MY GRAMMAR SCRAPBOOK

Grammar items Language forms and functions Modals Gerund after prepositions Logical and sequence connectors The prefix pre Punctuation Preposition Conjunctions Type of sentences Passive construction Reported speech Tenses Subject-verb agreement Verb and preposition combinations Phrasal verbs Adverbs of degree Infinitives Adjective and nouns Nouns as adjectives

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Using some, a few, few with plural countable noun

Language and Function

A language function refers to the purpose for which speech or writing is being used. In speech these include: giving instructions introducing ourselves making requests In academic writing we use a range of specific functions in order to communicate ideas clearly. These include: describing processes comparing or contrasting things or ideas, and classifying objects or ideas

Modals: should, need, may, have, might have

a) Should c) Need We used the modal need to indicate a necessity or have to We used the modal should to indicate giving advice It is similar in meaning to must The negative of should Can be written as should not or contracted form shouldnt

b) Should not

d) Could e) Might Express two kinds of meaning, (weak probability (i.e. weaker than may). , Might also express an intrinsic meaning, which, like may, has to do with permission. Exchangeable with may in some cases It may rain. Is used to indicate possibility or ability

It might rain

You might be right

You may be right.

She might have got lost.

She may have got lost.

Might I use the phone?

May I use the phone?

Gap-fill Exercise
Complete the sentences using the words listed in the box below, then click the "Check" button to check your answers. Don't forget to capitalize when necessary. Some gaps may have more than one correct answer. can could have to must might should be exhausted

1.

Ted's flight from Amsterdam took more than 11 hours. He after such a long flight. He

prefer to stay in tonight and get some rest. walk

2. If you want to get a better feeling for how the city is laid out, you downtown and explore the waterfront.

3. Hiking the trail to the peak dramatic weather changes. You attempt the ascent.

be dangerous if you are not well prepared for research the route a little more before you

4. When you have a small child in the house, you around. Such objects

leave small objects lying

be swallowed, causing serious injury or even death.

5. Dave: Nathan: No, I can't.

you hold your breath for more than a minute?

6. Jenny's engagement ring is enormous! It

have cost a fortune.

Gerunds after Prepositions

We use the Gerund after prepositions. verb + preposition Exception: to Here we use the phrase: looking forward to + Gerund Example: I'm looking forward to seeing you soon. We use the Gerund after the following phrases: accuse of agree with apologize for believe in blame for complain about concentrate on congratulate sb. on cope with decide against depend on dream about/of feel like get used to insist on look forward to prevent ... from rely on succeed in specialize in stop sb. from talk about/of think of They were accused of breaking into a shop. I agree with playing darts. They apologize for being late. She doesn't believe in getting lost in the wood. The reporter is blamed for writing bad stories. She complains about bullying. Do you concentrate on reading or writing? I wanted to congratulate you on making such a good speech. He is not sure how to cope with getting older. They decided against stealing the car. Success may depend on becoming more patient. Sue dreams of being a pop star. They feel like going to bed. You must get used to working long hours. The girls insisted on going out with Mark. I'm looking forward to seeing you soon. How can I prevent Kate from working in this shop? He doesn't rely on winning in the casino. How then can I succeed in learning chemistry? The firm specialized in designing websites. I stopped Andrew from smoking. They often talk about travelling to New Zealand. Frank thinks of playing chess.

warn sb. against worry about

We warned them against using this computer. The patient worries about having the check-up.

Logical and Sequence Connectors

Logical connectors are used to join or connect two ideas that have a particular relationship. These relationships can be: sequential (time), reason and purpose, adversative (opposition and/or unexpected result), condition.
Subordinating conjunctions Introduce adverb clauses Either the dependent clause or the independent clause may come first in the sentence, with no change in meaning

Prepositions

Is followed by a noun or noun phrase Either clause may appear first

Transitions and Conjunctive adverbs

Joins two sentences separated by a period or two clauses separated by a semi-colon. Only one possible order of the sentences The transition may appear clause initial, clause final, or between the subject and verb of the second sentence.

Conjunctions

One possible order A comma is used before the conjunction In academic writing, do not begin a sentence with a conjunction

Sequential (Time)

Subordinating conjunctions

until after before when

while since once whenever as soon as as long as by the time Prepositions during after before since until upon then next after that following that before that afterwards meanwhile beforehand and then

Conjunctive adverbs and transitions

Conjunctions

Causal (Reason and Purpose, Cause and Effect)

Subordinating conjunctions

because as since inasmuch as now that as long as such...that

[such a/an + adjective + noun + that] so...that [so +adjective or adverb + that] [so much/many/little/few + noun + that] expressing purpose so that in order that

Prepositions

because of due to

in order to

Conjunctive adverbs and transitions

therefore consequently

Conjunctions

so

Adversative (unexpected result, contrast, opposition)

Subordinating conjunctions

even though although though (in spite of the fact that) while whereas where

Prepositions

despite in spite of

Conjunctive adverbs and transitions

however nonetheless nevertheless on the other hand in contrast on the contrary

Conjunctions

but...anyway but...still yet...still but

Subordinating conjunctions

If unless even if

providing (that) provided (that) in case whether or not only if* *verb inversion, no comma if only if appears first in the sentence

The Prefix
A prefix is a group of letters placed before the root of a word.

Prefix a-, ananteantiautocircum-

Meaning without Before against Self around amoral, atypical

Example antecedent, antenatal anti-establishment Autopilot Circumvent

cocom-, concontradedisenexextraheterohomohyperininterintramacromicro-

With With against Off Not put into out of, former different Same over, more Into between between Large Small

co-conspirator, co-pilot companion, contact Contradiction delist, devalue Disappear enclose, envelop extract, ex-governor Heterosexual homonym, homophone Hyperactive illegal, impractical, inconsiderate, irresponsible Insert internet, intersection, intranet, intravenous Macronutrients Microscope

beyond, more than Extracurricular

il -, im-, in-, ir- not, without

monononomnipostpre-, prosubsynsupertranstriununi-

one not, without all, every after before, forward under same time above across three not one

Monocle nonentity, nonstarter, omnipresent, omniscient post-mortem precede, project submarine, substandard Synchronize supervisor, superhuman Transmit tripod, triceratops undone, unfinished, unicorn, unilaterally

Punctuation Punctuation marks make the meaning of a piece of writing clearer.

Punctuation Marks a) Full stop (.)

Usage To mark the end of a sentences To mark abbreviations and contracted words

Examples He is from a small town. L.A. Los Angeles Dr. doctor Prof. professor James enters the kitchen, took a sandwich and walked out. After I mopped the floor, I went out to play. It is very expensive, said Aaron. Indeed, he is intelligent. He has many problems; most of them are about money We need to buy the following: cooking oil, sugar, salt and onions The American General, Arthur, declared: I should return.

b) Comma (,)

To separate actions or items in a sentence. To separate the main clause from the other part of the sentences To mark off direct speech in a sentence Used after expressions (for example, however, apart from that, indeed, etc.) To elaborate on a statement in the first part of the sentence

c) Semi-colon (;)

d) Colon (:)

To introduce a list of things To make a quotation

e) Question mark (?) f) Exclamation

To ask questions To show surprise or excitement.

Where do you live? Its very beautiful!

mark (!) g) Hyphen (-)

To show strong desire or emotion To form a compound word from two or more words

But alas! I could not help. Hes a kind-hearted man.

Preposition

A preposition is a linking word. It relates one word to another word or phrase in the same sentence. He sat on the bench. (on links sat to bench) The old man rested beneath a tree. (beneath links rested to tree)

This feature is important. If the word is not linked to another word or phrase, it is not preposition. The beautiful woman walked in. (in modifies walk; it is an adverb.)

Types of preposition Simple preposition are single words: Under, between, for, with, against

Complex preposition Along with, in front of, owing to

Function of preposition Preposition help: locate the place of the activities

He stopped at the canteen for a drink. Ali swam in the pool. Mabel found her ring under the bed. The little bird fell from a branch of that tree. Indicate the time or duration of the activities

I have not seen him since January. He waited until four.

You will have to wait until noon. He promised to finish the job by two oclock. Indicate direction

The boy ran out of the burning house. The guest walked towards the door. We rushed to the scene of the fire. Introduce phrases

The lady wore a dress of many colours. He completed his mission despite several disappointments. He was always lived in fear of death.

Combinations Prepositions readily combine with nouns, verbs, and adjectives. Nouns Examples: Aptitude, talent for Belief, faith in Evidence, hint, news, proof of Sympathy for, with Praise for, of Verbs Examples: Annoyed by (a remark) with (somebody) argue about (an issue) with (a person)

for, against (a proposal) agree to ( a proposal) with (somebody) believe in (a religion) belong to (a club) centre on (atopic, not around)

comply with (rules) confide in (a person) depend on (somebody) decide on (a matter) differ from (a feature) with (a person) insist on (rights) object to (a remark) quarrel with (somebody) rely on (a person) Adjectives Afraid, ashamed, aware of Eligible to, for Good at Interested in Allergic to Fond of Happy with Prepositions also combine with some verbs to form idiomatic expressions; the meanings of which have to be taken as a whole.

Examples: Give in to (submit) Get away with (escape punishment) Put up with (endure) Pull through (recover, overcome a crisis) Spur on (encourage) Set about (start) Several prepositions can combine with the same verb; but the combinations carry different meanings. Go down (descend) Through (experience) Over (review) In (enter)

Conjunction

A conjunction is a word that connects other words or groups of words. In the sentence Bob and Dan are friends the conjunction and connects two nouns and in the sentence. He will drive or fly the conjunction or connects two verbs. In the sentence It is early but we can go, the conjunction but connects two groups of words. Coordinating conjunctions are conjunctions which connect two equal parts of a sentence. The most common ones are and, or, but, and so which are used in the following ways: And is used to join or add words together in the sentence. (example: They ate and drank.) Or is used to show choice or possibilities as in the sentence. (example He will be here on Monday or Tuesday. But is used to show opposite or conflicting ideas as in the sentence She is small but strong. so is used to show result as in the sentence I was tired so I went to sleep. Subordinating conjunctions connect two parts of a sentence that are not equal and will be discussed more in another class. For now, you should know some of the more common subordinating conjunctions such as: after although as because before if since than unless until when while

Correlative conjunctions are pairs of conjunctions that work together. In the sentence Both Jan and Meg are good swimmers, both . . . and are correlative conjunctions. The most common correlative conjunctions are: both . . .and either . . . or neither . . . nor not only . . . but also

Type of sentences
There are three types of sentences: a) Simple Has one subject and one verb b) Compound Made up of two simple sentences joined by a conjunction The two sentences must be on the same subject c) Complex Made up of main clause and one or more subordinate clauses The subordinate clause is introduced by a subordinating conjunction or relative pronoun

Passive construction Active voice: A sentence is in the ACTIVE VOICE if the doer of the action comes before the action. In other words, the subject does the action expressed by the verb. Passive voice: A sentence is in PASSIVE VOICE if the doer of the action comes after the action. In other words, the subject receives the action expressed by the verb. How to change ACTIVE VOICE to PASSIVE VOICE Example: the cat was chased across the field by the dog. 3 action. Step 2: change the verb into the past participle. Step 3: add an auxiliary verb to 2 or the action verb. 2 1 Step 1: changes the place between the doer of the action and the receiver of the

Reported speech
1) If the introductory sentence starts in the present (Susan says), there is no backshift of tenses in Reported speech. Example: Direct speech: Susan: "I work in an office." Reported speech: Susan says (that) she works in an office.

2) If the introductory sentence starts in the past (Susan said), there is often backshift of tensesin Reported speech. (see: Note) Example: Susan: "I work in an office." Susan said (that) she worked in an office. Backshift of tenses from Simple Present Simple Past Present Perfect Past Perfect will Progressive forms am/are/is was/were has been had been had been was/were would Past Perfect to Simple Past

Backshift of tenses From Peter: "I work in the garden." Peter: "I worked in the garden." Peter: "I have worked in the garden." Peter: "I had worked in the garden." Peter: "I will work in the garden." Peter said (that) he would work in the garden. Peter said (that) he had worked in the garden. to Peter said (that) he worked in the garden.

Peter: "I can work in the garden." Peter: "I may work in the garden." Peter: "I would work in the garden." (could, might, should, ought to)

Peter said (that) he could work in the garden. Peter said (that) he might work in the garden. Peter said (that) he would work in the garden. (could, might, should, ought to)

Progressive forms Peter: "I'm working in the garden." Peter: "I was working in the garden." Peter: "I have been working in the garden." Peter: "I had been working in the garden." If the sentence contains an expression of time, you must change it as well. Peter: "I worked in the garden yesterday." Peter said that he had worked in the garden the day before. Shifting/Conversion of expressions of time this (evening) today/this day these (days) now (a week) ago last weekend here next (week) tomorrow Note: In some cases the backshift of tenses is not necessary, e.g. when statements are still true. John: "My brother is at Leipzig university." John said (that) his brother was at Leipzig university. or John said (that) his brother is at Leipzig university. or that (evening) that day those (days) Then (a week) before the weekend before / the previous weekend There the following (week) the next/following day Peter said (that) he had been working in the garden. Peter said (that) he was working in the garden.

Mandy: "The sun rises in the East." Mandy said (that) the sun rose in the East. or Mandy said (that) the sun rises in the East. Note: The word >that< can be left out

Tenses 1) Simple present The commonest use of the simple present tense is to refer to general time that is to talk about actions and situations which happen repeatedly, or all the time, or at any time Example: o I go running three times a week. o My parents live near Dover The simple presence tense is not normally used to talk about temporary o situations or actions that are going on only at the moment. It is sometimes used to talk about the future It is also common in stories told in present and in commentaries on. The simple present is also often used in expressions and in introducing quotations. Some verbs cannot usually be used in progressive tenses. With these verbs, the simple present is used even to talk about temporary situations that are only going at the moment

Subject-verb agreement
Singular verbs is writes was studies has does goes A singular verb is used: 1. when the subject is singular 2. when the subject is an uncountable noun 3. when abstract nouns are used 4. when the collective noun is considered as a whole 5. when the following expression are used: Example; each anyone much either of everybody none everyone anything

6. when a gerund is used as the subject of a sentence 7. when the subject is singular and used with the following expressions: including as well as in addition to along with

together with excluding

8. when the subject is singular and used with eitheror or neithernor

9. when a fixed amount or duration is considered as a whole Plural verbs A plural verb is used: 1. when the subject is plural 2. when individuals are represented by a collective noun

3. when two subjects are joined by the conjunction and

Verb and preposition combination Phrasal verbs

Some verbs are two part verbs (see Clauses, Sentences and Phrases). They consist of a verb and a particle:

grow + up >> The children are growing up. Often this gives the verb a new meaning:

take + after >> She takes after her mother = She looks like her mother, or She behaves like her mother. count + on >> I know I can count on you = I know I can trust you, or I know I can believe you. Some transitive two part verbs (see Clauses, Sentences and Phrases) have only one pattern: N (subject) + V + p + N (object) [Note: N = noun; V = verb; p = particle]

N (Subject)

Verb

Particle

N (Object)

She I My father

takes can count comes

after on from

her mother you Madrid

Some transitive two part verbs (see Clauses, Sentences and Phrases) are phrasal verbs. Phrasal verbs have two different patterns:

 The usual pattern is: N + V + N + p

N (Subject)

Verb

(N) Object

Particle

She He We

gave knocked will be leaving

the money the glass our friends and neighbours

back over behind

But sometimes these verbs have the pattern: N (subject) + V + p + N (object)

N (Subject)

Verb

Particle

N (Object)

She He We

gave knocked will be leaving

back over behind

the money the glass our friends and neighbours

When the object is a personal pronoun,these verbs always have the pattern: N + V +N + p:

She gave back it >> She gave it back He knocked over it >> knocked it over We will be leaving behind them >> We will be leaving them behind Phrasal verbs are nearly always made up of a transitive verb and a particle. Common verbs with their most frequent particles are:

bring:

about, along, back, forward, in, off, out, round, up

buy:

out, up

call:

off, up

carry:

off, out

cut:

back, down, off, out, up

give:

away, back, off

hand:

back, down, in, on out, over, round

knock:

down, out, over

leave:

behind, out

let:

down, in, off, out

pass:

down, over, round

point:

Out

push:

about, around, over

put:

across, away, down, forward, off, on, out, through, together, up

read:

out

set:

apart, aside, back, down

shut:

away, in, off, out

take:

apart, away, back, down, in, on, up, over

think:

over, through, up

Adverb of degree
Adverb of degree answers the question to what extent? Some example of adverbs of degree: nearly extensively absolutely marginally almost altogether partly completely enough greatly just hardly

Infinitives 1) negative infinitive -is made by putting not before to 2) progressive infinitive -progressive infinitive (to be .ing) is used for actions which are or were going on at the time we are talking about 3) perfect infinitive -is made by putting to have before the past participle. It has the same kind of meaning as the perfect or past tenses. -we often used the perfect infinitive to talk about imaginary past actions and events: things that didnt happen 4) passive infinitive -is made by putting to be before the past participle

Adjective and noun

Noun as Adjective
As you know, a noun is a person, place or thing, and an adjective is a word that describes a noun: adjective clever small black noun teacher office horse

Sometimes we use a noun to describe another noun. In that case, the first noun "acts as" an adjective. Noun as adjective history ticket race

noun Teacher Office Horse

The "noun as adjective" always comes first

If you remember this it will help you to understand what is being talked about:

a race horse is a horse that runs in races a horse race is a race for horses a boat race is a race for boats a love story is a story about love a war story is a story about war a tennis ball is a ball for playing tennis tennis shoes are shoes for playing tennis a computer exhibition is an exhibition of computers a bicycle shop is a shop that sells bicycles

The "noun as adjective" is singular

Just like a real adjective, the "noun as adjective" is invariable. It is usually in the singular form.

Right boat race toothbrush shoe-lace cigarette packet boat races toothbrushes shoe-laces cigarette packets

Wrong NOT boats race, boats races NOT teethbrush, teethbrushes NOT shoes-lace, shoes-laces NOT cigarettes packet, cigarettes packets

In other words, if there is a plural it is on the real noun only. A few nouns look plural but we usually treat them as singular (for example news, billiards, and athletics). When we use these nouns "as adjectives" they are unchanged:

a news reporter, three news reporters one billiards table, four billiards tables an athletics trainer, fifty athletics trainers

Exceptions: When we use certain nouns "as adjectives" (clothes, sports, customs, accounts, arms), we use them in the plural form:

clothes shop, clothes shops sports club, sports clubs customs duty, customs duties accounts department, accounts departments arms production

How do we write the "noun as adjective"?

We write the "noun as adjective" and the real noun in several different ways:

two separate words (car door) two hyphenated words (book-case) one word (bathroom)

There are no easy rules for this. We even write some combinations in two or all three different ways: (head master, head-master, headmaster)

How do we say the "noun as adjective"?

For pronunciation, we usually stress the first word:

shoe shop boat-race bathroom

Can we have more than one "noun as adjective"?

Yes. Just like adjectives, we often use more than one "noun as adjective" together. Look at these examples: car production costs: we are talking about the costs of producing cars noun as noun as adjective adjective production car production Noun costs costs costs

England football team coach: we are talking about the coach who trains the team that plays football for England noun as adjective noun as adjective noun as adjective team football England football team team noun coach coach coach coach

Note: in England football team coach can you see a "hidden" "noun as adjective"? Look at the word "football" (foot-ball). These two nouns (foot+ball) have developed into a single noun (football). This is one way that words evolve. Many word combinations that use a "noun as adjective" are regarded as nouns in their own right, with their own dictionary definition. But not all dictionaries agree with each other. For example, some dictionaries list "tennis ball" as a noun and other dictionaries do not.

government road accident research centre: we are talking about a centre that researches into accidents on the road for the government noun as adjective noun as adjective noun as adjective noun as adjective noun

centre research accident road government road accident accident research research research centre centre centre centre

Newspapers often use many nouns together in headlines to save space. Look at this example: BIRD HEALTH RESEARCH CENTRE MURDER MYSTERY To understand headlines like these, try reading them backwards. The above headline is about a MYSTERY concerning a MURDER in a CENTRE for RESEARCH into the HEALTH of BIRDS. Note, too, that we can still use a real adjective to qualify a "noun as adjective" structure:

empty coffee jar honest car salesman delicious dog food rising car production costs famous England football team coach

Nouns as adjective It is very common to use nouns as adjectives by putting them before other nouns. For example: cheese pie, cassette box and table leg. It is not always possible to put two nouns together in this way. Sometimes it is necessary to use the construction with of (for example: a loaf of bread, not a bread loaf) or the possessive (for example: a miners lamp, not a miner lamp) When two nouns are used together like this, they are sometimes written as one word, especially when the words are short and the expression are very common (for example: homework and raincoat). In other cases, hyphens are used (for example: grave-digger), or the words are written separately (for example: bicycle chain). When a noun is used as an adjective before another noun, it is always singular even the meaning is plural (example: toothbrush).

Using some, a few, few with plural countable nouns

1. The absence of a determiner before plural countable nouns The absence of a determiner before plural countable nouns generally has the same significance as the presence of a or an before singular countable nouns.

a. Making a general statement When used in general statements, plural countable nouns are usually not preceded by determiners. The plural countable nouns in the following general statements are underlined. e.g. Musicians must practise a great deal. Newspapers can contain valuable information. Larches are conifers.

A general idea can often be expressed either by means of a singular countable noun preceded by a or an, or by means of a plural countable noun not preceded by a determiner. For instance, in each of the following pairs of sentences, both sentences in the pair have the same meaning. Musicians must practice a great deal. A musician must practice a great deal.

Newspapers can contain valuable information. A newspaper can contain valuable information.

Larches are conifers. A larch is a conifer.

b. Referring to something not mentioned before Plural countable nouns are generally not preceded by a determiner when referring to

something not mentioned before. e.g. Branches blocked our path. Clouds were gathering overhead. Suddenly we saw buildings in front of us. In these examples, the plural nouns branches, clouds and buildings are not preceded by determiners. It is assumed that the branches, clouds and buildings have not been referred to previously. c. Naming a profession When a sentence such as the following is used to name a profession practised by two or more people, the name of the profession is in the plural and is not preceded by a determiner. e.g. They are doctors. My friends are electricians. We were chefs.

2. The use of The before plural countable nouns a. Referring to something mentioned before In general, the has the same meaning when used with plural countable nouns as when used with singular countable nouns. For instance, the is used with plural countable nouns when referring to something which has been mentioned before. e.g. Fallen leaves covered the ground. The leaves rustled as we walked. In the orchard were apples and pears. The apples were nearly ripe. The doors opened, and students and teachers began leaving the building. The students were talking and laughing.

In these examples, the first time the words leaves, apples and students appear, they are not preceded by determiners, because the things referred to have not been mentioned previously. The second time the words leaves, apples and students appear, they are preceded by the, since the things referred to have already been mentioned. .

b. Referring to something when it is considered obvious what is meant The is used with plural countable nouns when the speaker or writer considers it obvious which particular persons or things are meant. e.g. The stars are shining brightly. The roses are blooming. We have put the children to bed. I was sitting on the front steps. These sentences give examples of the use of the to refer to things which are particularly important to the speaker or writer. The expression the stars usually refers to the stars which can be seen from the part of the earth where one lives. The expression the roses might refer to roses in one's own garden, or to roses in which one feels a particular interest. The children might refer to one's own children or to children for whom one is responsible. The front steps might refer to the front steps of one's own house. c. Names of nationalities The is sometimes used with the name of a nationality in order to make a general statement about the people of that nationality. A plural verb must be used in such a statement. When the name of a nationality ends in the sound of ch, s, sh or z, the name of the nationality must usually be preceded by the. Nationality French Irish Example The French are famous for their fine wines. The Irish are known as poets and songwriters.

When the name of a nationality does not end in the sound of ch, s, sh or z, the letter s must be added to the end of the name when it is used in a general statement. Names of nationalities to which s has been added are often used without being preceded by the. Nationality Argentinean Canadian Example Argentineans like to eat beef. Canadians have a tradition of playing hockey.

d. Adjectives referring to classes of people Adjectives such as rich and poor can be used with the in order to refer to a group of

people as a class. A plural verb must be used. e.g. The blind attend special schools. The poor do not own their own homes. The rich often married for money. In the above examples, the blind has the meaning of blind people, the poor has the meaning of poor people, and the rich has the meaning of rich people. The following table summarizes the most important uses of the determiners a, an, and the with singular and plural countable nouns. The absence of a determiner and the use of A, An and The before countable nouns Use Singular Countable Plural Countable Nouns Nouns A weakened form of One a/an Naming a profession a/an no determiner Making a general statement a/an no determiner Something not mentioned before a/an no determiner Something referred to as a class The Something mentioned before The the When it is obvious what is meant The the Nationalities ending in ch, se, sh the

Adjectives referring to classes of people

the

3. The use of The with proper nouns a. Names of people In English, names of people in the singular are not usually preceded by a determiner. e.g. Washington was the first president of the United States. Jack and Eleanor saw the movie. Determiners are also usually not used when a title precedes a person's name. Doctor Defoe has a good reputation.

Mr. Carpenter is a friend of ours.

In these examples, the titles Doctor and Mr. are not preceded by determiners. However, names of people in the plural are usually preceded by the. e.g. The Smiths live in that house. I have known the Harrisons for years. b. Names of places In English, the is usually used before the following types of place name: Type of Place Name canal desert ocean river sea plural place names

place names containing the word of The following are examples of names of canals, deserts, oceans, rivers, and seas: e.g. the Panama Canal the Mojave Desert the Atlantic Ocean the St. Lawrence River the Beaufort Sea The following are examples of plural place names: e.g. the United States the British Isles the Great Lakes the Rocky Mountains The following are examples of place names containing the word of: e.g. the Gulf of Mexico the Cape of Good Hope the Bay of Biscay the Isle of Wight Other types of place name are usually not preceded by determiners. For instance,

determiners are usually not used before the following types of place name: Type of Place Name Lake Island Mountain Park City Street Country State Province County Example Lake Superior Manhattan Island Mount Rainier Yosemite National Park Boston Main Street Canada Kansas Nova Scotia Halifax County

4. Nouns used only in the plural Some English nouns are usually used only in the plural. Such nouns take a plural verb, and generally have a plural form. For instance, the following nouns, which all refer to objects with two parts, are usually used only in the plural: e.g. jeans pajamas pliers scissors

If it is desired to refer to such objects individually, the expression pair of is often used. e.g. a pair of jeans a pair of pajamas a pair of pliers a pair of scissors

When the expression pair of is used as the subject of the verb, the verb must agree

with the word pair. e.g. Jeans are fashionable. A pair of jeans is expensive.

Pliers are very useful.

A pair of pliers is often useful.

In the above examples, the nouns jeans and pliers take the plural verb are, and the noun pair takes the singular verb is.