THE SOCIALIST TRADITION FRENCH REVOLUTION

By HAROLD J. LASKI Professor of Political Science in the University of Lon on

IN THE

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THE SOCIALIST TRADITION FRENCH REVOLUTION

By

IN THE

HAROLD J. LASKI
Professor of Political Science in the University of London

London :
TH ! A B I A " S O # I T $
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This 2a%2hlet 3as ori4inally delivered as a lect&re in the 3ell56no3n series 3hich %y collea4&e' Professor !. J. #. Hearnsha3' or4anises ann&ally at Kin47s #olle4e' London. It is re2rinted here /y his 6ind 2er%ission. There is not' to %y 6no3led4e' any disc&ssion of the s&/8ect in n4lish 9 and it see%ed to %e that socialists %i4ht /e interested in a 2eriod 2ec&liarly i%2ortant in the develo2%ent of their creed. The /i/lio4ra2hy is no %ore than a handlist of the %ore i%2ortant /oo6s on the s&/8ect. Had I so&4ht to %a6e any 2retensions to co%2leteness' the si:e of this 2a%2hlet 3o&ld have /een at least do&/le. H. J. L. ,arch ;th' )01..

The Socialist Tra ition in the French Revol$tion

I 2o3er 9 for' as ,adison lon4 a4o insisted' the only d&ra/le so&rce of faction is 2ro2erty. Anyone 3ho e<a%ines the history of !rench social tho&4ht in the ei4hteenth cent&ry realises at once that its very essence is a chan4in4 conce2tion of the 2lace of 2ro2erty in the State. In a sense' indeed' the %ain 3or6 of the Revol&tion 3as si%2ly the translation of that chan4e fro% the real% of ideas into the real% of fact. !ro% !ene1on to the o&t/rea6 of catastro2he there 3ere fe3 thin6ers 3ho 3ere not i%2ressed /y t3o thin4s = the indefensi/le character of 2rivile4e' &2on the one hand' and the i%5 %ense dis2arity /et3een rich and 2oor' 3ith its attendant and inherent dan4ers' &2on the other. "ot %erely the syste%atic 2hiloso2her and the 2rofessional 2a%2hleteer' /&t the novelist' the 2lay3ri4ht' even the theolo4ian' find it diffic&lt to defend the act&al distri/&tion of econ5 o%ic satisfactions. They see6 consistently for a re%edy for this condition. They are 3idely a3are that its con5 tin&ance %&st inevita/ly %ean the disr&2tion of the State. The conse>&ence is the 2resence' thro&4ho&t the ei4hteenth cent&ry' of an attit&de to the ri4hts of 2ro2erty 3hich is 2rofo&ndly critical in character. In a sense' it is even a socialist attit&de' in that' not seldo%' it is alto4ether sce2tical of the re4i%e in 3hich individ&als 2ossess the %eans of 2rod&ction. B&t I hesitate to call it definitely socialist for three reasons. In the first 2lace' it is a 2&rely %oral criticis% 9 o&tside the A//e ,eslier' there is no 3riter of re2&te 3ho serio&sly considered the %eans of redressin4 the /alance of social 4ood. It is' %oreover' hardly a3are of the relationshi2 of an econo%ic

2olitical a&thority to the distri/&tion of econo%ic LL

Revol&tions

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aro&nd

the

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syste% to the 2o3er of the State 9 even in Ro&ssea&' this defect is note3orthy. It is' in the third 2lace' dia4nostic rather than reconstr&ctive 9 ,a/ly and ,orelly' Diderot and Ro&ssea&' Se/astien ,errier and Retif de la Bretonne are all in an essential sense socialist 9 /&t' for all of the%' the %echanis% of transition to an e4alitarian order is al3ays /y the conversion of %en7s hearts to /etter 3ays. Ro&ssea& and those I have na%ed are' 2ro2erly s2ea6in4' %erely the e<tre%e 3in4 of a 3ider attac6 &2on the notion that 2ro2erty can /e a le4al or %oral ri4ht inde2endently of the social conse>&ences it involves. Attac6 &2on the conte%2orary social order 2roceeded fro% the %ost vario&s an4les. So%e of it ca%e fro% a /itter revival of the si<teenth5cent&ry disc&ssion of &s&ry. So%e of it 3as the o&tco%e of that c&rio&s controversy over l&<&ry of 3hich ,andeville?s too5fa%o&s Fable of the Bees is' thro&4h @oltaire?s Mondain, the real 2arent. "ot a little can /e traced to that 4ri% defence of #onservatis% /y Lin4&et' in 3hich he antici2ated so %any of the theses of Karl ,ar< for al%ost antithetic ends. Part of it can /e traced to the %a6ers of i%a4inary Uto2ias 3here 2rivate 2ro2erty is &n6no3n' or' related to this' to the re2orts of travellers of 2laces li6e A%erica' in 3hich a Uto2ia of fact has co%e to /irth. The creation' %oreover' 3ith A&esnay and the Physiocrats' of an econo%ic 2hiloso2hy &2on so%ethin4 li6e scientific fo&ndations 3as i%2ortant. Ad%inistrative chaos' econo%ic conf&sion' reli4io&s /an6r&2tcy' all contri/&ted their lesson to the torrent of criticis%. (hen the States5*eneral 3as s&%%oned' the %ind of !rance had /een 3idely 2re2ared for lar4e econo%ic innovation.

II I &nderstand /y socialis% the deli/erate intervention of the State in the 2rocess of 2rod&ction and distri/&tion in order to sec&re an access to their /enefits &2on a consistently 3ider scale. !ro% this an4le' it is clear that no theories are entitled to /e re4arded as socialist 3hich are not distin4&ished /y at least t3o feat&res. They %&st ad%it the ri4ht' and d&ty' of the State to s&/ordinate

individ&al clai% to social need' not as an occasional incident of its o2eration /&t as a 2er%anent characteristic of its nat&re 9 and they %&st' in the second 2lace' see6 the deli/erate and contin&o&s reconstr&ction of social instit&tions to the end of satisfyin4 social de%and &2on the lar4est 2ossi/le scale. It is in ter%s of these definitions that I 2ro2ose to a22roach the diffic&lt and co%2le< years fro% )B;0 &ntil the fail&re of Ba/e&f' in )B0C. I shall consider' first' ho3 far a 4en&ine socialis% is discovera/le in the cahiers and 2a%2hlets 3hich acco%2anied the s&%%ons of the States5 *eneral. Then I shall analyse the 2eriod &ntil the advent of the Directory to see 3hat of socialis% there is in /oth the literat&re and the le4islation of the ti%e. I shall see6' a/ove all' to sho3 that the effort of Ba/e&f and his fello35cons2irators 3as the one 4en&ine socialist %ove%ent in this e2och 3ith a definite 2ro4ra%%e and an e>&ally definite %ethod of %ovin4 to3ards its realisation. !inally' I shall see6 to esti%ate 3hat of si4nificance there 3as in the socialist e<2erience of this e2och and ho3 far it has 4iven any s2ecific character to the socialist %ove%ent of a later ti%e. Let %e /e4in 3ith a si%2le affir%ation. "either in the cahiers nor in the 2a%2hlets 3hich res&lted fro% the s&%%ons of the States5*eneral is there any i%2ortant or 4eneral socialist doctrine. That does not %ean that it 3as non5e<istent 9 for' as #hassin has 2ointed o&t') 3hat 3e are dealin4 3ith here are the 3ants' at the %ost' of si< %illion !rench%en' and the needs of at least as %any %ay have 4one &ne<2ressed. B&t 3hen this ty2e of literat&re is e<a%ined neither the 4rievance e<2ressed nor the clai%s 2&t for3ard are socialistic in any serio&s sense. There is /itterness' indi4nation' 2rotest 9 /&t if these are the inevita/le acco%2ani%ent of socialis%' they are not of its inner s&/stance. Ta6en as a 3hole' 3hat do the cahiers de%and D !iscal refor%' es2ecially in the %atter of e>&al ta<ation' 8&dicial refor%' ad%inis5 trative reor4anisation. There is 2rofo&nd hostility to fe&dal ri4hts. There is so%e criticis%' not seldo% &r4ent' of ecclesiastical 2ro2erty. There are occasional attac6s on the 4reed of rich lando3ners. There is 2rotest a4ainst the erosion' /y aristocratic &s&r2ation' of co%%&nal 2ro2erty.
1 Genie de la Revolution E);CFG' i. 11-.

There is so%e de%and for ta<ation in ter%s of a/ility to 2ay' a tendency to desire li%itation of testa%entary dis2osition. A caref&l search 3ill discover scattered de%ands for the restriction of inheritance' occasional sche%es for 2&/lic 4ranaries' the fi<ation of 2rices' the li%itation of &s&ry. "o one' I thin6' can honestly 4o thro&4h the cahiers &2on any considera/le scale 3itho&t the i%2ression that they re2resent not a theory of social reconstr&ction /&t the 6een e<2ression of 2ractical e<2erience. They are 3hat the solid %erchant' the co%forta/le 2easant' the thin6in4 and social5 %inded c&re' 3o&ld nat&rally set do3n as the lessons of the ancient re4i%e. "or is this all. Thro&4ho&t the cahiers there is a &niversal sense of the res2ect that is d&e to 2rivate 2ro2erty. The %ain co%2laint' indeed' a4ainst the 2ast a4e is that the ca2ricio&sness of its syste% 2revented the 3holesale e<2ression of that res2ect. H The o/8ect of the la3s'I said the Third state of Paris' H is to sec&re li/erty and 2ro2erty.I That note is o%ni2resent. ,en see% &na/le s&fficiently to e%2hasise the fact that 2ro2erty is sacred and inviola/le' that no one can /e de2rived of 2ro2erty save for 2&/lic 2&r2oses and 3ith ade>&ate co%2ensation. District after district e%2hasises the ri4ht of all 2ro2erty to res2ect' save 3here its 2ossession entails a/&se 9 and' to %y o3n 6no3led4e invaria/ly' a/&se only %eans the 8&stly hated 2rivile4es of fe&dalis%. There is no o/8ection that I can discover to &ne>&al 2ro2erty. There is disli6e of l&<&ry' a de%and for s2ecial treat%ent of the needy and the or2han' a sense that the 2roletariat sho&ld /e li4htly ta<ed or even free fro% all i%2osts. One discovers s&s2icion of the financier' a clai% that the 2oor %an sho&ld /e a/le as s&rely to live /y his la/o&r as the rich to /e sec&re in his 2ro2erty. There is the 3ell56no3n 2lea fro% Paris for the creation of 2&/lic 3or6sho2s. There are vario&s s&44estions for the %ore h&%ane treat%ent of the 2oor and the %endicant' and the i%2rove%ent of hos2itals. "o one can loo6 at de%ands li6e these and call the% s2ecifically socialist &nless socialis% is a %ere synony% for h&%anitarianis%. !or the %ost 2art' they are the o/vio&s dictates of co%%on sense 9 and they are far less radical in te%2er than %&ch of the social criticis% of the ei4hteenth5cent&ry hiloso hes!

Those 3ho dre3 &2 the cahiers of )B;0 3ere entitled' li6e #live' to /e asto&nded at their o3n %oderation. The 2a%2hlets of )B;0 cannot' I thin6' /e 2&t &2on >&ite the sa%e footin4 as the cahiers 9 they anno&nce certain 2rinci2les 3hich it is diffic&lt not to descri/e as socialistic. B&t /efore I s&%%arise so%e of their ideas I 3o&ld vent&re &2on a 3ord of ca&tion. It is necessary' I s&44est' to distin4&ish /et3een decla%atory den&nciation and definite 2lan. It is easy to find the first 9 it is diffic&lt to find the second. (e are no %ore entitled to call den&nciations of ine>&ality and %isery socialistic than 3e can 8&stifia/ly ter% So&they and #arlyle and R&s6in socialists /eca&se they 3ere indi4nant 3ith the horrors of factory civilisation. There are inn&%era/le 2a%2hlets 3hich insist that the ri4ht to 2ro2erty is a social creation' 3hich society can a/olish as it 2leases 9 there are literally h&ndreds 3hich esta/lish the 2rinci2le of the ri4ht to 3or6 as inherent in the str&ct&re of the State. B&t %ost of the first 4ro&2 insist e>&ally on the i%%ense dan4er of dist&r/in4 esta/lished e<2ectation 9 and fe3' if any' of the second 4ro&2 leave the ri4ht as %ore than an e%2ty declaration to 3hich no concrete sche%e is anne<ed. ven ,arat' in his "#o$e%t of a &e%la#ation of the Ri'hts of Man, 3hile he /e4ins /y insistin4 that the la3 %&st 2revent e<cessive ine>&ality of fort&nes' and that a 3ise redistri/&tion of 3ealth is necessary' ends /y sayin4 that the /est thin4 that co&ld have ha22ened to !rance 3o&ld have /een for ,ontes>&ie& or Ro&ssea& to have dra3n &2 its constit&tion. B&t no one 3o&ld have e<2ected either to constr&ct a socialist state. (e %&st' then' distin4&ish /et3een decla%ation and 2ositive 2lan. Of the first there is a/&ndance and to s2are. There is 2assionate den&nciation of those rich 3ho H eat in a sin4le %eal 3hat 3o&ld s&ffice for ten fa%ilies in a year I ) 9 there is the 3arnin4 that &nless the 2eo2le is fed and the ri4ht to 3or6 ass&red' ins&rrection is certain and 8&stified. There is the /itter 2lea of %en li6e Deverite that the 3or6er is li6e an ar%y %&le 3ho /rea6s /eneath his /&rden 9 /&t the only re%edy of 3hich he can thin6 is the s&22ression of %achinery as the root ca&se of lo3 3a4es. One 3riter' D&fo&rny de @illiers' 2oints o&t 3ith ac&teness that the real 2oor are not re2resented in the
) La (ole#e du "e#e &u%hene!

States5*eneral' and ar4&es that they are entitled to co%2ensation for the 2ro2erty they lac6 9 /&t his c&re for the evil he vividly de2icts is %erely H a ne3 %oral fo&ndation for a /etter or4anised society.I Another 3riter' after a 2iteo&s descri2tion of the s&fferin4s of the 3or6ers' is satisfied to &r4e that 2&/lic 3or6sho2s are the lo4ical conse>&ence of the ri4ht to 3or6 9 yet he tells &s nothin4 of ho3 they are to /e or4anised or 3hat they are to 2rod&ce. (e are nearer to socialistic ideas 3ith *osselin') 3hose vie3s are very a6in to the a4rarian socialists of the #ro%3ellian Revol&tion. After a trenchant e<2os&re of the in8&stice of the e<istin4 social order' and an e%2hatic note that conditions 3o&ld 8&stify s&ch a socialisation of land as e<isted in S2arta' he a4rees that the re%edy 3o&ld /e 3orse than the disease. B&t he &r4es the desira/ility of fo&r %eas&res in order to o/tain e>&ality. Unc&ltivated land sho&ld /e 4iven to the 2oor' as the Ro%ans for%erly settled soldiers on the soil. The clerical de%esne sho&ld si%ilarly /e &sed' the reci2ients 2ayin4 a s%all rent to the State and its for%er 2ossessors 9 and each year the 4overn%ent is to set aside a s&% for /&yin4 &2 the estates of lar4e lando3ners and distri/&tin4 the% in the sa%e 3ay. !inally' he s&44ests a 2ro4ressive ca2ital ta< on 2rivate fort&nes to e<tin4&ish the 2&/lic de/t. In a /rief ti%e' he thin6s' these %eas&res 3ill esta/lish a H ha22y e>&ality'I if the land so divided is declared indivisi/le and inaliena/le. The 3orst feat&res of l&<&ry 3ill disa22ear 9 and the en4a4e%ent of a vast %a8ority of citi:ens in a4ric&lt&ral 2&rs&its 3ill %a6e co%%ercial fort&nes of insi4nificant i%2ortance. S&ffi5 ciency 3ill %ean an instr&cted 2eo2le. Po2&lation 3ill increase 9 and e%i4rants 3ill ta6e this ne3 %odel to ha22ier cli%es. *osselin has no do&/t of the 2ractica/ility of his sche%e' and he offers it to the 6in4 3ith a si%2le faith of 3hich no one can deny the char%. T3o other sche%es of socialistic tendency deserve a 3ord. Seven years /efore the Revol&tion Retif de la Bretonne' in his And#o'#a he, had 2&/lished a co%2lete Uto2ia &2on a ri4oro&sly co%%&nist fo&ndation. B&t' li6e Plato 3ith the Re ubli%, he had realised that it 3as %eat too stron4
) Refle)ions d*un (ito+en E)B;BG 9 on *osselin' see A. Lichten/er4er' Lt So%ialis,e -to i.ue E);0;G' 2. )1F.

for h&%an di4estion 9 only co%2lete a4ree%ent co&ld achieve it' and for this it 3as ho2eless to loo6. In )B;0' therefore' he 2&/lished a revised version of his 2lan in the /hes,o'#a he, 3hich %i4ht' he tho&4ht' /e ca2a/le of realisation. (hile 2rivate 2ro2erty is to re%ain' its 2ossession is to /e li%ited and diffic&lt. Prices are to /e controlled /y local a&thorities and fail&re to c&ltivate as 4overn%ent 2rescri/es is to res&lt in forfeit&re. At the /ac6 of the 3hole sche%e is the 2rinci2le that 2rivate 2ro2erty is a %ere le4al convention %ade /y the State' and s&/8ect at any %o%ent to its 2o3er of e%inent do%ain. Retif7s ideas' clearly' have no %ore than a 2a2er val&e' for he had no vision at all of ho3 to /rin4 the% into /ein4. If Ba/e&f?s Uto2ia is not less visionary' it is %ore i%2ortant' /eca&se it sho3s ho3 constant 3as his devotion to the 2rinci2le of e>&ality. The son of a for%er t&tor of Jose2h II' after a 4ri% and starved childhood he /eca%e an a4ent to a no/le%an' and ac>&ired there that 2ractical ac>&aintance 3ith fe&dal 2rivile4es 3hich 2layed so lar4e a 2art in the sha2in4 of his life. In )B;B he /e4an to corres2ond 3ith the secretary of a 2rovincial acade%y to 3ho% he 2&t >&estions 3hich %a6e evident his 2reocc&2ation 3ith e>&ality as the 6ey to social 4ood. It is to ine>&ality that he traces the 2ride of the rich and the e<cessive h&%ility of the 2oor 9 and he &r4es &2on his friend that it is the ca&se of all the evils of o&r social condition. The corres2ondence reveals hi% as a %an 2rofo&ndly infl&enced /y Ro&ssea&' 2assionate' and /itterly anta4onised /y the ine>&alities of the an%ien #e'i,e! In )B;0' in con8&nction 3ith the %athe%atician A&diffred' he s&/%itted his vie3s to the "ational Asse%/ly in so%ethin4 li6e coherent for%. The (adast#e "e# etuel does not yet envisa4e the need for revol&tion' /&t so%e5 thin4 at least of the s2irit 3hich' seven years later' 3as to ta6e hi% to the scaffold is already there. "o %an' he says' 3ho has s&fficiency can /e re4arded as other than an e<2loiter if he see6s to o/tain %ore than this. ,en are /y nat&re and ri4ht e>&al' and it is the /&siness of the la3 to 6ee2 the% so. $et' as the la3 3or6s' the very o22osite is the case. The rich are the %asters of society. The 2oor 4ro3 in n&%/ers and their 3a4es contin&ally

decrease. This is an i%2ossi/le 2osition. The land' J the co%%on %other of &s all'I %&st /e divided e>&ally so that each citi:en has an ass&red 2atri%ony 3hich he cannot lose. Instr&ction %&st /eco%e 4eneral lest the 3ise o22ress the i4norant. Unless this is done' the rich 3ill c&t the throats of the 2oor 9 and the latter are entitled to 2ro2erty' as a 3ard %ay' 3hen he attains his %a8ority' recover his ri4hts fro% a defa&ltin4 tr&stee. B&t the first ste2 on the road to refor% is ed&cation. >&ality in 6no3led4e is the 6eystone of the arch of social reconstr&ction. Ba/e&f?s 2lans' do&/tless' did not reach %ore than a handf&l 9 the Asse%/ly 3as occ&2ied 3ith %ore i%%ediate >&estions. (hat I 3ish only to e%2hasise a4ain is the 2resence of a socialist ideal a%on4 the 2a%2hlets of )B;0' 3hile notin4 that it is e<traordinarily rare. (here there is an attac6 on the e<istin4 order' that is not socialis%. It is nothin4 %ore than the final de2osit of that sense of 3aste and in8&stice co%%on' for instance' to all refor%ers of the a4e of Lo&is KI@. There is a 4ood deal of Uto2ia5 %a6in4' not a little violent 2arado<. B&t 3hat there is of revol&tionary destr&ctiveness co%es fro% so&rces 3hich' as 3ith ,a/ly or Ro&ssea& or ,ontes>&ie&' 3e cannot call 4en&inely socialist in the sense in 3hich I have defined that ter%. ,en feel va4&ely that a ne3 a4e has co%e' /i4 3ith 2ossi/ilities. There is a s2irit of o2ti%is% a/road. B&t refor%' and not revol&tion' is the essential tenor of %en?s %inds in the first ho&rs of the ne3 da3n. (hat socialis% there is is s%all in vol&%e and insi4nificant in e<2ression. It needed the realisation that civil e>&ality and the refor% of 2olitics did not %ean an end of s&fferin4 /efore a 3ides2read chan4e 3as 2ossi/le. Ill By the early %onths of )B0. the &lti%ate character of the Revol&tion had /een fi<ed. !e&dal 2rivile4es had /een a/olished 9 the %onarchy had /een 2&t in fetters 9 the ch&rch had /een overthro3n. The Declaration of Ri4hts conte%2lated a %iddle5 class li/eral State. If it 3as an e<a44eration to say 3ith Lo&stalot' that H every5 thin4 tends to s&/stit&te an aristocracy of 3ealth for an

aristocracy of /irth'I the 2roletariat had not serio&sly /enefited /y the chan4es %ade. Phrases had /een &sed in the Asse%/ly' even /y %en so conservative as ,ira/ea& and ,alo&et' 3hich i%2lied a /elief in e>&ality' /&t the social le4islation of the ne<t fe3 years sho3ed clearly that they %eant nothin4. Already 2ro2erty 3as afraid 9 and the 3arnin4s of d%&nd B&r6e had fallen &2on ready ears. By )B0. the %ain 2reocc&2ation of the leaders 3as to sta/ilise and %a6e effective the res&lts of the first enth&sias% of the Revol&tion' 3hile ass&a4in4 the s&fferin4s of the co%%on 2eo2le. !e3 3ere a/le to see the effect of forei4n 3ar &2on social 2olicy' or to 4&ess' as B&r6e so %arvello&sly foresa3' that a s&ccessf&l 4eneral 3o&ld e%er4e as the dictator of the State. Anyone 3ho analyses the literat&re and the le4islation fro% )B0. &ntil the fall of Ro/es2ierre has' a/ove all' to /e caref&l not to discover too %&ch in 3hat he reads. He %&st re%e%/er that he is dealin4 3ith a 2easantry 3hich 3as h&n4ry for the indis2&ta/le 2ossession of the land' and an4rily s&s2icio&s of its for%er %asters 9 3here' therefore' he sees 2easant riots he %&st not ass&%e that they are 4ro&nded in socialist 2rinci2le. He %&st re%e%/er' too' that in these years /ad harvests 3ere 4eneral' and &ne%2loy%ent 3ides2read. The 2ro/le% of feedin4 the to3ns and findin4 3or6 for the 2roletariat 3as a diffic&lt one' intensified /y the ti%idity of the rich and their an<iety to 2&t a ter% to e<2eri%ent in social 2olicy. very revol&tionary leader treads the ed4e of an a/yss 9 and in the effort to satisfy a h&n4ry and indi4nant con5 constit&ency he &ses 2hrases and threatens %eas&res 3hich are %eant as den&nciation rather than ar4&%ent. The 2eriod' therefore' is f&ll of decla%ation 3hich has a socialist character. Ri4hts are asserted' 2led4es are %ade' 3hich s&44est %&ch %ore than they in fact %ean. The 2olitical fi4&res of the ti%e cannot' in %y 8&d4%ent' /e called in any case socialist 9 nor 3ere they dealin4 3ith a 2&/lic 3hich' in any serio&s de4ree' e<2ected socialist %eas&res. (hat rather 3e are confronted 3ith is a 2eo2le f&ll of %isery to 3ho% attac6s &2on the 3ealthy as the so&rce of their %isfort&ne %i4ht /e e<2ected to a22eal. The *irondins' certainly' had no sort of sy%2athy 3ith socialis% 9 Danton' as I thin6' had no sort of social 2rinci2les at all' and Brissot' differently fro% his earlier

vie3s' 3as the defender of the s%all 2ro2rietor rather than anythin4 else. There is socialis% a%on4 the Jaco/ins' as there is also a%on4 the en#a'es 9 /&t I re4ard it less as a /ody of consistent and syste%atic 2rinci2le than as a series of e<traordinary ideas %eant to co2e 3ith an e<traordinary sit&ation. It is not &ntil the #ons2iracy of Ba/e&f that 3e %eet 3ith socialis% in a serio&s and effective for%. In a 3ord' &ntil Ba/e&f there are socialist ideas' /&t there is no socialis%. So to re4ard the character of this 2eriod is' I 6no3' to r&n co&nter to a fa%o&s thesis of Taine. B&t I thin6 his vie3 is /&ilt &2on a co%2lete %is&nderstandin4 of the evidence. Undo&/tedly there 3ere attac6s on 2ro2erty' hatred of the rich' revol&tionary risin4s' a 4ood deal of 2illa4e and confiscation. B&t these are the inevita/le acco%2ani%ents of any revol&tion 3here there is a h&n4ry %o/' a /e3ildered 4overn%ent' forei4n and civil 3ar. Socialis%' as I have said' is a theory of social re5 constr&ction and a %ethodolo4y 9 it is not an an4ry cro3d attac6in4 a s2ec&lator or /&rnin4 the doc&%ents of its ancient servit&de. It is not even a Jaco/in de2&ty 2reachin4 the ar4arian la3' or ,arat insistin4 that' in ti%e of crisis' each co%%&ne can ta6e %eas&res 3itho&t li%it to hel2 its 2oor 9 nor is it Ro/es2ierre ar4&in4 that e<cess of 2ro2erty is only 8&stifia/le 3here there is 4eneral s&fficiency. Broadly s2ea6in4' the te%2er 3e confront is one 3hich insists that' in a 2eriod of scarcity' the rich %an 3ho does not 2&t his s&r2l&s at the dis2osal of the co%%&nity is an ene%y of society. It is a hatred of 4reed' of s2ec&lation' a s&s2icion that 4reat 3ealth i%2lies co&nter5revol&tionary senti%ent' that 3e %eet al%ost every3here. B&t this attit&de cannot /e descri/ed as socialis% any %ore than its R&ssian analo4&e %eans an acce2tance of the 2rinci2les of Lenin. The tr&e a22roach lies' I /elieve' alon4 >&ite different lines. The Revol&tion inherited fro% the hiloso he# a ri4oro&s criticis% of 2ro2erty as an a/sol&te ri4ht' an ethical defence of co%%&nis%' and a 2rofo&nd sense that' /eca&se the 2rivile4es of aristrocracy are indefensi/le' the state %i4ht /e %ade to serve the 2eo2le creatively. These notions had to /e a22lied in a ti%e of crisis' 3itho&t ti%e to thin6 either of their 2hiloso2hic si4nificance or their ad%inistrative 2ossi/ility. They had to /e a22lied

3hen there 3as civil 3ar at the centre of national life' and forei4n 3ar at its circ&%ference. ,eas&res 3hich are s&ita/le to an e<tre%ity are rarely the e<2ression of a considered 2hiloso2hy. They re2resent %erely the res2onse to i%%ediate e<i4ency' and their very a&thors are' often eno&4h' the first to deny that they have 2er%anent si4nificance. #ertainly there co&ld not have /een any 3ides2read socialis% in a revol&tion 3hich /e4an in enth&siastic loyalty to Lo&is K@I and ended in a loyalty at least s&2erficially enth&siastic to "a2oleon. *irondins 3ho anathe%atised the a4rarian la3' Jaco/ins 3ho hissed the leadin4 en#a'es o&t of the Paris cl&/s' do not so&nd li6e the a2ostles of socialist 2rinci2le. ffectively' I sho&ld ar4&e' there 3o&ld have /een no socialis% at all if the econo%ic condition had not /een ac&te. (hat %en 3ere 2re2ared for 3as the a/ro4ation of 3hat 3as restrictive in the an%ien #e'i,e! #risis drove %any to heroic 3ords and %eas&res 3hich they felt to /e s&ited to an heroic ti%e 9 /&t 3hen the sit&ation' after the death of Ro/es2ierre' /eca%e ad%inistratively %ana4ea/le' 3hat e%er4es as sta/le is the /o&r4eois li/eralis% 3hich drove Ba/e&f to revolt. And the very %e%ory of ho3 2ro2erty had /een in dan4er 3as so driven into %en?s %inds that' after )B0C' it 3as in 2rocess of /eco%in4 the very a/sol&te a4ainst 3hich the ei4hteenth cent&ry had %ade its %a4istral 2rotest. This' at least' is ho3 I read the evidence. It does not e<cl&de the fact that there 3ere socialist ideas 9 it does deny that there 3ere either %any to 2&t the% for3ard or a 3ide 2&/lic conscio&s of their %eanin4 and an<io&s for their a22lication. It is 3orth 3hile to consider the e<2ression of those ideas in so%e little detail' and to note their affiliations 3ith orthodo< Jaco/inis% on the one hand' and the #ons2iracy of )B0C &2on the other. I /e4in /y notin4 one 4eneral 2oint = all 2arties in the State a4reed &2on the &ndesira/ility of e<cessive differences of fort&ne. ,ira/ea&' ,alo&et' @er4nia&d' Brissot' #ondorcet all s2o6e in this sense 9 and there 3as a fairly 3ides2read tendency to a22rove the si%2le life and a 2ro4ressive inco%e5ta<. These are' of co&rse' vie3s 3hich the elo>&ence of Ro&ssea& had %ade al%ost 2latit&des. They 3ere thin4s 3hich everyone had to say 3ho did not 3ish to /e re4arded as reactionary. The first 2erson 3orth

%ention 3ho 3ent at all far in a socialist direction 3as the A//e !a&chet' 3ho fo&nded in )B0. a disc&ssion circle' and 3as hi%self' later' a *irondin de2&ty. His vie3s &ndo&/tedly infl&enced a 3ide circle' tho&4h the fact that' as #a%ille Des%o&lins tells &s' he co&ld /e hissed in his o3n section for s&22ort of the a4arian la3' sho3s that %en 3ere rather interested in' than %oved to acce2t' his ideas. His vie3s are o/vio&sly fo&nded &2on Ro&ssea&. His 8o&rnalL the Bou%he de Fe#0 #ea%hes the o#i'inal 'oodness of %an' and his ri4ht to an e>&al share of the earth. (hen he enters the State he s&rrenders all his ri4hts 3hich are then 2ossessed /y 4overn%ent for the 4eneral 3elfare. By this is %eant that all %en have so%ethin4' and no %an has too %&ch. (hat %&st /e 2revented is e<tre%e 2overty and 3ealth and' a/ove all' social 2arasitis%. He reco%%ends the esta/lish%ent of national factories' the li%itation of land5holdin4' a ri4oro&s control of inheritance' and s&ch a re4&lation of the %arria4e5la3s as 3o&ld 2revent the &nion of lar4e fa%ily fort&nes. It is note3orthy that even these %oderate vie3s 3ere /itterly attac6ed' not only /y conservatives li6e ,allet d& Pan' /&t also /y radicals li6e Des%o&lins. !a&chet hi%self contin&ally softened 3hatever of ri4o&r they %ay 2ossess 9 and he 2&t the% for3ard rather as an &lti%ate' than as an i%%ediate' 2ro4ra%%e. He 3as less a doctrinal socialist than a #hristian %ystic i%/&ed 3ith the i%2ortance of e>&ality /y his desire for a chan4e in the heart of %an6ind. A%on4 the *irondins' I thin6' there 3as no one 3ho 3as socialist in any real sense of the ter%. Brissot 3as an e<2onent of Jeffersonian de%ocracy' #ondorcet 3as a radical %&ch of the school of Tho%as Paine' Se/astien ,ercier shares the horror 3hich' as he tells &s' Ro&ssea& 3o&ld have felt at the ideas of Ba/e&f 9 and Retif a/andoned his Thes%o4ra2he' /ein4 content' a%id 3ild den&nciation of Jaco/ins and sansc&lottes' to insist that e>&ality in land or in inco%es /elo3 fifty tho&sand francs is /oth i%2ossi/le and cri%inal. The only i%2ortant *irondin 3ho sho3s si4ns of %ore radical vie3s is the one5 ti%e 2astor Ra/a&t Saint5 tienne 9 tho&4h he %ay /e said less to e%/race socialis% than to frin4e its /o&ndaries. >&ality' he tells &s' is the so&l of a re2&/lic 9 &ne>&al

3ealth divides classes and r&ins e>&ality in 2olitics. B&t it cannot /e esta/lished /y force' and the /est 3e can ho2e for is to red&ce ine>&ality /y la3. Ho3 this is to /e done he does not tell &s in detail. A %a<i%&% fort&ne can /e fi<ed' the State ta6in4 the re%ainder' 3hether /y 4ift or force' for fo&ndations of 2&/lic &tility or &nforeseen State e<2endit&re. "ational 3or6sho2s sho&ld /e created' and inheritance and testa%entary dis2osition sho&ld /e con5 trolled. B&t' even %ore' Ra/a&t Saint5 tienne 3o&ld desire the State to enco&ra4e those %oral ha/its in the 2eo2le 3hich are favo&ra/le to the at%os2here of e>&ality. These can hardly /e called e<tre%e vie3s 9 tho&4h it is 3orth 2ointin4 o&t that they' and their li6e' e<cited the 3ildest alar% a%on4 conservative thin6ers. >&ality and an a4rarian la3 see%ed to a charita/le 3or6er na%ed La%/ert J a violation of all the la3s of nat&re.I ,en li6e La Har2e e<ha&sted the%selves in e<2ressions of horror at the e<tre%e and dan4ero&s attac6s &2on the fo&ndations of social order. Their very de%and to have done 3ith e<2eri%ent nat&rally 2rovo6ed the antithesis of their ca&tion. To have acce2ted their attit&de 3o&ld have %eant si%2le f&tility /efore the 4rave econo%ic 2ro/le%sL ho3 4rave ,. ,athie& has recently sho3n )L3hich con5 fronted the State. The conservatis% of the Ri4ht did not a22eal to the *irondins. B&t the latter' to 3ho% disorder 3as hatef&l' and 3hose fear of the 2roletariat 3as o%ni2resent' shran6 fro% a 2olicy 3hich see%ed to 8eo2ardise the 2ro2erty of the %iddle classes. They 3ere nat&rally overthro3n /y the Jaco/ins' 3hose 2olicy of centralisation and e<2eri%ent 2rovided the only ho2e the %asses co&ld see for ass&a4in4 their %isfort&nes. Brissot %i4ht 8oin hands 3ith ,allet d& Pan and Barr&el to acc&se the% of s&/vertin4 the fo&ndations of social order 9 to the%selves' and' in 4eneral' I thin6' >&ite honestly' they %erely a22eared as %en 2re2ared to &tilise the a&thority of the State for the 2reservation of the Revol&tion. I do not %ean to i%2ly that there 3as not a definitely socialist /ac64ro&nd to Jaco/in 2olicy. #ertainly there 3as 9 tho&4h' to &nderstand it' 3e %&st re%e%/er that its so&rces are co%2le<. Partly' it 3as /orn of i%%ediate necessity' 2artly of the fact that their leaders' ,arat and
)

Robes ie##e et la 1ie (he#e EParis' )0FBG'

Ro/es2ierre in 2artic&lar' 3ere dee2ly read in those earlier thin6ers' es2ecially Ro&ssea& and ,a/ly' 3ho had insisted that the ri4ht to 2ro2erty is a social conce2t %ade /y' and li%ited /y' the 3ill of the State. They never had a ne3 theory of a different social order. !or the %ost 2art' they 3ere the etite bou#'eoisie to 3ho% ,ontes>&ie& and Ro&ssea& 3ere a 4os2el to 3hich they 3ere 2re2ared to sacrifice %&ch. And the sacrifices they 3ere 2re2ared to %a6e 3ere s&ch as the 2oorer classes 3elco%ed' es2ecially 3hen these sa3 in hostility to the Jaco/ins the 2rivile4ed of the the old re4i%e and the rich %en of the ne3. (hat they said and did no %ore %ade the% deli/erately and conscio&sly socialist than did the 2ro4ra%%e &nfolded /y ,r. Lloyd *eor4e in )0.0 %a6e hi% a %e%/er of the Socialist Party. They 3o&ld attac6 the rich' /&t they 3o&ld not have the a4rarian la3. They 3o&ld de%and sacrificesL ,r. #ha%/erlain?s doctrine of H ranso% IL/&t they 3o&ld do nothin4 to in8&re the idea of individ&al 2ro2erty itself. Danton' for e<a%2le' 3as %erely a de%ocrat 3ho 3ished that the rich sho&ld /ear their f&ll share of the co%%on /&rden' and that %en sho&ld /e reco4nised to have an e>&al ri4ht to ha22iness. ,arat' as I have noted' 3as a %oderate li/eral in )B;0. <2erience %ade hi% %ore violent in decla%ation. B&t no 8o&rnalist 3ho %erely thin6s fro% one day to the ne<t' es2ecially if he is 4a%/lin4 for his head' has a considered 2hiloso2hy. If he re4arded econo%ic e>&ality as desira/le' it 3as for so%e distant f&t&re he need not disc&ss. (hat he 3as a/ove all concerned to %aintain 3as the soverei4n ri4ht of the State to ta6e 3hatever %eas&res it %i4ht thin6 fit to 2revent disaster. Reasona/le 3a4es' 2rices 3ithin the reach of the 2oor' local control of food s&22lyLthese 3ere the thin4s he e%2hasised day /y day in the A ,i du "eu le! B&t no one can read his articles 3itho&t seein4 that he is %erely inventin4 re%edies for a crisis. He has no tho&4ht of 2er%anent 2rinci2les. (ith Ro/es2ierre it is different 9 fro% his 3ritin4s and s2eeches one can' I thin6' 2iece to4ether a coherent doctrine 3hich has clearly socialist affinities. Pro2erty for hi% is si%2ly a social instit&tion 9 it is the citi:en?s ri4ht to en8oy as he 3ill the 4oods 4&aranteed to hi% /y the State. The latter can' therefore' li%it its ri4hts' 2&nish s2ec&lators' and control inheritance. B&t a/sol&te

e>&ality is a chi%era i%2ossi/le of realisation in civil society. To 2reach it is to invite a detesta/le anarchy. There is an e<cessive ine>&ality 3hich the State sho&ld control. It leads to the do%ination of the co%%&nity /y a fe3 3ealthy %en' and their vices conta%inate society. The State o3es to the 2oor' the so&rce of %oderation and civic virt&e' the ri4ht to 3or6 or %aintenance 9 to 2roc&re this for the% is a %ore sacred tas6 than to 2rotect the 3ealth of the rich. !i<ation of 2rices in their interest is essential' and no 2&nish%ent is too stron4 for s2ec&lators in food. A severe and 2ro4ressive inco%e5ta< is 8&stified 9 in an ideal State no one 3o&ld have %ore than an inco%e of three tho&sand livres. All this' clearly eno&4h' is the %ind of a %an no&rished on Ro&ssea& and ,a/ly' the 2artisan of a si%2le and e>&al society' the ene%y of the rich 3ho% he feels to stand in the 3ay of its achieve%ent. He s2ea6s the lan4&a4e of /itterness and hate 9 for' to hi%' the rich are the ene%ies of the re2&/lic. B&t if Ro/es2ierre?s ideal is anythin4' it is that of the s%all to3n radical rather than the socialist. It is the e<cess of 3ealth' not 2ro2erty itself' to 3hich he ta6es o/8ection. ,&ch the sa%e %i4ht /e said of Saint5J&st' 3hose Instit&tions Re2&/licaines sho3s &s 2retty f&lly the direction of his %ind. A nation of s%all far%ers' 4eneral e>&ality' a co%2&lsion &2on all to 3or6' a ri4oro&s control of inheritance to the direct line' a national syste% of ed&cation' and the endo3%ent of yo&n4 %arried co&2les' are the chief 2ro2osals he %a6es. The Saint5J&st of the #onvention is less Uto2ian and %ore /itter 9 /&t loathin4 of the rich a2art' there is nothin4 2ositively e<tre%e in 3hat he has to say. And this is' in 4eneral' the te%2er of his collea4&es. The ri4ht of the 2oor to 2ro2erty' the dan4er of e<cessive 3ealth' the d&ty of the State to confiscate that e<cess for the 4eneral /enefit' these are the the%es of a tho&sand s2eeches. @iolent class53ar is' of co&rse' 3idely 2reached' es2ecially /y so%e of the re2resentatives on %ission. Leco%te Saint5 ,ichel?s 2hrase that the rich are H the %ortal ene%ies of the Re2&/lic I is ty2ical of inn&%era/le others. Billa&d5 @arenne calls the% H the /ane of ordered states I 9 /&t it is si4nificant that he sho&ld add that 2ro2erty is H &nfort&nately the necessary fo&ndation of civil society.I B&t 3hen' 3ith the%' or s&ch 8o&rnalists and 2a%2hleteers

as Pr&dho%%e' Har%and' Des4ro&as' 3e have e<ha&sted the ter%inolo4y of vit&2eration' 3e co%e /ac6 inevita/ly to a 2ositive theory on the lines of Ro/es2ierre?s doctrine. (hen Boissy d7An4las' in his e<2osition of the #onstit&tion of the $ear III' said that J &n 2ays 4o&verne 2ar les 2ro2rietaires est dans l7ordre social'I he 3as not far fro% the Jaco/in ideal9 the o3ner %&st not /e rich and all %&st /e o3ners. That is the distin4&ishin4 feat&re of Jaco/in theory. I 3o&ld e%2hasise a4ain the fact that all this is not socialistic innovation' /&t the inheritance of the criticis% of 2ro2erty %ade /y the ei4hteenth cent&ry. Political e>&ality' it had ta&4ht' is nothin4 3itho&t econo%ic e>&ality 9 %en li6e T&r4ot' Sieyes' and #ondorcet had said so incessantly. H >&ality in fact'I said #ondorcet' H is the final ai% of social techni>&e' since ine>&ality in riches' ine>&ality of condition' and ine>&ality of ed&cation' are the %ain ca&se of all evils.I And alon4side this notion 3as the f&ll realisation that a State co%2osed of the t3o nations of rich and 2oor is /o&nd to conflict. J There has never /een' nor 3ill there /e'I says a 2a%2hlet of )B;0' Hany /&t t3o really distinct classes of citi:ens' the o3ners of 2ro2erty and those 3ho have none 9 the first have everythin4' the second nothin4.I Jaco/inis% is si%2ly these ideas a22lied to a critical 2eriod in 3hich dan4er shar2ened the anta4onis% /et3een classes' and %ade the idea of e>&ality and si%2licity see% a definite %eas&re of 2&/lic safety. It 3as neither a theory nor a %ethod of thoro&4h54oin4 social transfor%ation. Rather 3as it a de%and that the s&r2l&s of the rich /e deli/erately &sed /y the State for the %iti4ation of 2o2&lar s&fferin4.

I@ Before I t&rn to Ba/e&f and his cons2iracy' it is 3orth 3hile to s2end a little ti%e on one or t3o of his 2rec&rsors. It is 2ro/a/le that ideas 3hich %ay va4&ely /e ter%ed co%%&nist /e4an as early as )B;0 9 for 3e are told /y Ba&dot that the H acri%ony and /itterness I of the *irondins 3as d&e to H fear of seein4 the ideas of the #o%%&nists 2redo%inate.I The sense contin&ally 4re3 that any society in 3hich %en' as Billa&d5@arenne said'

J e<isted &2on a direct /&t not %&t&al de2endence &2on so%e other h&%an /ein4'I 3as in fact in a condition of slavery. In )B01 and )B0- there 3ere a%on4 the sections' and nota/ly in the #l&/ des #ordeliers' %en to 3ho% Jaco/in doctrine see%ed needlessly conservative. (e 4et hints of secret societies' s&44estions of 2lans li6e the credit sche%es of Pro&dhon' de%ands that the 2rofits of /an6in4 revert to the State. In %en li6e Jac>&es Ro&<' @arlet' Dolivier' Boissel' Lan4e' there is a clear strea% of doctrine loo6in4 to3ards a co%%&nist sol&tion of social 2ro/le%s. Ther%idor destroyed 3hatever ho2es and 2ros2ects these %en %ay have cherished 9 after it there ca%e si4ns of 3hat a 2olice5s2y' one ho2es ironically' called J a 2rofo&nd and &niversal 2eace.I B&t these %en had their drea%s' and it is 3orth 3hile to note their s&/stance. !or they sho3 ho3' even in the 4ravest %o%ents of the Revol&tion' the inc&ra/le o2ti%is% of %en 3as still 2re2ared to %a6e all thin4s ne3. They had no clear idea of ho3 their vie3s co&ld /e realised 9 and I thin6 it 2ro/a/le that they had no sort of sy%2athy 3ith the %ethods Ba/e&f 3as later to 2ro2ose. They sa3 all the fallacies of laisse23fai#e, and their desire 3as to realise that e>&ality of fact of 3hich I have s2o6en. (e 6no3' alas' too little of %ost of the% 9 one 3o&ld 4ive %&ch' for instance' for a detailed /io4ra2hy of Rose Laco%/e' 3ho %&st /e very nearly the first 3o%an #o%%&nist. B&t 3hat 3e do 6no3 s&44ests si%2le5 %inded and honest %en' hono&red /y the %asses for the hi4h character of their ideals. A%on4 the%' 2erha2s' Jac>&es Ro&< is 3orthy of 2artic&lar %ention. He had /een a 2riest' and 3as' 2erha2s' one of those 3ho had /een freed /y the Revol&tion fro% that /&rnin4 indi4nation 3hich still lives for &s in the /itter 2a4es of the A//e ,eslier. He 3as al3ays 2oor' and 3e have a 2ict&re of a lonely fi4&re' 3hose sole co%2anion 3as a do4' 2reachin4 a si%2le co%%&nis% in the 3or6in45class >&arters of Paris. There is #halier' of Lyons' a %ystic' 3ho% ,ichelet has noted as an e<tra5 ordinary %an' and Lan4e' in so%e sort the 2rec&rsor of !o&rier. I%2ortant' too' is @arlet' a Parisian 3or6%an' a/o&t 3ho% o&r i4norance is co%2lete' and the c&re of ,a&cha%2' Pierre Dolivier' 3hose /oo6 3as 2&/lished

for hi% /y his fello35citi:ens of the co%%&ne of Anvers. All of the% are ty2ical of an o&tloo6 not 3itho&t 3ide s&22ort in those days of a4ony. They desire the li%itation of land5holdin4' forced loans to feed the 2eo2le' the confiscation of all 2ro2erty d&e to s2ec&lation' national 3or6sho2s' and the 2&/lic control of the food5s&22ly. They differ fro% the Jaco/ins in that they do not 2ay re4ard to the ri4hts of 2ro2erty. They consider the &r4ency of the 2osition too 4reat for %eas&res of conciliation to /e desira/le. They see >&ite definitely in the rich and the co%forta/le the deli/erate ene%ies of the 2oor' 3ho 3ill not hesitate to ta6e advanta4e of 2&/lic %isery for 2rivate 2rofit. They are %ostly' a4ain differently fro% the Jaco/ins' in favo&r of the a4rarian la3' tho&4h 3ith definite leanin4s to a national control of its o2eration. Ther%idor left the% e<as2erated' lar4ely /eca&se they sa3' in the disa22earance of Ro/es2ierre' the fail&re of their ho2e for drastic econo%ic le4islation. B&t they co&ld not 4o so far as Ba/e&f' /eca&se they definitely res2ected a de%ocratic syste%. H Dictatorshi2'I said Ro&<' H is the annihilation of li/erty I 9 and there is in %ost of the%' es2ecially in Dolivier' a %ar6ed trend to3ards anarchis%. Their ideas' on the 3hole' are seen %ost clearly in the 2a%2hlet' 2&/lished in )B;0' /y Boissel' a Jaco/in of the e<tre%e left 3ho 3as active thro&4ho&t the Revol&tion.) Bitterly attac6ed in the Asse%/ly' it see%s to have e<ercised so%e infl&ence' es2ecially after )B01' and it is certainly an interestin4 lin6 /et3een ideas li6e those of ,a/ly /efore )B;0' and of Ba/e&f after3ards. It /e4ins 3ith a 2assionate attac6 on or4anised society as the n&rse of all evil. It e<a%ines' and re8ects' 2ro2erty' %arria4e and reli4ion as the e<2ressions of the 3orst i%2&lses of %en. Pro2erty is si%2ly an instr&%ent of o22ression' and the root of a discord 3hich the invention of %oney %erely increases. The /&siness of society is to res2ond to o&r tr&e instincts' 3hich are nat&rally 4ood. This can /e done if 3e reco4nise that *od is the only tr&e o3ner' and that 3e have the ri4ht to nothin4 save in ter%s of need. (e %&st refor% ed&cation' nationalise ind&stry' and train %en in the s2irit of a collective o3ner5 shi2 3ith a vie3 to the introd&ction of co%2lete co%%&n5 ) Le (ate%his,e du Ge#e Hu,aine!

is%. Here' clearly' his tr&st is in an ed&cational syste% 3hich 3ill one day %a6e %en ready for the ne3 order. By )B01 he 3as insistin4 to the Jaco/ins that the fr&its of the earth /elon4 to the 2oor /y nat&ral ri4ht and %ay /e ta6en /y force' for 2ro2erty is an &s&r2ation of the inaliena/le ri4ht of %an to s&/sistence. B&t /eyond that va4&e sense of the d&ty to &se the la3' Boissel' li6e his fello3s' has no clear notion of ho3 the chan4e he desires %ay /e definitely effected. (ith hi%' as 3ith Dolivier'7 a society can /e reconstr&cted on the 2rinci2les of a co%%&nis% so%e3hat li6e that of the R&ssian ,i# and the ri4ht of each %an to the 3hole 2rod&ct of his la/o&r. And %&ch of their o&tloo6 is deter%ined /y the clear 2erce2tion that the real res&lt of the Revol&tion has /een to esta/lish the far%er and the %erchant in the seat of 2o3er. They realise that the aristocrat has /een dethroned in the interest of the %iddle classes. They insist that anythin4 short of co%%&nis% %&st %ean of necessity the retention of a class5 str&ct&re in society. B&t they do not really 6no3 ho3 co%%&nis% is to /e attained. I a4ree 3ith Kro2ot6in that an analysis of this early 2hiloso2hy antici2ates %&ch of the 2rinci2les of );-;' that little of 3hat 3as ela/orated /y !o&rier and O3en and Pro&dhon cannot /e fo&nd in 2a%2hlets and s2eeches and local decrees of the 2eriod. They had an ideal /&t not a %ethod. The i%2ortance of Ba/e&f and his collea4&es lies in the fact that not only did they envisa4e this ideal 3ith so%e 2artic&larity' /&t they had >&ite definite notions of ho3 to sei:e 2o3er for its attain%ent. It is 2ro/a/le eno&4h that fe3 of the t3o or three tho&sand 2eo2le 3ho see% definitely to have /een infl&enced /y the cons2iracy 6ne3 or shared in their vie3s 3ith any 2recision9 they %ay have 6no3n the /attle5 cries 3itho&t thin6in4 thro&4h the 2ro4ra%%e. That is not' I thin6' 2artic&larly i%2ortant. All revol&tions are the act of a %inority9 they de2end for their s&ccess on sy%2athy for their 4eneral end rather than for their /ill of 2artic&lars. Ba/e&f and his fello3s 6ne3 ho3 they 2ro2osed to 2roceed9 and the strate4y they invented has 2rovided ever since the %ethodolo4y of revol&tionary socialis% at least in its lar4e o&tline. I have already noted that Ba/e&f 3as a co%%&nist
7 Essai su# la $usti%e "#i,itive.

fro% the o&tset of the Revol&tion. I need not here detail his later career. Tho&4h his S+ste,e de &e o ulation sho3s that' at one ti%e' he 3as /oth anti5terrorist and anti5e4alitarian' he 3as one of those 3ho sa3 in the fall of Ro/es2ierre the end of 3hat 3as /eneficent in the Revol&tion. Al3ays in 3ant' often in 2rison' rash' enth&siastic' self5confident' sin4le5%inded' he 3as 8&st the %an to lead a des2erate atte%2t &2on the con>&est of 2o3er. The #ons2iracy see%s to have /een for%ed d&rin4 one of his ter%s of 2rison. A fe3 fello352risoners 3ere initiated into his ideas9 the 4ro&2 4re3 steadily' and /eca%e the Society of the Pantheon' 3hich the 4overn%ent did not fail to 3atch and 2roclai%. It had t3o 3in4s = at the very centre 3ere the real co%%&nists' and' closely affiliated' /&t re%ote fro% the heart of the affair' a n&%/er of ancient Jaco/ins to 3ho% the a/ro4ation of Ro/es2ierre?s constit&tion 3as a /itter %e%ory. The sche%e 3as lin6ed to4ether /y a secret co%%ittee of direction' to 3hich its 2&/lications 3ere al%ost certainly d&e. A%on4 the% 3ere so%e e<traordinary %en' Darthe' Sylvain ,arechal' *er%ain' and B&onarroti' 3ho 3as to s&rvive the% all and to /e their historian. They had contacts 3ith so%e for%er %e%/ers of the #onvention' 3ith the ar%y and the 2olice' even 3ith the &nder3orld. I need not add that fro% their early days they 3ere honeyco%/ed 3ith s2ies' one of 3ho% 3as' &n6no3n to the%' introd&ced /y B&onarroti and Darthe to the very heart of the affair. They never had any real chance of s&ccess. Their 2lans 3ere 6no3n' al%ost fro% their ince2tion' to the Directory9 it needed less honest and :ealo&s %en than they to el&de the cold5/looded %achinations of Barras. veryone' %oreover' 3as tired of /loodshed and %isery9 the 2olice re2orts and the di2lo%atic corres2ondence sho3 clearly that the revol&tionary s2irit 3as e<ha&sted. The leaders 3ere arrested and tried /y a s2ecial tri/&nal. Ba/e&f and Darthe' after a vain atte%2t at s&icide' 3ere e<ec&ted9 other i%2ortant cons2irators' incl&din4 B&onarroti' 3ere i%2risoned or de2orted. Those 3ho lived on /eca%e the de2ositaries of a tradition 3hich' after );1.' they fo&nd the ne3 4eneration ea4er to cherish. I shall disc&ss' first' the 2ro4ra%%e of Ba/e&f' and then his strate4y. "either is a very easy thin4 to do' 2artly /eca&se so%e of the evidence' /ein4 2rod&ced /y s2ies at the

trial' is s&s2ect' and 2artly /eca&se not a little of 3hat 3e have is clearly not in its final redaction. $et the literat&re' chec6ed /y the narrative of B&onarroti' and' even %ore' /y the val&a/le discoveries of Advielle' ena/les &s to see 2retty clearly 3hat 3as involved. And this can' I thin6' /e 2&t in a sin4le sentence. There is no real innovation in doctrine' 3hich is the ei4hteenth5cent&ry tradition' clarified and %ade 2recise /y the 2rofo&nd e<2erience of seven revol&tionary years 9 there is a definite innovation in %ethod' 3hich o2ens an e2och of decisive i%2ortance in the history of socialis%. Let &s start 3ith t3o si4nificant sentences &sed /y Ba/e&f in his trial. H ,y co%2anions and I'I he told his 8&d4es' J have 4roaned over the &nha22y res&lts of the Revol&tion ... it has %erely re2laced a /and of ancient sco&ndrels /y a /and of ne3 ones.I !or the o/8ect of society is the realisation of the co%%on ha22iness. That is i%2ossi/le 3itho&t the r&le of e>&ality' 3hich is the clear i%2lication of nat&ral la3. This does not %ean the a4rarian la3' 3hich is not e>&ality at all. All %en have a 2er%anent ri4ht to a contin&o&s share in the social 2rod&ct. To reco4nise 2rivate 2ro2erty and differences of fort&ne is to ad%it theft to the heart of society. Inheritance is &n8&st' res2ect for the s&2eriority of talent is dan4ero&s. All 3or6 has the sa%e val&e' and all ca2acity sho&ld /e e>&ally re3arded. #o%%&nis% is the only 3ay /y 3hich this can /e realised. It %eans the co%%on o3nershi2 of land. It %eans the socialisation of ind&stry and &niversal and co%2&lsory la/o&r. d&cation' too' sho&ld /e e>&al and co%%on. The theory differs fro% 3hat has 4one /efore in that earlier thin6ers de%anded relative e>&ality. The Ba/o&vistes insist that this is %ore diffic&lt to achieve and to %aintain than e>&ality in the f&ll sense of the ter%. Any society in 3hich less than this e<ists is /&ilt &2on civil 3ar and is /o&nd to %ean the e<2loitation of the 2oor' of that is' the %ass of the co%%&nity. There can /e no 8&stice &nless the only reco4nised differences in the State are those of a4e and se<. To 2&t the 3hole 3ealth of society at the dis2osition of the 2eo2le is to ass&re the %a<i%&% of virt&e' 8&stice' and ha22iness. nvy and hate disa22ear. ach can reco4nise that his 3ell5/ein4 is inti%ately related to that of his nei4h/o&r. To serve society in s&ch an order is to serve oneself. The rei4n of e>&ality

3ill /e the last revol&tion necessary to the 3ell5/ein4 of %an. This /ody of doctrine 3as develo2ed in the %ost diverse and in4enio&s 3ays 9 in the art of literary 2ro2a4anda' the Ba/o&vistes had certainly nothin4 to learn fro% their 4eneration. #aref&l doctrinal analyses' as in the fa%o&s Anal+se de la do%t#ine de Babeuf, a /rilliant short 2ro5 4ra%%e' as in the Manifeste des E'au), dra3n &2 /y Sylvain ,arechal' son4s' 2oe%s' ne3s2a2ers' s2ecial literat&re for the ar%y and the 2olice' 2lacards' %e%oranda' slo4ans' invective' all the ty2ical devices of %odern 2&/licity are there. It is easy to see ho3 their elo>&ent den&nciation of e<istin4 conditions 3o&ld a22eal to the &ne%2loyed' for they set o&t 3ith si%2licity the e<2erience thro&4h 3hich the 3or6in45classes had 2assed. It is even 2ro/a/le that their e%2hasis &2on the fail&re of the Revol&tion' their attac6s &2on the rich' their hatred of the Directory' their i%2assioned defence of the honesty and 4reatness of Ro/es2ierre' co%%anded 3ide sy%2athy. The 2ro4ra%%e' clearly' as Ba/e&f hi%self 3o&ld have reco4nised' is si%2ly a caref&l restate%ent of Ro&ssea& and ,a/ly' of Diderot and ,orelly. It is /oth /older and %ore 2recise than its 2redecessors. It has none of their faith in the 2ossi/ility of chan4in4 %en?s hearts in an individ&alist society. It is %&ch %ore /itter a4ainst the rich' %&ch %ore insistent that they are H /ri4ands'I for 3hose destr&ction all 2atriots %&st ho2e. The Ba/o&vistes are %ore o2ti%istic than their 2redecessors' in that they thin6 the essential revol&tion is ca2a/le of i%%ediate achieve%ent. B&t in the 4eneral conto&r of their o/8ective there is nothin4 essential to distin4&ish the% fro% a half5score of thin6ers in the 2rerevol&tionary e2och. That is not' as I have said' the case 3ith their strate4y' 3here there is 4en&ine and i%2ortant novelty. This can /est /e analysed in t3o 3ays. On the one hand' there are the definite ste2s they too6 in the or4anisation of their cons2iracy &2 to the ti%e of their arrest 9 on the other' there is the theory of 3hat 3as to /e its cond&ct after they had sei:ed 2olitical 2o3er. At the head of the affairs 3as the s%all central co%%ittee' 3ith Ba/e&f at its head. This 3as the /rains of the 3hole cons2iracy. It %et in .secret' 2ractically every ni4ht' al3ays alone' and not

seldo% chan4in4 its head>&arters to avoid any 2ossi/le s&s2icion. It dealt 3ith day5to5day /&siness' the act&al conditions &nder 3hich the ins&rrection 3as to ta6e 2lace' the le4islative %eas&res to /e ta6en on the %orro3 of the ins&rrection' and the f&t&re instit&tions of the ne3 re2&/lic. It 3as res2onsi/le not only for the overt 2ro2a4anda' /&t also for sti%&latin4 the activities of its local a4ents' to 3ho% the 2ersonnel of the co%%ittee re%ained &n6no3n. Its individ&al %e%/ers had relations 3ith the a4ents' /&t rather as the%selves officers of liaison than as chiefs. The a4ents' %ost of 3ho% 3ere chosen 3ith 4reat care' 3ere of the essence of the 2lan. Tried revol&tionaries' they 3ere the contact /et3een the central co%%ittee and the %asses. They re2orted on the feelin4 of the 2o2&lation' its 4rievances and as2irations. They s&22lied' therefore' that 6no3led4e &2on 3hich the leaders co&ld /&ild s&ccessf&l 2ro2a4anda and action. Lin6ed 3ith the% 3ere local co%%ittees in the districts of Paris' 3ho %ade their i%2ress &2on the 3or6ers' 2&t &2 2lacards and distri/&ted leaflets' addressed %eetin4s in the 3or6%en?s cl&/s' tal6ed in cafes and factories' and s2read as 3idely as 2ossi/le the vol&%e of discontent' the ho2e that one final effort %i4ht %a6e all thin4s ne3. (o%en' also' 2layed their 2art' and it 3as ho2ed' 2artic&larly' to e%2loy the services of the de%i%onde to ne&tralise any hostility in the ar%y. To the latter s2ecial attention 3as 2aid. The leaders had caref&lly chosen %ilitary a4ents' to each of 3ho% a definite tas6 3as allotted. *eneral !yon 3as in char4e of the Invalides 9 *er%ain too6 care of the 2olice 9 ,assey controlled the detach%ents at Saint5*enes 9 @annec6 3as 4iven the tas6 of infectin4 the re%ainin4 troo2s in Paris. A4ents 3ere o/tained in each /arrac6s to 3or6 on the %inds of the soldiers9 others' so%eti%es 3o%en' fre>&ented their cafes. So2hie La2ierre' 3hose /ea&ty 3as 3ell 6no3n in Paris' declai%ed the 2rocla%ations of the #entral #o%%ittee and san4 its son4s. The evidence at the trial s&44ests that no %ean s&ccess attended these efforts. They 3ere 2aralleled /y si%ilar attention to the 2olice. Infor%ation 3as also o/tained a/o&t a4ents 2rovocate&rs fro% sy%2athisers in the force 9 and in several cases the head of a 2olice section 3as in close contact 3ith the cons2irators. Thro&4h these %eans every sort of ste2 3as ta6en

3hich %i4ht in8&re the 4overn%ent and create the e<2ectation of so%e 4reat i%2endin4 event. very r&%o&r li6ely to in8&re the Directory 3as 3idely s2read. #o%2laints 3ere /roadcast' %eetin4s held' sy%2athisers fro% the 2rovinces /ro&4ht to Paris to create the ill&sion of a national %ove%ent' asse%/lies of street5%o/s 3ere or4anised. The La3s of the FB and F; *er%inal' /y 3hich the 4overn%ent too6 2o3er to dissolve all 2olitical %eetin4s' sho3s that the i%2ortance of the %ove%ent 3as realised. Ins&/ordination a%on4 the troo2s' the 2&nish%ent of 3hich revealed &nrest in the 2olice' is f&rther 2roof that the dan4er 3as real. B&t the fact that Barras act&ally ne4otiated' 2ro/a/ly dishonestly' an atte%2t at an alliance 3ith *er%ain of the secret co%%ittee' sho3s /oth that the Directory 3as alar%ed' and that it 3as' 2ro/a/ly thro&4ho&t' co4nisant of the 2lan. (hen the #o%%ittee' after disc&ssions of %ilitary 2lans' 3as 3aitin4 for the critical %o%ent' the Directory s3oo2ed &2on the%. It 3as esti%ated at that ti%e that' the %asses a2art' the Ins&rrectionists co&ld co&nt &2on )B'... %en' of 3ho% 0'M.. 3ere re4&lar troo2s. These 3ere to %arch &2on the arsenals and the seat of 4overn%ent' 3hile others 3ere to hold the streets of Paris and re2&lse all hostile attac6. The 2lan 3as never 2&t into action' as Barras 3as the first to stri6e his /lo3 9 /&t it is' I thin6' evidence of the hold the cons2irators had o/tained that so%e seven h&ndred %en sho&ld have %arched to *renelle and so&4ht to e<cite the troo2s there to revolt and resc&e their leaders. They 3ere only dis2ersed /y %ilitary attac6 and n&%ero&s arrests. After that' the cons2iracy 3as at an end. #learly eno&4h' as a 2iece of or4anisation' the 2lans of the Ba/o&vistes 3ere re%ar6a/ly conceived. "ot less interestin4 3as their conce2tion of the %ethods to /e &sed in the event of s&ccess. Here their vie3s 3ere /&ilt &2on the theory of class 3ar. Society' for the%' 3as divided into rich and 2oor' and neither had any interest in co%%on 3ith the other. The rich de2ended for their 2osition &2on their 2o3er to 6ee2 the 2oor in s&/ordination 9 the latter co&ld con>&er their ri4hts only /y the dethrone%ent of the rich. In a society in 3hich overt civil 3ar 3as the %ain feat&re' it 3as &nthin6a/le that 2o3er co&ld /e con>&ered /y the 2oor' save /y violent %eans' for the rich 3o&ld

never a/andon their 2rivile4es 3itho&t fi4htin4 for the%. This' they felt' 3as the real lesson of )B;0 9 it 3as the lesson of )B01 9 it 3as the lesson i%2licit in the e<2erience of Ther%idor. It %eant that 3hen the 2olitical State had /een ca2t&red' a 2eriod of ri4oro&s dictatorshi2 3o&ld /e necessary as the 2rel&de to co%%&nist de%ocracy. Only in this 3ay co&ld the 2eo2le /e 3ithdra3n fro% infl&ences hostile to e>&ality' and 4iven that &nity of 3ill essential to the ado2tion of re2&/lican ideas. H It 3as evident'I 3rote B&onarroti thirty years later' J that the inherent necessity of thin4s' even the s&ccess itself of o&r enter2rise' %eant an interval /et3een the fall of aristocratic 2o3er' and the final esta/lish%ent of 2o2&lar de%ocracy.I An asse%/ly 3as i%2ossi/le since it left the s&ccess achieved to the ha:ard of a 2o2&lar vote. The revol&tion had not /een %ade %erely to chan4e the for% of ad%inistration9 its o/8ect 3as to chan4e the nat&re of society itself. This co&ld not /e left to the 2eo2le 3ho had /een trained to ha/its 3hich i4nored the nat&ral order of thin4s. The revol&tionary 4overn%ent %&st therefore act on /ehalf of the 2eo2le. It %&st' as B&onarroti 3rote' H snatch fro% the nat&ral ene%ies of e>&ality the %eans of deceit and fear and division.I (hat 3as re>&ired 3as J an e<traordinary and necessary a&thority 3hich 3o&ld restore its li/erty to the nation' des2ite the corr&2tion 3hich 3as the conse>&ence of its ancient slavery' and' des2ite the attac6s of those ene%ies' 3ithin and 3itho&t' s3orn to its destr&ction.I It is the doctrine of 2er%anent revol&tion /y dictatorshi2 in the na%e of the 2roletariat. To sei:e 2o3er is' therefore' only the first ste29 it does not end the revol&tion. Parlia%entaris% and de%ocracy are i%2ossi/le /eca&se they ris6 the 3hole 2&r2ose of the ins&rrection 9 the 2eo2le is not yet fit to /e entr&sted 3ith a 2o3er 3hich co&nter5 revol&tionaries %i4ht sei:e fro% the% a4ain. H (hat 3as necessary'I 3rote Ba/e&f' J 3as %en 3hose doctrines and %anners' 3hose 3hole life 3as in f&ll har%ony 3ith the s2irit of the instit&tions 3hich they 3ere called to create.I Li/erty %&st /e denied at the o&tset lest it /e lost for ever. (hat 3as to /e done 3as in accord 3ith nat&ral la3. It 3as 3hat the 2eo2le 3o&ld itself desire 3hen it ca%e to &nderstand the e4alitarian State. The Dictatorshi2 3as th&s' in effect'

the 4eneral 3ill of the 2roletariat. It lost its freedo% only the %ore f&lly to find it. The instit&tions and %eas&res this Dictatorshi2 3o&ld create are e<traordinarily si4nificant in the li4ht of o&r recent e<2erience. The central co%%ittee had at first considered the idea of a22ointin4 a sin4le 2erson as dictator9 /&t this idea 3as re8ected in favo&r of the 4overn%ent of the co%%ittee itself' advised /y an asse%/ly co%2osed of one de%ocrat chosen /y each of the de2art5 %ents fro% a list of s&ita/le 2ersons s&/%itted to the%. This had' ho3ever' to /e %odified after disc&ssion 3ith their Jaco/in allies 9 and the final for% of asse%/ly 3as to consist of so%e si<ty for%er %e%/ers of the #onvention and a h&ndred other de%ocrats no%inated /y the 2eo2le fro% safe candidates. The #o%%ittee retained the ri4ht to initiate le4islation' to4ether 3ith f&ll e<ec&tive 2o3ers. Beneath it' there 3as to /e created co%%issars in each de2art%ent' 3ith 4reat a&thority. Their /&siness 3as to s2eed the s&ccessf&l revol&tion. They 3ere to %a6e 2ro2a4anda for its ideas' create local societies for its co%2letion' deal 3ith co&nter5 revol&tionaries' and assist all active de%ocrats in the 2rovinces. Before a22oint%ent they 3ere to declare their financial 2osition' and a s2ecial tri/&nal 3as created to e<a%ine their acco%2lish%ent of their tas6. !&rther' to stren4then the ne3 order' there 3as to /e created a 6ind of revol&tionary acade%y' a se,inai#e no#,al, 4 3here citi:ens fro% each de2art%ent 3o&ld /e sent' in a 2redeter%ined order' to learn the 2rinci2les of the ne3 revol&tion' and to /e i%/&ed 3ith the s2irit of the refor%ers.I To co%2lete the str&ct&re of the Dictator5 shi2' the Ba/o&vistes decided to recreate all local instit&tions' incl&din4 the revol&tionary co%%issions' as they e<isted /efore the fall of Ro/es2ierre in Ther%idor. I cannot even atte%2t here to analyse in detail the act&al %eas&res /y 3hich the central co%%ittee 2ro2osed to acco%2lish its tas6. B&t it is' I thin6' 3orth 3hile /riefly to indicate the 2rinci2les &2on 3hich those %eas&res 3ere /ased. All healthy 2ersons 3ere to 3or6' and no idle 2erson 3as to 2ossess 2olitical ri4hts. The ho%eless and the 2oor 3ere to /e ho&sed in the ho&ses of all 3ho had cons2ired' or %i4ht cons2ire' a4ainst the Revol&tion. The 2eo2le 3as to /e ar%ed' and all H 2arasites I disar%ed. The 2ress 3as to /e controlled to 2revent the s2read of false

ne3s or attac6. S2ecial ta<es 3ere to /e levied on all not sy%2athetic to the ne3 re4i%e 3ith a ri4ht' at need' of co%2lete confiscation. The old defenders of the Revol&tion and the &nfort&nate 3ere to /e 4iven the &se of ne3 2ossessions. Anyone 3ho had e%i4rated or re/elled 3as to lose his 2ro2erty9 and confiscation 3as also visited &2on the ne4li4ent far%er' the 2&/lic servant enriched /y the e<ercise of his office' and any 3ho 3ere 8&dicially conde%ned. The sale of national 2ro2erty 3as s&s2ended9 and' inheritance /ein4 a/olished' all 2rivate estates' on death' 3ere to revert to the State. ,achinery 3as to /e develo2ed' and &nc&ltivated land /ro&4ht into &se9 to this end state5sho2s 3ere to /e o2ened in each co%%&ne' and an econo%ic co&ncil' re2resentin4 the different 2rofessions' 3as to aid the local a&thorities in the 2rovision and or4anisation of 3or6. d&cation' 3ith the necessary vocational /ias' 3as to /e co%%on to all' and so develo2ed that the avera4e %an %i4ht ho2e to 2lay his f&ll 2art in the life of the State. !orei4n trade 3as to /e a state5 %ono2oly' 3hile %oney and 3a4es 3ere a/olished for internal 2&r2oses. There 3as to /e assistance for the old' and free %edical service for the sic6 9 and the treat%ent of cri%inals 3as to /e entirely refor%ed. (hatever its 3ea6ness as a 2ractical sche%e' it is o/vio&s that Ba/e&f and his collea4&es had arrived at a clear 2erce2tion of the 2ro4ra%%e they 3ished to achieve.

The %ode% theory of social revol&tion is nat&rally the o&tco%e of a 2rofo&nder st&dy of historic conditions than it 3as o2en to Ba/e&f and his collea4&es to %a6e. $et anyone 3ho co%2ares their analysis 3ith the (o,,unist Manifesto, on the one hand' or the 3ritin4s of Lenin and Trots6y &2on the other' can hardly do&/t the ori4inal so&rce of their ins2iration. The line of affiliation' indeed' is a direct o n e 9 for B&onarroti 3as the %aster of that 4eneration 3hose 3ords and acts 3ere the /asis of ,ar<ian strate4y. The class53ar' the fail&re of refor%' the necessity of dictatorshi2' the insistence on a social revol&tion' the &lti%ate si4nificance of the econo%ic >&estion' the realisation that ins&rrection is an art' the caref&l 2re2aration

of the %eas&res it is to entail' the insistence on the 2roletariat as the sole revol&tionary class' the 2erce2tion of the i%2ortance of ed&cation and 2ro2a4anda' the sense that intellect&al theories are /o% of the %ethods of econo%ic 2rod&ction' all these the Ba/o&vistes clearly &nderstood. All these' also' /eca%e 2art of the essential Socialist tradition of the nineteenth cent&ry. J It is nearly forty years since Ba/e&f died'I 3rote #harles "odier' in );1C' H and his 2arty is still livin4 ... he reco4nised tr&ths 3hich no 4overn%ent has dei4ned to acce2t' tr&ths 3hich can never die.I Of the socialis% of the Revol&tion' indeed' Ba/o&vis%e is the one ele%ent destined to 2er%anent infl&ence. @oyer d7Ar4enson' Teste' Ras2ail' Lo&is Blanc' Lero&< and Blan>&i in !rance' Belhasse and Potter in Bel4i&%' Bronterre O?Brien in n4land' have all /o%e testi%ony to the 2art it 2layed in their lives thro&4h contact 3ith B&onarroti. (eitlin4?s 3or6 in the canton de @a&d /ro&4ht hi% into direct contact 3ith it also9 and it is 3orth re%e%/erin4 the 2art that the Lea4&e of the J&st 2layed as an instr&%ent of early ,ar<is%. And it is 3orth re%e%/erin4 also that one of the #o%%&nards of );B. 3as the 4randson of that #lenence 3ho had sat 3ith Ba/e&f in the #entral #o%%ittee. It 3as 3ith reason that #o&nt Al/ert de ,&n sho&ld' in );0C' in the #ha%/er of De2&ties' have acc&sed the !rench socialists of /ein4 the descendants of Ba/e&f. That is' in fact' their real and effective ori4in. (e %&st not' indeed' e<a44erate their insi4ht into the techni>&e the %odern ,ar<ian has develo2ed. They had 2ractically no conce2tion of socialis% as an international force 9 it needed the i%2act of the Ind&strial Revol&tion to e%2hasise the li%its of nationalis% in revol&tionary strate4y. There 3as not eno&4h realisation of s&ccessf&l revol&tion as 4ro&nded in a set of o/8ective econo%ic conditions' and not %erely /o% of deter%ined or4anisation at a 2re%at&re %o%ent. There 3ere %any of those ele%ents in the theory of Ba/e&f 3hich' in );-B' ,ar< sti4%atised as H Uto2ian socialis% ILthe /elief in an &lti%ate nat&ral la3' the conce2tion of an ori4inal endo3%ent of h&%an i%2&lse 3hich 3as definitely 4ood and %erely o/sc&red /y evil instit&tions' so%ethin4' at least' of the acce2tance of ins&rrection for its o3n sa6e' &2on the dan4ers of 3hich Lenin has 3ritten so /rilliantly. The latter?s 2hrase.

indeed' that H Ba/e&f 3as a Jaco/in 3ho leaned on the 3or6in45 classes I has a real tr&th in it9 for he never s&fficiently 2erceived the dan4er of the alliances he 3as 2re2ared to %a6e for the end he had in vie3. "or did he realise at all ho3 %&ch in advance of effective 2ossi/ility 3as his 2ro4ra%%e. A social revol&tion cannot /e s&ccessf&l on the fallin4 tide of a 2olitical revol&tion. Ba/o&vis%e 3as doo%ed to fail&re /efore it 4ot &nder 3ei4h. $et' it %&st /e e%2hasised' the de2th of its insi4ht is re%ar6a/le. Anyone 3ho reads its vol&%ino&s literat&re 3ith attention' and co%2ares the ha/its it 2ost&lates 3ith the o2erations of Bolshevis%' cannot hel2 /ein4 i%2ressed /y the rese%/lance. lse3here I have 2ointed o&t) that the stren4th of co%%&nis% lies in its effort to effect a co%2lete transval&ation of val&es in ter%s of a 4reat ideal 2assionately cherished. I have 2ointed o&t the stren4th 4iven /y faith in that ideal to its adherents' their 2rofo&nd sense of its e<cl&sive tr&th' their 3illin4ness to sacrifice the%selves to its 2rinci2les' their insistence that the end is so 4reat that the %eans ado2ted to it are' 3hatever their cost' 8&stified. The detailed rese%/lances /et3een the 2ro5 4ra%%e of Ba/e&f and that of the R&ssian #o%%&nist are re%ar6a/le eno&4h9 /&t even %ore re%ar6a/le is the si%ilarity of &lti%ate te%2er 3hich r&ns thro&4h the t3o %ove%ents. There is the sa%e e<hilaration of s2irit' the sa%e /itterly5dra3n distinction /et3een friend and foe' the sa%e &r4ency that all thin4s /e %ade ne3' the sa%e 2o3er relentlessly to dissect the 3ea6nesses of conte%2orary society' the sa%e ca2acity for self5confident o2ti%5 is%' the sa%e 4eni&s for 2ro2a4anda and invective. Lenin' so to say' is the Ba/o&vistes 3rit lar4e 9 and the architect of the "ove%/er Revol&tion 3as 4reatly inde/ted to %en 3ho' if they sa3 less clearly than he' envisa4ed a civilisation &2on the sa%e 2attern he so&4ht to /&ild.

@I (hat res&lts fro% this analysis D The !rench Revol&tion' in a narro3 2ers2ective' %&st' I thin6' /e re4arded as 2ri%arily individ&alist in character9 the real e<2ression of its effective o&tco%e is the #ivil #ode' in no sense a
) (o,,unis, E)0FBG' 2. )1; f.

socialist doc&%ent. Its real7 res&lt 3as to transfer 2o3er fro% the aristocracy to the 2easant and %iddle classes. The i%2ress %ade &2on the% /y the socialist tendencies of the 2eriod' es2ecially /y their e<tre%e translation in the #ons2iracy of Ba/e&f' 3as to %a6e the idea of 2rivate 2ro2erty %ore sacred' and less s&sce2ti/le to attac6' than it 3as held to /e at any ti%e in the ei4hteenth cent&ry. If it attac6ed the 2ro2erty of the old re4i%e' it consolidated that of the ne3 &2on a 3ider /asis 9 and the era of chan4e and confiscation only %ade %en %ore ea4er to s&22ress the 2ossi/ility that titles co&ld /e called into >&estion. (e %&st not for4et that the a/olition of fe&dal ri4hts and cor2orate 2rivile4e 3as %ade in the na%e of the individ&al9 that' 3here confiscation too6 2lace' it 3as done in the na%e of 2&/lic safety and co&ld th&s /e re4arded as essentially a transitory %eas&re. ,ost of the attac6s &2on the ri4hts of 2ro2erty 3hich did ta6e 2lace 3ere rather the inevita/le acco%2ani%ent of civil 3ar than an e<2ression of any 3ide desire for social trans5 for%ation. *iven 2olitical li/erty' a constit&tional state' and e>&ality /efore the la3' and %ost %en 3ere content to a/stain fro% s2ec&lative innovation. A state 3as created 3hich lay at the service of the hard53or6in4 2easant and the active entre2rene&r. "o condition is %ore favo&ra/le to classes 3hose 2o3er is a f&nction of the 2ro2erty they 2ossess. On a lon4er vie3' ho3ever' the !rench Revol&tion is a ca2ital event in the history of Socialis%. It is so' I s&44est' for fo&r reasons. Before )B;0 there 3as not' in the %odern sense' any social 2ro/le%. ,en as6ed ho3 the 2oor 3ere to /e relieved' not' as after3ards' 3hat 2art they 3ere to 2lay in the State. The Revol&tion /e4an that a3a6enin4 of a social conscio&sness in the 2roletariat of 3hich &niversal s&ffra4e is %erely a 2artial' and /y no %eans the &lti%ate' conse>&ence. very radical 2arty thencefor3ard has fo&nd that it %&st rec6on 3ith the 3ants' indistinct' indeed' and /&t half5for%&lated' of the 2oor9 and every state has discovered that the 4ro3th of econo%ic or4anisation sooner or later transfor%s the incoherent %ass of the 2oor into a %ove%ent &lti%ately ca2a/le of or4anisation &2on the classic lines of 2arty conflict. This /irth of the social >&estion has a s2ecial i%2ortance for another reason. Before )B;0 socialist ideas 3ere

si%2ly %oral theories 3hich lived in a vac&&% and had no chance of effective realisation. After )B;0 they 3ere in a different 2osition. ,en had seen the deli/erate introd&ction of 2ro2osals the 2&r2ose of 3hich 3as to le4islate for e>&ality. The fi<ation of %a<i%&% 2rices' the a/olition of fe&dal 2rivile4e' the confiscation of #h&rch 2ro2erty and the 2ossessions of those hostile to the Revol&tion' the atte%2ts at 2ro4ressive ta<ation and the control of inheritance' these' as e<2eri%ents' have an i%2ortance it is i%2ossi/le to over5 esti%ate. Do&/tless they &s&ally failed9 do&/tless' also' they 3ere often s&44ested 3itho&t conviction and' %ore often still' a22lied 3itho&t sincerity. This is less si4nificant than the fact that %en /eca%e acc&sto%ed to the 2erce2tion that the State %i4ht /e %ade the tactical instr&%ent of those 3ho 2ossessed its %achinery. It is less si4nificant' also' than the fact that the Jaco/ins' not least their re2resentatives on %ission' schooled the %asses to the &nderstandin4 that distinctions of 3ealth are le4islative creations' and that' 3here crisis de%ands it' e4alitarian innovation %ay /e deli/erately atte%2ted. A third reason is o&tstandin4 in the i%2act it has %ade &2on s&/se>&ent history. Before )B;0 society 3as divided into 2rivile4ed and &n2rivile4ed9 since )B;0 it has /een divided into rich and 2oor. The distinction is a nota/le one. The 2rerevol&tionary division 3as the e<2ression of an a4e5lon4 tradition rooted in the 2sycholo4y of ha/it and c&sto%9 its land%ar6s 3ere as %entally fa%iliar to %en as the ho&se into 3hich they 3ere /orn. To the ne3 division the sanction of tradition 3as no lon4er attached. ,en co&ld see chan4e /efore their eyes. They co&ld see that the attain%ent of riches %eant food and shelter' clothin4 and sec&rity9 they 6ne3 that its a/sence %eant h&n4er and s&fferin4. They learned not only that la3 co&ld %a6e and &n%a6e the 3ealthy 9 they learned also that these o22osed s&ch chan4es in the la3 as involved sacrifice &2on their 2art. They 4re3 to thin6 of the divi5 sion as an anta4onis% of interest' a necessary hostility 3hich co&ld only /e /rid4ed /y an attac6 &2on the ri4hts of 2ro2erty. !ro% )B01 the life of the Re2&/lic 3as' &ntil the e<ec&tion of Ba/e&f' so%ethin4 not &nli6e a 3ar a4ainst the rich in the interest of the 2oor. The Jaco/ins 3a4ed it' no do&/t' for the 2reservation of the Re2&/lic.

The 2oor 3ho s&22orted the% did so' no do&/t as 3ell' /eca&se they 3ere %isera/le and h&n4ry' and not /eca&se they 3ere socialists. B&t it 3as 3a4ed' also' 3ith the idea in the /ac64ro&nd that e>&ality is an ideal' and that the rich are the ene%ies of e>&ality. The notion 2er%anently re%ains therefore that 4reat riches are al3ays ille4iti%ate9 and' 3ith the class5conscio&s 3or6er' the %ore 4eneral vie3 that the 3ea6nesses of society are the o&tco%e of class 2rivile4e. This feelin4 /it the %ore dee2ly /eca&se of 3ide disa22oint%ent 3ith the res&lts of the Revol&tion. After the fall of Ro/es2ierre the sense 3as 3ide5s2read that the Revol&tion 3hich 3as to /enefit the 3hole co%%&nity had' in fact' %erely aided the /o&r4eoisie to the detri%ent of the 3or6er. The latter7s revol&tion' it 3as felt' 3as still to co%e 9 it 3as inherent in the nat&re of thin4s. In this sense' as the 2rinci2les of )B;0 /e4in to i%2re4nate the conse>&ences of the factory syste%' revol&tionary socialis% /eca%e an inevita/le 2art of nineteenth5 cent&ry ideolo4y. The final o&tco%e 3as the definition' 3ith invinci/le clarity' of the 2ro/le% of e>&ality in all its as2ects. Here I shall not vent&re to rely &2on %y o3n dia4nosis' /&t atte%2t only to as6 so%e >&estions. If a 2eo2le see6s to i%2rove its sit&ation /y the alteration of 2olitical instit&tions' and is dissatisfied either 3ith the res&lt itself' or the slo3ness 3ith 3hich its /enefits acc&%&late' 3ill it /e satisfied to re%ain inactive in the econo%ic s2hereD (ill it not as6 itself' as Toc>&eville s&44ested' 3hether the 2rivile4es of 2ro2erty are not the %ain o/stacle to e>&ality a%on4 %en' and assert that they are neither necessary nor desira/leD If it as6s the >&estion' 3ill it not see6 to e<2eri%ent 3ith the 2ossi/ility of re5 s2onseD (ill a ne3 "a2oleon /e discovered to 2&t a ter% to their in>&iriesD B&t to e<a%ine these 2ossi/ilities 3o&ld ta6e %e far /eyond the /o&ndaries of the !rench Revol&tion. It %&st s&ffice here to say that these >&estions have /een raised' and that the ha22iness of %an6ind de2ends &2on the 3ay in 3hich 3e see6 to %eet the 4rave iss&es they involve.

*ADE AND PRINTED IN )REAT !RITAIN !" THE )ARDEN CIT" PRESS LTD'% LETCH&ORTH% HERTS'

!I!LIO)RAPH"
@. Advielle A. A&lard P. B&onarroti B&che: et Ro&< . #ha%2ion #hassin ... ... Histoi#edeG! Babeuf! );;-. .. Histoi#e "oliti.ue de la Rivolution F#an3 faise! d. of )0F.. La So%iSti des 5a%obins! );;0. .. Histoi#e de la (ons i#ation ou# 1E'alite! );F;. .. Histoi#e "a#le,entai#e de la Rivolution F#an'aise! );1-. .. La F#an%e d*a #Ss les (ahie#s de )B;0. );0B. .. La Ginie de la Rivolution! );CF. Les Ele%tions et les (ahie#s de "a#is! );;;. .. Histoi#e Sodaliste! T. v. Ther%idor et Directoire. )0.M. .. La Revolution et la Feodalite! );;F. .. La "hiloso hi% So%iale du i ,e Sie%le! );00. .. Histoi#e Sodaliste de la Rivolution F#an3 faise! d. ,athie:' )0FF. .. /he G#eat F#en%h Revolution! !! Le So%ialis,e au i ,e Sie%le! );0M. Le So%ialis,e /5to i.ue, );0;. Le So%ialis,e et la Rivolution F#anfaise! );00. ... /+ es Rivolutionai#es! );B1. ... Histoi#e Litte#ai#e de la (onvention Nation5 ale! );CC. ... Autou#de Robes ie##e! )0FM. Robes ie##e et la vie %hbe! )0FB. /he F#en%h Revolution! )0F0. ... &anton, Ho,,e d*itat! );;0. ... Buona##oti et la Se%te des E'ou)! )0)F. ... "a#is endant la Rivolution! );;M. Le Babouvis,e a #is Babeuf )0)F.

G. H.

Deville...

Doniol. A. s2inas J. Ja&rts ... P. Kro2ot6in A. Lichten/er4er

A. de ,arcel @. ,arin ... A. ,athie: Ro/inet ... P. Ro/i>&et Sch%idt. ... *. Sender

Those willing to join the La o!" #a"t$, o" %esi"o!s o& o taining in&o"'ation a o!t its #"og"a''e an% #"in(i)les, a"e in*ite% to (o''!ni(ate with the Se("eta"$ o& the +a ian So(iet$. The +a ian So(iet$ has een, &"o' the o!tset, a (onstit!ent o%$ o& the La o!" #a"t$, an% 'e' e"shi) o& the So(iet$ (a""ies with it &!ll 'e' e"shi) o& the La o!" #a"t$, - eligi ilit$ &o" no'ination to all .on&e"en(es an% O&&i(es, an% /!ali&i(ation &o" La o!" #a"t$ (an%i%at!"es &o" #a"lia'ent an% Lo(al A!tho"ities, witho!t o ligation to elong to an$ othe" o"ganisation. The So(iet$ wel(o'es as 'e' e"s an$ )e"sons, 'en o" wo'en, whe"e*e" "esi%ent, who s! s("i e to its 0asis 1set &o"th elow2, an% who will (o3o)e"ate in its wo"4 a((o"%ing to thei" o))o"t!nities. 0ASIS O+ THE +A0IAN SO.IET5. 1To B SI*" D B$ ALL , ,B RS.G 6Ado ted Ma+ F1#d, )0)0.2 The +a ian So(iet$ (onsists o& So(ialists. It the"e&o"e ai's at the "eo"ganisation o& So(iet$ $ the e'an(i)ation o& Lan% an% In%!st"ial .a)ital &"o' in%i*i%!al owne"shi), an% the *esting o& the' in the (o''!nit$ &o" the gene"al ene&it. In this wa$ onl$ (an the nat!"al an% a(/!i"e% a%*antages o& the (o!nt"$ e e/!ita l$ sha"e% $ the whole )eo)le. The So(iet$ a((o"%ingl$ wo"4s &o" the e6tin(tion o& )"i*ate )"o)e"t$ in lan%, with e/!ita le (onsi%e"ation o& esta lishe% e6)e(tations, an% %!e )"o*ision as to the ten!"e o& the ho'e an% the ho'estea%, &o" the t"ans&e" to the (o''!nit$, $ (onstit!tional 'etho%s, o& all s!(h in%!st"ies as (an e (on%!(te% so(iall$, an% &o" the esta lish'ent, as the go*e"ning (onsi%e"ation in the "eg!lation o& )"o%!(tion, %ist"i !tion an% se"*i(e, o& the (o''on goo% instea% o& )"i*ate )"o&it. The So(iet$ is a (onstit!ent o& the La o!" #a"t$ an% o& the Inte"national So(ialist .ong"ess, !t it ta4es )a"t &"eel$ in all (onstit!tional 'o*e'ents, so(ial, e(ono'i( an% )oliti(al, whi(h (an e g!i%e% towa"%s its own o je(ts. Its %i"e(t !siness is 1a2 the )"o)agan%a o& So(ialis' in its a))li(ation to (!""ent )"o le's, 172 in*estigation an% %is(o*e"$ in so(ial, in%!st"ial, )oliti(al an% e(ono'i( "elations, 1(2 the wo"4ing o!t o& So(ialist )"in(i)les in legislation an% a%'inist"ati*e "e(onst"!(tion, 182 the )! li(ation o& the "es!lts o& its in*estigations an% thei" )"a(ti(al lessons. The So(iet$, elie*ing in e/!al (iti9enshi) o& 'en an% wo'en in the &!llest sense, is o)en to )e"sons i""es)e(ti*e o& se6, "a(e o" ("ee%, who (o''it the'sel*es to its ai's an% )!")oses as state% a o*e, an% !n%e"ta4e to )"o'ote its wo"4. The So(iet$ in(l!%es:
I. ,e%/ers' 3ho %&st si4n the Basis and /e elected /y the #o%%ittee. Their S&/scri2tions are not fi<ed9 each is e<2ected to s&/scri/e ann&ally accordin4 to his %eans. They control the Society thro&4h the <ec&tive #o%%ittee Eelected ann&ally /y /allot thro&4h a 2ostal voteG' and at its ann&al and other /&siness %eetin4s. II. Associates' 3ho si4n a for% e<2ressin4 only 4eneral sy%2athy 3ith the o/8ects of the Society and 2ay not less than ios. a year. They can attend all e<ce2t the e<cl&sively %e%/ers? %eetin4s' /&t have no control over the Society and its 2olicy. III. S&/scri/ers' 3ho %&st 2ay at least Ms. a year' and 3ho can attend the Society7s Ordinary Lect&res.

11 DARTMOUTH STREET, WESTMINISTER, LONDON, S.W.1.

TH !ABIA" SO#I T$.

The 'onthl$ )a)e", Fabian Ne7s, an% the T"a(ts &"o' ti'e to ti'e )! lishe% in the well3 4nown +a ian Se"ies, a"e )oste% to all these (lasses. The"e a"e (on*enient .o''on Roo's, whe"e light "e&"esh'ents (an e o taine%, with an e6tensi*e li "a"$ &o" the &"ee !se o& 'e' e"s onl$. A'ong the So(iet$;s a(ti*ities 1in whi(h it )la(es its se"*i(es !n"ese"*e%l$ at the %is)osal o& the La o!" #a"t$ an% the Lo(al La o!" #a"ties all o*e" the (o!nt"$, the T"a%e Unions an% T"a%es .o!n(ils, an% all othe" La o!" an% So(ialist o"ganisations2, 'a$ e 'entione%
EiG !ree lect&res /y its %e%/ers and officers9 EiiG The 3ell56no3n !a/ian Boo65/o<es' each containin4 a/o&t three do:en of the /est /oo6s on cono%ics' Politics' and Social Pro/le%s' 3hich can /e o/tained /y any or4anisation of %en or 3o%en for )Ms. 2er ann&%' coverin4 an e<chan4e of /oo6s every three %onths9 EiiiG Ans3ers to A&estions fro% ,e%/ers of Local A&thorities and others on le4al' technical or 2olitical %atters of Local *overn%ent' etc.9 EivG S2ecial s&/scri2tion co&rses of lect&res on ne3 develo2%ents in tho&4ht9 EvG cono%ic and social investi4ation and research' and 2&/lication of the res&lts.

Lists of Publications, Annual Report, form of Application as Member or Associate, and any other information can be obtained on application personally or by letter to the Secretary of the above address.

SELECT !" !# #A$ A" P%$L CAT !"S.

THE CO**ONSENSE OF *UNICIPAL TRADIN)' By Bernard Sha3. (-. net9 2osta4e F ' *IND "OUR O&N !USINESS' By R. B. S&thers. (-. net/ 2osta4e 0 ' THE DECA" OF CAPITALIST CIVILISATION' By Sidney and Beatrice (e//. #loth' +-./ 2a2er' 0-./ 2osta4e + ' HISTOR" OF THE FA!IAN SOCIET"' By d3ard R. Pease. "e3 dition' )0FM' C-1/ 2osta4e 2' FA!IAN ESSA"S 3(40, E ition5' 0-./ 2osta4e ; ' TTATNL *AR6' By Harold J. Las6i. )-1 9 2ost free (-(7' TO&ARDS SOCIAL DE*OCRAC" P By Sidney (e//. IS' net/ 2osta4e I ' FA!IAN TRACTS an LEAFLETS' /#a%ts, ea%h )C to MF !, #i%e id!, o# 0d! e# do)!, unless othe#7ise stated! Leaflets, - ! ea%h, #i%e id! fo# th#ee %o ies, Fs. e# 1<<, o# F.=3 e# ),.... The Set% (,-1/ 8ost free (,-4' !o$n in 9$c:ra#% (2-1/ 8ost free (2-4

6(o, lete list sent on a

li%ation!8

G.>Gene"alSo(ialis' in its *a"io!s as)e(ts.

Tracts.L La3rence'

II.>A))li(ations o& So(ialis' to #a"ti(!la" #"o le's.

0;( Socialis# an Fa9ianis#% $ Bernard Sha3' 1%. ??@. National Finance% $ +. W. Pethic65 M.#., F%. ?17. Socialis# an Free o#% $ H. A. Las6i' F%. ?<<. The State in the Ne< Social Or er% $ Harold A. Las6i' F%. 1B<. The Philoso8hy of Socialis#% $ A. *l&tton Broc6. 1C@. The Necessary !asis of Society% $ Sidney (e//. 187. Socialis# an S$8erior !rain% $ Bernard Sha3' F%. 18?. !lent an Val$e' 1<D. Socialis# for *illionaires% $ Bernard Sha3' F%. 1BB. Socialis# an Christianity% $ Re*. Percy Dear%er' F%. D?. The *oral As8ects of Socialis#% $ Sidney Ball. C1. Socialis#= Tr$e an False% $ S. (e//' F%. 8C. The I#8ossi9ilities of Anarchis#% $ G. B. Sha3' F%. C. Facts lor Socialists% Thi"teenth E%ition, )0FC,C%. 81. The Fa9ian Society= its Early History% $ Bernard Sha3.

TRACTS'>0;0' The Personnel of the !ritish Forei?n Office an Di8lo#atic Serrioe% (;2(1 1@?@, $ Ro/ert T. "i4htin4ale' F%. ?B1. The Local )overn#ent Act% 1@?@ = Ho< to *a:e the !est of It% $ Sidney (e//' F%. ?B<. I#8erial Tr$steeshi8% 9y The Rt. Hon. Lord Olivier' E..., M.G., F%. ??B. A?ric$lt$re an the La9o$r Party% $ *. T. *arratt' F%. ??D. La9o$r@s Forei?n Policy% $ M"s. H. M. S3an 3ic6' F%. ??7. The Lea?$e of Nations% $ Bernard Sha3' F%. ??B. The !ritish Ca9inet= A St$ y of its Personnel% 1@<131@?8, $ Harold A. Las6i' 1%. ??<. Se itio$s Offences% $ E. A. .. "ee2' 1%. 1@7. The Root of La9o$r Unrest% $ Sidney (e//' F%. 1@8. TaAes% Rates an Local Inco#e TaA% $ Ro/ert Jones' D.Sc.' F%. 1BD. The Teacher in Politics% $ Sidney (e//' F%. 1BB. The Refor# of the Ho$se of Lor s% $ Sidney (e//. i%.

III.>Lo(al
Tracts.

IF.>On

>??C. E $oatlon Co##ittees= Their Po<ers an D$ties% $ H. Sa%&els' 1%. ?1B. The Co$nty Co$ncil= &hat it Is an &hat it Does% $ H. Sa%&els. 1@<. *etro1 8olitan !oro$?h Co$noils% $ .. R. Attlee' M.A., F%. 1@1. !oro$?h Co$ncils $ .. R. Attlee' M.A., F%. 1B@. Ur9an District Co$ncils% $ .. M. Lloyd' M.A., F%. 7?. Parish an District Co$ncils% F%. 1BD. Parish Co$ncils an Villa?e Life% F%.

Go*e"n'ent #owe"s: How to !se the'.

F.>0iog"a)hi(al Se"ies. In 2ortrait covers' G%.

?<?. The Constit$tional Pro9le#s of a Co1o8erative Society% $ Sidney (e//' M.#., F%. ?<B. The Nee tor Fe eral Re1or?anisation of the Co1o8erative *ove#ent% $ Sidney (e//' M.#., F%. ?<8. The Position of E#8loyees in the Co1o8erative *ove#ent% $ Lilian Harris' F%. ?<C. Co1o8erative E $cation% $ Lilian A. Da3son' F%. ?<7. The .o3o)e"ato" in #olitios, $ Al&"e% 0a"nes, M.#., ?%.
00(' Bere#y !entha#% $ @ictor #ohen. 0(C' Tho#as Paine% $ Kin4sley ,artin. 0(2' &illia# Co99ett% $ G. D. H. #ole. (44' &illia# Lovett% (;,,1(;CC% 9y Bar/ara Ha%%ond. Ro9ert O<en% I ealist% $ .. . ,. Toad. (C4% Bohn !$s:in an Social Ethics% $ #"o&. dith ,orley. (.2' Francis Place% $ StJohn G. rvine. (..' Ro9ert O<en% Social Refor#er% $ ,iss H&tchin4. (.C' &illia# *orris an the Co##$nist I eal% $ ,rs. To3nshend. (.;' Bohn St$art *U% $ J&li&s (est. (C+' Charles Din?sley an Christian Sooialis#% 9y #. . @&llia%y.

the .o3o)e"ati*e Mo*e'ent.