&ually% !nd nothin" saw% for her despair% =ut dreadful time% dreadful eternity% Co comfort anywhere. )he soul's e+clamation seems to be an admittance of despair and defeat. 8hen the soul cries out% is she lamentin" the isolation she has willin"ly accepted% or does she believe it represents the state of the whole worldQ !t the end of the poem% some escape seems to e+ist for her% but she does not reco"ni:e it yet. 8hat must she do to atoneQ In what way has the soul been la:yQ Is she la:y because she depends on artificiality for inspiration and pretends to have no need of anyone else to help her create her art and to respond to itQ 3ow will she be less la:y when she atonesQ (erhaps the active effort re&uired in relationships K with other people or with 6od\will free her and allow her to blossom and be of use. !nd in her new life% as it is su""ested at the end of the poem% will she be able to create somethin" meanin"ful and have it heardQ 8hile she is surrounded by an artificial palace throu"hout most of the poem and seems to have absorbed somethin" of the artificiality of her surroundin"s% the soul moves towards nature and earthliness near the end. 8hy does the soul @[moulder] with the dull earth's moulderin" sod@Q (ossibly the reason is that there is somethin" e+tremely unnatural about the situation that has been created for the soulA the palace with disparate thin"s assembled. 8hat allows the soul to be natural a"ainQ Is it her reali:ation that she cannot function alone that allows her to become natural% crumblin" and decayin" in an earthly wayQ 1r is her disinte"ration simply a si"n that she is dyin" and has killed herself throu"h her seclusionQ Bather% it seems that her decay is wholly natural and part of the normal course of a life% but not necessarily fatal. )he soul intends to save herself from immediate death by "oin" to live in

a cotta"e in a valley where she can @mourn and pray@ and someday interact with others and share her art. )he fact that she wants to actively atone and continue her life is a si"n that it is not too late for her to re;oin the world
In The 7alace of Art Tennyson describes an aesthetic realm which, because of its isolation from the human community and its pretensions of divinty, causes the soul residin" within to become spiritually bankrupt. /ike many other 9ictorian writers, such as Arnold and Carlyle, Tennyson was concerned about the ideal of Cart for artDs sake,C and wanted art to serve a social function. Althou"h he "ives a "rand depiction of the 7alace, Tennyson eventually punishes the soul inside for its excessive and selfish pride.

@)he (alace of !rt@ discusses the romantic idea of leavin" behind society in order to seek intellectual "rowth in a place constructed solely for that purpose. )he sort of intellectual "rowth the narrator describes connects both with nature and with classic scholars e.". (lato. =ut after several years of en;oyment% the narrator's personified soul falls from its hi"h perch * it discovers the dark and unsettlin" areas of the palace and tires of the constant silence. )he narrator's soul leaves the place to 'humble place' to 'mourn and pray' K su""estin" a turn from naturalist% intellectual truths to reli"ious truth< elaborate "othic spires to a simple cotta"e. )he poem for while seems a clear denunciation of the pursuit of knowled"e in such a secluded way. =ut the very last stan:a asksA @Met pull not down my palace towers% that are >o li"htly% beautifully built. (erchance I may return with others there 8hen I have pur"ed my "uilt.@ )hese lines su""ests that the 'palace' has its place% one must approach it only after enou"h time in the outer world to satisfy ones '"uilt.' Is it morally wron" for one to lead a life of isolationQ )he narrator certainly seems to possess considerable means% and could certainly effect chan"e in the outside world. In )ennyson's @)he (alace of !rt%@ the narrator's descriptions of the mansion's interior "o on at len"th to create the detailed settin"s that dominate the poem. 8hile the ma;ority of the poem's len"th is devoted to the depiction of the palace's interior rooms and moods% none of the descriptions "oes on at len"th. Instead% each stan:a represents one encapsulated scene. !lliteration and assonance play a prominent role throu"hout much of the poem. Bepeated sounds are especially notable in the description of the palace's rooms% @each a perfect whole@A 1ne seem'd all dark and red K a tract of sand% !nd some one pacin" there alone% 8ho paced for ever in a "limmerin" land% ?it with a low lar"e moon. 1ne show'd an iron coast and an"ry waves Mou seem'd to hear them climb and fall !nd roar rock*thwarted under bellowin" caves% =eneath the windy wall.

!nd one% a full*fed river windin" slow =y herds upon an endless plain% )he ra""ed rims of thunder broodin" low% 8ith shadow*streaks of rain. )he catalo" of the rooms @fit for every mood@ reflects the @mosaic choicely plann'd[ 8ith cycles of the human tale@ on the palace's floor that is described later in the poem. )he ti"ht relation between each stan:a's closed abab rhyme scheme and the encapsulated scene it describes su""ests an intentional interplay between form and content. >ince the separation of stan:as reflects the walls between rooms in the mansion% the reader e+pects to find deeper connections between the poetic effects in the descriptions and the scenes they depict. )he strate"ic use of form to enrich the poem's content seems to be a departure from art*for*art's* sake in favor of art*for*function's*sake. )he reader is left to consider how the poem @)he (alace of !rt@ compares to the metaphor of the palace of art that it describes.

'arlyle %s % *hin er %nd !is (tyle

C!B?M?, !> ! )3ICI,B Carlyle e+erted such a profound influence upon "eneration by his thou"ht as to be called the NCensor of the a"eO. 3is was a clarion cry to Hictorian ,n"land to abandon its self*complacency and profit and loss philosophy and to know and hold to the N,verlastin" MeaO. In the a"e of democracy and individualism he preached the "ospel of hero* worship and medieval or"ani:ation. =elief in human freedom and in the Ninfinite nature of dutyO% as the basis of reli"ion< belief in the rule if the few wise and stron" over the many weak and foolish% as the basis of "overnment< belief in mutual sympathy% as the basis of society< belief in a spiritual interpretation of natural appearances% as the basis of philosophy< and% above all% belief in sincerity as the condition of all knowled"eKthese are the foundations on which Carlyle built. =y his friends% Carlyle was considered to be a "reat teacher% more like a "reat tonicKas a source of intellectual and moral stimulus and refreshment % rather than of theoretical and practical "uidance. )yndall says NCarlyle was "reat awakenerO. ,merson says Nhe is a friend and aider of those who would believe in power and worship. C!B?M?, *** !C IC1C1C?!>) -! breaker of ima"es[ superstitions. Carlyle delivered vehement and even sava"e attacks a"ainst some of his most eminent contemporaries% whether they were heads of reli"ious institutes or lover of science like Charles Darwin. 1nce he called Darwin7s discoveries as N6orilla damnifications of humanityO. 3is wrath was specially directed at the metaphysicians% scientists and political economists whom he labeled to"ether as Nlo"ic* choppin"O machines. C1) ! (,>>I4I>)A Carlyle philosophy% if carefully considered% will be found to be dan"erously optimist rather than pessimist. !s a thinker Carlyle is not sad% but recklessly and rather unscrupulously satisfied. Dor he seems to have held the theory that "ood can not be defeated definitely in the world< and the every thin" in the lon" run finds its ri"ht level. It be"an with what we may call the N=ible of 3istoryO idea< that all human affairs and politics were a clouded but unbroken revelation of the Devine. C!B?M?,7> B,?I6I1C Carlyle reli"ion was that of a mystic% a transcendentalist. 3e "ot his faith from the 6erman philosophers Iant and Dichte and from "reat 6erman writers like Bichter% Covalis and

6oethe% the influence of last one bein" the paramount and abidin" on Carlyle7s career and belief. Carlyle7s spiritual conversion came about in 5une 18#1% when he was havin" a walk. Carlyle considers 9niverse to be Divine and 4atter havin" no e+istence. In his words N)o me the 9niverse was all void of life% of purpose% of volition or hostility< it was a hu"e dead mass.O (,BD1B4!CC, 1D D9)MA )o Carlyle% the chief aim and end of life is the performance of duty% and only consolation in life is to be sense of doin" the duty. 3e is full of contempt for the pursuit of happiness. 3is stern creed allows no collateral support to the dischar"e of duty. D9)M 1D 81BIA )he first "reat duty is the duty of workKaction% activity. )his eminent feature in his preachin" has called Nthe 6ospel of ?abourO. 4an7s "reatest enemy is disorderA his most imperative and cryin" duty is to subdue disorder% convert chaos into order and method. Durthermore% he lays "reat emphasis on duty of 1bedience and duty of >incerity. 3,B1 81B>3I(A )o the readers of Carlyle% nothin" in his writin"s is so well*known as his doctrine of 3ero*worship. 8e conceive of history of peoples% Carlyle conceived of 3istory as the =io"raphy of 6reat 4en or 3eroes who are responsible for what the world has been or will be. Carlyle swept aside the current conceptions of Democracy and Dreedom and said< NIn freedom for itself there is nothin" to raise a man above a fly< the value of human life is that of its work done< the prime province of law is to "et from its sub;ects the most of the best work. )he first duty of people is to findKwhich means to acceptKtheir chief< their second and last to obey him. >1CI!?I>4A 3e points out three ideas as dominant in Carlyle7s social political treatises% firstly protest a"ainst the doctrine of ?aisse: Daire% side by side with wron" support of free trade% secondly the advocacy of the 1r"ani:ation of ?abour% and thirdly advocacy of ,mi"ration% as a remedy for over*population. 8e may say that his chief contribution to political thou"ht was the vi"our of his demonstration that man lives by spiritual as well as material thin"s% and that civili:ation is not a piece of mechanism "rindin" out results of itself% but is dependent on the ener"y and will and devotion which men put into it. C!B?M?,7> >)M?, Carlyle is known for his peculiar style% known as NCarlyleseO. 3is style is mirror of his mind. Co writer is as idiosyncratic as he is. It illustrates not only all is traits but all his moods. It brin"s out into the starkest relief his defects as well as his &ualities. It is terribly indiscreet and lays bare his caprice% his lack of deference% his defiance if discipline% his into+icated responsibilities. 6,B4!C ICD?9,CC,A )here are some writers who believe that 6erman writers and philosophy had deep impact in the mouldin" Carlyle7s style. 1nce Carlyle admitted that his style Nhad its ori"in in his father7s house in !nnandaleO. Carlyle often stated that style was not a thin" a man could put off and on% and that matter was more important than manner. ! man should have somethin" to say% and should say it in the manner that comes natural to him. Carlyle was parent of own style. D,D,C)> 1D C!B?M?,7> >)M?,A )he defects in Carlyle7s style are more apparent than its merits. Its Nellipsis% "estures capitals% inter;ection% iterationsO% its Nbarbarous% new% erroneous coina"es and locutionO% Nthe constant recurrence of some words in &uaint and &ueer conne+ionO%O 6ermani:ed compounds% fre&uency of inversion% fati"uin" over*emphasisO%O occasional ;erkin" and almost spasmodic e+citement N lie on the surface. =esides% these easily perceptible defects there are two other which are more fundamental. 1ne is the noise of the style% the strident emphasis by the trick of italici:in"% and the other is the intense self*consciousness of all his writin"% "ood and bad alike< the self*reference% the self*lashin"% the self scrutiny% the self*distrust. 4,BI)> 1D C!B?M?,7> >)M?,A 3e always tried to paint the li"ht shinin" in the darkness comprehendin" it not% and therefore it was that he strive so hard to invent a new style which should e+press not simply the amount of human knowled"e% but also so far as possible% the much vaster amount of human i"norance a"ainst which that knowled"e sparkled in more radiant points breakin" the "loom. It seems to me a style invented for the purpose of convincin" those whom it charmed% that moral truth can only be discerned by a brilliant ima"inative tact and audacity in discriminatin" the various stars sprinkled in a "reat vault of

mystery% and then walkin" boldly into the doubtful li"ht they "ive< that there is much which cannot be believed e+cept by self*deceivers or fools% but that wonder is of the essence of all ri"ht mindedness. C3!B!C),B>)IC> 1D C!B?M?,7> >)M?, -a.Bomantic and 1ratorical (roseA Carlyle7s style does not match with the Classical writers of (rose because he does not possess the Classical &ualities of clearness% ease and balance. It rather looks to be Bomantic (rose since it is addressed to the ear rather than to eye% to the feelin"s rather than to the understandin". -b.?ove of the concretely pictures&ueA 3e speaks in ima"es so beautifully that it creates mental vision in reader7s mind. 8ith the help of 4etaphors and >imiles% he makes blur ima"e look clear% and this faculty is in born in him. -c.HocabularyA 3is command of words must be pronounced to be of the hi"hest order. !mon" the few that stand ne+t to >hakespeare% he occupies very hi"h place in describin" characters. 3e coined new words and compounds plentiful and makes new forms of synta+. -d.3umourA =romwell calls Carlyle7s humor a trifle% flat and artificial% because it is more than willful. but that is an un;ust sentence. 3is humor presents picture of amusement% scorn and sadness. >ometimes he looks a little out of place and his 3umour a bit NelephantineO. =ut as a rule he master of irony and the ludicrous. 3e is "reat in sarcasms% satire and euphemisms. -e. 8ealth of allusionsA Carlyle7s ran"e of allusions is wide% and in one passa"e he will be "ivin" allusions half a do:en different and widely separated books in literature. 3e draws upon theolo"y% mathematics% science% philosophy% history% economics etc. for his instances and ima"es.

/eadership
=rom +i ipedia4 the "ree encyclopedia
.ump to: navi"ation, search C/eaderC redirects here. -or other uses, see /eader 1disambi"uation6. -or other uses, see /eadership 1disambi"uation6. This article needs additional citations for verification.
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/eadership has been described as the Nprocess of social influence in which one person can enlist the aid and support of others in the accomplishment of a common taskO.[1] Definitions more inclusive of followers have also emer"ed. !lan Ieith of 6enentech states that% @?eadership is ultimately about creatin" a way for people to contribute to makin" somethin" e+traordinary happen.@[#] !ccordin" to Ien @>IC@ 1"bonnia [0]% @effective leadership is the ability to successfully inte"rate and ma+imi:e available resources within the internal and e+ternal environment for the attainment of or"ani:ational or societal "oals.@ ?eadership remains one of the most relevant aspects of the or"ani:ational conte+t. 3owever% definin" leadership has been challen"in" and definitions can vary dependin" on the situation. !ccordin" to !nn 4arie ,. 4c>wain% !ssistant (rofessor at ?incoln 9niversity% Nleadership is about capacityA the capacity of leaders to listen and observe% to use their e+pertise as a startin" point to encoura"e dialo"ue between all levels of decision*makin"% to establish

processes and transparency in decision*makin"% to articulate their own values and visions clearly but not impose them. ?eadership is about settin" and not ;ust reactin" to a"endas% identifyin" problems% and initiatin" chan"e that makes for substantial improvement rather than mana"in" chan"e.O )he followin" sections discuss several important aspects of leadership includin" a description of what leadership is and a description of several popular theories and styles of leadership. )his article also discusses topics such as the role of emotions and vision% as well as leadership effectiveness and performance% leadership in different conte+ts% how it may differ from related concepts -i.e.% mana"ement.% and some criti&ues of leadership as "enerally conceived.

'ontents
?hide@

2 Theories of leadership o 2.2 Trait Theory

o o o o o o o

2.2.2 *arly 'istory 2.2.E The 8ise of Alternative /eadership Theories 2.2.F The 8eemer"ence of the Trait Theory 2.2.G Current Criticisms of the Trait Theory 2.2.H /eader Attribute 7attern Approach

2.E (ehavioral and style theories 2.F Situational and contin"ency theories 2.G -unctional theory 2.H Transactional and transformational theories 2.I /eadership and emotions 2.3 +eo-emer"ent theory 2.5 *nvironmental leadership theory

E /eadership styles
o

E.2 Jurt /ewinDs /eadership styles

E.2.2 Autocratic or Authoritarian /eaders E.2.E 7articipative or %emocratic /eaders E.2.F /aisseK -aire or -ree 8ein /eaders

F /eadership performance G Contexts of leadership

o o o o

G.2 /eadership in or"aniKations G.E /eadership versus mana"ement G.F /eadership by a "roup G.G /eadership amon" primates

H 'istorical views on leadership I Action &riented Team /eadership Skills 3 Titles emphasiKin" authority 5 Critical Thou"ht on the concept of leadership 4 See also 2L 8eferences 22 *xternal links

[edit] *heories o" leadership

>tudents of leadership have produced theories involvin" traits [/]% situational interaction% function% behavior% power% vision and values [$]% charisma% and intelli"ence amon" others.

[edit] *rait *heory

)rait theory tries to describe the characteristics associated with effective leadership.
@e)itA Early History The search for the characteristics or traits of leaders has been on"oin" for centuries. 'istory#s "reatest philosophical writin"s from 7lato#s Republic to 7lutarch#s Lives have explored the >uestion of ;)hat >ualities distin"uish an individual as a leaderA< Bnderlyin" this search was the early reco"nition of the importance of leadership and the assumption that leadership is rooted in the characteristics that certain individuals possess. This idea that leadership is based on individual attributes is known as the ;trait theory of leadership.<

This view of leadership, the trait theory, was explored at len"th in a number of works in the previous century. !ost notable are the writin"s of Thomas Carlyle and -rancis alton, whose works have prompted decades of research. In Heroes and Hero Worship 125G26, Carlyle identified the talents, skills, and physical characteristics of men who rose to power. In alton#s 125I46 Hereditary enius, he examined leadership >ualities in the families of powerful men. After showin" that the numbers of eminent relatives dropped off when movin" from first de"ree to second de"ree

relatives, alton concluded that leadership was inherited. In other words, leaders were born, not developed. (oth of these notable works lent "reat initial support for the notion that leadership is rooted in characteristics of the leader.

-or decades, this trait-based perspective dominated empirical and theoretical work in leadership?I@. Bsin" early research techni>ues, researchers conducted over a hundred studies proposin" a number of characteristics that distin"uished leaders from nonleaders: intelli"ence, dominance, adaptability, persistence, inte"rity, socioeconomic status, and self-confidence $ust to name a few?3@. @e)itA The /ise of Alternative 4ea)ership Theories In the late 24GLs and early 24HLs, however, a series of >ualitative reviews of these studies 1e."., (ird, 24GL?5@, Sto"dill, 24G5?4@, !ann, 24H4?2L@6 prompted researchers to take a drastically different view of the drivin" forces behind leadership. In reviewin" the extant literature, Sto"dill and !ann found that while some traits were common across a number of studies, the overall evidence su""ested that persons who are leaders in one situation may not necessarily be leaders in other situations. Subse>uently, leadership was no lon"er characteriKed as an endurin" individual trait, as situational approaches 1see alternative leadership theories below6 posited that individuals can be effective in certain situations, but not others. This approach dominated much of the leadership theory and research for the next few decades. @e)itA The /eemer'en(e of the Trait Theory +ew methods and measurements were developed after these influential reviews that would ultimately reestablish the trait theory as a viable approach to the study of leadership. -or example, improvements in researchers# use of the round robin research desi"n methodolo"y allowed researchers to see that individuals can and do emer"e as leaders across a variety of situations and tasks?22@. Additionally, durin" the 245Ls statistical advances allowed researchers to conduct meta-analyses, in which they could >uantitatively analyKe and summariKe the findin"s from a wide array of studies. This advent allowed trait theorists to create a comprehensive and parsimonious picture of previous leadership research rather than rely on the >ualitative reviews of the past. *>uipped with new methods, leadership researchers revealed the followin":

Individuals can and do emer"e as leaders across a variety of situations and tasks?22@ Si"nificant relationships exist between leadership and such individual traits as: intelli"ence?2E@

ad$ustment?2E@ extraversion?2E@ conscientiousness?2F@?2G@?2H@ openness to experience?2G@?2I@ "eneral self-efficacy?23@?25@

@e)itA Current Criti(isms of the Trait Theory )hile the trait theory of leadership has certainly re"ained popularity, its reemer"ence has not been accompanied by a correspondin" increase in sophisticated conceptual frameworks?I@. Specifically, Maccaro 1ELL36?I@ noted that trait theories still: 2. -ocus on a small set of individual attributes such as (i" -ive personality traits, to the ne"lect of co"nitive abilities, motives, values, social skills, expertise, and problem-solvin" skills E. -ail to consider patterns or inte"rations of multiple attributes F. %o not distin"uish between those leader attributes that are "enerally not malleable over time and those that are shaped by, and bound to, situational influences G. %o not consider how stable leader attributes account for the behavioral diversity necessary for effective leadership @e)itA 4ea)er Attribute Pattern Approa(h Considerin" the criticisms of the trait theory outlined above, several researchers have be"un to adopt a different perspective of leader individual differences - the leader attribute pattern approach ?24@?EL@?E2@?EE@?EF@. In contrast to the traditional approach, the leader attribute pattern approach is based on theorists# ar"uments that the influence of individual characteristics on outcomes is best understood by considerin" the person as an inte"rated totality rather than a summation of individual variables ?EE@ ?EG@ . In other words, the leader attribute pattern approach ar"ues that inte"rated constellations or combinations of individual differences may explain substantial variance in both leader emer"ence and leader effectiveness beyond that explained by sin"le attributes, or by additive combinations of multiple attributes.

[edit] ,ehavioral and style theories

!ain article: !ana"erial "rid model

In response to the early criticisms of the trait approach% theorists be"an to research leadership as a set of behaviors% evaluatin" the behavior of 'successful' leaders% determinin" a behavior ta+onomy and identifyin" broad leadership styles.[#$] David 4cClelland% for e+ample% ?eadership takes a stron" personality with a well developed positive e"o. Cot so much as a

pattern of motives% but a set of traits is crucial. )o lead< self*confidence and a hi"h self*esteem is useful% perhaps even essential.[#6][Ievin 4ick]

A "raphical representation of the mana"erial "rid model

Iurt ?ewin% Bonald ?ipitt% and Balph 8hite developed in 1F0F the seminal work on the influence of leadership styles and performance. )he researchers evaluated the performance of "roups of eleven*year*old boys under different types of work climate. In each% the leader e+ercised his influence re"ardin" the type of "roup decision makin"% praise and criticism -feedback.% and the mana"ement of the "roup tasks -pro;ect mana"ement. accordin" to three stylesA -1. authoritarian% -#. democratic and -0. laisse:*faire.[#2] Authoritarian climates were characteri:ed by leaders who make decisions alone% demand strict compliance to his orders% and dictate each step taken< future steps were uncertain to a lar"e de"ree. )he leader is not necessarily hostile but is aloof from participation in work and commonly offers personal praise and criticism for the work done. Democratic climates were characteri:ed by collective decision processes% assisted by the leader. =efore accomplishin" tasks% perspectives are "ained from "roup discussion and technical advice from a leader. 4embers are "iven choices and collectively decide the division of labor. (raise and criticism in such an environment are ob;ective% fact minded and "iven by a "roup member without necessarily havin" participated e+tensively in the actual work. .aisse9 !aire climates "ave freedom to the "roup for policy determination without any participation from the leader. )he leader remains uninvolved in work decisions unless asked% does not participate in the division of labor% and very infre&uently "ives praise.[#2] )he results seemed to confirm that the democratic climate was preferred.[#8] )he mana"erial "rid model is also based on a behavioral theory. )he model was developed by Bobert =lake and 5ane 4outon in 1F6/ and su""ests five different leadership styles% based on the leaders' concern for people and their concern for "oal achievement.[#F]

[edit] (ituational and contingency theories

!ain articles: -iedler contin"ency model, 9room-0etton decision model, 7ath-"oal theory, and 'ersey-(lanchard situational theory

>ituational theory also appeared as a reaction to the trait theory of leadership. >ocial scientists ar"ued that history was more than the result of intervention of "reat men as Carlyle su""ested. 3erbert >pencer -188/. said that the times produce the person and not the other way around.

[0 ]

)his theory assumes that different situations call for different characteristics< accordin" to this "roup of theories% no sin"le optimal psycho"raphic profile of a leader e+ists. !ccordin" to the theory% @what an individual actually does when actin" as a leader is in lar"e part dependent upon characteristics of the situation in which he functions.@[01] >ome theorists started to synthesi:e the trait and situational approaches. =uildin" upon the research of ?ewin et al.% academics be"an to normati:e the descriptive models of leadership climates% definin" three leadership styles and identifyin" in which situations each style works better. )he authoritarian leadership st#le% for e+ample% is approved in periods of crisis but fails to win the @hearts and minds@ of their followers in the day*to*day mana"ement< the democratic leadership st#le is more ade&uate in situations that re&uire consensus buildin"< finally% the laisse9 !aire leadership st#le is appreciated by the de"ree of freedom it provides% but as the leader does not @take char"e@% he can be perceived as a failure in protracted or thorny or"ani:ational problems.[0#] )hus% theorists defined the style of leadership as contin"ent to the situation% which is sometimes classified as contin"ency theory. Dour contin"ency leadership theories appear more prominently in the recent yearsA Diedler contin"ency model% Hroom*Metton decision model% the path*"oal theory% and the 3ersey*=lanchard situational theory. )he Diedler contin"ency model bases the leader7s effectiveness on what Dred Diedler called situational contingenc#. )his results from the interaction of leadership style and situational favorableness -later called @situational control@.. )he theory defined two types of leaderA those who tend to accomplish the task by developin" "ood*relationships with the "roup -relationship?oriented.% and those who have as their prime concern carryin" out the task itself -task?oriented..[00] !ccordin" to Diedler% there is no ideal leader. =oth task*oriented and relationship*oriented leaders can be effective if their leadership orientation fits the situation. 8hen there is a "ood leader*member relation% a hi"hly structured task% and hi"h leader position power% the situation is considered a @favorable situation@. Diedler found that task* oriented leaders are more effective in e+tremely favourable or unfavourable situations% whereas relationship*oriented leaders perform best in situations with intermediate favourability. Hictor Hroom% in collaboration with (hillip Metton -1F20.[0/] and later with !rthur 5a"o -1F88.%[0$] developed a ta+onomy for describin" leadership situations% ta+onomy that was used in a normative decision model where leadership styles where connected to situational variables% definin" which approach was more suitable to which situation.[06] )his approach was novel because it supported the idea that the same mana"er could rely on different "roup decision makin" approaches dependin" on the attributes of each situation. )his model was later referred as situational contin"ency theory.[02] )he path*"oal theory of leadership was developed by Bobert 3ouse -1F21. and was based on the e+pectancy theory of Hictor Hroom.[08] !ccordin" to 3ouse% the essence of the theory is @the meta proposition that leaders% to be effective% en"a"e in behaviors that complement subordinates' environments and abilities in a manner that compensates for deficiencies and is instrumental to subordinate satisfaction and individual and work unit performance.[0F] )he theory identifies four leader behaviors% achie ement?oriented% directi e% participati e% and supporti e% that are contin"ent to the environment factors and follower characteristics. In contrast to the Diedler contin"ency model% the path*"oal model states that the four leadership behaviors are fluid% and that leaders can adopt any of the four dependin" on what the situation demands. )he path*"oal model can be classified both as a contin"ency theory% as it depends

on the circumstances% but also as a transactional leadership theory% as the theory emphasi:es the reciprocity behavior between the leader and the followers. )he situational leadership model proposed by 3ersey and =lanchard su""ests four leadership* styles and four levels of follower*development. Dor effectiveness% the model posits that the leadership*style must match the appropriate level of followership*development. In this model% leadership behavior becomes a function not only of the characteristics of the leader% but of the characteristics of followers as well.[/ ]

[edit] =unctional theory

!ain article: -unctional leadership model

Dunctional leadership theory -3ackman ] 8alton% 1F86< 4c6rath% 1F6#. is a particularly useful theory for addressin" specific leader behaviors e+pected to contribute to or"ani:ational or unit effectiveness. )his theory ar"ues that the leader7s main ;ob is to see that whatever is necessary to "roup needs is taken care of< thus% a leader can be said to have done their ;ob well when they have contributed to "roup effectiveness and cohesion -Dleishman et al.% 1FF1< 3ackman ] 8a"eman% # $< 3ackman ] 8alton% 1F86.. 8hile functional leadership theory has most often been applied to team leadership -Saccaro% Bittman% ] 4arks% # 1.% it has also been effectively applied to broader or"ani:ational leadership as well -Saccaro% # 1.. In summari:in" literature on functional leadership -see Io:lowski et al. -1FF6.% Saccaro et al. -# 1.% 3ackman and 8alton -1F86.% 3ackman ] 8a"eman -# $.% 4or"eson -# $..% Ilein% Sei"ert% Ini"ht% and Uiao -# 6. observed five broad functions a leader performs when promotin" or"anisation's effectiveness. )hese functions includeA -1. environmental monitorin"% -#. or"ani:in" subordinate activities% -0. teachin" and coachin" subordinates% -/. motivatin" others% and -$. intervenin" actively in the "roup7s work. ! variety of leadership behaviors are e+pected to facilitate these functions. In initial work identifyin" leader behavior% Dleishman -1F$0. observed that subordinates perceived their supervisors7 behavior in terms of two broad cate"ories referred to as consideration and initiatin" structure. Consideration includes behavior involved in fosterin" effective relationships. ,+amples of such behavior would include showin" concern for a subordinate or actin" in a supportive manner towards others. Initiatin" structure involves the actions of the leader focused specifically on task accomplishment. )his could include role clarification% settin" performance standards% and holdin" subordinates accountable to those standards.

[edit] *ransactional and trans"ormational theories

!ain articles: Transactional leadership and Transformational leadership

,ric =erne[/1] first analy:ed the relations between a "roup and its leadership in terms of )ransactional !nalysis. )he transactional leader -=urns% 1F28.[/#] is "iven power to perform certain tasks and reward or punish for the team7s performance. It "ives the opportunity to the mana"er to lead the "roup and the "roup a"rees to follow his lead to accomplish a predetermined "oal in e+chan"e for somethin" else. (ower is "iven to the leader to evaluate% correct and train subordinates when productivity is not up to the desired level and reward effectiveness when e+pected outcome is reached.

)he trans"ormational leader -=urns% 1F28.[/#] motivates its team to be effective and efficient. Communication is the base for "oal achievement focusin" the "roup on the final desired outcome or "oal attainment. )his leader is hi"hly visible and uses chain of command to "et the ;ob done. )ransformational leaders focus on the bi" picture% needin" to be surrounded by people who take care of the details. )he leader is always lookin" for ideas that move the or"ani:ation to reach the company7s vision.

[edit] /eadership and emotions

?eadership can be perceived as a particularly emotion*laden process% with emotions entwined with the social influence process[/0]. In an or"ani:ation% the leaders7 mood has some effects on his[her "roup. )hese effects can be described in 0 levels[//]A
2. The mood of individual "roup members. roup members with leaders in a positive mood experience more positive mood than do "roup members with leaders in a ne"ative mood.The leaders transmit their moods to other "roup members throu"h the mechanism of emotional conta"ion?GG@.!ood conta"ion may be one of the psycholo"ical mechanisms by which charismatic leaders influence followers?GH@. E. The affective tone of the "roup. roup affective tone represents the consistent or homo"eneous affective reactions within a "roup. roup affective tone is an a""re"ate of the moods of the individual members of the "roup and refers to mood at the "roup level of analysis. roups with leaders in a positive mood have a more positive affective tone than do "roups with leaders in a ne"ative mood ?GG@. F. roup processes like coordination, effort expenditure, and task strate"y. 7ublic expressions of mood impact how "roup members think and act. )hen people experience and express mood, they send si"nals to others. /eaders si"nal their "oals, intentions, and attitudes throu"h their expressions of moods. -or example, expressions of positive moods by leaders si"nal that leaders deem pro"ress toward "oals to be "ood.The "roup members respond to those si"nals co"nitively and behaviorally in ways that are reflected in the "roup processes ?GG@.

In research about client service% it was found that e+pressions of positive mood by the leader improve the performance of the "roup% althou"h in other sectors there were other findin"s[/6]. =eyond the leader7s mood% her[his behavior is a source for employee positive and ne"ative emotions at work. )he leader creates situations and events that lead to emotional response. Certain leader behaviors displayed durin" interactions with their employees are the sources of these affective events. ?eaders shape workplace affective events. ,+amples G feedback "ivin"% allocatin" tasks% resource distribution. >ince employee behavior and productivity are directly affected by their emotional states% it is imperative to consider employee emotional responses to or"ani:ational leaders[/2]. ,motional intelli"ence% the ability to understand and mana"e moods and emotions in the self and others% contributes to effective leadership in or"ani:ations[/6]. ?eadership is about bein" responsible.

[edit] :eoMemergent theory

!ain article: -unctional leadership model

)he Ceo*emer"ent leadership theory -from the 1+ford school of leadership. espouses that leadership is created throu"h the emer"ence of information by the leader or other stakeholders% not throu"h the true actions of the leader himself. In other words% the reproduction of information or stories form the basis of the perception of leadership by the ma;ority. It well known that the "reat naval hero ?ord Celson often wrote his own versions of battles he was involved in% so that when he arrived home in ,n"land he would receive a true hero's welcome. In modern society% the press% blo"s and other sources report their own views of a leader which may be based on reality% but may also be based on a political command% a payment or an inherent interest of the author% media or leader. )herefore% it can be contended that the perception of all leaders is created and in fact does not reflect their true leadership &ualities at all.

[edit] Environmental leadership theory

)he ,nvironmental leadership model -Carma::i. describes leadership from a 6roup dynamics perspective incorporatin" "roup psycholo"y and self awareness to nurture N,nvironmentsO that promote self sustainin" "roup leadership based on personal emotional "ratification from the activities of the "roup. )he ,nvironmental ?eader creates the psycholo"ical structure by which employees can find and attain this "ratification throu"h work or activity. It stems from the idea that each individual has various environments that brin" out different facets from their own Identity% and each facet is driven by emotionally char"ed perceptions within each environmentZ )he ,nvironmental ?eader creates a platform throu"h education and awareness where individuals fill each others emotional needs and become more conscious of when% and how they affect personal and team emotional "ratifications. )his is accomplished by knowin" why people NreactO to their environment instead of act intelli"ently. @En ironmental .eadership is not about changing the mindset o! the group or indi idual, but in the culti ation o! an en ironment that brings out the best and inspires the indi iduals in that group/ 8t is not the abilit# to in!luence others to do something the# are not committed to, but rather to nurture a culture that moti ates and e en excites indi iduals to do what is reAuired !or the bene!it o! all/ 8t is not carr#ing others to the end result, but setting the surrounding !or de eloping Aualities in them to so the# ma# carr# each other/B Carma99i )he role of an ,nvironmental ?eader is to instill passion and direction to a "roup and the dynamics of that "roup. )his leader implements a psycholo"ical support system within a "roup that fills the emotional and developmental needs of the "roup.

[edit] /eadership styles

?eadership style refers to a leader7s behaviour. It is the result of the philosophy% personality and e+perience of the leader.

[edit] Furt /e&in)s /eadership styles

Iurt ?ewin and collea"ues identified different styles of leadership [/8]A

%ictator Autocratic

7articipative /aisseK -aire

@e)itA Auto(rati( or Authoritarian 4ea)ers

9nder the autocratic leadership style% all decision*makin" powers are centrali:ed in the leader% as with dictator leaders. )hey do not entertain any su""estions or initiatives from subordinates. )he autocratic mana"ement has been successful as it provides stron" motivation to the mana"er. It permits &uick decision*makin"% as only one person decides for the whole "roup and keeps each decision to themself until they feel it is needed by the rest of the "roup. !n autocratic leader does not trust anybody.
@e)itA Parti(ipative or 5emo(rati( 4ea)ers

)he democratic leadership style favors decision*makin" by the "roup as shown% such as leader "ives instruction after consultin" the "roup. 3e can win the cooperation of his "roup and can motivate them effectively and positively. )he decisions of the democratic leader are not unilateral as with the autocrat because they arise from consultation with the "roup members and participation by them.
@e)itA 4aisseB 8aire or 8ree /ein 4ea)ers

! free rein leader does not lead% but leaves the "roup entirely to itself as shown< such a leader allows ma+imum freedom to subordinates. )hey are "iven a freehand in decidin" their own policies and methods. Different situations call for different leadership styles. In an emer"ency when there is little time to conver"e on an a"reement and where a desi"nated authority has si"nificantly more e+perience or e+pertise than the rest of the team% an autocratic leadership style may be most effective< however% in a hi"hly motivated and ali"ned team with a homo"eneous level of e+pertise% a more democratic or laisse: faire style may be more effective. )he style adopted should be that which most effectively achieves the ob;ectives of the "roup while balancin" the interests of its individual members.

[edit] /eadership per"ormance

!ain article: /eadership 7erformance

In the past% some researchers have ar"ued that the actual influence of leaders on or"ani:ational outcomes is overrated and romantici:ed as a result of biased attributions about leaders -4eindl ] ,hrlich% 1F82.. Despite these assertions however% it is lar"ely reco"ni:ed and accepted by practitioners and researchers that leadership is important% and research supports the notion that leaders do contribute to key or"ani:ational outcomes -Day ] ?ord%

1F88< Iaiser% 3o"an% ] Crai"% # 8.. In order to facilitate successful performance it is important to understand and accurately measure leadership performance. 5ob performance "enerally refers to behavior that is e+pected to contribute to or"ani:ational success -Campbell% 1FF .. Campbell identified a number of specific types of performance dimensions< leadership was one of the dimensions that he identified. )here is no consistent% overall definition of leadership performance -Mukl% # 6.. 4any distinct conceptuali:ations are often lumped to"ether under the umbrella of leadership performance% includin" outcomes such as leader effectiveness% leader advancement% and leader emer"ence -Iaiser et al.% # 8.. Dor instance% leadership performance may be used to refer to the career success of the individual leader% performance of the "roup or or"ani:ation% or even leader emer"ence. ,ach of these measures can be considered conceptually distinct. 8hile these aspects may be related% they are different outcomes and their inclusion should depend on the applied[research focus.

[edit] 'ontexts o" leadership

[edit] /eadership in organiAations
!n or"ani:ation that is established as an instrument or means for achievin" defined ob;ectives has been referred to as a "ormal organiAation. Its desi"n specifies how "oals are subdivided and reflected in subdivisions of the or"ani:ation. Divisions% departments% sections% positions% ;obs% and tasks make up this work structure. )hus% the formal or"ani:ation is e+pected to behave impersonally in re"ard to relationships with clients or with its members. !ccordin" to 8eber's definition% entry and subse&uent advancement is by merit or seniority. ,ach employee receives a salary and en;oys a de"ree of tenure that safe"uards her[him from the arbitrary influence of superiors or of powerful clients. )he hi"her his position in the hierarchy% the "reater his presumed e+pertise in ad;udicatin" problems that may arise in the course of the work carried out at lower levels of the or"ani:ation. It is this bureaucratic structure that forms the basis for the appointment of heads or chiefs of administrative subdivisions in the or"ani:ation and endows them with the authority attached to their position.
[/F]

In contrast to the appointed head or chief of an administrative unit% a leader emer"es within the conte+t of the in"ormal organiAation that underlies the formal structure. )he informal or"ani:ation e+presses the personal ob;ectives and "oals of the individual membership. )heir ob;ectives and "oals may or may not coincide with those of the formal or"ani:ation. )he informal or"ani:ation represents an e+tension of the social structures that "enerally characteri:e human life K the spontaneous emer"ence of "roups and or"ani:ations as ends in themselves. In prehistoric times% humanity was preoccupied with personal security% maintenance% protection% and survival. Cow humanity spends a ma;or portion of wakin" hours workin" for or"ani:ations. 3er[3is need to identify with a community that provides security% protection% maintenance% and a feelin" of belon"in" continues unchan"ed from prehistoric times. )his need is met by the informal or"ani:ation and its emer"ent% or unofficial% leaders.[$ ] ?eaders emer"e from within the structure of the informal or"ani:ation. )heir personal &ualities% the demands of the situation% or a combination of these and other factors attract followers who accept their leadership within one or several overlay structures. Instead of the

authority of position held by an appointed head or chief% the emer"ent leader wields influence or power. Influence is the ability of a person to "ain co*operation from others by means of persuasion or control over rewards. (ower is a stron"er form of influence because it reflects a person's ability to enforce action throu"h the control of a means of punishment.[$ ] ! leader is a person who influences a "roup of people towards a specific result. It is not dependent on title or formal authority. -elevos% paraphrased from ?eaders% =ennis% and ?eadership (resence% 3alpern ] ?ubar.. ?eaders are reco"ni:ed by their capacity for carin" for others% clear communication% and a commitment to persist.[$1] !n individual who is appointed to a mana"erial position has the ri"ht to command and enforce obedience by virtue of the authority of his position. 3owever% she or he must possess ade&uate personal attributes to match his authority% because authority is only potentially available to him. In the absence of sufficient personal competence% a mana"er may be confronted by an emer"ent leader who can challen"e her[his role in the or"ani:ation and reduce it to that of a fi"urehead. 3owever% only authority of position has the backin" of formal sanctions. It follows that whoever wields personal influence and power can le"itimi:e this only by "ainin" a formal position in the hierarchy% with commensurate authority.[$ ] ?eadership can be defined as one's ability to "et others to willin"ly follow. ,very or"ani:ation needs leaders at every level.[$#]

[edit] /eadership versus management

1ver the years the philosophical terminolo"y of @mana"ement@ and @leadership@ have% in the or"anisational conte+t% been used both as synonyms and with clearly differentiated meanin"s. Debate is fairly common about whether the use of these terms should be restricted% and "enerally reflects an awareness of the distinction made by =urns -1F28. between @transactional@ leadership -characterised by e" emphasis on procedures% contin"ent reward% mana"ement by e+ception. and @transformational@ leadership -characterised by e" charisma% personal relationships% creativity.. )hat those two ad;ectives are in fact used e&ually well with the noun @mana"ement@ as with the noun @leadership@ indicates that there is such a messy overlap between the two in academic practice that attempts to pontificate about their differences are lar"ely a waste of time.

[edit] /eadership by a group

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In contrast to individual leadership% some or"ani:ations have adopted "roup leadership. In this situation% more than one person provides direction to the "roup as a whole. >ome or"ani:ations have taken this approach in hopes of increasin" creativity% reducin" costs% or downsi:in". 1thers may see the traditional leadership of a boss as costin" too much in team performance. In some situations% the maintenance of the boss becomes too e+pensive * either by drainin" the resources of the "roup as a whole% or by impedin" the creativity within the team% even unintentionally.[citation needed] ! common e+ample of "roup leadership involves cross*functional teams. ! team of people with diverse skills and from all parts of an or"ani:ation assembles to lead a pro;ect. ! team structure can involve sharin" power e&ually on all issues% but more commonly uses rotating

leadership. )he team member-s. best able to handle any "iven phase of the pro;ect become-s. the temporary leader-s.. !dditionally% as each team member has the opportunity to e+perience the elevated level of empowerment% it ener"i:es staff and feeds the cycle of success.[$0] ?eaders who demonstrate persistence% tenacity% determination and syner"istic communication skills will brin" out the same &ualities in their "roups. 6ood leaders use their own inner mentors to ener"i:e their team and or"ani:ations and lead a team to achieve success.[$/] According to the National School Boards Association (USA) [$$] )hese 6roup ?eadership or ?eadership )eams have specific characteristicsA 'haracteristics o" a *eam

There must be an awareness of unity on the part of all its members. There must be interpersonal relationship. !embers must have a chance to contribute, learn from and work with others. The member must have the ability to act to"ether toward a common "oal.

*en characteristics o" &ellM"unctioning teamsG

7urpose: !embers proudly share a sense of why the team exists and are invested in accomplishin" its mission and "oals. 7riorities: !embers know what needs to be done next, by whom, and by when to achieve team "oals. 8oles: !embers know their roles in "ettin" tasks done and when to allow a more skillful member to do a certain task. %ecisions: Authority and decision-makin" lines are clearly understood. Conflict: Conflict is dealt with openly and is considered important to decision-makin" and personal "rowth. 7ersonal traits: members feel their uni>ue personalities are appreciated and well utiliKed. +orms: roup norms for workin" to"ether are set and seen as standards for every one in the "roups. *ffectiveness: !embers find team meetin"s efficient and productive and look forward to this time to"ether. Success: !embers know clearly when the team has met with success and share in this e>ually and proudly. Trainin": &pportunities for feedback and updatin" skills are provided and taken advanta"e of by team members.

[edit] /eadership among primates

Bichard 8ran"ham and Dale (eterson% in Demonic %alesC Apes and the 2rigins o! 'uman 6iolence present evidence that only humans and chimpan:ees% amon" all the animals livin"

on earth% share a similar tendency for a cluster of behaviorsA violence% territoriality% and competition for unitin" behind the one chief male of the land.[$6] )his position is contentious. 4any animals beyond apes are territorial% compete% e+hibit violence% and have a social structure controlled by a dominant male -lions% wolves% etc..% su""estin" 8ran"ham and (eterson's evidence is not empirical. 3owever% we must e+amine other species as well% includin" elephants -which are undoubtedly matriarchal and follow an alpha female.% meerkats -who are likewise matriarchal.% and many others. It would be beneficial% to e+amine that most accounts of leadership over the past few millennia -since the creation of Christian reli"ions. are throu"h the perspective of a patriarchal society% founded on Christian literature. If one looks before these times% it is noticed that (a"an and ,arth*based tribes in fact had female leaders. It is important also to note that the peculiarities of one tribe cannot necessarily be ascribed to another% as even our modern*day customs differ. )he current day patrilineal custom is only a recent invention in human history and our ori"inal method of familial practices were matrilineal -Dr. Christopher >helley and =ianca Bus% 9=C.. )he fundamental assumption that has been built into F ^ of the world's countries is that patriarchy is the 'natural' biolo"ical predisposition of homo sapiens. 9nfortunately% this belief has led to the widespread oppression of women in all of those countries% but in varyin" de"rees. -8hole ,arth Beview% 8inter% 1FF$ by )homas ?aird% 4ichael Hictor.. )he Iro&uoian Dirst Cations tribes are an e+ample of a matrilineal tribe% alon" with 4ayan tribes% and also the society of 4e"halaya% India. -?aird and Hictor% .. =y comparison% bonobos% the second*closest species*relatives of man% do not unite behind the chief male of the land. )he bonobos show deference to an alpha or top*rankin" female that% with the support of her coalition of other females% can prove as stron" as the stron"est male in the land. )hus% if leadership amounts to "ettin" the "reatest number of followers% then amon" the bonobos% a female almost always e+erts the stron"est and most effective leadership. 3owever% not all scientists a"ree on the alle"edly @peaceful@ nature of the bonobo or its reputation as a @hippie chimp@.[1]

[edit] !istorical vie&s on leadership

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>anskrit literature identifies ten types of leaders. Definin" characteristics of the ten types of leaders are e+plained with e+amples from history and mytholo"y.[$2] !ristocratic thinkers have postulated that leadership depends on one's blue blood or "enesA monarchy takes an e+treme view of the same idea% and may prop up its assertions a"ainst the claims of mere aristocrats by invokin" divine sanctionA see the divine ri"ht of kin"s. Contrariwise% more democratically*inclined theorists have pointed to e+amples of meritocratic leaders% such as the Capoleonic marshals profitin" from careers open to talent. In the autocratic[paternalistic strain of thou"ht% traditionalists recall the role of leadership of the Boman pater !amilias. Deminist thinkin"% on the other hand% may ob;ect to such models as patriarchal and posit a"ainst them emotionally*attuned% responsive% and consensual empathetic "uidance% which is sometimes associated with matriarchies.

Comparable to the Boman tradition% the views of Confucianism on @ri"ht livin"@ relate very much to the ideal of the -male. scholar*leader and his benevolent rule% buttressed by a tradition of filial piety. ?eadership is a matter of intelli"ence% trustworthiness% humaneness% coura"e% and discipline . . . Beliance on intelli"ence alone results in rebelliousness. ,+ercise of humaneness alone results in weakness. Di+ation on trust results in folly. Dependence on the stren"th of coura"e results in violence. ,+cessive discipline and sternness in command result in cruelty. 8hen one has all five virtues to"ether% each appropriate to its function% then one can be a leader. K >un ):u[$8] In the 1Fth century% the elaboration of anarchist thou"ht called the whole concept of leadership into &uestion. -Cote that the 2x!ord English Dictionar# traces the word @leadership@ in ,n"lish only as far back as the 1Fth century.. 1ne response to this denial of Llitism came with ?eninism% which demanded an Llite "roup of disciplined cadres to act as the van"uard of a socialist revolution% brin"in" into e+istence the dictatorship of the proletariat. 1ther historical views of leadership have addressed the seemin" contrasts between secular and reli"ious leadership. )he doctrines of Caesaro*papism have recurred and had their detractors over several centuries. Christian thinkin" on leadership has often emphasi:ed stewardship of divinely*provided resources * human and material * and their deployment in accordance with a Divine plan. Compare servant leadership. Dor a more "eneral take on leadership in politics% compare the concept of the statesman.

[edit] %ction Oriented *eam /eadership ( ills

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)his is a uni&ue approach to team leadership that is aimed at action oriented environments where effective functional leadership is re&uired to achieve critical or reactive tasks by small teams deployed into the field. In other words leadership of small "roups often created to respond to a situation or critical incident. In most cases these teams are tasked to operate in remote and chan"eable environments with limited support or backup -action environments.. ?eadership of people in these environments re&uires a different set of skills to that of front line mana"ement. )hese leaders must effectively operate remotely and ne"otiate both the needs of the individual% team and task within a chan"eable environment. )his has been termed !ction 1riented ?eadership. >ome e+ample action oriented leadership is demonstrated in the followin" waysA e+tin"uishin" a rural fire% locatin" a missin" person% leadin" a team on an outdoor e+pedition or rescuin" a person from a potentially ha:ardous environment.

[edit] *itles emphasiAing authority

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!t certain sta"es in their development% the hierarchies of social ranks implied different de"rees or ranks of leadership in society. )hus a kni"ht led fewer men in "eneral than did a duke< a baronet mi"ht in theory control less land than an earl. >ee peera"e for a systemati:ation of this hierarchy% and order of precedence for links to various systems. In the course of the 18th and # th centuries% several political operators took non*traditional paths to become dominant in their societies. )hey or their systems often e+pressed a belief in stron" individual leadership% but e+istin" titles and labels -@Iin"@% @,mperor@% @(resident@ and so on. often seemed inappropriate% insufficient or downri"ht inaccurate in some circumstances. )he formal or informal titles or descriptions they or their flunkies employ e+press and foster a "eneral veneration for leadership of the inspired and autocratic variety. )he definite article when used as part of the title -in lan"ua"es which use definite articles. emphasi:es the e+istence of a sole @true@ leader.

[edit] 'ritical *hought on the concept o" leadership

Coam Chomsky[$F] and others[6 ] have brou"ht critical thinkin" to the very concept of leadership and analy:ed the processes whereby people abro"ate their responsibility to think and will actions for themselves. 8hile the conventional view of leadership is rather satisfyin" to people who @want to be told what to do@% one should &uestion why they are bein" sub;ected to a will or intellect other than their own if the leader is not a >ub;ect 4atter ,+pert ->4,.. )he fundamentally anti*democratic nature of the leadership principle is challen"ed by the introduction of concepts such as auto"estion% employeeship% common civic virtue% etc% which stress individual responsibility and[or "roup authority in the work place and elsewhere by focusin" on the skills and attitudes that a person needs in "eneral rather than separatin" out leadership as the basis of a special class of individuals. >imilarly various historical calamities are attributed to a misplaced reliance on the principle of leadership.

Thomas Carlyle
,ornG /*Dec*12F$ ,irthplaceG ,cclefechan% Dumfriesshire% >cotland .iedG $*Deb*1881 /ocation o" deathG ?ondon% ,n"land 'ause o" deathG unspecified RemainsG =uried% ,cclefechan% Dumfriesshire% >cotland

GenderG 4ale Race or EthnicityG 8hite (exual orientationG >trai"ht OccupationG 3istorian :ationalityG >cotland Executive summaryG The )rench Re olution =ritish essayist% historian and philosopher% born on the /th of December 12F$ at ,cclefechan% in !nnandale% the eldest of the nine children of 5ames Carlyle by his second wife% 5anet !itken. )he father was by trade a mason% and afterwards a small farmer. 3e had ;oined a sect of seceders from the kirk% and had all the characteristics of the typical >cottish Calvinist. 3e was respected for his inte"rity and independence% and a stern outside covered warm affections. )he family tie between all the Carlyles was unusually stron"% and )homas re"arded his father with a reverence which found forcible e+pression in his Reminiscences. 3e always showed the tenderest love for his mother% and was the best of brothers. )he narrow means of his parents were made sufficient by strict fru"ality. 3e was sent to the parish school when seven% and to !nnan "rammar school when ten years old. 3is pu"nacity brou"ht him into troubles with his fellows at !nnan< but he soon showed an appetite for learnin" which induced his father to educate him for the ministry. 3e walked to ,dinbur"h in Covember 18 F% and entered the university. 3e cared little for any of the professors% e+cept >ir 5ohn ?eslie% from whom he learned some mathematics. 3e ac&uired a little classical knowled"e% but the most valuable influence was that of his contemporaries. ! few lads in positions similar to his own be"an to look up to him as an intellectual leader% and their correspondence with him shows remarkable interest in literary matters. In 181/ Carlyle% still lookin" forward to the career of a minister% obtained the mathematical mastership at !nnan. )he salary of _6 or _2 a year enabled him to save a little money. 3e went to ,dinbur"h once or twice% to deliver the discourses re&uired from students of divinity. 3e does not seem% however% to have taken to his profession very earnestly. 3e was too shy and proud to see many of the !nnan people% and found his chief solace in readin" such books as he could "et. In 1816 he was appointed% throu"h the recommendation of ?eslie% to a school at Iirkcaldy% where ,dward Irvin"% Carlyle's senior by three years% was also master of a school. Irvin"'s severity as a teacher had offended some of the parents% who set up Carlyle to be his rival. ! previous meetin" with Irvin"% also a native of !nnan% had led to a little passa"e of arms% but Irvin" now welcomed Carlyle with a "enerosity which entirely won his heart% and the rivals soon became the closest of friends. )he intimacy% affectionately commemorated in the Reminiscences% was of "reat importance to Carlyle's whole career. @=ut for Irvin"@% he says% @I had never known what the communion of man with man means.@ Irvin" had a library% in which Carlyle devoured ,dward 6ibbon and much Drench literature% and they made various e+cursions to"ether. Carlyle did his duties as a schoolmaster punctiliously% but found the life thorou"hly uncon"enial. Co man was less fitted by temperament for the necessary drud"ery and worry. ! passin" admiration for a 4iss 6ordon is supposed to have su""ested the @=lumine@ of 0artor Resartus< but he made no new friendships% and when Irvin" left at the end of 1818 Carlyle also resi"ned his post. 3e had by this time resolved to "ive up the ministry. 3e has "iven no details of the intellectual chan"e which alienated him from the church. 3e had% however% been led by whatever process% to abandon the do"matic system of his forefathers% thou"h he was and always remained in profound sympathy with the spirit of their teachin". ! period of severe stru""le followed. 3e studied law for a time% but liked it no better than schoolmasterin". 3e

took a pupil or two% and wrote articles for the Edinburgh Enc#clopaedia under the editorship of =rewster. 3e occasionally visited his family% and their unfailin" confidence helped to keep up his coura"e. 4eanwhile he was "oin" throu"h a spiritual crisis. !theism seemed for a time to be the only alternative to his old creed. It was% however% profoundly repu"nant to him. !t last% one day in 5une 18#1% after three weeks' total sleeplessness% he went throu"h the crisis afterwards described &uite @literally@ in 0artor Resartus. 3e cast out the spirit of ne"ation% and henceforth the temper of his misery was chan"ed to one% not of @whinin"@% but of @indi"nation and "rim fire*eyed defiance.@ )hat% he says% was his spiritual rebirth% thou"h certainly not into a life of serenity. )he conversion was coincident with Carlyle's submission to a new and very potent influence. In 181F he had be"un to study 6erman% with which he soon ac&uired a very remarkable familiarity. 4any of his contemporaries were awakenin" to the importance of 6erman thou"ht% and Carlyle's knowled"e enabled him before lon" to take a conspicuous part in diffusin" the new intellectual li"ht. )he chief ob;ect of his reverence was 6oethe. In many most important respects no two men could be more unlike< but% for the present% Carlyle seems to have seen in 6oethe a proof that it was possible to re;ect outworn do"mas without sinkin" into materialism. 6oethe% by sin"ularly different methods% had emer"ed from a merely ne"ative position into a lofty and coherent conception of the universe. 4eanwhile% Carlyle's various an+ieties were be"innin" to be complicated by physical deran"ement. ! rat% he declared% was "nawin" at the pit of his stomach. 3e was already sufferin" from the ailments% whatever their precise nature% from which he never escaped. 3e "ave vent to his irritability by lamentations so "rotes&uely e+a""erated as to make it difficult to estimate the real e+tent of the evil. Irvin"'s friendship now became serviceable. Carlyle's confession of the radical difference of reli"ious opinion had not alienated his friend% who was settlin" in ?ondon% and used his opportunities for promotin" Carlyle's interest. In 5anuary 18## Carlyle% throu"h Irvin"'s recommendation% became tutor to Charles and !rthur =uller% who were to be students at ,dinbur"h. Carlyle's salary was _# a year% and this% with the proceeds of some literary work% enabled him at once to help his brother 5ohn to study medicine and his brother !le+ander to take up a farm. Carlyle spent some time with the elder =ullers% but found a life of dependence upon fashionable people humiliatin" and unsatisfactory. 3e employed himself at intervals upon a life of Driedrich von >chiller and a translation of "ilhelm %eister. 3e received _$ for a translation of ?e"endre's Geometr#< and an introduction% e+plainin" the theory of proportion% is said by De 4or"an to show that he could have "ained distinction as an e+pounder of mathematical principles. 3e finally "ave up his tutorship in 5uly 18#/% and for a time tried to find employment in ?ondon. )he impressions made upon him by ?ondon men of letters were most unfavorable. Carlyle felt by this time conscious of havin" a messa"e to deliver to mankind% and his comrades% he thou"ht% were makin" literature a trade instead of a vocation% and prostitutin" their talents to frivolous ;ournalism. 3e went once to see >amuel )aylor Colerid"e% who was then deliverin" his oracular utterances at 3i"h"ate% and the only result was the sin"ularly vivid portrait "iven in a famous chapter in his life of >terlin". Colerid"e seemed to him to be ineffectual as a philosopher% and personally to be a melancholy instance of "enius runnin" to waste. Carlyle% conscious of "reat abilities% and impressed by such instances of the deleterious effects of the social atmosphere of ?ondon% resolved to settle in his native district. )here he could live fru"ally and achieve some real work. 3e could% for one thin"% be the interpreter of 6ermany to ,n"land. ! friendly letter from 6oethe% acknowled"in" the translation of "ilhelm %eister% reached him at the end of 18#/ and "reatly encoura"ed him. 6oethe afterwards spoke warmly of the life of >chiller% and desired it to be translated into 6erman. ?etters occasionally passed between them in later years% which were edited by (rofessor Charles ,liot Corton in 1882. 6oethe received Carlyle's homa"e with

kind complacency. )he "ift of a seal to 6oethe on his birthday in 1801 @from fifteen ,n"lish friends@% includin" >cott and 8ordsworth% was su""ested and carried out by Carlyle. )he interest in 6erman% which Carlyle did so much to promote% su""ested to him other translations and reviews durin" the ne+t few years% and he made some preparations for a history of 6erman literature. =ritish curiosity% however% about such matters seems to have been soon satisfied% and the demand for such work slackened. Carlyle was meanwhile passin" throu"h the most important crisis of his personal history. 5ane =aillie 8elsh% born 18 1% was the only child of Dr. 8elsh of 3addin"ton. >he had shown precocious talent% and was sent to the school at 3addin"ton where ,dward Irvin" was a master. !fter her father's death in 181F she lived with her mother% and her wit and beauty attracted many admirers. 3er old tutor% Irvin"% was now at Iirkcaldy% where he became en"a"ed to a 4iss 4artin. 3e visited 3addin"ton occasionally in the followin" years% and a stron" mutual re"ard arose between him and 4iss 8elsh. )hey contemplated a marria"e% and Irvin" endeavored to obtain a release from his previous en"a"ement. )he 4artin family held him to his word% and he took a final leave of 4iss 8elsh in 18##. 4eanwhile he had brou"ht Carlyle from ,dinbur"h and introduced him to the 8elshes. Carlyle was attracted by the brilliant abilities of the youn" lady% procured books for her and wrote letters to her as an intellectual "uide. )he two were to perform a new variation upon the theme of !belard and 3eloise. [! "ood deal of uncertainty lon" covered the precise character of their relations. 9ntil 1F F% when !le+ander Carlyle published his edition of the @love letters@% the full material was not accessible< they had been read by Carlyle's bio"rapher% Droude% and also by (rofessor Charles Corton% and Corton -in his edition of Carlyle's Earl# .etters% 1886. declared that Droude had distorted the si"nificance of this correspondence in a sense in;urious to the writers. )he publication of the letters certainly seems to ;ustify Corton's view.] 4iss 8elsh's previous affair with Irvin" had far less importance than Droude ascribes to it< and she soon came to re"ard her past love as a childish fancy. >he reco"ni:ed Carlyle's vast intellectual superiority% and the respect "radually deepened into "enuine love. )he process% however% took some time. 3er father had be&ueathed to her his whole property -_# to _0 a year.. In 18#0 she made it over to her mother% but left the whole to Carlyle in the event of her own and her mother's death. >he still declared that she did not love him well enou"h to become his wife. In 18#/ she "radually relented so far as to say that she would marry if he could achieve independence. >he had been brou"ht up in a station superior to that of the Carlyles% and could not accept the life of hardship which would be necessary in his present circumstances. Carlyle% accustomed to his father's household% was less fri"htened by the prospect of poverty. 3e was determined not to abandon his vocation as a man of "enius by followin" the lower thou"h more profitable paths to literary success% and e+pected that his wife should partake the necessary sacrifice of comfort. )he natural result of such discussions followed. )he attraction became stron"er on both sides% in spite of occasional spasms of doubt. !n odd incident precipitated the result. ! friend of Irvin"'s% 4rs. =asil 4onta"ue% wrote to 4iss 8elsh% to e+hort her to suppress her love for Irvin"% who had married 4iss 4artin in 18#0. 4iss 8elsh replied by announcin" her intention to marry Carlyle< and then told him the whole story% of which he had previously been i"norant. 3e properly be""ed her not to yield to the impulse without due consideration. >he answered by comin" at once to his father's house% where he was stayin"< and the marria"e was finally settled. It took place on the 12th of 1ctober 18#6. Carlyle had now to arran"e the mode of life which should enable him to fulfil his aspiration. 3is wife had made over her income to her mother% but he had saved a small sum upon which to be"in housekeepin". ! passin" su""estion from 4rs. Carlyle that they mi"ht live with her

mother was ;udiciously abandoned. Carlyle had thou"ht of occupyin" Crai"enputtock% a remote and dreary farm belon"in" to 4rs. 8elsh. 3is wife ob;ected his utter incapacity as a farmer< and they finally took a small house at Comely =ank% ,dinbur"h% where they could live on a humble scale. )he brilliant conversation of both attracted some notice in the literary society of ,dinbur"h. )he most important connection was with Drancis% ?ord 5effrey% still editor of the Edinburgh Re iew. )hou"h 5effrey had no intellectual sympathy with Carlyle% he accepted some articles for the Re iew and became warmly attached to 4rs. Carlyle. Carlyle be"an to be known as leader of a new @mystic@ school% and his earnin"s enabled him to send his brother 5ohn to study in 6ermany. )he public appetite% however% for @mysticism@ was not keen. In spite of support from 5effrey and other friends% Carlyle failed in a candidature for a professorship at >t. !ndrews. 3is brother% !le+ander% had now taken the farm at Crai"enputtock% and the Carlyles decided to settle at the separate dwellin"*house there% which would brin" them nearer to 4rs. 8elsh. )hey went there in 18#8% and be"an a hard stru""le. Carlyle% indomitably determined to make no concessions for immediate profit% wrote slowly and carefully% and turned out some of his most finished work. 3e labored @passionately@ at 0artor Resartus% and made articles out of fra"ments ori"inally intended for the history of 6erman literature. )he money difficulty soon became more pressin". 5ohn% whom he was still helpin"% was tryin" unsuccessfully to set up as a doctor in ?ondon< and !le+ander's farmin" failed. In spite of such drawbacks% Carlyle in later years looked back upon the life at Crai"enputtock as on the whole a comparatively healthy and even happy period% as it was certainly one of most strenuous and coura"eous endeavor. )hou"h often absorbed in his work and made both "loomy and irritable by his an+ieties% he found relief in rides with his wife% and occasionally visitin" their relations. )heir letters durin" temporary separations are most affectionate. )he bleak climate% however% the solitude% and the necessity of mana"in" a household with a sin"le servant% were e+cessively tryin" to a delicate woman% thou"h 4rs. Carlyle concealed from her husband the e+tent of her sacrifices. )he position was "radually becomin" untenable. In the autumn of 1801 Carlyle was forced to accept a loan of _$ from 5effrey% and went in search of work to ?ondon% to where his wife followed him. 3e made some en"a"ements with publishers% thou"h no one would take 0artor Resartus% and returned to Crai"enputtock in the sprin" of 180#. 5effrey% stimulated perhaps by his sympathy for 4rs. Carlyle% was characteristically "enerous. =esides pressin" loans upon both )homas and 5ohn Carlyle% he offered to settle an annuity of _1 upon )homas% and finally enabled 5ohn to support himself by recommendin" him to a medical position. Carlyle's proud spirit of independence made him re;ect 5effrey's help as lon" as possible< and even his acknowled"ment of the "enerosity -in the Reminiscences. is tin"ed with somethin" disa"reeably like resentment. In 180/ he applied to 5effrey for a post at the ,dinbur"h 1bservatory. 5effrey naturally declined to appoint a man who% in spite of some mathematical knowled"e% had no special &ualification% and administered a "eneral lecture upon Carlyle's arro"ance and eccentricity which left a permanent sense of in;ury. In the be"innin" of 1800 the Carlyles made another trial of ,dinbur"h. )here Carlyle found materials in the !dvocates' ?ibrary for the article on the Diamond 5ecklace% one of his most perfect writin"s% which led him to study the history of the Drench Bevolution. 0artor Resartus was at last appearin" in )raser3s %aga9ine% thou"h the rate of payment was cut down% and the publisher reported that it was received with @un&ualified dissatisfaction.@ ,dinbur"h society did not attract him% and he retreated once more to Crai"enputtock. !fter another winter the necessity of some chan"e became obvious. )he Carlyles resolved to @burn their ships.@ )hey went to ?ondon in the summer of 180/% and took a house at $ -now #/. Cheyne Bow% Chelsea% which Carlyle inhabited until his death< the house has since been bou"ht for the public. Irvin"% who had welcomed him on former occasions% was ;ust dyin" ** a victim% as

Carlyle thou"ht% to fashionable ca;oleries. ! few youn" men were be"innin" to show appreciation. 5ohn >tuart 4ill had made Carlyle's ac&uaintance in the previous visit to ?ondon% and had corresponded with him. 4ill had introduced Balph 8aldo ,merson% who visited Crai"enputtock in 1800. Carlyle was charmed with ,merson% and their letters published by (rofessor Corton show that his re"ard never cooled. ,merson's interest showed that Carlyle's fame was already spreadin" in !merica. Carlyle's connection with Charles =uller% a :ealous utilitarian% introduced him to the circle of @philosophical radicals.@ Carlyle called himself in some sense a radical< and 5. >. 4ill% thou"h not an intellectual disciple% was a very warm admirer of his friend's "enius. Carlyle had some e+pectation of the editorship of the .ondon Re iew% started by >ir 8. 4olesworth at this time as an or"an of philosophical radicalism. )he combination would clearly have been e+plosive. 4eanwhile 4ill% who had collected many books upon the Drench Bevolution% was ea"er to help Carlyle in the history which he was now be"innin". 3e set to work at once and finished the first volume in five months. )he manuscript% while entrusted to 4ill for annotation% was burnt by an accident. 4ill induced Carlyle to accept in compensation _1 % which was ur"ently needed. Carlyle took up the task a"ain and finished the whole on the 1#th of 5anuary 1802. @I can tell the world@% he said to his wife% @you have not had for a hundred years any book that comes more direct and flamin"ly from the heart of a livin" man. Do what you like with it% you ***@ )he publication% si+ months later% of the )rench Re olution marks the turnin" point of Carlyle's career. 4any readers hold it to be the best% as it is certainly the most characteristic% of Carlyle's books. )he failure of 0artor Resartus to attract avera"e readers is &uite intelli"ible. It contains% indeed% some of the most impressive e+positions of his philosophical position% and some of his most beautiful and perfectly written passa"es. =ut there is somethin" forced and clumsy% in spite of the flashes of "rim humor% in the machinery of the Clothes Philosoph#. )he mannerism% which has been attributed to an imitation of 5ean (aul% appeared to Carlyle himself to be derived rather from the phrases current in his father's house% and in any case "ave an appropriate dialect for the e+pression of his peculiar idiosyncrasy. =ut it could not be appreciated by readers who would not take the trouble to learn a new lan"ua"e. In the )rench Re olution Carlyle had discovered his real stren"th. 3e was always at his best when his ima"ination was set to work upon a solid framework of fact. )he book shows a uni&ue combinationA on the one hand is the sin"ularly shrewd insi"ht into character and the vivid reali:ation of the pictures&ue< on the other is the @mysticism@ or poetical philosophy which relieves the events a"ainst a back"round of mystery. )he contrast is marked by the humor which seems to combine a cynical view of human folly with a deeply pathetic sense of the sadness and sufferin" of life. )he convictions% whatever their value% came% as he said% @flamin"ly from the heart.@ It was% of course% impossible for Carlyle to satisfy modern re&uirements of matter*of*fact accuracy. 3e could not in the time have assimilated all the materials even then e+tant% and later accumulations would necessitate a complete revision. Considered as a @prose epic@% or a vivid utterance of the thou"ht of the period% it has a permanent and uni&ue value. )he book was speedily successful. It was reviewed by 4ill in the "estminster and by )hackeray in The Times% and Carlyle% after a heroic stru""le% was at last touchin" land. In each of the years 1802 to 18/ he "ave a course of lectures% of which the last only -upon @3ero 8orship@. was published< they materially helped his finances. =y ,merson's mana"ement he also received somethin" durin" the same period from !merican publishers. !t the a"e of forty*five he had thus become independent. 3e had also established a position amon" the chief writers of the day. Moun" disciples% amon" whom 5ohn >terlin" was the most

accepted% were "atherin" around him% and he became an ob;ect of social curiosity. 4onckton 4ilnes -?ord 3ou"hton.% who won universal popularity by the most "enuine kindliness of nature% became a cordial friend. !nother important intimacy was with the =arin"s% afterwards ?ord and ?ady !shburton. Carlyle's conversational powers were e+traordinary< thou"h% as he won "reater reco"nition as a prophet% he indul"ed too freely in didactic monolo"ue. In his prophetic capacity he published two remarkable booksA Chartism -180F.% enlar"ed from an article which ?ockhart% thou"h personally approvin"% was afraid to take for the >uarterl#< and Past and Present -18/0.% in which the recently published %ediae al Chronicle was taken as a te+t for the e+posure of modern evils. )hey may be re"arded as e+positions of the doctrine implicitly set forth in the )rench Re olution. Carlyle was a @radical@ as sharin" the sentiments of the class in which he was born. 3e had been profoundly moved by the widespread distresses in his earlier years. 8hen the yeomanry were called out to suppress riots after the (eace% his sympathies were with the people rather than with the authorities. >o far he was in harmony with 4ill and the @philosophical radicals.@ ! fundamental diver"ence of principle% however% e+isted and was soon indicated by his speedy separation from the party and alienation from 4ill himself. )he Bevolution% accordin" to him% meant the sweepin" away of effete beliefs and institutions% but implied also the necessity of a reconstructive process. Chartism be"ins with a fierce attack upon the laisse: faire theory% which showed blindness to this necessity. )he prevalent political economy% in which that theory was embodied% made a principle of ne"lectin" the very evils which it should be the "reat function of "overnment to remedy. Carlyle's doctrines% entirely opposed to the ordinary opinions of 8hi"s and Badicals% found afterwards an e+positor in his ardent disciple 5ohn Buskin% and have obvious affinities with more recent socialism. !t the time he was as one cryin" in the wilderness to little practical purpose. ?iberals were scandali:ed by his apparent identification of @ri"ht@ with @mi"ht@% implied in the demand for a stron" "overnment< and thou"h he often declared the true interpretation to be that the ri"ht would ultimately become mi"ht% his desire for stron" "overnment seemed too often to sanction the inverse view. 3e came into collision with philanthropists% and was supposed to approve of despotism for its own sake. 3is reli"ious position was e&ually unintelli"ible to the avera"e mind. 8hile une&uivocally re;ectin" the accepted creeds% and so scandali:in" even liberal theolo"ians% he was still more hostile to simply skeptical and materialist tendencies. 3e was% as he called himself% a @mystic@< and his creed was too va"ue to be put into any formula beyond a condemnation of atheism. 1ne corollary was the famous doctrine of @hero worship@ first e+pounded in his lectures. !ny philosophy of history which emphasi:ed the importance of "eneral causes seemed to him to imply a simply mechanical doctrine and to deny the efficacy of the "reat spiritual forces. 3e met it by makin" bio"raphy the essence of history% or attributin" all "reat events to the @heroes@% who are the successive embodiments of divine revelations. )his belief was implied in his ne+t "reat work% the .i!e and .etters o! 2li er Cromwell% published in 18/$. )he "reat (uritan hero was a man after his own heart% and the portrait drawn by so sympathetic a writer is not only intensely vivid% but a very effective rehabilitation of misrepresented character. )he @bio"raphical@ view of history% however% implies the weakness% not only of un&ualified approval of all Cromwell's actions% but of omittin" any attempt to estimate the (rotector's real relation to the social and political development of the time. )he &uestion% what was Cromwell's real and permanent achievement% is not answered nor distinctly considered. )he effect maybe partly due to the peculiar form of the book as a detached series of documents and comments. )he composition introduced Carlyle to the @Dryasdust@ rubbish heaps of which he here and ever afterwards bitterly complained. ! conscientious desire to unearth the facts% and the effort of e+tractin" from the dullest records the materials for "raphic pictures% made the process of production e+cessively painful. Dor

some years after Cromwell Carlyle wrote little. 3is "rowin" acceptance by publishers% and the inheritance of her property by 4rs. Carlyle on her mother's death in 18/#% finally removed the stimulus of money pressure. 3e visited Ireland in 18/6 and a"ain in 18/F% when he made a lon" tour in company with >ir C. 6avan Duffy% then a youn" member of the Cationalist party -see Duffy's Con ersations with Carl#le% 18F#% for an interestin" narrative.. Carlyle's stron" convictions as to the misery and mis"overnment of Ireland recommended him to men who had taken part in the risin" of 18/8. !lthou"h the remedies acceptable to a eulo"ist of Cromwell could not be to their taste% they admired his moral teachin"< and he received their attentions% as Duffy testifies% with conspicuous courtesy. 3is aversion from the ordinary radicalism led to an article upon slavery in 18/F% to which 4ill replied% and which caused their final alienation. It was followed in 18$ by the .atterda# Pamphlets% containin" @sulphurous@ denunciations of the do*nothin" principle. )hey "ave "eneral offense% and the disapproval% accordin" to Droude% stopped the sale for years. )he .i!e of >terlin" -d. 18//.% which appeared in 18$1% was intended to correct the life by 5ulius 3are% which had "iven too much prominence to theolo"ical &uestions. )he sub;ect roused Carlyle's tenderest mood% and the .i!e is one of the most perfect in the lan"ua"e. Carlyle meanwhile was sufferin" domestic troubles% unfortunately not e+ceptional in their nature% thou"h the e+ceptional intellect and characters of the persons concerned have "iven them unusual prominence. Carlyle's constitutional irritability made him intensely sensitive to petty annoyances. 3e suffered the torments of dyspepsia< he was often sleepless% and the crowin" of @demon*fowls@ in nei"hbor's yards drove him wild. Composition meant for him intense absorption in his work< solitude and &uiet were essential< and he resented interruptions by "rotes&ue e+plosions of humorously e+a""erated wrath. 3is wife had to pass many hours alone% and the mana"ement of the household and of devices intended to shield him from annoyances was left entirely to her. 3ouse cleanin"s and stru""les with builders durin" the construction of a @soundproof room@ ta+ed her ener"y% while Carlyle was hidin" himself with his family in >cotland or stayin" at ,n"lish country houses. Cothin" could be more affectionate than his behavior to his wife on serious occasions% such as the death of her mother% and he could be considerate when his attention was called to the facts. =ut he was often oblivious to the strain upon her ener"ies% and had little command of his temper. !n unfortunate a""ravation of the difficulty arose from his intimacy with the !shburtons. ?ady !shburton% a woman of sin"ular social charm and "reat ability% appreciated the author% but apparently accepted the company of the author's wife rather as a necessity than as an additional charm. 4rs. Carlyle was hurt by the fine lady's condescension and her husband's accessibility to aristocratic blandishments. Carlyle% as a wise man% should have yielded to his wife's wishes< unluckily% he was content to point out that her ;ealousy was unreasonable% and% upon that very insufficient "round% to disre"ard it and to continue his intimacy with the !shburtons on the old terms. 4rs. Carlyle bitterly resented his conduct. >he had been willin" to renounce any aspirations of her own and to sink herself in his "lory% but she naturally e+pected him to reco"ni:e her devotion and to value her society beyond all others. >he had ;ust cause of complaint% and a remarkable power% as her letters prove% of seein" thin"s plainly and despisin" sentimental consolations. >he was childless% and had time to brood over her wron"s. >he formed a little circle of friends% attached to her rather than to her husband< and to one of them% 6iuseppe 4a::ini% she confided her troubles in 18/6. 3e "ave her admirable advice< and the alienation from her husband% thou"h it continued still to smoulder% led to no further results. ! ;ournal written at the same time "ives a painful record of her sufferin"s% and after her death made Carlyle conscious for the first time of their full e+tent. )he death of ?ady !shburton in 18$2 removed this cause of ;ealousy< and ?ord !shburton married a second wife in 18$8% who became a warm friend of both Carlyles. )he cloud which had separated

them was thus at last dispersed. 4eanwhile Carlyle had become absorbed in his best and most laborious work. >oon after the completion of the Cromwell he had thou"ht of Drederick for his ne+t hero% and had in 18/$ contemplated a visit to 6ermany to collect materials. 3e did not% however% settle down finally to the work until 18$1. 3e shut himself up in his study to wrestle with the (russian Dryasdusts% whom he discovered to be as wearisome as their (uritan predecessors and more voluminous. 3e went to >cotland to see his mother% to whom he had always shown the tenderest affection% on her deathbed at the end of 18$0. 3e returned to shut himself up in the @soundproof room.@ 3e twice visited 6ermany -18$# and 18$8. to see Drederick's battlefields and obtain materials< and he occasionally went to the !shburtons and his relations in >cotland. )he first two volumes of )rederick the Great appeared in 18$8% and succeedin" volumes in 186#% 186/ and 186$. )he success was "reat from the first% thou"h it did little to clear up Carlyle's "loom. )he book is in some respects his masterpiece% and its merits are beyond &uestion. Carlyle had spared no pains in research. )he descriptions of the campai"ns are admirably vivid% and show his sin"ular eye for scenery. )hese narratives are said to be used by military students in 6ermany% and at least convince the non*military student that he can understand the story. )he book was declared by ,merson to be the wittiest ever written. 4any episodes% describin" the society at the (russian court and the relations of Drederick to Holtaire% are unsurpassable as humorous portraiture. )he effort to fuse the masses of raw material into a well*proportioned whole is perhaps not &uite successful< and Carlyle had not the full sympathy with Drederick which had "iven interest to the Cromwell. ! hero* worshipper with half*concealed doubts as to his hero is in an awkward position. Carlyle's "eneral conception of history made him comparatively blind to aspects of the sub;ect which would% to writers of other schools% have a "reat importance. )he e+traordinary power of the book is undeniable% thou"h it does not show the fire which animated the )rench Re olution. ! certain depression and weariness of spirit darken the "eneral tone. Durin" the later labors 4rs. Carlyle's health had been breakin". Carlyle% now that happier relations had been restored% did his best to "ive her the needed comforts< and in spite of his immersion in )rederick% showed her all possible attention in later years. >he had apparently recovered from an almost hopeless illness% when at the end of 186$ he was elected to the rectorship of the 9niversity of ,dinbur"h. 3e delivered an address there on the #nd of !pril 1866% unusually mild in tone% and received with "eneral applause. 3e was still detained in >cotland when 4rs. Carlyle died suddenly while drivin" in her carria"e. )he immediate cause was the shock of an accident to her do". >he had once hurt her mother's feelin"s by refusin" to use some wa+ candles. >he had preserved them ever since% and by her direction they were now li"hted in the chamber of death. Carlyle was overpowered by her loss. 3is life from this point became more and more secluded% and he "radually became incapable of work. 3e went to 4entone in the winter of 1866 and be"an the Reminiscences. 3e afterwards annotated the letters from his wife% published 1880 as .etters and %emorials. 3e was% as Droude says% impressed by the story of >amuel 5ohnson's @penance@ at 9tto+eter% and desired to make a posthumous confession of his shortcomin"s in his relations to his wife. ! few later utterances made known his opinions of current affairs. 3e ;oined the committee for the defense of 6overnor ,yre in 1862< he also wrote in 1862 an article upon @shootin" Cia"ara@% that is% upon the tendency of the Beform =ill of that year< and in 182 he wrote a letter defendin" the 6erman case a"ainst Drance. )he worth of his )rederick was acknowled"ed by the (russian 1rder of 4erit in 182/. In the same year =en;amin Disraeli offered him the 6rand Cross of the =ath and a pension. 3e declined very courteously% and felt some re"ret for previous remarks upon the minister. )he len"th of his literary career was now softenin" old antipathies% and he was the ob;ect of "eneral respect. 3is infirmities enforced a very retired life% but he was constantly visited by Droude% and occasionally by his disciple Buskin. ! small number of

other friends paid him constant attention. 3is conversation was still interestin"% especially when it turned upon his recollections% and thou"h his ;ud"ments were sometimes severe enou"h% he never condescended to the scandalous. 3is views of the future were "loomy. )he world seemed to be "oin" from bad to worse% with little heed to his warnin"s. 3e would sometimes re"ret that it was no lon"er permissible to leave it in the old Boman fashion. 3e sank "radually% and died on the /th of Debruary 1881. ! place in 8estminster !bbey was offered% but he was buried% accordin" to his own desire% by the side of his parents at ,cclefechan. 3e left Crai"enputtock% which had become his own property% to found bursaries at the university of ,dinbur"h. 3e "ave his books to 3arvard Colle"e. Carlyle's appearance has been made familiar by many portraits% none of them% accordin" to Droude% satisfactory. )he statue by =oehm on the Chelsea ,mbankment% however% is characteristic< and there is a fine paintin" by 8atts in the Cational (ortrait 6allery. 5ames 8histler's portrait of him is in the possession of the 6las"ow corporation. Durin" Carlyle's later years the anta"onism roused by his attacks upon popular opinions had subsided< and upon his death "eneral e+pression was "iven to the emotions natural upon the loss of a remarkable man of "enius. )he rapid publication of the Reminiscences by Droude produced a sudden revulsion of feelin". Carlyle became the ob;ect of "eneral condemnation. Droude's bio"raphy% and the %emorials of 4rs. Carlyle% published soon afterwards% stren"thened the hostile feelin". Carlyle had appended to the Reminiscences an in;unction to his friends not to publish them as they stood% and added that no part could ever be published without the strictest editin". !fterwards% when he had almost for"otten what he had written% he verbally empowered Droude to use his own ;ud"mentA Droude accordin"ly published the book at once% without any editin"% and with many inaccuracies. 1missions of a few passa"es written from memory at a time of profound nervous depression would have altered the whole character of the book. Droude in this and the later publications held that he was "ivin" effect to Carlyle's wish to imitate 5ohnson's @penance.@ Co one% said 5ames =oswell% should persuade him to make his lion into a cat. Droude intended% in the same spirit% to "ive the shades as well as the li"hts in the portrait of his hero. 3is admiration for Carlyle probably led him to assume too early that his readers would approach the story from the same point of view% that is% with an admiration too warm to be repelled by the admissions. 4oreover% Droude's characteristic desire for pictures&ue effect% unchecked by any painstakin" accuracy% led to his readin" preconceived impressions into his documents. )he result was that Carlyle was too often ;ud"ed by his defects% and re"arded as a selfish and eccentric misanthrope with flashes of "enius% rather than as a man with many of the hi"hest &ualities of mind and character clouded by constitutional infirmities. Met it would be difficult to speak too stron"ly of the "reat &ualities which underlay the superficial defects. )hrou"h lon" years of poverty and obscurity Carlyle showed unsurpassed fidelity to his vocation and superiority to the lower temptations which have ruined so many literary careers% 3is ambition mi"ht be interpreted as selfishness% but certainly showed no coldness of heart. 3is unstinted "enerosity to his brothers durin" his worst times is only one proof of the sin"ular stren"th of his family affections. Co one was more devoted to such con"enial friends as Irvin" and >terlin". 3e is not the only man whom absorption in work and infirmity of temper have made into a provokin" husband% thou"h few wives have had 4rs. Carlyle's capacity for e+pressin" the sense of in;ustice. )he knowled"e that the deepest devotion underlies misunderstandin"s is often a very imperfect consolation< but such devotion clearly e+isted all throu"h% and proves the defect to have been relatively superficial.

)he harsh ;ud"ments of individuals in the Reminiscences had no parallel in his own writin"s. 3e scarcely ever mentions a contemporary% and was never involved in a personal controversy. =ut the harshness certainly reflects a characteristic attitude of mind. Carlyle was throu"hout a pessimist or a prophet denouncin" a backslidin" world. 3is most popular contemporaries seemed to him to be false "uides% and charlatans had ousted the heroes. )he "eneral condemnation of @shams@ and cant had% of course% particular applications% thou"h he left them to be inferred by his readers. Carlyle was the e+ponent of many of the deepest convictions of his time. Cobody could be more in sympathy with aspirations for a spiritual reli"ion and for a lofty idealism in political and social life. )o most minds% however% which cherish such aspirations the "entler optimism of men like ,merson was more con"enial. )hey believed in the pro"ress of the race and the triumph of the nobler elements. )hou"h Carlyle% especially in his earlier years% could deliver an invi"oratin" and encoura"in"% if not a san"uine doctrine% his utterances were more "enerally couched in the key of denunciation% and betrayed a "rowin" despondency. 4aterialism and low moral principles seemed to him to be "ainin" the upper hand< and the hope that reli"ion mi"ht survive the @old clothes@ in which it had been draped seemed to "row fainter. )he ordinary mind complained that he had no specific remedy to propose for the "rowin" evils of the time< and the more cultivated idealist was alienated by the "loom and the tendency to despair. )o a later "eneration it will probably appear that% whatever the e+a""erations and the misconceptions to which he was led% his vehement attacks at least called attention to rather "rave limitations and defects in the current beliefs and social tendencies of the time. )he mannerisms and "rotes&ue e+a""erations of his writin"s annoyed persons of refinement% and su""est 4atthew !rnold's advice to flee @Carlylese@ as you would flee the devil. Met the shrewd common sense% the bitin" humor% the power of "raphic description and the ima"inative @mysticism@ "ive them a uni&ue attraction for many even who do not fully sympathi:e with the implied philosophy or with the (uritanical code of ethics. )he letters and autobio"raphical writin"s% whether they attract or repel sympathy% are at least a series of documents of profound interest for any one who cares to study character% and display an almost uni&ue idiosyncrasy. 8ith our present system of individual 4ammonism% and 6overnment by ?aisse:*faire% this Cation cannot live K (ast and (resent% #21 Carlyle had little trust in democracy and turned to his old doctrine of heroes. 3e appealed to middle*class industrialists to revoke 4ammonism and laisse9?!aire in order to become heroic leaders of the workin"*classes in their strife for the spiritual and moral re"eneration of the nation. Carlyle% who remained fiercely critical of the aristocracy durin" his entire career% believed that the new N Captains of Industry O mi"ht lead the nation as ancient heroes. !s ,mery Ceff e+plained almost a century a"o. In (ast and (resent he penetrated beneath political machinery to political forces% and elo&uently appealed to the Captains of Industry% who were the stron"est power in society% to direct their hitherto selfish ener"ies toward the "ood of the nation as a whole% and become "enerous patrons and protectors of their employees. If these men of proved capacity had heeded the appeal% and had become a new paternal aristocracy like that in the heyday of feudalism% the course of ,n"lish% and perhaps of ,uropean history mi"ht have been chan"ed. [#81] Dor Carlyle% the old NCaptainsO of the nation K the nobility and aristocractic landowners K had lon" a"o de"enerated into NCaptains of Idleness.O )he enli"htened NCaptains of Industry%O the mill owners% he believes% can form a new% natural aristocracy capable of

creatin" prosperity and establishin" a social hierarchy based on preserved class difference% loyalty and mutual respect. )hus the Carlylean parado+A NCarlyle% the ardent critic of nineteenth*century laisse9?!aire capitalism% wants its leaders K the capitalist mill owners of the Corth K to replace the old feudal aristocracy% which has abandoned its political% social% and spiritual responsibilities% and thereby create a new kind of capitalist*anticapitalist feudal orderEO [6eor"e (. ?andow].

*he /ady o" (halott

=rom +i ipedia4 the "ree encyclopedia
5ump toA navi"ation% search Dor the 8aterhouse paintin"% see )he ?ady of >halott -paintin".. @>halott@ redirects here. Dor other uses% see >halott -disambi"uation..

5ohn 8illiam 8aterhouse's The .ad# o! 0halott% 1888 -)ate 6allery% ?ondon. @)he ?ady of >halott@ is a Hictorian ballad by the ,n"lish poet !lfred% ?ord )ennyson -18 FG 18F#.. ?ike his other early poems G @>ir ?ancelot and Pueen 6uinevere@ and @6alahad@ G the poem recasts !rthurian sub;ect matter loosely based on medieval sources.

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1 1verview # >ynopsis 0 )hemes

/ Illustrations of the poem $ Cultural references 6 >ee also 2 Cotes 8 ,+ternal links F Durther readin"

[edit] Overvie&

8aterhouse's The .ad# o! 0halott .ooking at .ancelot )ennyson wrote two versions of the poem% one published in 1800% of twenty stan:as% the other in 18/# of nineteen stan:as. It was loosely based on the !rthurian le"end of ,laine of !stolat% as recounted in a thirteenth*century Italian novella entitled Donna di 0calotta -Co. l+++i in the collection Cento 5o elle Antiche.% with the earlier version bein" closer to the source material than the later.[1] )ennyson focused on the ?ady's @isolation in the tower and her decision to participate in the livin" world% two sub;ects not even mentioned in Donna di 0calotta.@[#]

[edit] (ynopsis
)he first four stan:as describe a pastoral settin". )he ?ady of >halott lives in an island castle in a river which flows to Camelot% but little is known about her by the local farmers. !nd by the moon the reaper weary% (ilin" sheaves in uplands airy% ?istenin"% whispers% @ ')is the fairy ?ady of >halott.@ >tan:as five to ei"ht describe the lady's life. >he has been cursed% and so she must constantly weave a ma"ic web without lookin" directly out at the world. Instead% she looks into a mirror which reflects the busy road and the people of Camelot which pass by her island.

>he knows not what the curse may be% !nd so she weaveth steadily% !nd little other care hath she% )he ?ady of >halott. >tan:as nine to twelve describe @bold >ir ?ancelot@ as he rides past% and is seen by the lady. !ll in the blue unclouded weather )hick*;ewell'd shone the saddle*leather% )he helmet and the helmet*feather =urn'd like one burnin" flame to"ether% !s he rode down to Camelot. )he remainin" seven stan:as describe the effect of seein" ?ancelot on the lady< she stops weavin" and looks out her window toward Camelot% brin"in" about the curse. 1ut flew the web and floated wide* )he mirror crack'd from side to side< @)he curse is come upon me%@ cried )he ?ady of >halott.

Illustration by 8. ,. D. =ritten for a 1F 1 edition of )ennyson's poems. >he leaves her tower% finds a boat upon which she writes her name% and floats down the river to Camelot. >he dies before arrivin" at the palace% and amon" the kni"hts and ladies who see her is ?ancelot and he thinks she is beautiful. @8ho is thisQ !nd what is hereQ@ !nd in the li"hted palace near Died the sound of royal cheer< !nd they crossed themselves for fear%

!ll the Ini"hts at Camelot< =ut ?ancelot mused a little space 3e said% @>he has a lovely face< 6od in his mercy lend her "race% )he ?ady of >halott.@

[edit] *hemes
!ccordin" to scholar !nne San:ucchi% @[i]n a more "eneral sense% it is fair to say that the pre* Baphaelite fascination with !rthuriana is traceable to )ennyson's work@.[#] )ennyson's bio"rapher ?eonLe 1rmonde finds the !rthurian material is @introduced as a valid settin" for the study of the artist and the dan"ers of personal isolation@. >ome[whoD] consider @)he ?ady of >halott@ to be representative of the dilemma that faces artists% writers% and musiciansA to create work about and celebrate the world% or to en;oy the world by simply livin" in it. Deminist critics see the poem as concerned with issues of women's se+uality and their place in the Hictorian world. )he fact that the poem works throu"h such comple+ and polyvalent symbolism indicates an important difference between )ennyson's work and his !rthurian source material. 8hile )ennyson's sources tended to work throu"h alle"ory% )ennyson himself did not. Critics such as 3atfield have su""ested that )he ?ady of >halott is a representation of how )ennyson viewed society and the distance from which the other people are in the lady's eyes are symbolic of the distance he is from society. !nd that the fact that she only sees them throu"h a window pane is si"nificant of the way in which >halott and )ennyson see the world< in a filtered sense. )his therefore links to the artistic licence )ennyson often wrote about.

[edit] <llustrations o" the poem

3unt's .ad# o! 0halott

8aterhouse's E8 Am 'al!?0ick o! 0hadows,E 0aid the .ad# o! 0halott )he poem was particularly popular amon"st artists of the (re*Baphaelite movement% who shared )ennyson's interest in !rthuriana< several of the (re*Baphaelite =rotherhood made paintin"s based on episodes from the poem. )he 18$2 4o+on edition of )ennyson's works was illustrated by 8illiam 3olman 3unt and Dante 6abriel Bossetti. 3unt depicted the moment when the ?ady turns to see ?ancelot. Bossetti depicted ?ancelot's contemplation of her 'lovely face'. Ceither illustration pleased )ennyson% who took 3unt to task for depictin" the ?ady cau"ht in the threads of her tapestry% somethin" which is not described in the poem. 3unt e+plained that he wanted to sum up the whole poem in a sin"le ima"e% and that the entrapment by the threads su""ested her @weird fate@. )he scene fascinated 3unt% who returned to the composition at points throu"hout his life% finally paintin" a lar"e scale version shortly before his death. 3e re&uired assistants as he was too frail to complete it himself. )his deeply conceived evocation of the ?ady% ensnared within the perfect rounds of her woven reality% is an apt illustration of the mytholo"y of the weavin" arts. 5ohn 8illiam 8aterhouse painted three episodes from the poem. In 1888% he painted the ?ady settin" out for Camelot in her boat< this work is now in the )ate 6allery. In 18F/% 8aterhouse painted the ?ady at the climactic moment when she turns to look at ?ancelot in the window< this work is now in the City !rt 6allery in ?eeds. In 1F1$% 8aterhouse painted E8 Am 'al!? 0ick o! 0hadows,E 0aid the .ad# o! 0halott% as she sits wistfully before her loom< this work is now in the !rt 6allery of 1ntario.

Elaine arri es at Camelot/

=ecause of the similarity in the stories% paintin"s of ,laine of !stolat tend to be very similar to paintin"s of the ?ady of >halott. )he presence of a servant rowin" the boat is one aspect that distin"uishes them.

[edit] 'ultural re"erences

)he poem is fre&uently recited% referenced% and depicted in other works. >ome notable e+amples include D. 3. ?awrence's novella The 6irgin and the Gips#% in which the youn" and isolated Mvette fantasi:es about the poem while lookin" at a river. ?ibba =ray's book A Great and Terrible 1eaut# has a section of the poem as an introduction% as does 4e" Cabot's !valon 3i"h. )he section @)he 4irror@ in Catsume >`seki's 1F $ novel Fairo?kG is directly based on the poem. In the novel the Prime o! %iss &ean 1rodie by 4uriel >park% the title character recites the poem to her class -this is also done in the sta"e and film adaptations.. !n !"atha Christie novel entitled The %irror Crack3d !rom 0ide to 0ide has the plot han"in" loosely on the line @... the curse is upon me cried the ?ady of >halott@. ! recent romance novel by 4eredith Duran entitled The Duke o! 0hadows includes &uotes and references -direct and thematic. to the poem. )he poem has been adapted for or set to music a number of times< ,milie !utumn recorded a son" called @>halott@ based on it on her album 2pheliac% while ?oreena 4cIennitt recorded a fourteen*stan:a version of the poem on her album The 6isit. )he 3arper and )he 4instrel recorded a shorter version of ?oreena 4cIennitt's )he ?ady of >halott for 3arp and Hoice on their album @)he Circle of Dae@% and Domine recorded a son" named @)he ?ady of >halott@ on their # 2 album Ancient 0pirit Rising. )he poem was recited by Ba&uel 8elch to )om 5ones in her 1F2 television special RaAuelH. !ccompanyin" the voiced over readin"% Ba&uel appears in period dress su""estin" she is the ?ady of >halott. )he poem was included in the 1F8$ )H movie Anne o! Green Gables. 8a">creen is makin" a film dramatisation[0] of )ennyson's poem to be shown at the Collection in ?incoln from 4ay # F. (art IA )he poem be"ins with a description of a river and a road that pass throu"h lon" fields of barley and rye before reachin" the town of Camelot. )he people of the town travel alon" the road and look toward an island called >halott% which lies further down the river. )he island of >halott contains several plants and flowers% includin" lilies% aspens% and willows. 1n the island% a woman known as the ?ady of >halott is imprisoned within a buildin" made of Nfour "ray walls and four "ray towers.O

=oth Nheavy bar"esO and li"ht open boats sail alon" the ed"e of the river to Camelot. =ut has anyone seen or heard of the lady who lives on the island in the riverQ 1nly the reapers who harvest the barley hear the echo of her sin"in". !t ni"ht% the tired reaper listens to her sin"in" and whispers that he hears herA NR)is the fairy ?ady of >halott.O (art IIA )he ?ady of >halott weaves a ma"ic% colorful web. >he has heard a voice whisper that a curse will befall her if she looks down to Camelot% and she does not know what this curse would be. )hus% she concentrates solely on her weavin"% never liftin" her eyes.

3owever% as she weaves% a mirror han"s before her. In the mirror% she sees Nshadows of the world%O includin" the hi"hway road% which also passes throu"h the fields% the eddies in the river% and the peasants of the town. 1ccasionally% she also sees a "roup of damsels% an abbot -church official.% a youn" shepherd% or a pa"e dressed in crimson. >he sometimes si"hts a pair of kni"hts ridin" by% thou"h she has no loyal kni"ht of her own to court her. Conetheless% she en;oys her solitary weavin"% thou"h she e+presses frustration with the world of shadows when she "limpses a funeral procession or a pair of newlyweds in the mirror. (art IIIA ! kni"ht in brass armor -Nbra:en "reavesO. comes ridin" throu"h the fields of barley beside >halott< the sun shines on his armor and makes it sparkle. !s he rides% the "ems on his horse7s bridle "litter like a constellation of stars% and the bells on the bridle rin". )he kni"ht han"s a bu"le from his sash% and his armor makes rin"in" noises as he "allops alon"side the remote island of >halott. In the Nblue% unclouded weather%O the ;ewels on the kni"ht7s saddle shine% makin" him look like a meteor in the purple sky. 3is forehead "lows in the sunli"ht% and his black curly hair flows out from under his helmet. !s he passes by the river% his ima"e flashes into the ?ady of >halott7s mirror and he sin"s out Ntirra lirra.O 9pon seein" and hearin" this kni"ht% the ?ady stops weavin" her web and abandons her loom. )he web flies out from the loom% and the mirror cracks% and the ?ady announces the arrival of her doomA N)he curse is come upon me.O

(art IHA !s the sky breaks out in rain and storm% the ?ady of >halott descends from her tower and finds a boat. >he writes the words N)he ?ady of >halottO around the boat7s bow and looks downstream to Camelot like a prophet foreseein" his own misfortunes. In the evenin"% she lies down in the boat% and the stream carries her to Camelot. )he ?ady of >halott wears a snowy white robe and sin"s her last son" as she sails down to Camelot. >he sin"s until her blood free:es% her eyes darken% and she dies. 8hen her boat sails silently into Camelot% all the kni"hts% lords% and ladies of Camelot emer"e from their halls to behold the si"ht. )hey read her name on the bow and Ncross...themselves for fear.O 1nly the "reat kni"ht ?ancelot is bold enou"h to push aside the crowd% look closely at the dead maiden% and remark N>he has a lovely face< 6od in his mercy lend her "race.O
8orm

)he poem is divided into four numbered parts with discrete% isometric -e&ually*lon". stan:as. )he first two parts contain four stan:as each% while the last two parts contain five. ,ach of the four parts ends at the moment when description yields to directly &uoted speechA this speech first takes the form of the reaper7s whisperin" identification% then of the ?ady7s half*sick lament% then of the ?ady7s pronouncement of her doom% and finally% of ?ancelot7s blessin". ,ach stan:a contains nine lines with the rhyme scheme AAAA1CCC1/ )he N=O always stands for NCamelotO in the fifth line and for N>halottO in the ninth. )he N!O and NCO lines are always in tetrameter% while the N=O lines are in trimeter. In addition% the synta+ is line*boundA most phrases do not e+tend past the len"th of a sin"le line.
Commentary

1ri"inally written in 180#% this poem was later revised% and published in its final form in 18/#. )ennyson claimed that he had based it on an old Italian romance% thou"h the poem also

bears much similarity to the story of the 4aid of !stolat in 4alory7s %orte d$Arthur/ !s in 4alory7s account% )ennyson7s lyric includes references to the !rthurian le"end< moreover% N>halottO seems &uite close to 4alory7s N!stolat.O 4uch of the poem7s charm stems from its sense of mystery and elusiveness< of course% these aspects also complicate the task of analysis. )hat said% most scholars understand N)he ?ady of >halottO to be about the conflict between art and life. )he ?ady% who weaves her ma"ic web and sin"s her son" in a remote tower% can be seen to represent the contemplative artist isolated from the bustle and activity of daily life. )he moment she sets her art aside to "a:e down on the real world% a curse befalls her and she meets her tra"ic death. )he poem thus captures the conflict between an artist7s desire for social involvement and his[her doubts about whether such a commitment is viable for someone dedicated to art. )he poem may also e+press a more personal dilemma for )ennyson as a specific artistA while he felt an obli"ation to seek sub;ect matter outside the world of his own mind and his own immediate e+periencesKto comment on politics% history% or a more "eneral humanityKhe also feared that this e+pansion into broader territories mi"ht destroy his poetry7s ma"ic. (art I and (art IH of this poem deal with the ?ady of >halott as she appears to the outside world% whereas (art II and (art III describe the world from the ?ady7s perspective. In (art I% )ennyson portrays the ?ady as secluded from the rest of the world by both water and the hei"ht of her tower. 8e are not told how she spends her time or what she thinks about< thus we% too% like everyone in the poem% are denied access to the interiority of her world. Interestin"ly% the only people who know that she e+ists are those whose occupations are most diametrically opposite her ownA the reapers who toil in physical labor rather than by sittin" and craftin" works of beauty. (art II describes the ?ady7s e+perience of imprisonment from her own perspective. 8e learn that her alienation results from a mysterious curseA she is not allowed to look out on Camelot% so all her knowled"e of the world must come from the reflections and shadows in her mirror. -It was common for weavers to use mirrors to see the pro"ress of their tapestries from the side that would eventually be displayed to the viewer.. )ennyson notes that often she sees a funeral or a weddin"% a dis;unction that su""ests the interchan"eability% and hence the conflation% of love and death for the ?adyA indeed% when she later falls in love with ?ancelot% she will simultaneously brin" upon her own death. 8hereas (art II makes reference to all the different types of people that the ?ady sees throu"h her mirror% includin" the kni"hts who Ncome ridin" two and twoO -line 61.% (art III focuses on one particular kni"ht who captures the ?ady7s attentionA >ir ?ancelot. )his da::lin" kni"ht is the hero of the Iin" !rthur stories% famous for his illicit affair with the beautiful Pueen 6uinevere. 3e is described in an array of colorsA he is a Nred*cross kni"htO< his shield Nsparkled on the yellow fieldO< he wears a Nsilver bu"leO< he passes throu"h Nblue unclouded weatherO and the Npurple ni"ht%O and he has Ncoal*black curls.O 3e is also adorned in a N"emmy bridleO and other be;eweled "arments% which sparkle in the li"ht. Met in spite of the rich visual details that )ennyson provides% it is the sound and not the si"ht of ?ancelot that causes the ?ady of >halott to trans"ress her set boundariesA only when she hears him sin" N)irra lirraO does she leave her web and seal her doom. )he intensification of the ?ady7s e+periences in this part of the poem is marked by the shift from the static% descriptive present tense of (arts I and II to the dynamic% active past of (arts III and IH.

In (art IH% all the lush color of the previous section "ives way to Npale yellowO and NdarkenedO eyes% and the brilliance of the sunli"ht is replaced by a Nlow sky rainin".O )he moment the ?ady sets her art aside to look upon ?ancelot% she is sei:ed with death. )he end of her artistic isolation thus leads to the end of creativityA N1ut flew her web and floated wideO -line 11/.. >he also loses her mirror% which had been her only access to the outside worldA N)he mirror cracked from side to sideO -line 11$.. 3er turn to the outside world thus leaves her bereft both of her art ob;ect and of the instrument of her craftKand of her very life. Met perhaps the "reatest curse of all is that althou"h she surrenders herself to the si"ht of ?ancelot% she dies completely unappreciated by him. )he poem ends with the tra"ic triviality of ?ancelot7s response to her tremendous passionA all he has to say about her is that Nshe has a lovely faceO -line 16F.. 3avin" abandoned her artistry% the ?ady of >halott becomes herself an art ob;ect< no lon"er can she offer her creativity% but merely a Ndead*paleO beauty -line 1$2..

My /ast .uchess
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! portrait of ?ucre:ia de7 4edici% by =ron:ino% "enerally believed to be %# .ast Duchess[1]. My Last uchess is a poem by Bobert =rownin"% fre&uently antholo"ised as an e+ample of the dramatic monolo"ue. It first appeared in 18/# in =rownin"'s Dramatic .#rics.

'ontents
[hide]

1 (oem structure and historical back"round # >tory 0 4odern !daptations / (arodies $ Cotes 6 Beferences 2 ,+ternal links

[edit] Poem structure and historical bac ground

)he poem is written in #8 rhymed couplets of iambic pentameter. )he poem is preceded by the word )erraraC% indicatin" that the speaker is most likely !lfonso II% fifth Duke of Derrara -1$00G1$F8. who% at the a"e of #$% married the 1/*year*old ?ucre:ia di Cosimo de' 4edici% the dau"hter of Cosimo I de' 4edici% 6rand Duke of )uscany% and ,leonora di )oledo. ?ucre:ia was not well educated% and the 4edicis' status could be termed @nouveau riche@ in comparison with that of the venerable and distin"uished ,ste family. )he Duke's remark re"ardin" his "ift of a @nine*hundred*years*old name@ clearly indicates that he considered his bride beneath him socially. >he came% however% with a si:eable dowry. )he couple married in 1$$8. 3e then abandoned her for two years before she died on !pril #1% 1$61% at a"e 12. )here was a stron" suspicion of poisonin". )he Duke then sou"ht the hand of =arbara% ei"hth dau"hter of the 3oly Boman ,mperor Derdinand I and !nna of =ohemia and 3un"ary and the sister of the Count of )yrol% Derdinand II[#]. )he count was in char"e of arran"in" the marria"e< the chief of his entoura"e% Cikolaus 4adru:% a native of Innsbruck% was his courier. 4adru: is presumably the silent listener in the poem. )he other characters named in the poem% painter Dra (andolf and sculptor Claus of Innsbruck% are fictional.

[edit] (tory
)he poem is set durin" the late Italian Benaissance. )he speaker -presumably the Duke of Derrara. is "ivin" the emissary of his prospective second wife a tour of the artworks in his home. 3e draws a curtain to reveal a paintin" of a woman% e+plainin" that it is a portrait of his late wife< he invites his "uest to sit and look at the paintin". !s they look at the portrait of the late Duchess% the Duke describes her happy% cheerful and flirtatious nature% which had displeased him. 3e says% @>he had a heart ** how shall I sayQ ** too soon made "lad...@ 3e "oes on to say that his complaint of her was that @'twas not her husband's presence only@ that made her happy. ,ventually% @I "ave commands< then all smiles stopped to"ether.@ 3e now keeps her paintin" hidden behind a curtain that only he is allowed to draw back% meanin" that

now she only smiles for him. )he Duke then resumes an earlier conversation re"ardin" weddin" arran"ements% and in passin" points out another work of art% a bron:e statue of Ceptune tamin" a sea*horse. In an interview% =rownin" said% @I meant that the commands were that she should be put to death . . . 1r he mi"ht have had her shut up in a convent.@ [0]

[edit] Modern %daptations

>hahd !l*>hemmari adapted the poem into a play titled The Duke o! )errara -# 2.. It was performed in Iuwait 9niversity. )he play e+amined the Duke's murder of the ?ast Duchess% ?ucre:ia% by hi"hli"htin" his e"ocentricism. )wo other duchesses were introduced as ?ucre:ia's predecessors.[citation needed] )he # th century !merican poet Bichard 3oward wrote a se&uel to the poem% @Cikolaus 4ardru: [sic] to his 4aster Derdinand% Count of )yrol% 1$6$@% in the form of a letter from the listener in =rownin"'s ori"inal that details his response to the Duke's monolo"ue.[/]

[edit] Parodies
)he poem was parodied in a 5ew 0tatesman competition to su""est une+pected second lines for poems[citation needed]A @)hat's my last Duchess painted on the wall. I"nore those artist's boobs% she had none at all.@[citation needed]

Summary

)his poem is loosely based on historical events involvin" !lfonso% the Duke of Derrara% who lived in the 16th century. )he Duke is the speaker of the poem% and tells us he is entertainin" an emissary who has come to ne"otiate the Duke7s marria"e -he has recently been widowed. to the dau"hter of another powerful family. !s he shows the visitor throu"h his palace% he stops before a portrait of the late Duchess% apparently a youn" and lovely "irl. )he Duke be"ins reminiscin" about the portrait sessions% then about the Duchess herself. 3is musin"s "ive way to a diatribe on her dis"raceful behaviorA he claims she flirted with everyone and did not appreciate his N"ift of a nine*hundred*years* old name.O !s his monolo"ue continues% the reader reali:es with ever*more chillin" certainty that the Duke in fact caused the Duchess7s early demiseA when her behavior escalated% N[he] "ave commands< [ )hen all smiles stopped to"ether.O 3avin" made this disclosure% the Duke returns to the business at handA arran"in" for another marria"e% with another youn" "irl. !s the Duke and the emissary walk leave the paintin" behind% the Duke points out other notable artworks in his collection.
8orm

N4y ?ast DuchessO comprises rhymin" pentameter lines. )he lines do not employ end*stops< rather% they use enIambmentK"that is% sentences and other "rammatical units do not necessarily conclude at the end of lines. Conse&uently% the rhymes do not create a sense of closure when they come% but rather remain a subtle drivin" force behind the Duke7s compulsive revelations. )he Duke is &uite a performerA he mimics others7 voices% creates

hypothetical situations% and uses the force of his personality to make horrifyin" information seem merely colorful. Indeed% the poem provides a classic e+ample of a dramatic monolo"ueA the speaker is clearly distinct from the poet< an audience is su""ested but never appears in the poem< and the revelation of the Duke7s character is the poem7s primary aim.
Commentary

=ut =rownin" has more in mind than simply creatin" a colorful character and placin" him in a pictures&ue historical scene. Bather% the specific historical settin" of the poem harbors much si"nificanceA the Italian Benaissance held a particular fascination for =rownin" and his contemporaries% for it represented the flowerin" of the aesthetic and the human alon"side% or in some cases in the place of% the reli"ious and the moral. )hus the temporal settin" allows =rownin" to a"ain e+plore se+% violence% and aesthetics as all entan"led% complicatin" and confusin" each otherA the lushness of the lan"ua"e belies the fact that the Duchess was punished for her natural se+uality. )he Duke7s ravin"s su""est that most of the supposed trans"ressions took place only in his mind. ?ike some of =rownin"7s fellow Hictorians% the Duke sees sin lurkin" in every corner. )he reason the speaker here "ives for killin" the Duchess ostensibly differs from that "iven by the speaker of N(orphyria7s ?overO for murder (orphyria< however% both women are nevertheless victims of a male desire to inscribe and fi+ female se+uality. )he desperate need to do this mirrors the efforts of Hictorian society to mold the behaviorK"se+ual and otherwiseK"of individuals. Dor people confronted with an increasin"ly comple+ and anonymous modern world% this impulse comes naturallyA to control would seem to be to conserve and stabili:e. )he Benaissance was a time when morally dissolute men like the Duke e+ercised absolute power% and as such it is a fascinatin" study for the HictoriansA works like this imply that% surely% a time that produced ma"nificent art like the Duchess7s portrait couldn7t have been entirely evil in its allocation of societal controlK"even thou"h it put men like the Duke in power. ! poem like N4y ?ast DuchessO calculatedly en"a"es its readers on a psycholo"ical level. =ecause we hear only the Duke7s musin"s% we must piece the story to"ether ourselves. =rownin" forces his reader to become involved in the poem in order to understand it% and this adds to the fun of readin" his work. It also forces the reader to &uestion his or her own response to the sub;ect portrayed and the method of its portrayal. 8e are forced to consider% 8hich aspect of the poem dominatesA the horror of the Duchess7s fate% or the beauty of the lan"ua"e and the powerful dramatic developmentQ )hus by posin" this &uestion the poem firstly tests the Hictorian reader7s response to the modern worldK"it asks% 3as everyday life made you numb yetQK"and secondly asks a &uestion that must be asked of all artK"it &ueries% Does art have a moral component% or is it merely an aesthetic e+erciseQ In these latter considerations =rownin" prefi"ures writers like Charles =audelaire and 1scar 8ilde.

5ohn Buskin released each of the three volumes of The 0tones o! 6enice over a two*year period from 18$1 to 18$0. )he first volume% N)he Doundations%O is an architectural treatise that specifies the rules of architecture. Dor this reason it has been compared with !lberti7s De Re Aedi!icatoria of 1/$# because both treatises approach architecture as a combination of

both construction and decoration.[1] 8ith the e+ception of the first chapter% N)he Puarry%O this volume deals very little with the actual city of Henice% but rather continues Buskin7s work in The 0e en .amps o! Architecture by analy:in" specific architectural details and concludin" whether or not they are in accordance with the principles laid out in his previous work. In contrast to the first volume of The 0tones o! 6enice% the second and third volumes deal with specific structures in the city of Henice. )he second volume is subtitled N)he >ea >tories%O a reference to the lowest story of a Henetian buildin"% called the sea story. )his volume looks specifically at =y:antine and 6othic architecture within the city% while clearly privile"in" these styles above the Henetian Benaissance that he discusses in the third volume% N)he Dall.O )hrou"hout each volume% Buskin discusses both specific buildin"s% such as >t. 4ark7s and the Ducal (alace% and the stylistic evolution of numerous architectural features% includin" column bases% capitals% cornices% windows% and% most notably% arches. 3is studies of arches provide not only an e+ample of the types of arches found around Henice% but also a Nscheme for the development of the mature 6othic style%O as his chronolo"y of stylistic pro"ression focused mainly on this period.[#] Buskin first be"ins his analysis of arches in N)he DoundationsO with three chapters devoted to his discussion of both the technical aspects of constructin" an arch and a brief overview of the basic styles of arches throu"hout Italy and the rest of ,urope. 3ere% beyond simply describin" the arch as a functional element necessary for the support of a buildin"% he "ives the arch a moral element by creatin" a metaphor between an arch and man7s character. )he arch line% or curved shape of the arch% serves as its moral character% with the forces of "ravity and wei"ht from above bein" temptations for the arch to stray from its intended function. )o protect the arch from these temptations% the voussoirs% or the particular stones of the arch% act as its protection a"ainst ruin. )he connection between man and arch is as followsA Nif either arch or man e+pose themselves to their special temptations or adverse forces% outside of the voussoirs or proper and appointed armor% both will fall.O[0] =y personifyin" the arch in this manner% Buskin shows the reader a specific instance in which architecture serves as a moral force within Henice% or any other city. 1nce he informs the reader of the importance of a morally sound arch% he then describes the techni&ues re&uired to construct such an arch% focusin" mainly on the placement of masonry and proper distribution of wei"ht above the arch. )hrou"hout% he consistently privile"es the Henetian 6othic over other forms of arches% praisin" its simple construction and e+ceptional wei"ht distribution% and eventually concludin" that Nnothin" can possibly be better or more "racefulO than a well* constructed Henetian 6othic arch.[/] 3e further e+pands on his love for this style in N)he >ea >tories%O providin" a thorou"h survey of the arch7s evolution over time.

Siad !. !lameddine% (arts of !n !rch In this volume% Buskin describes the development of =y:antine architecture% followed by the shift to the 6othic style and its subse&uent development% focusin" on the stylistic chan"es that took place in arches and other architectural elements as demonstrated on Henetian buildin"s. 3e chooses to focus on the arches of windows and doorways as evidence for his ar"ument because he considers them the Nmost distinctly traceableO elements of a buildin".[$] Interestin"ly% he points out that the 6othic reached Henice after it was already established on the mainland% meanin" that Henice embraced the =y:antine far lon"er than other places in Italy. !ccordin" to Buskin% this si"nifies that the emer"ence of the 6othic in Henice was not a matter of architectural innovation% but rather a stru""le between earlier conventions and a more contemporary style% e&uatin" early 6othic structures in the city to a prisoner Nentan"led amon" the enemy7s forces% and maintainin" their "round till their friends came up to sustain them.O[6] 3e illustrates this idea by chroniclin" the "radual chan"es to arches that occurred early in the shift towards the 6othic durin" the twelfth century% followed by later% more radical chan"es in the fifteenth century.

5ohn Buskin% )he 1rders of Henetian !rches% 18$0% Hol. # of )he >tones of Henice Buskin7s dia"ram% The 2rders o! 6enetian Arches% e+emplifies each of these chan"es that occurred. )he dia"ram shows the si+ orders of Henetian windows that he developed% with the two bottom rows bein" successive styles of arched doorways. )he first "roup shows a typical =y:antine arch% as can be seen at (ala::o ?oredan and its nei"hbor (ala::o Darsetti% two early

thirteenth century palaces located on the 6rand Canal. ! first order arch consists of a plain rounded arch% similar to Boman arches from anti&uity.

9nknown architects% (ala::o ?oredan -left. and (ala::o Darsetti -ri"ht.% early thirteenth century% 6rand Canal% Henice )he second order has a point on the e+trados% or outer ed"e% of the arch% with the intrados% or inner ed"e% still rounded. )his order can be seen on the second story windows of another early thirteenth century structure on the 6rand Canal% the Ca7 da 4osto.

9nknown architect% Ca' da 4osto% early thirteenth century% 6rand Canal% Henice 4ovin" into the third order% both the e+trados and intrados are pointed% like in the early fifteenth century window arches at (ala::o Sor:i*=on at >an >evero.

9nknown architect% (ala::o Sor:i*=on at >an >evero% early fifteenth century% Henice 8hile the second and third orders represent the transitional styles movin" towards the full 6othic% the fourth and fifth are purely 6othic% as well as the styles that lasted the lon"est% be"innin" in the thirteenth century and endin" in the fifteenth. )he fourth order is pointed like the third% but instead of strai"ht moldin"s% they have a trefoil*like shape. )he fifth order is similar% but has a strai"ht moldin" with the trefoil shape placed inside of the arch. =oth these orders can be seen on the main rows of windows on the Ca d71ro% a palace desi"ned by 6iovanni and =artolomeo =on between 1/#8 and 1/0 . )he windows of the lower arcade are of the fourth order% while those of the upper arcade are of the fifth.

6iovanni and =artolomeo =on% Ca d'1ro% 1/#8*1/0 % 6rand Canal% Henice !s e+pected% Buskin considers the fourth and fifth orders% those most 6othic in nature% to be the best% as Nthe root of all that is "reatest in Christian art is struck in the thirteenth century.O[2] Buskin7s si+th and final order represents the late 6othic arch% present before architecture be"an to shift towards the Benaissance style. )his order is basically the same as the fifth order% e+cept with the addition of a finial above the point of the arch% as seen in Buskin7s 18$1 drawin" Decoration b# DisksC Pala99o dei 1adoari Partecipa99i% found in the first volume of The 0tones o! 6enice.

5ohn Buskin% Decoration by DisksA (ala::o dei =adoari (artecipa::i% 18$1% Hol. 1 of )he >tones of Henice )hou"h he presents these orders as if they succeed each other in neat% chronolo"ical fashion% this is certainly not the case. ,ach order overlaps with the others and several orders may e+ist on the same fabade% as seen in the e+amples discussed here.[8] >till% Buskin7s classification provides a wonderful summation of the tra;ectory that 6othic architecture was followin" prior to its shift into the Benaissance. =y N)he Dall%O the third volume of The 0tones o! 6enice% Buskin has little to say about the specifics of arches in architecture. )his is likely because arches no lon"er possessed the variety they had durin" the 6othic period. !rches were "enerally plain =y:antine or Boman* style arches% the other five orders havin" fallen out of style. >till% he devotes this entire volume of The 0tones o! 6enice to his discussion of Benaissance architecture% much of which is marked by a "eneral distaste for the period as a whole. )his is not to say that he disliked every Benaissance structure in Henice% for he "reatly praise several of them% but he did feel that the era7s architecture "rew pro"ressively worse throu"h each of the three sta"es within the Benaissance that he identified. )he first sta"e% the ,arly Benaissance% was the Nfirst corruptions introduced to the 6othic schools%O includin" the incorporation of precise symmetry% plain% undecorated stone% and a "eneral feelin" of academic coldness. 3owever% he did praise this sta"e for its return to the earlier =y:antine elements of desi"n and color% as seen in late fifteenth century buildin"s like the (ala::o 4an:oni and the >cuola di >an 4arco. [F]

9nknown architect% (ala::o 4an:oni% late fifteenth century% 6rand Canal% Henice

(ietro ?ombardo and 4auro Codussi% >cuola di >an 4arco% 1/F$% Henice 3owever% by the time of the Boman Benaissance% the second sta"e% he saw that architecture had returned to the conventions of ancient Bome% but with none of its ori"inal vitality or innovation. )hou"h he "reatly praises the (ala::o 6rimani% a 1$2$ structure by 4ichele >anmicheli% for its delicate decoration and the ma;esty that it imparts to the Bialto% even callin" it one of the "reatest Benaissance palaces in ,urope% his "eneral sentiment about this period is that it is dull and unima"inative% re"ardless of its so*called perfection.

4ichele >anmicheli% (ala::o 6rimani% 1$2$% 6rand Canal% Henice 3e completely omits any mention of 5acopo >ansovino7s ?o""etta from this book and he describes (alladio% at the Church of >an 6ior"io 4a""iore% as havin" Npierced his pediment with a circular cavity% merely because he had not wit enou"h to fill it with sculpture.O[1 ] Buskin best sums up his feelin"s about the Boman Benaissance when he says% NIt revisits the places throu"h which it had passed in the mornin" li"ht% but it is now with wearied limbs and under the "loomy shadows of evenin"%O su""estin" that architecture that was once vibrant and ima"inative has now been made tired and unori"inal.[11]

!ndrea (alladio% Church of >an 6ior"io 4a""iore% be"un in 1$66% Henice If Buskin seems unimpressed with ,arly and 3i"h Benaissance styles% he is thorou"hly dis"usted by the third sta"e% N)he 6rotes&ue Benaissance%O his term for what is today know as the =aro&ue. 3ere% he feels architecture has lost all of the moral character he had described so elo&uently in his earlier discussions on arches% and has instead been turned into the Nperpetuation in stone of the ribaldries of drunkennessO and self*indul"ence.[1#] )his sta"e receives its name from the incorporation of "rotes&ue elements% or distorted and u"ly faces and bodies% often with protrudin" ton"ues% displayed on buildin"s and brid"es. Buskin makes

a point to distin"uish this Nfalse "rotes&ueO from the previous NtrueO version seen in the 6othic period% with the use of "ar"oyles and other distorted fi"ures. 3e illustrates each of these versions in his drawin" NCoble and I"noble 6rotes&ue%O found in the third volume of The 0tones o! 6enice/ In contrast to the earlier type% i"noble "rotes&ue is an e+ample of human ima"ination run amuck% as it steps out of the bounds of stable% or"ani:ed renderin"s into ima"es of the basest forms of debauchery and instability.[10]

5ohn Buskin% Coble and I"noble 6rotes&ue% 18$0% Hol. 0 of )he >tones of Henice In N)he 6rotes&ue Benaissance,N )he Church of >anta 4aria Dormosa receives the brunt of Buskin7s scorn. )he church was ori"inally built in 1/F# by 4auro Codussi% but one of its facades was redone by an unknown architect in 16 / in the =aro&ue style. It was the location of numerous "rotes&ue elements% as well as bein" completely barren of any form of le"itimate reli"ious decoration% in Buskin7s opinion.

4auro Codusssi and unknown architect% Church of >anta 4aria Dormosa% church in 1/F#% facade in 16 /% Henice )he worst feature of the church% accordin" to Buskin% is one of the heads% Nleerin" in bestial de"radation%O from the fabade of the church. !s offensive as he finds this head% he feels it is appropriate for this period because it serves as an incarnation of the de"radation that resulted in the city7s decline% thereby allowin" the viewer to Nknow what pestilence it was that came and breathed upon her beauty.O[1/]

9nknown sculptor% 3ead at >anta 4aria Dormosa% 16 /% Henice 8hile Buskin discusses numerous buildin"s that e+emplify each of the three ma;or styles in Henice% =y:antine% 6othic% and Benaissance% his discussion of the Ducal (alace is particularly interestin" because it was built over several centuries and incorporates elements of each of the three styles. Buskin uses the Ducal (alace as not only an e+ample of each of the styles he had discussed% but also as an alle"ory to the history of the city itself. !n 18$# letter to his father reads% N)he whole book will be a kind of Rmoral of the Ducal (alace of HeniceZ7 I shall "ive a scattered description of a mouldin" here and an arch there* but they will all be mere notes to the account of the rise and fall of Henice.O[1$] Clearly% Buskin did more than simply "ive a description of Na mouldin" here and an arch thereO prior to his study of the (alace% but throu"hout the first and second volume% he repeatedly mentions its architectural inte"rity and slowly works his way up to his full analysis of the structure in the final chapter of N)he >ea >tories.O

Dilippo Calendario and (ietro =ase;o% >ea Dacade of Ducal (alace% 1061% Henice )he Ducal (alace% Nthe central buildin" of the world%O was rebuilt by a variety of architects durin" each of the three periods that Buskin discusses.[16] 9nfortunately% the =y:antine palace was almost entirely destroyed and built over when the 6othic palace was constructed. 8hile some of the 6othic palace was built over% much of it now e+ists in combination with the Benaissance palace. )he ori"inal Ducal (alace is believed to have been built in the early ninth century% coincidin" with the time that the Henetian Bepublic was developin" as a world

power. Dor this reason% Buskin considers the modern day Ducal (alace to be one of the last remnants of the city7s former "lory.[12] )he structure was heavily dama"ed by fire on two different occasions% and little is written about its ori"inal state% makin" it difficult to ascertain e+actly how the buildin" looked. 3owever% Buskin does say that the buildin" was richly decorated with "old% sculpture% and marble% and possessed many features similar to those seen at other "reat =y:antine structures around the city% such as the Dondaco dei )urchi% built in the early thirteenth century by 6iacomo (almier.[18]

6iacomo (almier% Dondaco dei )urchi% early thirteenth century% Henice )he structure remained in the =y:antine style until the 6othic palace replaced it in the early fourteenth century. Buskin points out that while the =y:antine palace coincided with the foundation of the Henetian Bepublic% the 6othic palace coincided with the be"innin" of aristocratic rule in Henice. )he buildin" was e+panded to house the 6reat Council chamber% the Ducal apartments% and a series of rooms that served as prisons until the late ei"hteenth century. !s one would ima"ine% he considers this sta"e of the palace7s construction the "reatest% even callin" the 6othic Ducal (alace Nthe (arthenon of Henice.O[1F] 3owever% durin" the fifteenth century% sections of the buildin" were already bein" redone in the Benaissance style% be"innin" with the destruction of the last remnants of the =y:antine palace and the buildin" of a new fabade facin" the (ia::etta -althou"h this facade is no lon"er visible as it was rebuilt yet a"ain under Do"e Drancesco Doscari to resemble the >ea Dacade.. )he three facades represent the chan"es that occurred to the buildin"% with the >ea Dabade bein" the most 6othic and the Bio Dabade bein" a prime e+ample of early Benaissance architecture.

!ntonio Bi::o% (ietro ?ombardo and ?a >carpa"nino% Bio Dacade of Ducal (alace% completed in 1$$F% Henice !lthou"h Buskin does not find the Benaissance elements at the Ducal (alace overly offensive% he does comment on their reflection of the chan"in" reli"ious environment in Henice at the time. 3e critici:es the shift away from sculptural scenes of Christ7s life% like those found at >t. 4ark7s% towards ima"es of human virtues and literary references% notin" that they chan"ed Ne+actly in proportion as the Christian reli"ion became less vitalZand "radually% as the thou"hts of men were withdrawn from their Bedeemer% and fi+ed upon themselves%O yet another form of the self*indul"ence that would contribute to the city7s fall.[# ] )his form of social commentary is prevalent throu"hout Buskin7s work. 8hile he is credited with spreadin" the popularity of Henetian architecture to the rest of ,urope% he did not simply write The 0tones o! 6enice to serve as an architectural "uide to the city.[#1] =ut beyond his ma;or influence on architecture and criticism% he is perhaps best known for the political and social undertones in his early work% despite their seemin" focus on art and architecture. )he ma;ority of his work from the last thirty years of his life focused directly on politics and social history% makin" it seem% on the surface% as if he shifted "ears in the middle of his career. 3owever% this is certainly not true% he simply withdrew from usin" art as a means throu"h which to communicate his ideas. In The 0tones o! 6enice% Buskin repeatedly raises &uestions about the relationship between art and society% and often relates the case of Henice to his native ,n"land% havin" written the book as an Nawful warnin" to contemporary ,n"land.O[##] )he openin" chapter of The 0tones o! 6enice be"ins with a homily on the importance of learnin" from the history of previous fallen empires% with )yre and Henice as his e+amples% concludin" that if ,n"land for"ets the e+ample of their predecessors they may be sub;ect to ruin of an e&ual or "reater de"ree.[#0] )his was not a particularly new idea at the timeA =yron and others had touched on it earlier% but Buskin was certainly the first to ar"ue the point in such detail and with such intensity. 3e was also one of the first to develop fully the idea that a society7s morality could be discerned by studyin" their art and architecture. Despite his development of these ideas% his ar"uments often appear convoluted to the reader% resultin" in the mediocre or confused receptions that he received from some of his contemporaries. Dor this reason% Buskin considered The 0tones o! 6enice to be a failure% for he was utterly dis"usted that his third volume received the most attention while the earlier two were lar"ely

i"nored when they were published% thou"h they have since been thorou"hly studied.[#/] >till% the work brou"ht him much acclaim from those who were able both to press throu"h to its end and understand what they had read% resultin" in the enormous influence the book has had since its publication and markin" the transition from his art*based criticism into political% economic% and social criticism.

)he =lessed Damo:el by Dante 6abriel Bossetti * !n !nalysis of the (ictorial Pualities of the (oem =y >omnath 4itra %rticle +ord 'ountG 1/ F [Hiew >ummary] Comments - .
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Dante 6abriel Bossetti -18#8K188#. was a poet and painter% and a leadin" spirit in the (re* Baphaelite =rotherhood% which was an attempt to brin" the Bomantic spirit into a realm of art still dominated by a decadent classicism. )his second Bomanticism he applied to poetry% hi"hli"htin" the sensuous touches which had been the hallmark of Ieats. Bossetti% combined spiritual vision with sensuality very deftly. )he peculiarity of this NDleshly >chool of (oetryO is the effect "ained by close attention to detail. In spite of his bein" too much of a Hictorian with preoccupations with intellectual and

moral considerations% the result of (re*Baphaelitism was the down pedalin" of the moral element. !estheticism of 1scar 8ilde was the child of (re*Baphaelitism. )he atmosphere of the poem featured here is one of the Rreli"iosity7 than that of reli"ion. )he influence of Ieats is apparent everywhere. )he poem can be compared with some (re* Baphaelite paintin"s to a "ood advanta"e of the reader. ?et me present to you the te+t of the poem before I say a few words about the pictorial &uality of the same. )he =lessed Damo:el Dante 6abriel Bossetti )he blessed damo:el leaned out -!h sweetE ,ven now% in that bird7s son"% Drom the "old bar of 3eaven< >trove not her accents there% 3er eyes were deeper than the depth Dain to be hearkenedQ 8hen those bells 1f waters stilled at even< (ossessed the mid*day air% >he had three lilies in her hand% >trove not her steps to reach my side !nd the stars in her hair were seven. Down all the echoin" stairQ. 3er robe% un"irt from clasp to hem% NI wish that he were come to me% Co wrou"ht flowers did adorn% Dor he will come%O she said% =ut a white rose of 4ary7s "ift% N3ave I not prayed in 3eavenQKon earth% Dor service meetly worn< ?ord% ?ord% has he not prayedQ 3er hair lay alon" her back !re not two prayers a perfect stren"thQ 8as yellow like ripe corn !nd shall I feel afraidQ 3erseemed she scarce had been a day N8hen round his head the aureole clin"s% 1ne of 6od7s choristers< !nd he is clothed in white% )he wonder was not yet &uite "one I7ll take is hand and "o with him% Drom that still look of hers< )o the deep wells of li"ht< !lbeit% to them she left% her day !s unto a steam we will step down% 3ad counted as ten years. !nd bathe there in 6od7s si"ht.

-)o one% it was ten years of years% N8e two will stand beside that shrine% ZMet now% in this place% 1ccult withheld% untrod >urely she leaned o7er me K her hair 8hose lamps are stirred continually Dell all about my face Z.. 8ith prayers sent up to 6od< Cothin"A the autumn*fall of leaves% !nd see our old prayers% "ranted% melt )he whole year sets apace.. ,ach like a little cloud. It was rampart of 6od7s house N8e two will lie in the shadow of )hat she was standin" on< )hat livin" mystic tree =y 6od built over the sheer depth 8ithin whose secret "rowth the Dove )he which is >pace be"un< Is sometimes felt to be% >o hi"h% that lookin" downward thence 8hile every leaf that his plumes touch >he scarce could see the sun. >aith 3is Came audibly. It lies in 3eaven% across the flood N!nd I myself will teach to him% 1f ether% as a brid"e. I myself% lyin" so% =eneath% the tides of day and ni"ht )he son"s I sin" here< which his voice 8ith flame and blackness rid"e >hall pause in% hushed and slow% )he void% as low as where this earth !nd find some knowled"e at each pause% >pins like a fretful mid"e. 1r some new thin" to know.O !round her% lovers% newly met -!lasE 8e two% we two% thou say7 stE R4id deathless love7s acclaims% Mea% one wast thou with me >poke evermore amon" themselves )hat once of old. =ut shall 6od lift )heir heart*remembered names< )o endless unity !nd the souls% mountin" up to 6od% )he soul whose likeness with thy soul 8ent by her like thin flames. 8as but its love for theeQ. !nd still she bowed herself and stooped N8e two%O she said% Nwill seek the "roves

1ut of the circlin" charm< 8here the lady 4ary is% 9ntil her bosom must have made !nd her five handmaidens% whose names )he bar she leaned on warm% !re five sweet symphonies% !nd the lilies lay as if asleep Cecily% 6ertrude% 4a"dalen% !lon" her bended arm. 4ar"aret and Bosalys. Drom the fi+ed place of 3eaven she saw NCirclewise sit they% with bound locks )ime like a pulse shake fierce !nd foreheads "arlanded< )hrou"h all the worlds. 3er "a:e still strove Into the fine cloth like flame 8ithin the "ulf to pierce 8eavin" the "olden thread% Its path< and now she spoke as when )o fashion the birth*robes for them )he stars san" in their spheres. 8ho are ;ust born% bein" dead. )he sun was "one now< the curled moon 8as like a little feather Dlutterin" far down the "ulf< and now >he spoke throu"h the still weather% 3er voice was like the voice of stars 3ad when they san" to"ether. Continued to the ri"htZZ )he power of picture paintin" came to Dante 6abriel Bossetti naturally as he was not only a poet but also a painter. 3is poem has ri"htly been compared with (re*Baphaelite paintin"s. )hrou"hout% Bossetti has painted pictures after pictures with words instead of a brush and has lent to his art vivid colors balanced in an impeccable manner 3e was the leadin" poet who brou"ht the romantic spirits into a realm of art "ivin" adept% sensuous touches to the same. 3e combined spirituality with sensuality and his poetic ima"ery has the same definiteness of color and form as his paintin"s. )he master artist as he was% he eminently succeeded in conveyin" an intense mystical and spiritual impression throu"h the very precision of his ima"es. )his is one of the finest and best known of Bossetti7s poems in which pictorial ima"ination% rich lan"ua"e% a wealth of concrete detail% mystic medieval atmosphere and tender passions

have all been created and painted not with the master strokes of a painter7s brush but with precise and ma"ical words. !n estran"ed lover -)he =lessed Damo:el. in 3eaven lon"s to be united with her lover who is not yet dead. >he fervently hopes that 6od shall "rant her wish that her lover7s soul should ;oin her in heaven after he dies. 3ence% she stands at the ramparts of heaven lookin" towards the earth below and lon"in" for her lover7s soul to float up to ;oin to her. ?et us now consider Bossetti7s power of renderin" myriad ima"es in his poem. Dor e+ample% in stan:a one% 3eaven is pictured as a castle hi"h above and beyond the system of the world. )he way Bossetti has described the periphery of 3eaven is also &uiet pictures&ue. )he phrase R6oldbar7 is such an ima"ery very effectively describin" the "olden barrier which surrounds 3eaven. In stan:a two% the poet has described Hir"in 4ary7s hair% sayin" that it is yellow like the color of ripe corn and the comparison stimulates our senses like a beautiful paintin". In stan:a four% when Bossetti describes to us the mental state of the estran"ed lover on the earth% he does so very strikin"ly. 3is choice of words makes us see the whole romantic scene happenin"% as it were% in front of our eyes. N>urely she leaned o7er me G her hair Dell all about my face . Z Z Z Z Cothin"A the autumnGfall of leaves.O In stan:a nine% the poet7s words captivate us by its power of creatin" mysterious ima"es in our mind. NDrom the fi+ed place of 3eaven she saw )ime like a pulse shake fierce )hrou"h all the worlds. ..O !s we read the above lines% time appears to be throbbin" like a feverish pulse in the body of the universe. )he rich and "raphic description of the Hir"in 4ary and her five attendants in the "roves is strikin"< they are weavin" the "olden threads into a flame like white cloth to make the birth* robes for those who are ;ust born into a new life in 3eaven. )he painter*poet has used the word R8hite7 with "reat si"nificance in the sense that this color has lent an eternal milieu to the entire poem. >omnath 4itra is a teacher of ,n"lish ?iterature at 3i"h >chool level. 3e is keen to contribute literary essays to webmasters in a professional capacity. Mou may reach him at ancnacpurnadhotmail.com C.=. )he owner of this e*mail address has :ero tolerance to >(!4.

*he (piritual .epths o" the =eminine (oul in Rossetti)s -*he ,lessed .amoAelHaeCin Dim: En'lishEHistory of Art 1!1: PreC/aphaelites: Aesthetes: an) 5e(a)ents: 1ro.n ;niversity: 2&&

[Hictorian 8eb 3ome KX !uthors KX Dante 6abriel Bossetti KX 8orks KX )heme and >ub;ect KX Ima"e% >ymbol% and 4otif]

Dante 6abriel Bossetti was only 18 when he wrote @)he =lessed Damo:el@ in 18/2. )he poem went throu"h many subse&uent revisions% and it was not until 1821 that Bossetti be"an to work on a visual renderin" of the poem. !s a double work of art the pictorial version acts as a visual interpretation of his words. )he first four stan:as of @)he =lessed Damo:el@ are also written on the base of the frame% which Bossetti desi"ned.@)he =lessed Damo:el@ tells the beautiful yet tra"ic tale of how two lovers are separated by the death of the Damo:el and how she wishes to enter paradise% but only with her beloved by her side. Bossetti takes this theme of separated lovers that are to be re;oined in heaven from Dante's Hita Cuova% a continual source of inspiration. Bossetti divides the paintin" into two sections with a principal canvas on top and a narrower predella canvas beneath K a style reminiscent of Italian Benaissance altarpieces. )he upper part shows the Damo:el in 3eaven% leanin" over the "olden bar or @barrier%@ surrounded by an"els and flowers. >he holds three lilies in her hands and stars encircle her flowin" red hair. >he "a:es lon"in"ly down towards her beloved% depicted on ,arth with "rass and trees% in the lower predella. 3is hands are clasped above his head% emphasi:in" his plea and his state as a prisoner on ,arth. )he paintin" directly corresponds to the first verse of the poemA )he blessed damo:el leaned out Drom the "old bar of 3eaven< 3er eyes were deeper than the depth 1f waters stilled at even< >he had three lilies in her hand% !nd the stars in her hair were seven. )he painter's choices and inclusion of detail also connect with his descriptive stan:as and illustrate the overall mood of the poem. @)he =lessed Damo:el@ contains three different vanta"e pointsA that of the the Damo:el's from heaven% the lover's from his memories and fantasies% and the lover's from his current consciousness. )his last voice is indicated by parentheses% which separate the lover's earthly thou"hts from the Damo:el's reflective musin"s. =y paintin" the Damo:el on the upper portion and her beloved on the lower% Bossetti clearly demonstrates this spatial separation. 3e also emphasi:es the fact that while this separation does not allow them to be to"ether physically% it cannot keep them apart in their thou"hts. In lines 02*/#% the Damo:el observes%

!round her% lovers% newly met '4id deathless love's acclaims% >poke evermore amon" themselves )heir heart*remembered names< !nd the souls mountin" up to 6od 8ent by her like thin flames. 3ere the Damo:el &uestions why she cannot be with her beloved in 3eaven when all others are with their loves. @3ave I not prayed in 3eavenQ K on earth% ?ord% ?ord% has he not pray'dQ [ !re not two prayers a perfect stren"thQ@ she asks. Bossetti paints other ethereal lovers in various forms of embrace behind her% usin" warm% luminous tones to create a vision of ideali:ed love in a "lorious 3eaven. 3owever% this inclusion also contrasts and hi"hli"hts the Damo:el's unhappy and tra"ic situation. 3e also distin"uishes this depiction of 3eaven by usin" darker muted "reens and browns to paint ,arth. )hrou"hout the poem% the Damo:el dreams of the day when she and her beloved will be reunited and present themselves before 6od. In lines 1#$*10#% the Damo:el describes how her ideal love will be approvedA !nd an"els meetin" us shall sin" )o their citherns and citoles. ')here will I ask of Christ the ?ord )hus much for him and meA K 1nly to live as once on earth 8ith ?ove% K only to be% !s then awhile% for ever now )o"ether% I and he.' Despite her hopes and prayers% the Damo:el eventually reali:es that she cannot be with her beloved until the ri"ht time comes and that she shall be enterin"3eaven without him. )he Damo:el @laid her face between her hands% !nd wept@ while her lover on ,arth @hears her tears.@ )hey remain apart% yet to"ether in their hearts% separated by the two worlds. !s a member of the (B=% Bossetti did not focus on biblical or typolo"ical symbolism with the intensity of 8illiam 3olman 3unt. 8hile @)he =lessed Damo:el@ includes obvious references to biblical ima"ery% such as the allusion to 6od and 4other 4ary% Bossetti does not seem to be as interested in reli"ious symbolism in his paintin". Instead% he creates a dreamy vision of 3eaven full of an"els% flowers and lovers K but one that still separates the two tra"ic lovers. In his paintin"% Bossetti seems to utili:e the Damo:el's place in 3eaven and her concerns with 6od's "race in order to emphasi:e and "lorify the spiritual depths of the feminine soul.

.iscussion Huestions
1. Bossetti's depictions of 3eaven and ,arth show two very different atmospheres K does 3eaven seem like a warmer% more welcomin" placeQ If so% why does Bossetti leave the Damo:el's hopes and prayers unfulfilledQ 8hat does this say about 3eavenQ !nd deathQ 8hat is the poem's view of love K should it be viewed as ideal and optimistic or notQ #. In addition to her spiritual thou"hts and prayers% the Damo:el hold lilies% the symbol of purity% and she wears a simple white robe that @Co wrou"ht flowers did adorn.@ In Bossetti's descriptions of her% what sort of relationship appears between the spirit and the bodyQ =etween physical and mystical loveQ

0. )hirty years after its first appearance Bossetti told 3all Caine that he had written @)he =lessed Damo:el@ as a se&uel to (oe's @)he Baven%@ published in 18/$A @I saw that (oe had done the utmost it was possible to do with the "rief of the lover on earth% and so determined to reverse the conditions% and "ive utterance to the yearnin" of the loved one in heaven.@ -B(1. In (oe's poem% the speaker is a male% lon"in" for his love% ?enore. Does Bossetti's reversal of (oe's "ender roles hold any si"nificanceQ 3ow does he describe and depict the Damo:el's @yearnin"@Q !nd how does this reflect her "enderQ /. Bossetti makes many references to nature in the poem% includin" the lilies% the tide% the stars% the @livin" mystic tree@ and the Dove. Do some of these elements hold =iblical symbolismQ !re they si"nificantQ 3ow does this effect his vision of 3eaven and the overall theme of the poemQ

Parallel <magery in -*he ,lessed .amoAelA)rienne -ohnson =&!: En'lishEHistory of Art 1!1: PreC/aphaelites: Aesthetes: an) 5e(a)ents: 1ro.n ;niversity: 2&&

[Hictorian 8eb 3ome KX !uthors KX Dante 6abriel Bossetti KX 8orks KX Ima"e% >ymbol% and 4otif]

In @)he =lessed Damo:el@ Dante 6abriel Bossetti illustrates the "ap between heaven and earth. )he damo:el looks down from 3eaven% yearnin" for her lover that remains on earth. )hrou"h ima"ery Bossetti connects the heavenly damo:el to thin"s of the earth% symboli:in" her lon"in" but emphasi:in" the distance between the lovers. >he stands on 6od's rampart% which is >o hi"h% that lookin" downward thence >he scarce could see the sun. It lies in 3eaven% across the flood 1f ether% as a brid"e. =eneath% the tides of day and ni"ht 8ith flame and darkness rid"e )he void% as low as where this earth >pins like a fretful mid"e. )hou"h distanced so far from the earth% her hair is @yellow like ripe corn.@ Bather than declare her ethereal beauty% Bossetti depicts the damo:el's appearance throu"h earthly detail. >he may be far from her lover and fi+ed in 3eaven% but her appearance and her "a:e% like her heart% is "rounded with her beloved on earth. ,ven Bossetti's description of the space between the two lovers is an attempt to unite 3eaven and earth. 3e calls the ether a @flood@ and the rampart above the ether a @brid"e%@ both ima"es of inherently earthly &ualities K water and the manmade construction that crosses it. )he passin" of day and ni"ht belows her are @tides@ tin"ed by flame and darkness. )he earth is so far from heaven it looks @like a fretful mid"e@ K small% a"itated% and a sharp contrast to the peaceful stillness of 3eaven.

)his picture of the space separatin" the lovers mirrors Bossetti's description of the damo:el's eyes. 5ust as the ether is a flood% her eyes @were deeper than the depth of waters stilled at even.@ )he damo:el sees only the distance from her beloved% and throu"h most of the stan:as% she prays for and ima"ines their union to"ether% rather than immersin" herself in 3eaven. 3eaven is fi+ed% while the earth spins fretfully% and in an ironic twist% the damo:el's "a:e is fi+ed upon the earth. Bossetti creates a poi"nant sense of her lon"in" by depictin" her "a:e and her heavenly position throu"h earthly ima"es% and in effect% he "ives the reader a "limpse of the heavens from the damo:el's unreachable position.

Huestions
1. )he poem poses a parallel to Dante and =eatrice in ?a Hita Cuova. 3ow does Bossetti twist the role of =eatrice in the damo:elQ #. )he damo:el's beloved speaks in the poem% and he seems to sense her and know her thou"hts even thou"h they are separated by life and death. 8hat effect do these parenthetical inter;ections have on the poemQ 8hy did Bossetti "ive the damo:el's lover a voiceQ 0. Bossetti connects heaven and earth throu"h the water ima"ery% but he also weaves ima"es of circles -@circlin" charm%@ @circle*wise sit they@. and li"ht -@lamps are stirred continually%@ @deep wells of li"ht@. throu"hout the poem. 3ow do these ima"es functionQ 8hat other contrasts between 3eaven and earth does Bossetti useQ /. Bossetti often mentions the stillness of the damo:el's "a:e. Does this bear any si"nificance for his fair lady portraits% whose mysterious "a:es are central in the compositionsQ !re the visual representations similar to his poetic representation of the damo:elQ

Earthly and .ivine .esire in -*he ,lessed .amoAel/yan 6on': En'lishEHistory of Art 1!1: PreC/aphaelites: Aesthetes: an) 5e(a)ents: 1ro.n ;niversity: 2&&$

[Hictorian 8eb 3ome KX !uthors KX Dante 6abriel Bossetti KX 8orks )heme and >ub;ect]

The narrator of %. . 8ossettiDs poem The (lessed %amoKel ima"ines his deceased lover in heaven callin" to him so that the two can be to"ether. 7erhaps the central theme of the poem is the contrast and tension between earthly, romantic love and heavenly love of od. The poem, thou"h told in first person, does not convey the thou"hts of the narrator in the conventional way. 8ossetti assi"ns most of the poem to a solilo>uy that the narrator ima"ines his CdamoKelC speakin". 'e ima"ines his lover sayin":

@)here will I ask of Christ the ?ord )hus much for him and meA K 1nly to live as once on earth 8ith love% K only to be% !s then awhile% for ever now )o"ether% I and he. )he thou"hts of the narrator himself are hidden between parentheses throu"hout the poem K endin" with his own wistful @-I heard her tears..@ )his structure% movin" between reflection and praise% mi"ht be seen as a take on reli"ion itself. )hou"h man attempts to present himself as insi"nificant% he pro;ects his own desires onto the heavens. Bossetti depicts this conflict between earthly and "odly love we see at play in the accompanyin" paintin"% mer"in" aspects typical of the (re*Baphaelite =rotherhood with some typical of the Benaissance. )he altarpiece frame itself is very reminiscent of those of the Benaissance% with a main ima"e K of the lady* and a predella with the dreamy narrator below it. )he ima"es of lovers in heaven at the top of the altarpiece underscore Bossetti's transposition of earthly love onto the divine. Bossetti uses both heavenly and earthly ima"ery in the poem and the paintin". >ome symbols% such as @a white rose of 4ary's "ift@ belon" to both realms.

Huestions
1. 3ow does Bossetti's view of earthly and heavenly love contrast with the Benaissance viewQ 8hat do the references to Benaissance art K e.". the cherubim at the bottom of the frame K say about thisQ #. Iierke"aard was active around the same time as Bossetti wrote his poem. )o contrast% Iierke"aard believed earthly% temporal love impossible to sustain% and thou"ht love for "od the only type of true love. Bossetti seems to advocate the fusion of the two. 4i"ht Bossetti's poem be a response to Iierke"aard's statementQ 8hat mi"ht have been the contemporary reaction to Bossetti's attempt to mer"e the twoQ 0. It is unclear if the narrator and the lady were married at the time of her death. 3ow would it chan"e the reli"ious dynamic if they were notQ /. Considerin" that the poem seems to use reli"ion to fortify earthly love% rather than vice versa% what is its relation to =iblical )ypolo"yQ $. ,specially considerin" Christina Bossetti's @>on"%@ to what e+tent can one view @Damo:el@ as male e"otism and anti*feminist% or for"ive it as a youn" lover's romantic musin"Q @*he ,lessed .amoAel@ is the most well known poem by Dante 6abriel Bossetti which was first published in 18$ in )he 6erm. Bossetti subse&uently revised the poem twice and republished it in 18$6 and 182 . Bossetti was partially inspired by (oe's @)he Baven@[1]% with its depiction of a lover "rievin" on ,arth over the death of his loved one. Bossetti chose to represent the situation in reverse. )he poem describes the 'Damo:el' observin" her lover from heaven% his death and their reunion in heaven.

Claude Debussy composed a settin" of Bossetti's poemA @?a demoiselle Llue@ -1888.% a cantata for two soloists% female choir% and orchestra.

Matthe& %rnold
=rom +i ipedia4 the "ree encyclopedia
5ump toA navi"ation% search 0ee also, %atthew Arnold 0chool (0tainesMatthe& %rnold

#/ December 18## ?aleham*on*)hames% 4iddlese+% ,n"land 1$ !pril 1888 .ied ?iverpool% ,n"land Occupation 3er 4a;esty's Inspector of >chools :ationality ,n"lish +riting Hictorian period (oetry< ?iterary% >ocial and Beli"ious Genres Criticism :otable @Dover =each%@ @)he >cholar*6ipsy%@ &or #s$ @)hyrsis%@ Culture and Anarch#% .iterature ,orn

and Dogma Influences[show] Influenced[show]

Caricature from (unch% 1881A @!dmit that 3omer sometimes nods% )hat poets do write trash% 1ur =ard has written @1alder Dead%@ !nd also =alder*dash@

Damily tree Matthe& %rnold -#/ December 18## G 1$ !pril 1888. was an ,n"lish poet and cultural critic who worked as an inspector of schools. 3e was the son of )homas !rnold% the famed headmaster of Bu"by >chool% and brother to both )om !rnold% literary professor% and 8illiam Delafield !rnold% novelist and colonial administrator. 4atthew !rnold has been characteri:ed as a sa"e writer% a type of writer who chastises and instructs the reader on contemporary social issues.[1]

'ontents
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1 ,arly years # 4arria"e and a career 0 ?iterary career / !rnold's character $ 8ritin"s
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$.1 (oetry

$.# (rose

$.#.1 ?iterary criticism $.#.# >ocial criticism $.#.0 5ournalistic criticism $.#./ Beli"ious criticism

6 Cotes 2 =iblio"raphy 8 ,+ternal links

[edit] Early years

)he Beverend 5ohn Ieble% who would become one of the leaders of the 1+ford 4ovement% stood as "odfather to 4atthew. @)homas !rnold admired Ieble's 'hymns' in )he Christian Mear% only reversin" himself with e+asperation when this old friend became a Bomeward* tendin" '3i"h Church' reactionary in the 180 s.@ [#] In 18#8% !rnold's father was appointed 3eadmaster of Bu"by >chool and his youn" family took up residence% that year% in the 3eadmaster's house. In 1801% !rnold was tutored by his uncle% the Beverend 5ohn =uckland% at ?aleham% 4iddlese+. In 180/% the !rnolds occupied a holiday home% Do+ 3ow% in the ?ake District. 8illiam 8ordsworth was a nei"hbor and close friend. Do+ 3ow became the family home after Dr. !rnold's untimely death in 18/#. In 1806% !rnold was sent to 8inchester Colle"e% but in 1802 he returned to Bu"by >chool where he was enrolled in the fifth form. 3e moved to the si+th form in 1808 and thus came under the direct tutela"e of his father. 3e wrote verse for the manuscript Do+ 3ow 4a"a:ine produced by 4atthew and his brother )om for the family's en;oyment from 1808 to 18/0. Durin" his years as a Bu"by student% he won school pri:es for ,n"lish essay writin"% and ?atin and ,n"lish poetry. 3is pri:e poem% @!laric at Bome%@ was printed at Bu"by. In 18/1% he won an open scholarship to =alliol Colle"e% 1+ford. Durin" his residence at 1+ford% his friendship ripened with !rthur 3u"h Clou"h% another "raduate of Bu"by who had been one of his father's favourites. !rnold attended 5ohn 3enry Cewman's sermons at >t. 4ary's% but did not ;oin the 1+ford 4ovement. 3is father died suddenly of heart disease in 18/#. !rnold's poem @Cromwell@ won the 18/0 Cewdi"ate pri:e. 3e "raduated in the followin" year with a #nd Class 3onours de"ree in @6reats.@ In 18/$% after a short interlude of teachin" at Bu"by% he was elected Dellow of 1riel Colle"e% 1+ford. In 18/2% he became (rivate >ecretary to ?ord ?ansdowne% ?ord (resident of the Council. In 18/F% he published his first book of poetry% )he >trayed Beveller. In 18$ 8ordsworth died< !rnold published his @4emorial Herses@ on the older poet in Draser's 4a"a:ine.

[edit] Marriage and a career

8ishin" to marry% but unable to support a family on the wa"es of a private secretary% !rnold sou"ht the position of% and was appointed% in !pril 18$1% one of 3er 4a;esty's Inspector of >chools. )wo months later% he married Drances ?ucy% dau"hter of >ir 8illiam 8i"htman% 5ustice of the Pueen's =ench. !rnold slept with her day and ni"ht for eleven days and had si+ childrenA )homas -18$#*1868.< )revenen 8illiam -18$0*182#.< Bichard (enrose -18$$* 1F 8.% an inspector of factories[0]< ?ucy Charlotte -18$8*1F0/. who married Drederick 8. 8hitrid"e of Cew Mork% whom she had met durin" !rnold's !merican lecture tour< ,leanore 4ary Caroline -1861*1F06. married -1. 3on. !rmine 8odehouse in 188F% -#. 8illiam 4asefield% =aron >andhurst% in 1F F< =asil Drancis -1866*1868.. !rnold often described his duties as a school inspector as @drud"ery%@ althou"h @at other times he acknowled"ed the benefit of re"ular work.@[/] )he inspectorship re&uired him% at least at first% to travel constantly and across much of ,n"land. @Initially% !rnold was responsible for inspectin" Conconformist schools across a broad swath of central ,n"land. 3e spent many dreary hours durin" the 18$ s in railway waitin"*rooms and small*town hotels% and lon"er hours still in listenin" to children recitin" their lessons and parents recitin" their "rievances. =ut that also meant that he% amon" the first "eneration of the railway a"e% travelled across more of ,n"land than any man of letters had ever done. !lthou"h his duties were later confined to a smaller area% !rnold knew the society of provincial ,n"land better than most of the metropolitan authors and politicians of the day.@ [$]

[edit] /iterary career

In 18$#% !rnold published his second volume of poems% Empedocles on Etna, and 2ther Poems. In 18$0% he published PoemsC A 5ew Edition% a selection from the two earlier volumes famously e+cludin" @,mpedocles on ,tna@% but addin" new poems% @>ohrab and Bustum@ and @)he >cholar 6ipsy@. In 18$/% PoemsC 0econd 0eries appeared< also a selection% it included the new poem% @=alder Dead@. !rnold was elected (rofessor of (oetry at 1+ford in 18$2. 3e was the first to deliver his lectures in ,n"lish rather than ?atin. 3e was re*elected in 186#. 2n Translating 'omer -1861. and the initial thou"hts that !rnold would transform into Culture and Anarch# were amon" the fruits of the 1+ford lectures. In 18$F% he conducted the first of three trips to the continent at the behest of parliament to study ,uropean educational practices. 3e self* published The Popular Education o! )rance -1861.% the introduction to which was later published under the title @Democracy@ -182F..[6] In 186$% !rnold published Essa#s in CriticismC )irst 0eries. Essa#s in CriticismC 0econd 0eries would not appear until Covember 1888% shortly after his untimely death. In 1866% he published Th#rsis% his ele"y to Clou"h who had died in 1861. Culture and Anarch#% !rnold's ma;or work in social criticism -and one of the few pieces of his prose work currently in print. was published in 186F. .iterature and Dogma% !rnold's ma;or work in reli"ious criticism appeared in 1820. In 1880 and 188/% !rnold toured the 9nited >tates deliverin" lectures on education% democracy and Balph 8aldo ,merson. In 1886% he retired from school inspection and made another trip to !merica. !rnold died suddenly in 1888 of heart failure% when runnin" to meet a tram that would have taken him to the ?iverpool ?andin" >ta"e to see his dau"hter% who was visitin" from the 9nited >tates where she had moved after marryin" an !merican.

[edit] %rnold)s character

4atthew !rnold @was indeed the most deli"htful of companions%@ wrote 6. 8. ,. Bussell in Portraits o! the 0e enties< @a man of the world entirely free from worldliness and a man of letters without the faintest trace of pedantry.@ [2] ! familiar fi"ure at the !thenaeum Club% a fre&uent diner*out and "uest at "reat country houses% fond of fishin" and shootin"% a lively conversationalist% affectin" a combination of foppishness and 1lympian "randeur% he read constantly% widely% and deeply% and in the intervals of supportin" himself and his family by the &uiet drud"ery of school inspectin"% filled notebook after notebook with meditations of an almost monastic tone. In his writin"s% he often baffled and sometimes annoyed his contemporaries by the apparent contradiction between his urbane% even frivolous manner in controversy% and the @hi"h seriousness@ of his critical views and the melancholy% almost plaintive note of much of his poetry. @! voice pokin" fun in the wilderness@ was ). 3. 8arren's description of him. An 2x!ord Eleg# by Hau"han 8illiams% a piece for narrator% mi+ed chorus and small orchestra -1F/F.% is based on e+tracts from @)he >cholar 6ipsy@ and @)hyrsis@.

[edit] +ritings
[edit] Poetry
!rnold is sometimes called the third "reat Hictorian poet% alon" with !lfred )ennyson% 1st =aron )ennyson and Bobert =rownin". [8] !rnold was keenly aware of his place in poetry. In an 186F letter to his mother% he wroteA

4y poems represent% on the whole% the main movement of mind of the last &uarter of a century% and thus they will probably have their day as people become conscious to themselves of what that movement of mind is% and interested in the literary productions which reflect it. It mi"ht be fairly ur"ed that I have less poetical sentiment than )ennyson and less intellectual vi"our and abundance than =rownin"< yet because I have perhaps more of a fusion of the two than either of them% and have more re"ularly applied that fusion to the main line of modern development% I am likely enou"h to have my turn as they have had theirs.@ [F]

>tefan Collini re"ards this as @an e+ceptionally frank% but not un;ust% self*assessment.@ @!rnold's poetry continues to have scholarly attention lavished upon it% in part because it seems to furnish such strikin" evidence for several central aspects of the intellectual history of the nineteenth century% especially the corrosion of 'Daith' by 'Doubt'. Co poet% presumably% would wish to be summoned by later a"es merel# as an historical witness% but the sheer intellectual "rasp of !rnold's verse renders it peculiarly liable to this treatment.@ [1 ] 3arold =loom echoes !rnold's self reference in his introduction -as series editor. to the %odern Critical 6iews volume on !rnoldA @!rnold "ot into his poetry what )ennyson and =rownin" scarcely needed -but absorbed anyway.% the main march of mind of his time.@ 1f his poetry% =loom says% @8hatever his achievement as a critic of literature% society% or

reli"ion% his work as a poet may not merit the reputation it has continued to hold in the twentieth century. !rnold is% at his best% a very "ood but hi"hly derivative poet.... !s with )ennyson% 3opkins% and Bossetti% !rnold's dominant precursor was Ieats% but this is an unhappy pu::le% since !rnold -unlike the others. professed not to admire Ieats "reatly% while writin" his own ele"iac poems in a diction% meter% ima"istic procedure% that are embarrassin"ly close to Ieats.@ [11] >ir ,dmund Chambers noted% however% that @in a comparison between the best works of 4atthew !rnold and that of his si+ "reatest contemporaries... the proportion of work which endures is "reater in the case of 4atthew !rnold than in any one of them.@ [1#] Chambers ;ud"ed !rnold's poetic vision by @its simplicity% lucidity% and strai"htforwardness< its literalness...< the sparin" use of aureate words% or of far*fetched words% which are all the more effective when they come< the avoidance of inversions% and the "eneral directness of synta+% which "ives full value to the delicacies of a varied rhythm% and makes it% of all verse that I know% the easiest to read aloud.@ [10] 3e has a primary school named after him in ?iverpool% where he died% and secondary schools named after him in 1+ford and >taines. 3is literary career K leavin" out the two pri:e poems K had be"un in 18/F with the publication of The 0tra#ed Re eller and 2ther Poems by !.% which attracted little notice K althou"h it contained perhaps !rnold's most purely poetical poem @)he Dorsaken 4erman@ K and was soon withdrawn. Empedocles on Etna and 2ther Poems -amon" them @)ristram and Iseult@.% published in 18$#% had a similar fate. In 18$8 he brou"ht out his tra"edy of @4erope%@ calculated% he wrote to a friend% @rather to inau"urate my (rofessorship with di"nity than to move deeply the present race of humans%@ and chiefly remarkable for some e+periments in unusual K and unsuccessful K metres. 3is 1862 poem @Dover =each@ depicted a ni"htmarish world from which the old reli"ious verities have receded. It is sometimes held up as an early% if not the first% e+ample of the modern sensibility. In a famous preface to a selection of the poems of 8illiam 8ordsworth% !rnold identified himself% a little ironically% as a @8ordsworthian.@ )he influence of 8ordsworth% both in ideas and in diction% is unmistakable in !rnold's best poetry. !rnold's poem% @Dover =each@ appears in Bay =radbury's )ahrenheit JKL and is also featured prominently in 0aturda# by Ian 4c,wan. It has also been &uoted or alluded to in a variety of other conte+ts -see Dover =each.. >ome consider !rnold to be the brid"e between Bomanticism and 4odernism. 3is use of symbolic landscapes was typical of the Bomantic era% while his skeptical and pessimistic perspective was typical of the 4odern era. )he rationalistic tendency of certain of his writin"s "ave offence to many readers% and the sufficiency of his e&uipment in scholarship for dealin" with some of the sub;ects which he handled was called in &uestion% but he undoubtedly e+ercised a stimulatin" influence on his time. 3is writin"s are characterised by the finest culture% hi"h purpose% sincerity% and a style of "reat distinction% and much of his poetry has an e+&uisite and subtle beauty% thou"h here also it has been doubted whether hi"h culture and wide knowled"e of poetry did not sometimes take the place of true poetic fire. 3enry 5ames wrote that 4atthew !rnold's poetry will appeal to those who @like their pleasures rare@ and who like to hear the poet @takin" breath.@

)he mood of !rnold7s poetry tends to be of plaintive reflection% and he is restrained in e+pressin" emotion. 3e felt that poetry should be the Rcriticism of life7 and e+press a philosophy. !rnold7s philosophy is that true happiness comes from within% and that people should seek within themselves for "ood% while bein" resi"ned in acceptance of outward thin"s and avoidin" the pointless turmoil of the world. 3owever% he ar"ues that we should not live in the belief that we shall one day inherit eternal bliss. If we are not happy on earth% we should moderate our desires rather than live in dreams of somethin" that may never be attained. )his philosophy is clearly e+pressed in such poems as @Dover =each@ and in these lines from @>tan:as from the 6rande Chartreuse@A 8anderin" between two worlds% one dead )he other powerless to be born% 8ith nowhere yet to rest my head ?ike these% on earth I wait forlorn. !rnold valued natural scenery for its peace and permanence in contrast with the ceaseless chan"e of human thin"s. 3is descriptions are often pictures&ue% and marked by strikin" similes. 3owever% at the same time he liked subdued colours% mist and moonli"ht. 3e seems to prefer the Rspent li"hts7 of the sea*depths in @)he Dorsaken 4erman@ to the villa"e life preferred by the merman7s lost wife. In his poetry he derived not only the sub;ect matter of his narrative poems from various traditional or literary sources but even much of the romantic melancholy of his earlier poems from >enancour's @1bermann@. 3is "reatest defects as a poet stem from his lack of ear and his fre&uent failure to distin"uish between poetry and prose. The Poetical "orks o! %atthew Arnold[1/]

[edit] Prose
!ssessin" the importance of !rnold's prose work in 1F88% >tefan Collini stated% @for reasons to do with our own cultural preoccupations as much as with the merits of his writin"% the best of his prose has a claim on us today that cannot be matched by his poetry.@ [1$] @Certainly there may still be some readers who% va"uely recallin" 'Dover =each' or ')he >cholar 6ipsy' from school antholo"ies% are surprised to find he 'also' wrote prose.@ [16] 6eor"e 8atson follows 6eor"e >aintsbury in dividin" !rnold's career as a prose writer into three phasesA 1. early literary criticism that be"ins with his preface to the 18$0 edition of his poems and ends with the first series of Essa#s in Criticism -186$.< #. a prolon"ed middle period -overlappin" the first and third phases. characteri:ed by social% political and reli"ious writin" -rou"hly 186 *182$.< 0. a return to literary criticism with the selectin" and editin" of collections of 8ordsworth's and =yron's poetry and the second series of Essa#s in Criticism. [12] =oth 8atson and >aintsbury declare their preference for !rnold's literary criticism over his social or reli"ious criticism. 4ore recent writers% such as Collini% have shown a "reater interest in his social writin"%[18] while over the years a si"nificant second tier of criticism has focused on !rnold's reli"ious writin".[1F] 3is writin" on education has not drawn a si"nificant critical endeavor separable from the criticism of his social writin"s.[# ] 0elections !rom the Prose "ork o! %atthew Arnold[#1]

[edit] /iterary criticism

!rnold's work as a literary critic be"an with the 18$0 @(reface to the (oems@. In it% he attempted to e+plain his e+treme act of self*censorship in e+cludin" the dramatic poem @,mpedocles on ,tna@. 8ith its emphasis on the importance of sub;ect in poetry% on @clearness of arran"ement% ri"or of development% simplicity of style@ learned from the 6reeks% and in the stron" imprint of 6oethe and 8ordsworth% may be observed nearly all the essential elements in his critical theory. 6eor"e 8atson described the preface% written by the thirty*one year old !rnold% as @oddly stiff and "raceless when we think of the ele"ance of his later prose.@ [##] Criticism be"an to take first place in !rnold's writin" with his appointment in 18$2 to the professorship of poetry at 1+ford% which he held for two successive terms of five years. In 1861 his lectures 2n Translating 'omer were published% to be followed in 186# by .ast "ords on Translating 'omer% both volumes admirable in style and full of strikin" ;ud"ments and su""estive remarks% but built on rather arbitrary assumptions and reachin" no well* established conclusions. ,specially characteristic% both of his defects and his &ualities% are on the one hand% !rnold's unconvincin" advocacy of ,n"lish he+ameters and his creation of a kind of literary absolute in the @"rand style%@ and% on the other% his keen feelin" of the need for a disinterested and intelli"ent criticism in ,n"land. !lthou"h !rnold's poetry received only mi+ed reviews and attention durin" his lifetime% his forays into literary criticism were more successful. !rnold is famous for introducin" a methodolo"y of literary criticism somewhere between the historicist approach common to many critics at the time and the personal essay< he often moved &uickly and easily from literary sub;ects to political and social issues. 3is Essa#s in Criticism -186$% 1888.% remains a si"nificant influence on critics to this day. In one of his most famous essays on the topic% N)he >tudy of (oetryO% !rnold wrote that% N8ithout poetry% our science will appear incomplete< and most of what now passes with us for reli"ion and philosophy will be replaced by poetryO. 3e considered the most important criteria used to ;ud"e the value of a poem were Nhi"h truthO and Nhi"h seriousnessO. =y this standard% Chaucer7s Canterbury )ales did not merit !rnold7s approval. Durther% !rnold thou"ht the works that had been proven to possess both Nhi"h truthO and Nhi"h seriousnessO% such as those of >hakespeare and 4ilton% could be used as a basis of comparison to determine the merit of other works of poetry. 3e also sou"ht for literary criticism to remain disinterested% and said that the appreciation should be of Nthe ob;ect as in itself it really is.O

[edit] (ocial criticism

3e was led on from literary criticism to a more "eneral criti&ue of the spirit of his a"e. =etween 1862 and 186F he wrote Culture and Anarch#% famous for the term he popularised for the middle class of the ,n"lish Hictorian era populationA @(hilistines@% a word which derives its modern cultural meanin" -in ,n"lish * the 6erman*lan"ua"e usa"e was well established. from him. Culture and Anarch# is also famous for its populari:ation of the phrase @sweetness and li"ht%@ first coined by 5onathan >wift. [#0] !rnold's @want of lo"ic and thorou"hness of thou"ht@ as noted by 5ohn 4. Bobertson in %odern 'umanists was an aspect of the inconsistency of which !rnold was accused.[#/] Dew of his ideas were his own% and he failed to reconcile the conflictin" influences which moved him so stron"ly. @)here are four people% in especial%@ he once wrote to Cardinal Cewman%

@from whom I am conscious of havin" learnt K a very different thin" from merely receivin" a stron" impression K learnt habits% methods% rulin" ideas% which are constantly with me< and the four are K 6oethe% 8ordsworth% >ainte*=euve% and yourself.@ Dr. !rnold must be added< the son's fundamental likeness to the father was early pointed out by >winburne% and was later attested by 4atthew !rnold's "randson% 4r. !rnold 8hitrid"e. =rou"ht up in the tenets of the (hilistinism which% as a professed cosmopolitan and the !postle of Culture he attacked% he remained somethin" of a (hilistine to the end.

[edit] Journalistic criticism

In 1882% !rnold was credited with coinin" the phrase @Cew 5ournalism@% a term that went on to define an entire "enre of newspaper history% particularly ?ord Corthcliffe's turn*of*the* century press empire. 3owever% at the time% the tar"et of !rnold's irritation was not Corthcliffe% but the sensational ;ournalism of (all 4all 6a:ette editor% 8.). >tead.[#$] !rnold had en;oyed a lon" and mutually beneficial association with the (all 4all 6a:ette since its inception in 186$. !s an occasional contributor% he had formed a particular friendship with its first editor% Drederick 6reenwood and a close ac&uaintance with its second% 5ohn 4orley. =ut he stron"ly disapproved of the muck*rakin" >tead% and declared that% under >tead% @the (.4.6.% whatever may be its merits% is fast ceasin" to be literature.@[#6]

[edit] Religious criticism

3is reli"ious views were unusual for his time. >cholars of !rnold's works disa"ree on the nature of !rnold's personal reli"ious beliefs. 9nder the influence of =aruch >pino:a and his father% Dr. )homas !rnold% he re;ected the superstitious elements in reli"ion% even while retainin" a fascination for church rituals. !rnold seems to belon" to a pra"matic middle "round that is more concerned with the poetry of reli"ion and its virtues and values for society than with the e+istence of 6od. 3e wrote in the preface of God and the 1ible in 182$ N)he persona"es of the Christian heaven and their conversations are no more matter of fact than the persona"es of the 6reek 1lympus and their conversations.O [#2] 3e also wrote in .iterature and DogmaA @)he word '6od' is used in most cases as by no means a term of science or e+act knowled"e% but a term of poetry and elo&uence% a term thrown out% so to speak% as a not fully "rasped ob;ect of the speaker's consciousness K a literary term% in short< and mankind mean different thin"s by it as their consciousness differs.@ [#8] 3e defined reli"ion as @morality touched with emotion@. [#F] 3owever% he also wrote in the same book% @to pass from a Christianity relyin" on its miracles to a Christianity relyin" on its natural truth is a "reat chan"e. It can only be brou"ht about by those whose attachment to Christianity is such% that they cannot part with it% and yet cannot but deal with it sincerely.@ [0 ] It seems likely by the conte+t of this statement that he means himself to be counted amon"st those who cannot part with Christianity even as they deal with it @sincerely@.

'ulture and %narchy

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!ulture and Anarchy is a series of periodical essays by 4atthew !rnold% first published in Cornhill 4a"a:ine 1862*68 and collected as a book in 186F. )he preface was added in 182$.
[1]

!rnold's famous piece of writin" on culture established his 3i"h Hictorian cultural a"enda which remained dominant in debate from the 186 s until the 1F$ s. !ccordin" to his view advanced in the book% @Culture [...] is a study of perfection@. 3e further wrote thatA @[Culture] seeks to do away with classes< to make the best that has been thou"ht and known in the world current everywhere< to make all men live in an atmosphere of sweetness and li"ht [...]@. 3is often &uoted phrase @[culture is] the best which has been thou"ht and said@ comes from the (reface to Culture and Anarch#A )he whole scope of the essay is to recommend culture as the "reat help out of our present difficulties< culture bein" a pursuit of our total perfection by means of "ettin" to know% on all the matters which most concern us% the best which has been thou"ht and said in the world% and% throu"h this knowled"e% turnin" a stream of fresh and free thou"ht upon our stock notions and habits% which we now follow staunchly but mechanically% vainly ima"inin" that there is a virtue in followin" them staunchly which makes up for the mischief of followin" them mechanically.

(trange 'ase o" .r Je yll and Mr !yde

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5ump toA navi"ation% search @Dr. 5ekyll and 4r. 3yde@ redirects here. Dor other uses% see Dr. 5ekyll and 4r. 3yde -disambi"uation..

Strange !ase o" r #e$yll and Mr Hyde

)itle pa"e of the first ?ondon edition -1886. %uthor 'ountry /anguage Publisher Publication date <(,: Bobert ?ouis >tevenson >cotland ,n"lish ?on"mans% 6reen ] co. $ 5anuary 1886 C[!

Strange !ase o" r #e$yll and Mr Hyde is the ori"inal title of a novella written by the >cottish author Bobert ?ouis >tevenson and first published in 1886. )he work is commonly known today as %he Strange !ase o" r #e$yll and Mr Hyde or r #e$yll and Mr Hyde.[1] It is about a ?ondon lawyer named 6abriel 5ohn 9tterson who investi"ates stran"e occurrences between his old friend% Dr 3enry 5ekyll%[#] and the misanthropic 4r ,dward 3yde. )he work is known for its vivid portrayal of a split personality% split in the sense that within the same person there is both an apparently "ood and an evil personality each bein" &uite distinct from the other. )he novella's impact is such that it has become a part of the lan"ua"e% with the phrase @5ekyll and 3yde@ comin" to mean a person who is vastly different in moral character from one situation to the ne+t.[0] 0trange Case o! Dr &ek#ll and %r '#de was an immediate success and is one of >tevenson's best*sellin" works. >ta"e adaptations be"an in =oston and ?ondon within a year of its publication and it has "one on to inspire scores of ma;or film and sta"e performances.

'ontents
[hide]

1 3istory # !nalysis 0 Characters

o o o o o o o

0.1 Dr 3enry 5ekyll[,dward 3yde 0.# Dr 3astie ?anyon 0.0 4r 6abriel 5ohn 9tterson 0./ (oole 0.$ Bichard ,nfield 0.6 Inspector Cewcomen 0.2 >ir Danvers Carew

/ !daptations $ Beferences 6 ,+ternal links

[edit] !istory
>tevenson had lon" been interested in the idea of the duality of human nature and how to incorporate the interplay of "ood and evil into a story. 8hile still a teena"er% he developed a script for a play on Deacon =rodie% which he later reworked with the help of 8. ,. 3enley and saw produced for the first time in 188#.[/] In early 188/ he wrote the short story @4arkheim%@ which he revised in 188$ for publication in a Christmas annual. 1ne ni"ht in late >eptember or early 1ctober 188$% possibly while he was still revisin" @4arkheim%@ >tevenson had a dream% and on wakenin" had the intuition for two or three scenes that would appear in the story. @In the small hours of one mornin"%@ says 4rs >tevenson% @I was awakened by cries of horror from ?ouis. )hinkin" he had a ni"htmare% I woke him. 3e said an"rily% '8hy did you wake meQ I was dreamin" a fine bo"ey tale.' I had awakened him at the first transformation scene ...@ ?loyd 1sbourne% >tevenson's stepson% remembers% @I don't believe that there was ever such a literary feat before as the writin" of Dr &ek#ll. I remember the first readin" as if it were yesterday. ?ouis came downstairs in a fever< read nearly half the book aloud< and then% while we were still "aspin"% he was away a"ain% and busy writin". I doubt if the first draft took so lon" as three days@. !s was the custom% 4rs >tevenson would read the draft and offer her criticisms in the mar"ins. ?ouis was confined to bed at the time from a haemorrha"e< therefore she left her comments with the manuscript and ?ouis in the bedroom. >he said that in effect the story was really an alle"ory% but ?ouis was writin" it as a story. !fter a while ?ouis called her back into the bedroom and pointed to a pile of ashesA he had burnt the manuscript in fear that he would try to salva"e it% and in the process forcin" himself to start over from nothin"% writin" an alle"orical story as she had su""ested. >cholars debate whether he really burnt his manuscript. )here is no direct factual evidence for the burnin"% but it remains an inte"ral part of the history of the novella.

>tevenson re*wrote the story in three to si+ days% alle"edly with the assistance of cocaine.[$] !ccordin" to 1sbourne% @)he mere physical feat was tremendous< and instead of harmin" him% it roused and cheered him ine+pressibly@. 3e refined and continued to work on it for four to si+ weeks afterward. 0trange Case o! Dr &ek#ll and %r '#de was initially sold as a paperback for one shillin" in the 9I and one dollar in the 9.>. Charles >cribner's >ons% the !merican publisher% issued the book on $ 5anuary 1886% four days before the first appearance of the 9I edition issued by ?on"mans< >cribner's published 0 copies% only 1#$ of them bound in cloth. Initially stores would not stock it until a review appeared in The Times% on #$ 5anuary 1886% "ivin" it a favourable reception. 8ithin the ne+t si+ months close to forty thousand copies were sold. Its success was probably due more to the @moral instincts of the public@ than any perception of its artistic merits< it was widely read by those who never otherwise read fiction% &uoted in pulpit sermons and in reli"ious papers.[citation needed] =y 1F 1 it was estimated to have sold over #$ % copies.

[edit] %nalysis

Bichard 4ansfield was mostly known for his dual role depicted in this double e+posure. )he sta"e adaptation opened in ?ondon in 1882% a year after the publication of the novella. (icture 18F$. )his story represents a concept in 8estern culture% that of the inner conflict of humanity's sense of "ood and evil.[6] )he novella has been interpreted as an e+amination of the duality of human nature -that "ood and evil e+ists in all. and that the failure to accept this tension -to accept the evil or shadow side. results in the evil bein" pro;ected onto others.[2] (arado+ically in this ar"ument% evil is actually committed in an effort to e+tin"uish the perceived evil that has been pro;ected onto the innocent victims. In Dreudian )heory the thou"hts and desires banished to the unconscious mind motivate the behaviour of the conscious mind. If someone banishes all evil to the unconscious mind in an attempt to be wholly and completely "ood% it can result in the development of a 4r 3yde*type aspect to that person's character.[2] )his failure to accept the tension of duality is related to Christian theolo"y where >atan's fall from 3eaven is due to his refusal to accept that he is a created bein" -that he has a dual nature. and is not 6od.[2] )his is why in Christianity pride -to consider oneself as without sin or without

evil. is the "reatest sin as it is the precursor to evil itself% it also e+plains the Christian concept of evil hidin" in the li"ht.[2] )he novella has also been noted as @one of the best "uidebooks of the Hictorian era@ because of its piercin" description of the fundamental dichotomy of the 1Fth century @outward respectability and inward lust@ as this period had a tendency for social hypocrisy.[6] Harious direct influences have been su""ested for >tevenson's interest in the mental condition that separates the sinful from moral self. !mon" them are the =iblical te+t of Bomans -2A# @Cow if I do what I do not want to do% it is no lon"er I who do it% but it is sin livin" in me that does it.@.< the split life in the 128 s of ,dinbur"h city councillor Deacon 8illiam =rodie% master craftsman by day% bur"lar by ni"ht< and 5ames 3o""'s novel The Pri ate %emoirs and Con!essions o! a &usti!ied 0inner -18#/.% in which a youn" man falls under the spell of the devil. ?iterary "enres which critics have applied as a framework for interpretin" the novel include reli"ious alle"ory% fable% detective story% sensation fiction% doppel"en"er literature% >cottish devil tales and "othic novel. Dr 5ekyll and 4r 3yde has been the influence for )he 3ulk% )wo*Dace and the "eneral superhero "enre for the story's ties to a double life. )he duality in the novella has led to a variety of different interpretations. )hese include readin"s which see the work as bein" a Hictorian morality tale of unleashed se+ual depravity% or an alle"ory for the necessarily double life of the Hictorian homose+ual.[8] ! common interpretation sees the novella's duality as representative of >cotland and the >cottish character. 1n this readin" the duality represents the national and lin"uistic dualities inherent in >cotland's relationship with the wider =ritain and the ,n"lish lan"ua"e respectively% and also the repressive effects of the Calvinistic church on the >cottish character.[8] ! further parallel is also drawn with the city of ,dinbur"h itself% >tevenson's birthplace% which consists of two distinct partsA the old medieval section historically inhabited by the city's poor% where the dark crowded slums were rife with all types of crime% and the modern 6eor"ian area of wide spacious streets representin" respectability.[8][F][1 ]

[edit] 'haracters
[edit] .r !enry Je yllNEd&ard !yde
)he dual title character is a doctor who has covered up a secret life full of cruel deeds. 3e feels as if he is constantly battlin" within himself between what is "ood and what is evil% and is pushin" away people dear to him. !fter drinkin" a potion of his own creation% 5ekyll is transformed into the smaller% youn"er% cruel% remorseless% evil ,dward 3yde% representin" the hidden side of Dr 5ekyll's nature brou"ht to the fore. Dr 5ekyll has many friends and has a friendly personality% but as 4r 3yde% he becomes mysterious% violent% and secretive. !s time "oes by% 4r 3yde "rows in power. !fter takin" the potion repetitively% he no lon"er relies upon it to unleash his inner demon. ,ventually% 4r 3yde "rows so stron" that Dr 5ekyll becomes reliant on the potion to remain himself. >tevenson never says e+actly what 3yde takes pleasure in on his ni"htly forays% sayin" "enerally that it is somethin" of an evil and lustful nature< thus it is in the conte+t of the times% abhorrent to Hictorian reli"ious morality. 3yde may have simply been revelin" in activities that were not appropriate to a man of 5ekyll's stature% such as en"a"in" with prostitutes or bur"lary% or perhaps merely walkin" the dark streets of ?ondon all ni"ht and sleepin" durin"

the day. 3owever% it is 3yde's violent activities that seem to "ive him the most thrill% drivin" him to attack and murder >ir Danvers Carew without reason% makin" him a hunted outlaw throu"hout ,n"land. )he same potion that turns 5ekyll into 3yde also turns him back into 5ekyll * at first * but 5ekyll finds himself spontaneously turnin" into 3yde and re&uirin" "reater doses of the potion to turn himself back. 8hen the ori"inal batch runs out% 5ekyll frantically scours the pharmacies of ?ondon lookin" for the same in"redients he ori"inally used% but ultimately reali:es one of the ori"inal components had a uni&ue imperfection that could not be duplicated * therefore% he can never recreate the exact formula. Beali:in" he will soon be 3yde forever% he leaves behind a testament before committin" suicide by poison< pointin" out that while 5ekyll often felt like a charlatan% 3yde felt like a @"enuine man@ years youn"er and far more ener"etic than his more @sociable@ self. 3e also states in his final confession that althou"h 3yde knew people recoiled from him% he didn't care.

[edit] .r !astie /anyon

! former -medical. friend of 5ekyll's% !astie /anyon disa"rees with his @scientific@ concepts% which ?anyon describes as @...too fanciful@. 3e is the first person to whom 3yde's identity is revealed -3yde transforms himself back into 5ekyll in ?anyon's presence.. Dr ?anyon helps 9tterson solve the case% when he describes the letter "iven to him by 5ekyll. 8hen ?anyon witnesses the transformation process% -and subse&uently hears 5ekyll's private confession% made to him alone.% ?anyon becomes critically ill and later dies of shock. !s an embodiment of Hictorian rationalism% materialism% and skepticism% ?anyon serves as a foil to 5ekyll% and his death represents the "eneral triumph of supernaturalism over materialism in the novel.

[edit] Mr Gabriel John 2tterson

6abriel 5ohn 9tterson% a lawyer and loyal friend of 5ekyll's -and ?anyon's.% is the character the narrator focuses on% and follows in his &uest to discover the identity of 3yde. In some adaptations of the novel% he is omitted and replaced by Dr ?anyon.[citation needed] 9tterson is described as a measured% and at all times emotionless% bachelor ** who is nonetheless believable% trustworthy% tolerant of the faults of others% and indeed "enuinely likable.

[edit] Poole
(oole is Dr 5ekyll's butler who% upon noticin" the reclusiveness and chan"es of his master% "oes to 4r 9tterson with the fear that his master has been murdered and his murderer% 4r 3yde% is residin" in his chambers. (oole serves 5ekyll faithfully% and attempts to do a "ood ;ob and be loyal to his master. Met events finally drive him into ;oinin" forces with 9tterson to discover the truth.

[edit] Richard En"ield

Bichard ,nfield is 4r 9tterson's cousin and ally to his investi"ation. 3e is the person who mentions to the lawyer the actual personality of 5ekyll's heir% 4r 3yde. ,nfield witnessed 3yde runnin" over a little "irl in the street recklessly% and he% with the "irl's parents and other residents% force 3yde into writin" a che&ue for the "irl's family. ,nfield discovers that the che&ue was si"ned by Dr 5ekyll. )he che&ue is found to be "enuine. 3e said 3yde was dis"ustin" lookin"% but finds himself stumped when asked to describe the man. (erhaps it is 3yde's personality and mannerisms that distin"uish him from his fellow human bein"s% makin" it impossible for them to identify with such a character.

[edit] <nspector :e&comen

)his >cotland Mard inspector is ;oined by 4r 9tterson% after the murder of >ir Danvers Carew. )hey e+plore 3yde's loft in >oho and discover evidence of his depraved life.

[edit] (ir .anvers 'are&

! kind old man and important member of (arliament. 3e was killed in the streets of ?ondon by 4r 3yde in a murderous ra"e. In many adaptations of the story% >ir Danvers is the father of 5ekyll's fiancLe. )he book makes no such connection and 3yde's murder of >ir Danvers is described as a wanton act of violence.

[edit] %daptations

(oster from the 188 s. 4ain articleA !daptations of >tran"e Case of Dr 5ekyll and 4r 3yde )here are do:ens of sta"e and film adaptations of the novella< over 1#0 film versions alone% not includin" sta"e and radio versions. 3owever% there have been no ma;or adaptations to date that remain faithful to >tevenson's ori"inal. 4ost omit the fi"ure of 9tterson% tellin" the story from 5ekyll's and 3yde's viewpoint -as well as usin" the same actor for both roles. * thus eliminatin" entirely the mystery aspect of the true identity of 3yde. In addition% almost all adaptations introduce a romantic element which does not e+ist in the ori"inal story.[8]

'ontext
B obert ?ouis >tevenson% one of the masters of the Hictorian adventure story% was born in ,dinbur"h% >cotland% on Covember 10% 18$ . 3e was a sickly child% and respiratory troubles pla"ued him throu"hout his life. !s a youn" man% he traveled throu"h ,urope% leadin" a bohemian lifestyle and pennin" his first two books% both travel narratives. In 1826% he met a married woman% Danny Han de 6rift 1sbourne% and fell in love with her. 4rs. 1sbourne eventually divorced her husband% and she and >tevenson were married. >tevenson returned to ?ondon with his bride and wrote prolifically over the ne+t decade% in spite of his terrible health. 3e won widespread admiration with Treasure 8sland, written in 1880% and followed it with Fidnapped in 1886< both were adventure stories% the former a

pirate tale set on the hi"h seas and the latter a historical novel set in >tevenson7s native >cotland. Dr/ &ek#ll and %r/ '#de, which >tevenson described as a Nfine bo"ey tale%O also came out in 1886. It met with tremendous success% sellin" / % copies in si+ months and ensurin" >tevenson7s fame as a writer. In its narrative of a respectable doctor who transforms himself into a sava"e murderer% Dr/ &ek#ll and %r/ '#de tapped directly into the an+ieties of >tevenson7s a"e. )he Hictorian era% named for Pueen Hictoria% who ruled ,n"land for most of the nineteenth century% was a time of unprecedented technolo"ical pro"ress and an a"e in which ,uropean nations carved up the world with their empires. =y the end of the century% however% many people were be"innin" to call into &uestion the ideals of pro"ress and civili:ation that had defined the era% and a "rowin" sense of pessimism and decline pervaded artistic circles. 4any felt that the end of the century was also witnessin" a twili"ht of 8estern culture. 8ith the notion of a sin"le body containin" both the erudite Dr. 5ekyll and the depraved 4r. 3yde% >tevenson7s novel ima"ines an ine+tricable link between civili:ation and sava"ery% "ood and evil. 5ekyll7s attraction to the freedom from restraint that 3yde en;oys mirrors Hictorian ,n"land7s secret attraction to alle"edly sava"e non*8estern cultures% even as ,urope claimed superiority over them. )his attraction also informs such books as 5oseph Conrad7s 'eart o! Darkness/ Dor% as the 8estern world came in contact with other peoples and ways of life% it found aspects of these cultures within itself% and both desired and feared to indul"e them. )hese aspects included open sensuality% physicality% and other so*called irrational tendencies. ,ven as Hictorian ,n"land sou"ht to assert its civili:ation over and a"ainst these instinctual sides of life% it found them secretly fascinatin". Indeed% society7s repression of its darker side only increased the fascination. !s a product of this society% Dr/ &ek#ll and %r/ '#de manifests this fascination< yet% as a work of art% it also &uestions this interest. =y the late 188 s% >tevenson had become one of the leadin" li"hts of ,n"lish literature. =ut even after "arnerin" fame% he led a somewhat troubled life. 3e traveled often% seekin" to find a climate more amenable to the tuberculosis that haunted his later days. ,ventually he settled in >amoa% and there >tevenson died suddenly in 18F/% at the a"e of forty*four.

Plot Overvie&
1 n their weekly walk% an eminently sensible% trustworthy lawyer named 4r. 9tterson listens as his friend ,nfield tells a "ruesome tale of assault. )he tale describes a sinister fi"ure named 4r. 3yde who tramples a youn" "irl% disappears into a door on the street% and reemer"es to pay off her relatives with a check si"ned by a respectable "entleman. >ince both 9tterson and ,nfield disapprove of "ossip% they a"ree to speak no further of the matter. It happens% however% that one of 9tterson7s clients and close friends% Dr. 5ekyll% has written a will transferrin" all of his property to this same 4r. 3yde. >oon% 9tterson be"ins havin" dreams in which a faceless fi"ure stalks throu"h a ni"htmarish version of ?ondon. (u::led% the lawyer visits 5ekyll and their mutual friend Dr. ?anyon to try to learn more. ?anyon reports that he no lon"er sees much of 5ekyll% since they had a dispute over the course of 5ekyll7s research% which ?anyon calls Nunscientific balderdash.O Curious% 9tterson stakes

out a buildin" that 3yde visitsKwhich% it turns out% is a laboratory attached to the back of 5ekyll7s home. ,ncounterin" 3yde% 9tterson is ama:ed by how undefinably u"ly the man seems% as if deformed% thou"h 9tterson cannot say e+actly how. 4uch to 9tterson7s surprise% 3yde willin"ly offers 9tterson his address. 5ekyll tells 9tterson not to concern himself with the matter of 3yde. ! year passes uneventfully. )hen% one ni"ht% a servant "irl witnesses 3yde brutally beat to death an old man named >ir Danvers Carew% a member of (arliament and a client of 9tterson. )he police contact 9tterson% and 9tterson suspects 3yde as the murderer. 3e leads the officers to 3yde7s apartment% feelin" a sense of forebodin" amid the eerie weatherKthe mornin" is dark and wreathed in fo". 8hen they arrive at the apartment% the murderer has vanished% and police searches prove futile. >hortly thereafter% 9tterson a"ain visits 5ekyll% who now claims to have ended all relations with 3yde< he shows 9tterson a note% alle"edly written to 5ekyll by 3yde% apolo"i:in" for the trouble he has caused him and sayin" "oodbye. )hat ni"ht% however% 9tterson7s clerk points out that 3yde7s handwritin" bears a remarkable similarity to 5ekyll7s own. Dor a few months% 5ekyll acts especially friendly and sociable% as if a wei"ht has been lifted from his shoulders. =ut then 5ekyll suddenly be"ins to refuse visitors% and ?anyon dies from some kind of shock he received in connection with 5ekyll. =efore dyin"% however% ?anyon "ives 9tterson a letter% with instructions that he not open it until after 5ekyll7s death. 4eanwhile% 9tterson "oes out walkin" with ,nfield% and they see 5ekyll at a window of his laboratory< the three men be"in to converse% but a look of horror comes over 5ekyll7s face% and he slams the window and disappears. >oon afterward% 5ekyll7s butler% 4r. (oole% visits 9tterson in a state of desperationA 5ekyll has secluded himself in his laboratory for several weeks% and now the voice that comes from the room sounds nothin" like the doctor7s. 9tterson and (oole travel to 5ekyll7s house throu"h empty% windswept% sinister streets< once there% they find the servants huddled to"ether in fear. !fter ar"uin" for a time% the two of them resolve to break into 5ekyll7s laboratory. Inside% they find the body of 3yde% wearin" 5ekyll7s clothes and apparently dead by suicideKand a letter from 5ekyll to 9tterson promisin" to e+plain everythin". 9tterson takes the document home% where first he reads ?anyon7s letter< it reveals that ?anyon7s deterioration and eventual death were caused by the shock of seein" 4r. 3yde take a potion and metamorphose into Dr. 5ekyll. )he second letter constitutes a testament by 5ekyll. It e+plains how 5ekyll% seekin" to separate his "ood side from his darker impulses% discovered a way to transform himself periodically into a deformed monster free of conscienceK4r. 3yde. !t first% 5ekyll reports% he deli"hted in becomin" 3yde and re;oiced in the moral freedom that the creature possessed. ,ventually% however% he found that he was turnin" into 3yde involuntarily in his sleep% even without takin" the potion. !t this point% 5ekyll resolved to cease becomin" 3yde. 1ne ni"ht% however% the ur"e "ripped him too stron"ly% and after the transformation he immediately rushed out and violently killed >ir Danvers Carew. 3orrified% 5ekyll tried more adamantly to stop the transformations% and for a time he proved successful< one day% however% while sittin" in a park% he suddenly turned into 3yde% the first time that an involuntary metamorphosis had happened while he was awake. )he letter continues describin" 5ekyll7s cry for help. Dar from his laboratory and hunted by the police as a murderer% 3yde needed ?anyon7s help to "et his potions and become 5ekyll a"ainKbut when he undertook the transformation in ?anyon7s presence% the shock of the si"ht insti"ated ?anyon7s deterioration and death. 4eanwhile% 5ekyll returned to his home%

only to find himself ever more helpless and trapped as the transformations increased in fre&uency and necessitated even lar"er doses of potion in order to reverse themselves. It was the onset of one of these spontaneous metamorphoses that caused 5ekyll to slam his laboratory window shut in the middle of his conversation with ,nfield and 9tterson. ,ventually% the potion be"an to run out% and 5ekyll was unable to find a key in"redient to make more. 3is ability to chan"e back from 3yde into 5ekyll slowly vanished. 5ekyll writes that even as he composes his letter he knows that he will soon become 3yde permanently% and he wonders if 3yde will face e+ecution for his crimes or choose to kill himself. 5ekyll notes that% in any case% the end of his letter marks the end of the life of Dr. 5ekyll. 8ith these words% both the document and the novel come to a close.

'haracter /ist
.r. !enry Je yll * ! respected doctor and friend of both ?anyon% a fellow physician% and 9tterson% a lawyer. 5ekyll is a seemin"ly prosperous man% well established in the community% and known for his decency and charitable works. >ince his youth% however% he has secretly en"a"ed in unspecified dissolute and corrupt behavior. 5ekyll finds this dark side a burden and undertakes e+periments intended to separate his "ood and evil selves from one another. )hrou"h these e+periments% he brin"s 4r. 3yde into bein"% findin" a way to transform himself in such a way that he fully becomes his darker half. Mr. Ed&ard !yde * ! stran"e% repu"nant man who looks faintly pre*human. 3yde is violent and cruel% and everyone who sees him describes him as u"ly and deformedKyet no one can say e+actly why. ?an"ua"e itself seems to fail around 3ydeA he is not a creature who belon"s to the rational world% the world of conscious articulation or lo"ical "rammar. 3yde is 5ekyll7s dark side% released from the bonds of conscience and loosed into the world by a mysterious potion. Mr. Gabriel John 2tterson * ! prominent and upstandin" lawyer% well respected in the ?ondon community. 9tterson is reserved% di"nified% and perhaps even lackin" somewhat in ima"ination% but he does seem to possess a furtive curiosity about the more sordid side of life. 3is rationalism% however% makes him ill e&uipped to deal with the supernatural nature of the 5ekyll*3yde connection. 8hile not a man of science% 9tterson resembles his friend Dr. ?anyonKand perhaps Hictorian society at lar"eKin his devotion to reasonable e+planations and his denial of the supernatural. Bead an in*depth analysis of 4r. 6abriel 5ohn 9tterson. .r. !astie /anyon * ! reputable ?ondon doctor and% alon" with 9tterson% formerly one of 5ekyll7s closest friends. !s an embodiment of rationalism% materialism% and skepticism% ?anyon serves a foil -a character whose attitudes or emotions contrast with% and thereby illuminate% those of another character. for 5ekyll% who embraces mysticism. 3is death represents the more "eneral victory of supernaturalism over materialism in Dr/ &ek#ll and %r/ '#de/ Bead an in*depth analysis of Dr. 3astie ?anyon. Mr. Poole * 5ekyll7s butler. 4r. (oole is a loyal servant% havin" worked for the doctor for twenty years% and his concern for his master eventually drives him to seek 9tterson7s help when he becomes convinced that somethin" has happened to 5ekyll.

Mr. En"ield * ! distant cousin and lifelon" friend of 4r. 9tterson. ?ike 9tterson% ,nfield is reserved% formal% and scornful of "ossip< indeed% the two men often walk to"ether for lon" stretches without sayin" a word to one another. Mr. Guest * 9tterson7s clerk and confidant. 6uest is also an e+pert in handwritin". 3is skill proves particularly useful when 9tterson wants him to e+amine a bit of 3yde7s handwritin". 6uest notices that 3yde7s script is the same as 5ekyll7s% but slanted the other way. (ir .anvers 'are& * ! well*liked old nobleman% a member of (arliament% and a client of 9tterson.

%nalysis o" Ma3or 'haracters

5r0 -e<yll F Mr0 Hy)e

1ne mi"ht &uestion the e+tent to which Dr. 5ekyll and 4r. 3yde are in fact a sin"le character. 9ntil the end of the novel% the two personas seem nothin" alikeKthe well*liked% respectable doctor and the hideous% depraved 3yde are almost opposite in type and personality. >tevenson uses this marked contrast to make his pointA every human bein" contains opposite forces within him or her% an alter e"o that hides behind one's polite facade. Correspondin"ly% to understand fully the si"nificance of either 5ekyll or 3yde% we must ultimately consider the two as constitutin" one sin"le character. Indeed% taken alone% neither is a very interestin" personality< it is the nature of their interrelationship that "ives the novel its power.

Despite the seemin" diametric opposition between Dr. 5ekyll and 4r. 3yde% their relationship in fact involves a complicated dynamic. 8hile it is true that 5ekyll lar"ely appears as moral and decent% en"a"in" in charity work and en;oyin" a reputation as a courteous and "enial man% he in fact never fully embodies virtue in the way that 3yde embodies evil. !lthou"h 5ekyll undertakes his e+periments with the intent of purifyin" his "ood side from his bad and vice versa% he ends up separatin" the bad alone% while leavin" his former self% his 5ekyll*self% as mi+ed as before. 5ekyll succeeds in liberatin" his darker side% freein" it from the bonds of conscience% yet as 5ekyll he never liberates himself from this darkness. 5ekyll's partial success in his endeavors warrants much analysis. 5ekyll himself ascribes his lopsided results to his state of mind when first takin" the potion. 3e says that he was motivated by dark ur"es such as ambition and pride when he first drank the li&uid and that these allowed for the emer"ence of 3yde. 3e seems to imply that% had he entered the e+periment with pure motives% an an"elic bein" would have emer"ed. 3owever% one must consider the subse&uent events in the novel before ac&uittin" 5ekyll of any blame. Dor% once released% 3yde "radually comes to dominate both personas% until 5ekyll takes 3yde7s shape more often than his own. Indeed% by the very end of the novel% 5ekyll himself no lon"er e+ists and only 3yde remains. 3yde seems to possess a force more powerful than 5ekyll ori"inally believed. )he fact that 3yde% rather than some beatific creature% emer"ed from 5ekyll7s e+periments seems more than a chance event% sub;ect to an arbitrary state of mind. Bather% 5ekyll7s drinkin" of the potion seems almost to have afforded 3yde the opportunity to assert himself. It is as if 3yde% but no comparable virtuous essence% was lyin" in wait. )his dominance of 3ydeKfirst as a latent force within 5ekyll% then as a tyrannical e+ternal force subvertin" 5ekyllKholds various implications for our understandin" of human nature. 8e be"in to wonder whether any aspect of human nature in fact stands as a counter to an individual7s 3yde*like side. 8e may recall that 3yde is described as resemblin" a

Ntro"lodyte%O or a primitive creature< perhaps 3yde is actually the ori"inal% authentic nature of man% which has been repressed but not destroyed by the accumulated wei"ht of civili:ation% conscience% and societal norms. (erhaps man doesn7t have two natures but rather a sin"le% primitive% amoral one that remains ;ust barely constrained by the bonds of civili:ation. 4oreover% the novel su""ests that once those bonds are broken% it becomes impossible to reestablish them< the "enie cannot be put back into the bottle% and eventually 3yde will permanently replace 5ekyllKas he finally does. ,ven in Hictorian ,n"landKwhich considered itself the hei"ht of 8estern civili:ationK>tevenson su""ests that the dark% instinctual side of man remains stron" enou"h to devour anyone who% like 5ekyll% proves foolish enou"h to unleash it.
Mr0 2abriel -ohn ;tterson

!lthou"h 9tterson witnesses a strin" of shockin" events% 9tterson himself is a lar"ely une+citin" character and is clearly not a man of stron" passions or sensibilities. Indeed% >tevenson intends for him to come across in this wayA from the first pa"e of the novel% the te+t notes that 9tterson has a face that is Nnever li"hted by a smile%O that he speaks very little% and that he seems Nlean% lon"% dusty% [and] dreary.O Met% somehow% he is also Nlovable%O and dull and proper thou"h he may be% he has many friends. 3is lovability may stem from the only interestin" &uality that >tevenson "ives himKnamely% his willin"ness to remain friends with someone whose reputation has suffered. )his loyalty leads him to plumb the mystery that surrounds 5ekyll. 9tterson represents the perfect Hictorian "entleman. 3e consistently seeks to preserve order and decorum% does not "ossip% and "uards his friends7 reputations as thou"h they were his own. ,ven when he suspects his friend 5ekyll of criminal activities such as blackmail or the shelterin" of a murderer% he prefers to sweep what he has learnedKor what he thinks he has learnedKunder the ru" rather than brin" ruin upon his "ood friend.

9tterson7s status as the epitome of Hictorian norms also stems from his devotion to reason and common sense. 3e investi"ates what becomes a supernatural se&uence of events but never allows himself to even entertain the notion that somethin" uncanny may be "oin" on. 3e considers that misdeeds may be occurrin" but not that the mystical or metaphysical mi"ht be afoot. )hus% even at the end% when he is summoned by (oole to 5ekyll7s home and all the servants are "athered fri"htened in the hallway% 9tterson continues to look for an e+planation that preserves reason. 3e desperately searches for e+cuses not to take any drastic steps to interfere with 5ekyll7s life. In 9tterson7s devotion to both decorum and reason% >tevenson depicts Hictorian society7s "eneral attempt to maintain the authority of civili:ation over and a"ainst humanity7s darker side. >tevenson su""ests that ;ust as 9tterson prefers the suppression or avoidance of revelations to the scandal or chaos that the truth mi"ht unleash% so too does Hictorian society prefer to repress and deny the e+istence of an uncivili:ed or sava"e element of humanity% no matter how intrinsic that element may be. Met% even as 9tterson adheres ri"idly to order and rationality% he does not fail to notice the uncanny &uality of the events he investi"ates. Indeed% because we see the novel throu"h 9tterson7s eyes% >tevenson cannot allow 9tterson to be too unima"inativeKotherwise the novel7s eerie mood would suffer. Correspondin"ly% >tevenson attributes ni"htmares to 9tterson and "rants him ominous premonitions as he moves throu"h the city at ni"htKneither of which seem to suit the lawyer7s normally reasonable personality% which is rarely "iven to

fli"hts of fancy. (erhaps% the novel su""ests% the chillin" presence of 3yde in ?ondon is stron" enou"h to penetrate even the ri"idly rational shell that surrounds 9tterson% plantin" a seed of supernatural dread.
5r0 Hastie 4anyon

?anyon plays only a minor role in the novel7s plot% but his thematic si"nificance e+tends beyond his brief appearances. 8hen we first encounter him% he speaks dismissively of 5ekyll7s e+periments% referrin" to them as Nunscientific balderdash.O 3is scientific skepticism renders him% to an even "reater e+tent than 9tterson% an embodiment of rationalism and a proponent of materialist e+planations. !s such% he functions as a kind of foil for 5ekyll. =oth men are doctors% well respected and successful% but they have chosen diver"ent paths. Drom ?anyon7s early remarks% we learn that 5ekyll shared some of his research with ?anyon% and one may even ima"ine that they were partners at one point. =ut ?anyon chooses to en"a"e in rational% materialist science% while 5ekyll prefers to pursue what mi"ht be called mystical or metaphysical science. It is appropriate% then% that ?anyon is the first person to see 5ekyll enact his transformationsK the "reat advocate of material causes is witness to undeniable proof of a metaphysical% physically impossible phenomenon. 3avin" spent his life as a rationalist and a skeptic% ?anyon cannot deal with the world that 5ekyll7s e+periments have revealed. Deep within himself% ?anyon prefers to die rather than "o on livin" in a universe that% from his point of view% has been turned upside down. !fter his cataclysmic e+perience% ?anyon% who has spent his life pursuin" knowled"e% e+plicitly re;ects the latest knowled"e he has "ained. NI sometimes think if we knew all%O he tells 9tterson% Nwe should be more "lad to "et away.O 8ith these words% ?anyon departs from the novel% his uncompromisin" rationalism cedin" to the ine+plicable reality of 5ekyll.

*hemes4 Moti"s 5 (ymbols

Themes Themes are the fundamental and often universal ideas explored in a literary work. The %uality of 'uman +ature

Dr/ &ek#ll and %r/ '#de centers upon a conception of humanity as dual in nature% althou"h the theme does not emer"e fully until the last chapter% when the complete story of the 5ekyll* 3yde relationship is revealed. )herefore% we confront the theory of a dual human nature e+plicitly only after havin" witnessed all of the events of the novel% includin" 3yde7s crimes and his ultimate eclipsin" of 5ekyll. )he te+t not only posits the duality of human nature as its central theme but forces us to ponder the properties of this duality and to consider each of the novel7s episodes as we wei"h various theories.

5ekyll asserts that Nman is not truly one% but truly two%O and he ima"ines the human soul as the battle"round for an Nan"elO and a Nfiend%O each stru""lin" for mastery. =ut his potion% which he hoped would separate and purify each element% succeeds only in brin"in" the dark side into bein"K3yde emer"es% but he has no an"elic counterpart. 1nce unleashed% 3yde slowly takes

over% until 5ekyll ceases to e+ist. If man is half an"el and half fiend% one wonders what happens to the Nan"elO at the end of the novel. (erhaps the an"el "ives way permanently to 5ekyll7s devil. 1r perhaps 5ekyll is simply mistakenA man is not Ntruly twoO but is first and foremost the primitive creature embodied in 3yde% brou"ht under tentative control by civili:ation% law% and conscience. !ccordin" to this theory% the potion simply strips away the civili:ed veneer% e+posin" man7s essential nature. Certainly% the novel "oes out of its way to paint 3yde as animalisticKhe is hairy and u"ly< he conducts himself accordin" to instinct rather than reason< 9tterson describes him as a Ntro"lodyte%O or primitive creature. Met if 3yde were ;ust an animal% we would not e+pect him to take such delight in crime. Indeed% he seems to commit violent acts a"ainst innocents for no reason e+cept the ;oy of itK somethin" that no animal would do. 3e appears deliberately and happily immoral rather than amoral< he knows the moral law and basks in his breach of it. Dor an animalistic creature% furthermore% 3yde seems oddly at home in the urban landscape. !ll of these observations imply that perhaps civili:ation% too% has its dark side. 9ltimately% while >tevenson clearly asserts human nature as possessin" two aspects% he leaves open the &uestion of what these aspects constitute. (erhaps they consist of evil and virtue< perhaps they represent one7s inner animal and the veneer that civili:ation has imposed. >tevenson enhances the richness of the novel by leavin" us to look within ourselves to find the answers.
The Importance of 8eputation

Dor the characters in Dr/ &ek#ll and %r/ '#de, preservin" one7s reputation emer"es as all important. )he prevalence of this value system is evident in the way that upri"ht men such as 9tterson and ,nfield avoid "ossip at all costs< they see "ossip as a "reat destroyer of reputation. >imilarly% when 9tterson suspects 5ekyll first of bein" blackmailed and then of shelterin" 3yde from the police% he does not make his suspicions known< part of bein" 5ekyll7s "ood friend is a willin"ness to keep his secrets and not ruin his respectability. )he importance of reputation in the novel also reflects the importance of appearances% facades% and surfaces% which often hide a sordid underside. In many instances in the novel% 9tterson% true to his Hictorian society% adamantly wishes not only to preserve 5ekyll7s reputation but also to preserve the appearance of order and decorum% even as he senses a vile truth lurkin" underneath.
Motifs !otifs are recurrin" structures, contrasts, or literary devices that can help to develop and inform the text#s ma$or themes. 9iolence A"ainst Innocents

)he te+t repeatedly depicts 3yde as a creature of "reat evil and countless vices. !lthou"h the reader learns the details of only two of 3yde7s crimes% the nature of both underlines his depravity. =oth involve violence directed a"ainst innocents in particular. In the first instance% the victim of 3yde7s violence is a small% female child< in the second instance% it is a "entle and much*beloved old man. )he fact that 3yde ruthlessly murders these harmless bein"s% who have seemin"ly done nothin" to provoke his ra"e and even less to deserve death% emphasi:es

the e+treme immorality of 5ekyll7s dark side unleashed. 3yde7s brand of evil constitutes not ;ust a lapse from "ood but an outri"ht attack on it.
Silence

Bepeatedly in the novel% characters fail or refuse to articulate themselves. ,ither they seem unable to describe a horrifyin" perception% such as the physical characteristics of 3yde% or they deliberately abort or avoid certain conversations. ,nfield and 9tterson cut off their discussion of 3yde in the first chapter out of a distaste for "ossip< 9tterson refuses to share his suspicions about 5ekyll throu"hout his investi"ation of his client7s predicament. 4oreover% neither 5ekyll in his final confession nor the third*person narrator in the rest of the novel ever provides any details of 3yde7s sordid behavior and secret vices. It is unclear whether these narrative silences owe to a failure of lan"ua"e or a refusal to use it. 9ltimately% the two kinds of silence in the novel indicate two different notions about the interaction of the rational and the irrational. )he characters7 refusals to discuss the sordid indicate an attribute of the Hictorian society in which they live. )his society pri:es decorum and reputation above all and prefers to repress or even deny the truth if that truth threatens to upset the conventionally ordered worldview. Daced with the irrational% Hictorian society and its inhabitants prefer not to acknowled"e its presence and not to "rant it the le"itimacy of a name. Involuntary silences% on the other hand% imply somethin" about lan"ua"e itself. ?an"ua"e is by nature rational and lo"ical% a method by which we map and delineate our world. (erhaps when confronted with the irrational and the mystical% lan"ua"e itself simply breaks down. (erhaps somethin" about verbal e+pression stands at odds with the supernatural. Interestin"ly% certain parts of the novel su""est that% in the clash between lan"ua"e and the uncanny% the uncanny need not always win. 1ne can interpret >tevenson7s reticence on the topic of 5ekyll7s and 3yde7s crimes as a conscious choice not to defuse their chillin" aura with descriptions that mi"ht only dull them.
Brban Terror

)hrou"hout the novel% >tevenson "oes out of his way to establish a link between the urban landscape of Hictorian ?ondon and the dark events surroundin" 3yde. 3e achieves his desired effect throu"h the use of ni"htmarish ima"ery% in which dark streets twist and coil% or lie draped in fo"% formin" a sinister landscape befittin" the crimes that take place there. Chillin" visions of the city appear in 9tterson7s ni"htmares as well% and the te+t notes that
'e would be aware of the "reat field of lamps of a nocturnal city. . . . The fi"ure ?of 'yde@ . . . haunted the lawyer all ni"ht, and if at any time he doKed over, it was but to see it "lide more stealthily throu"h sleepin" houses, or move the more swiftly . . . throu"h wider labyrinths of lamp-li"hted city, and at every street corner crush a child and leave her screamin".

In such ima"es% >tevenson paints 3yde as an urban creature% utterly at home in the darkness of ?ondonKwhere countless crimes take place% the novel su""ests% without anyone knowin".
Symbols Symbols are ob$ects, characters, fi"ures, or colors used to represent abstract ideas or concepts.

.ekyll#s 'ouse and /aboratory

Dr. 5ekyll lives in a well*appointed home% characteri:ed by >tevenson as havin" Na "reat air of wealth and comfort.O 3is laboratory is described as Na certain sinister block of buildin" Z [which] bore in every feature the marks of profound and sordid ne"li"ence.O 8ith its decayin" facade and air of ne"lect% the laboratory &uite neatly symboli:es the corrupt and perverse 3yde. Correspondin"ly% the respectable% prosperous*lookin" main house symboli:es the respectable% upri"ht 5ekyll. 4oreover% the connection between the buildin"s similarly corresponds to the connection between the personas they represent. )he buildin"s are ad;oined but look out on two different streets. =ecause of the convoluted layout of the streets in the area% the casual observer cannot detect that the structures are two parts of a whole% ;ust as he or she would be unable to detect the relationship between 5ekyll and 3yde.
'yde#s 7hysical Appearance

!ccordin" to the indefinite remarks made by his overwhelmed observers% 3yde appears repulsively u"ly and deformed% small% shrunken% and hairy. 3is physical u"liness and deformity symboli:es his moral hideousness and warped ethics. Indeed% for the audience of >tevenson7s time% the connection between such u"liness and 3yde7s wickedness mi"ht have been seen as more than symbolic. 4any people believed in the science of physio"nomy% which held that one could identify a criminal by physical appearance. !dditionally% 3yde7s small stature may represent the fact that% as 5ekyll7s dark side% he has been repressed for years% prevented from "rowin" and flourishin". 3is hairiness may indicate that he is not so much an evil side of 5ekyll as the embodiment of 5ekyll7s instincts% the animalistic core beneath 5ekyll7s polished e+terior.