Modern Hindu Intellectuals and Ancient Texts - Reforming Śaiva Yoga in Bali by Andrea Acri

As|a kesearch Inst|tute
Work|ng aper Ser|es No. 190

Modern n|ndu Inte||ectua|s and Anc|ent 1exts:
keforminq 5oivo Yoqo in 8o/i

Andrea Acr|
Asla 8esearch lnsLlLuLe, naLlonal unlverslLy of Slngapore
arlaa[nus.edu.sg

Cctober 2012

A8l Worklng aper no. 190 Asla 8esearch lnsLlLuLe Slngapore

2

1he AkI Work|ng aper Ser|es ls publlshed elecLronlcally by Lhe Asla 8esearch lnsLlLuLe of Lhe
naLlonal unlverslLy of Slngapore.

CopyrlghL ls held by Lhe auLhor or auLhors of each Worklng aper.
A8l Worklng apers cannoL be republlshed, reprlnLed, or reproduced ln any formaL wlLhouL Lhe
permlsslon of Lhe paper's auLhor or auLhors.

Note: 1he vlews expressed ln each paper are Lhose of Lhe auLhor or auLhors of Lhe paper. 1hey do
noL necessarlly represenL or reflecL Lhe vlews of Lhe Asla 8esearch lnsLlLuLe, lLs LdlLorlal CommlLLee
or of Lhe naLlonal unlverslLy of Slngapore.

ClLaLlons of Lhls elecLronlc publlcaLlon should be made ln Lhe followlng manner: AuLhor, 1lLle," A8l
Worklng aper, no. #, uaLe, www.nus.arl.edu.sg/pub/wps.hLm. lor lnsLance, SmlLh, !ohn, LLhnlc
8elaLlons ln Slngapore," A8l Worklng aper, no. 1, !une 2003, www.arl.nus.edu.sg/pub/wps.hLm.

As|a kesearch Inst|tute Ld|tor|a| Comm|ttee
Mlchelle Mlller - Chalr
!eremy klngsley
!onaLhan 8enney
Llang ?ong[la
Maureen Plckey
eLer MarolL
1lm 8unnell
valerle ?eo

As|a kesearch Inst|tute
naLlonal unlverslLy of Slngapore
469A 1ower 8lock #10-01,
8uklL 1lmah 8oad,
Slngapore 239770
1el: (63) 6316 3810
lax: (63) 6779 1428
WebslLe: www.arl.nus.edu.sg
Lmall: arlsec[nus.edu.sg

1he As|a kesearch Inst|tute (AkI) was esLabllshed as a unlverslLy-level lnsLlLuLe ln !uly 2001 as one of
Lhe sLraLeglc lnlLlaLlves of Lhe naLlonal unlverslLy of Slngapore (nuS). 1he mlsslon of Lhe lnsLlLuLe ls
Lo provlde a world-class focus and resource for research on Lhe Aslan reglon, locaLed aL one of lLs
communlcaLlons hubs. A8l engages Lhe soclal sclences broadly deflned, and especlally
lnLerdlsclpllnary fronLlers beLween and beyond dlsclpllnes. 1hrough frequenL provlslon of shorL-Lerm
research appolnLmenLs lL seeks Lo be a place of encounLers beLween Lhe reglon and Lhe world.
WlLhln nuS lL works parLlcularly wlLh Lhe laculLy of ArLs and Soclal Sclences, 8uslness, Law and
ueslgn, Lo supporL conferences, lecLures, and graduaLe sLudy aL Lhe hlghesL level.


Modern n|ndu Inte||ectua|s and Anc|ent 1exts:
keform|ng Sa|va oga |n 8a||
1

wltb tespect to 8oll, petbops tbe most tlcbly stockeJ lombet-toom of qtocloos ooJ
beootlfol moqlcol bellefs ooJ ptoctlces lo 5ootbeost Aslo, j.] tbe Jllemmo of
cboosloq betweeo o polxotlc coltotol ootlpootloolsm ooJ o botteo coltotol
motetlollsm seems j.] to be oo especlolly ctoel ooe. lo tbls essoy, l woot to soqqest
tbot tbls Jllemmo ls, lo oll llkellbooJ, o folse ooe, tbot tbe cootloolty of 8olloese
clvlllzotloo coo be molotoloeJ tbooqb tbe fooJomeotol ootote of lts tellqloos llfe be
totolly ttoosfotmeJ (C. CeerLz 1973:170-71)

IN1kCDUC1ICN: kLAkAISING 8ALINLSL nINDUISM IkCM A 1Lk1-nIS1CkICAL LkSLC1IVL

lor Lhe pasL four decades, Lhe sLudy of 8allnese rellglon - parLlcularly Lhe reformed verslon of
'Plndulsm' (Aqomo nloJo 8oll) LhaL came Lo Lhe fore from Lhe early 20Lh cenLury onwards - has
been domlnaLed by anLhropologlsLs. Accordlng Lo Lhe mosL lnfluenLlal Lheorles, prlmarlly Lackllng
soclologlcal lssues connecLed wlLh rlLual, pollLlcs and hlerarchy, 8allnese rellglon emphaslzed
orLhopraxy raLher Lhan orLhodoxy, lacklng a fully-fledged Lheologlcal and phllosophlcal LradlLlon as
well as a seL of shared bellefs carrled by a body of canonlzed sacred scrlpLures. lL was only afLer Lhe
conLacLs wlLh Lhe ldeologles carrled by represenLaLlves of ChrlsLlan, lslamlc and lndlan Plndu falLhs
LhaL Lhe 8allnese reformers soughL Lo promoLe a shlfL from a klnd of embedded orLhopraxy Lo an
unlversallsLlc and absLracL dogmaLlc rellglon, Lhe alleglance Lo a slngle delLy and Lhe
'scrlpLurallzaLlon' of LradlLlonal bellefs.

ln a recenL arLlcle, 'A new perspecLlve for 8allnese Plndulsm" ln Lhe llghL of Lhe pre-modern
rellglous dlscourse, A LexLual-hlsLorlcal approach' (Acrl 2011a), l have offered a crlLlque of several
wldely accepLed sLaLemenLs advanced ln Lhe anLhropologlcal llLeraLure. My crlLlque revolved around
Lhe facL LhaL anLhropologlsLs have largely, and surprlslngly, lgnored an lmporLanL source of daLa on
Lhe laLLer aspecLs of 8allnese rellglon, namely Lhe exLenslve corpus of Cld !avanese-cum-SanskrlL
Salva LexLs known as 1uLurs - a body of llLeraLure reconflgurlng maLerlals of SouLh Aslan provenance
wlLhln a !avano-8allnese docLrlnal framework. lurLhermore, Lhey have refralned from embarklng on
a comparlson of feaLures of 8allnese rellglon(s) and anclenL SouLh Aslan rellglons and phllosophles,
whlch slnce Lhe flrsL mlllennlum Au have exLenslvely conLrlbuLed Lo shaplng Lhe 8allnese rellglous

1
noLe on spelllng: 1hls arLlcle malnLalns, slde-by-slde, Lhe dlfferenL spelllng convenLlons used Lo
LransllLeraLe Cld !avanese, SanskrlL, modern 8allnese and 8ahasa lndonesla. Cld !avanese/SanskrlL words
found ln Lhe works by modern auLhors have noL been sLandardlzed and reLaln Lhelr orlglnal spelllng, even
when faulLy or lnconslsLenL (l have, however, adapLed Lhem Lo Lhe reformed verslon of lndoneslan spelllng
for Lhe sake of clarlLy). Cld !avanese/SanskrlL words found ln oLher conLexLs have been sLandardlzed Lo
Lhe spelllng convenLlons used by ZoeLmulder (1983) ln hls OlJ Iovooese-oqllsb ulctloooty, wlLh Lhe
excepLlon LhaL v renders Lhe SanskrlL semlvowel v (lnsLead of w), and LhaL n renders Lhe SanskrlL velar
nasal (lnsLead of q), as well as Lhe ooosvto or ccok.
AcknowledgmenLs: Lhe wrlLlng of Lhls arLlcle was carrled ouL whlle holdlng a vlslLlng lellowshlp aL Lhe
School of CulLure, PlsLory and Language of Lhe Anu, supporLed by an Lndeavour 2) AcknowledgmenLs: Lhe
wrlLlng of Lhls arLlcle was carrled ouL whlle holdlng a vlslLlng lellowshlp aL Lhe School of CulLure, PlsLory
and Language of Lhe Anu, supporLed by an Lndeavour Award for osLdocLoral 8esearch granLed by Lhe
AusLrallan uLLW8, lL was subsequenLly revlsed durlng Lhe flrsL slx monLhs of my osLdocLoral lellowshlp
aL Lhe Asla 8esearch lnsLlLuLe (8ellglon & CloballzaLlon ClusLer), nuS. l wlsh Lo Lhank 8en Arps, 8oy
!ordaan, Mlchele SLephen, and McComas 1aylor for Lhelr commenLs.

2
dlscourse. upholdlng a synchronlc approach, Lhey have pald llLLle aLLenLlon Lo Lhe hlsLorlcal
dlmenslon of 8allnese rellglon, Lhereby falllng Lo dlsLlngulsh beLween feaLures LhaL are Lhe resulL of
reformlsL lnfluence from Lhose LhaL have been lnherlLed from Lhe precolonlal pasL.

AccepLlng Lhe argumenLs advanced by anLhropologlsL Mlchele SLephen ln her groundbreaklng sLudy
(2003), l presenLed furLher LexLual evldence supporLlng Lhe clalm LhaL Lhe culLural exchanges wlLh
SouLh Asla LhaL sLarLed aL Lhe beglnnlng of Lhe Common Lra led Lo Lhe exlsLence on 8all of a
sophlsLlcaLed Lheologlcal LradlLlon predaLlng 20Lh cenLury reformlsm.
2
1he exlsLence of a dlalecLlc
relaLlonshlp beLween Lhe modern and conLemporary rellglous dlscourse and Lhe pasL LradlLlon ls
LesLlfled Lo by Lhe greaL number of LranslaLlons lnLo modern lndoneslan of SanskrlL rellglous LexLs
publlshed on 8all slnce Lhe advenL of prlnLlng, and by Lhe even greaLer number of publlcaLlons on
Plndulsm wrlLLen ln 8allnese or lndoneslan. 1he same dlalecLlc ls documenLed ln Lhe culLural evenLs
durlng whlch Cld !avanese sources are elLher (re)lnLerpreLed, (re)enacLed and commenLed upon ln
8allnese or 'performed' ln a varleLy of manners (e.g. shadow puppeLry, LheaLre, dance, chanLlng,
eLc.).

SLarLlng from Lhe assumpLlon LhaL Lhe use of daLa drawn from premodern Salva sources from boLh
Lhe lndoneslan Archlpelago and SouLh Asla ls lndlspensable for a beLLer undersLandlng of Lhe more
recenL rellglous dlscourse on 8all, where reformlsL groups have aLLempLed Lo adopL (and adapL) Lhe
canon of neo-Plndulsm as parL of Lhe reformed verslon of 8allnese (Salva) rellglon, here l argue LhaL
Lhe modern !avano-8allnese rellglous dlscourse ls characLerlzed by a remarkable conLlnulLy wlLh Lhe
earller LradlLlon, especlally when lL comes Lo lLs exegeLlcal and LexL-bulldlng pracLlces, buL also by
lmporLanL elemenLs of change (or, raLher, sLraLegles for deallng wlLh change). 1o appralse Lhe naLure
of such changes, slngle Lhem ouL and explaln Lhem ln Lhe llghL of Lhelr conLexL-speclflc hlsLorlcal,
llLerary and Lheologlco-phllosophlcal background ls Lhe concern of Lhls arLlcle.

My analysls malnly focuses on Lhe LreaLmenL of docLrlne and yoga feaLurlng ln selecLed LexLs
belonglng Lo Lhe premodern body of !avano-8allnese Salva llLeraLure (ubotmo ltojolo,
1ottvojoo and vrbospotltottvo) and ln LexLbooks of 8allnese Plndulsm publlshed ln Lhe 20Lh
cenLury (Ajl 5ooqkyo by lda keLuL !elanLlk and ksl oJoyo 5ookyo Joo oqo by Shrl 8sl
Anandakusuma). 1o provlde Lhe reader wlLh LexLual evldence ln a manner LhaL can be easlly grasped,
l make use of some Lables and charLs LhaL presenL some slgnlflcanL docLrlnal Lhemes from Lhe above-
menLloned scrlpLural sources. My comparlson shows LhaL lndependenL, yeL relaLed, !avano-8allnese
culLural producLs were shaped by analogous hlsLorlcal and eplsLemlc forces.

IN1kCDUCING 1nL SCUkCLS

remodern 1attvas

1he Lhree pre-modern sources dlscussed ln Lhls arLlcle belong Lo Lhe corpus of Cld !avanese Salva
scrlpLures referred Lo as 1aLLva, formlng a subgenre of Lhe wlder corpus collecLlvely referred Lo as

2
See SLephen 2003:3: 'MosL 8allnese conLlnue Lhelr rlLual llfe ln many ways LhaL are clearly conLlnuous wlLh
ldeas and pracLlces LhaL owe llLLle Lo reformlsL efforLs and even less Lo forelgn lnfluence. [.] ln
acknowledglng Lhe complexlLy of dlscourse concernlng rellglon ln presenL-day 8all [.] l Lhlnk lL ls sLlll
posslble Lo dlscern ln Lhls fermenL of conLesLaLlon, negoLlaLlon, and recreaLlon elemenLs LhaL derlve from
Lhe pasL buL conLlnue Lo shape ln lmporLanL ways currenL pracLlce'.

3
1uLur.
3
Whlle lL ls dlfflculL Lo ascerLaln Lhe daLe of composlLlon of 1uLurs and 1aLLvas, Lhe laLLer, on
accounL of Lhelr lnLrlnslc LexLual and docLrlnal feaLures, are llkely Lo form an early sLraLum of Lhe
corpus.
4
1aLLvas were arguably composed ln !ava and/or 8all durlng an early phase of Lhe classlcal
age of Lhe lndo-!avanese clvlllzaLlons (clrca 8Lh-12Lh cenLury Au), whereas mosL 1uLurs, excepL for a
handful of LexLs LhaL may be as old as 1aLLvas, were composed ln Lhe perlod of Lhe LasL !avanese
klngdoms up Lo laLe 13Lh cenLury Au, and well beyond LhaL daLe lnLo Lhe early modern perlod on 8all.

1aLLvas can be dlsLlngulshed from 1uLurs on accounL of Lhelr pecullarlLles of sLyle, LexLual feaLures
and conLenLs. Whereas 1uLurs are markedly esoLerlc, ofLen unsysLemaLlc and mysLlcally mlnded,
1aLLvas reveal Salva docLrlnes ln a sysLemaLlc and coherenL manner, and share a core of
fundamenLal LeneLs Lhrough Lhe corpus. Llke Lhe early 1uLurs, buL Lo a much greaLer exLenL, 1aLLvas
appear Lo have lnherlLed Lhelr maln docLrlnal elemenLs from Lhe once pan-SouLh Aslan Salva
SalddhnLlka llLeraLure ln SanskrlL (clrca 6Lh-11Lh cenLury Au), whlch seemlngly consLlLuLes Lhe
scrlpLural canon Lhrough whlch Salvlsm was LransmlLLed Lo Lhe lndoneslan Archlpelago ln Lhe
premodern perlod (see Acrl 2006).

uhormo Ptojo/o

Cur flrsL source, Lhe ubotmo ltojolo, ls wrlLLen ln Cld !avanese prose lnLerspersed wlLh a handful
of SanskrlL verses. lL has been preserved unlquely Lhrough a 13Lh-cenLury palm-leaf manuscrlpL of
WesL !avanese provenance, buL allegedly found ln Lhe CenLral !avanese Merapl-Merbabu collecLlon
and now kepL ln Lhe 8erlln SLaaLsblblloLhek. lL has noL been handed down ln 8all. llrsL LransllLeraLed
by rof. !acob Lnslnk from Cronlngen unlverslLy ln Lhe 1960s, Lhe LexL has now been edlLed and
LranslaLed lnLo Lngllsh by Lhe presenL wrlLer.
3

1he ubotmo ltojolo, arranged ln Lhe form of a dlalogue beLween Lhe Lord and hls son kumra, ls
remarkable ln LhaL lL provldes whaL ls as yeL Lhe mosL compleLe, coherenL and deLalled exposlLlon of
Salva docLrlne Lo be found ln an Cld !avanese LexL. lL also consLlLuLes Lhe unlque LesLlmony for Lhe
exlsLence of (LheoreLlcal knowledge of) Lhe yoga of aLan[all ln Lhe Archlpelago. nearly a Lhlrd of lL ls
based on parLs of Lhe SanskrlL oqostto and a commenLary LhaL ls relaLed, albelL by no means
ldenLlcal, Lo Lhe one, popularly referred Lo as 8bsyo, embeddlng Lhe oqostto. 1he ubotmo
ltojolo appears Lo be Lhe work of a slngle auLhor or masLermlnd, who carrled ouL a consclous
operaLlon of docLrlnal lnnovaLlon lnsofar as he Lrled Lo lncorporaLe lnLelllgenLly Lan[ala yoga lnLo a
predomlnanLly Salva Lheologlcal framework.

3
See ZoeLmulder 1982:1963, under tottvo 3: 'docLrlne concernlng reallLy, phllosophy, Lhe wrlLlngs
conLalnlng Lhls docLrlne', and 1982:2084, under totot: 'memory, recollecLlon, consclousness, lnnermosL
recesses of Lhe splrlLual parL of Lhe human belng, ''Lhe lnner mlnd'' (where Lhe unlon wlLh Lhe absoluLe
Lakes place), holy LradlLlon, smrtl (as opposed Lo stotl, see s.v.), LexL conLalnlng rellglous docLrlne, rellglous
docLrlne'. As a maLLer of facL, Lhe Lerm 1uLur ls used ln secondary llLeraLure and among Lhe 8allnese as a
general label referrlng Lo Lhe genre of scrlpLures bearlng elLher Lhe one or Lhe oLher denomlnaLlon ln Lhelr
LlLles-or even none of Lhem. AlLhough, as l shall remark furLher on, Lhere are reasons Lo belleve LhaL
1aLLvas orlglnally formed a separaLe, and probably earller, class of scrlpLures, lL ls arguable LhaL ln Lhe
course of Llme Lhe denomlnaLlons '1uLur' and '1aLLva' came Lo largely overlap so as Lo be regarded as
ldenLlcal-a facL conflrmed by Lhe occurrence of Lhe label '1aLLva' ln LexLs LhaL do noL show feaLures
aLLrlbuLable Lo 1aLLvas buL raLher Lo '1uLurs' (and vlce-versa).
4
lor lnsLance, Zlesenlss (1938:14) consldered Lhe vrbospotltottvo a precursor of Lhe Salva gamas or
1anLras, whlle Conda (1973:13) LenLaLlvely daLed Lhe LexL Lo Lhe 10Lh or 11Lh cenLury.
3
See Acrl 2011b. A LypewrlLLen LranscrlpL as well as a lootot conLalnlng Lhe Cld !avanese LexL of Lhe ubotmo
ltojolo, as consLlLuLed from an early drafL of my crlLlcal edlLlon, were prepared by my 8allnese
lnformanL, Lhe LradlLlonal man of leLLers lda uewa Cede CaLra of Amlapura ln 2007.

4
1ottvojno

1he 1ottvojoo ls wrlLLen enLlrely ln Cld !avanese prose, unllke Lhe oLher Lwo 1aLLvas dlscussed
here, lL ls noL arranged ln Lhe form of a dlalogue buL expounds lLs argumenLs ln Lhe form of a lesson
glven by an anonymous Leacher. 1hls scrlpLure ls remarkable ln Lhe 1aLLva and 1uLur genres lnsofar
as lL has been preserved noL only ln 8allnese manuscrlpLs, buL also ln a compleLe palm-leaf
manuscrlpL (lootot) from Lhe CenLral !avanese collecLlon of Merapl-Merbabu, as well as ln a shorL
fragmenL of palm-leaf manuscrlpL (olpob) from Lhe WesL !avanese collecLlon of Clburuy (see Acrl
2011d). 1he LexL was edlLed on Lhe basls of Lhe 8allnese manuscrlpLs, and LranslaLed lnLo Plndl, by
Sudarshana uevl(-Slnghal) (1962). 8esldes belng characLerlzed by a less sophlsLlcaLed argumenLaLlve
sLyle, Lhe 1ottvojoo feaLures a somewhaL more 'locallsed' approach Lo rellglous experlence as lL
mlxes Lhe speculaLlve Lhemes found ln Lhe ubotmo ltojolo and vrbospotltottvo wlLh Lhe klnd of
esoLerlc and mysLlcal Lhemes Lhrlvlng ln 1uLurs.

"#$%&$'('$'')$

1he vrbospotltottvo conslsLs of sevenLy-Lhree SanskrlL verses provlded wlLh an Cld !avanese
exegesls. lL opens wlLh a raLher long prose lnLroducLlon. 1he LexL owes lLs LlLle Lo Lhe name of Slva's
lnLerlocuLor and quesLloner, vrhaspaLl,
6
a dlvlne characLer who ln vedlc and urnlc myLhology ls
aLLrlbuLed Lhe role of Leacher of Lhe Cods. !udglng from Lhe slgnlflcanL number of exLanL palm-leaf
manuscrlpLs conLalnlng coples of Lhe LexL, Lhe vrbospotltottvo appears Lo have en[oyed a promlnenL
and auLhorlLaLlve poslLlon ln 8all, where lL has remalned popular up Lo and lncludlng Lhe presenL day.
AparL from belng acknowledged as Lhe prlmary proLoLyplcal source of many 20Lh-cenLury 8allnese
LexLbooks of Plndulsm, Lhe vrbospotltottvo has been LranslaLed a number of Llmes, flrsL lnLo Cerman
by Zlesenlss,
7
Lhen lnLo Lngllsh by Sudarshana uevl (1937, along wlLh a crlLlcal edlLlon), lnLo modern
lndoneslan by Mlrsha (1993), and lnLo !apanese by Ando.
8

1he vrbospotltottvo ls a composlLe and complex LexL lnLegraLlng maLerlals belonglng Lo varlous
SanskrlLlc docLrlnal LradlLlons, such as supaLa Salvlsm and Snkhya, wlLhln a Salva SalddhnLlka
framework.
9
1he SanskrlL-Cld !avanese LranslaLlon dyads 33-39 feaLure a deLalled descrlpLlon of Lhe
varleLy of (non-Lan[ala) Salva yoga LhaL became paradlgmaLlc ln !avano-8allnese 1uLurs, as wlll
become clear from Lhe dlscusslon below.

Modern 1extbooks of n|ndu|sm

A pleLhora of mlmeographed pamphleLs and prlnLed bookleLs, wrlLLen ln elLher 8allnese or Malay-
lndoneslan, sprang up on 8all soon afLer Lhe lnLroducLlon of modern sLenclllng and prlnLlng
Lechnlques ln Lhe early 20Lh cenLury. 1hese publlcaLlons, almlng aL Lhose 8allnese-Lhe ma[orlLy-
who could noL read Lhe scrlpLures ln Lhelr orlglnal languages and scrlpLs, qulckly superseded, yeL
never enLlrely replaced, lootot as Lhe favourlLe medlum of dlssemlnaLlon of Lhe rellglous lore on Lhe

6
Spelled 8rhaspaLl ln sLandard SanskrlL.
7
1hls ls an undaLed (buL pre-WWll, whlch Zlesenlss dld noL survlve), unpubllshed LypewrlLLen manuscrlpL of
an annoLaLed crlLlcal edlLlon and Cerman LranslaLlon of Lhe LexL, sLored ln Lhe speclal collecLlons of Lhe
Lelden unlverslLy Llbrary (cod. LCr C8 120).
8
rof. Ando ls currenLly preparlng an edlLlon and !apanese LranslaLlon of Lhe LexL (p.c. !une 2009).
9
See nlhom 1993 (on Lhe Snkhya and supaLa parallels) and Acrl 2006, 2011c (on Lhe early Salva
SalddhnLlka parallels).

3
lsland.
10
1he maln reason Lo sLudy such llLeraLure ls LhaL lL documenLs a cruclal phase ln Lhe
(re)formaLlon of whaL ls now called Agama Plndu 8all, durlng whlch Lhe 8allnese lnLellecLuals and
rellglous leaders were lnLenL upon (re)creaLlng a LexLual canon LhaL, Lhrough Lhe lncorporaLlon of
elemenLs of lndlan Plndulsm, would have sancLloned recognlLlon of 8allnese rellglon as a fully-
fledged, and pan-lndoneslan, 'World 8ellglon'.

*+( ,$-./0$

1he Ajl 5ooqkyo '1exLbook of Lhe Snkhya hllosophy'
11
ls a shorL Lheologlco-phllosophlcal LreaLlse
(37 pp.), composed ln 8allnese by Lhe lnLellecLual lda keLuL !elanLlk (d. 1961) of 8an[ar, Slngara[a.
llrsL publlshed, as a mlmeographed pamphleL, ln 1947, Lhe work clrculaLed ln 8all Lhrough a number
of prlnLed edlLlons, Lhe lasL daLlng from 1979,
12
as well as ln lootot manuscrlpLs.
13
noL long afLer Lhe
publlcaLlon of Lhe orlglnal work, a uuLch LranslaLlon by Pooykaas (1931) appeared as 'ngkhya-leer
van 8all' ln Lhe 1ljJscbtlft voot loJlscbe 1ool-, looJ- eo volkeokooJe. 1he Ajl 5ooqkyo was
subsequenLly redlscovered' among Lhe lootot of Lhe laLe !elanLlk's llbrary ln 1972 by Cede Sandhl,
who LranslaLed lL lnLo modern lndoneslan and republlshed lL.
14
noLwlLhsLandlng Lhe facL LhaL Lhls
work seems Lo have en[oyed a cerLaln popularlLy on 8all, lL ls now hard Lo flnd.
13

ln Lhe foreword Lo hls work, !elanLlk explalns LhaL he wlshed Lo produce a small bookleL descrlblng
Lhe Salva rellglon (lqomo 5lwo) ln low-level 8allnese (boboso 8oll kopoto), and noL ln Lhe Cld
!avanese and SanskrlL used ln Lhe avallable body of sacred LexLs, ln order LhaL hls work be read and
undersLood by a larger publlc. 1he auLhor declares LhaL he has Laken as hls basls a body of
foundaLlonal sacred LexLs preserved ln lootot manuscrlpLs, whlch he chose accordlng Lo Lhelr
conLenLs and whlch he LhoughL Lo be more lmporLanL for Lhe edlflcaLlon of hls readers. 1he llsLed
sources are Lhe followlng (spelllng sLandardlzed): 8bovoookoso, vrbospotltottvo, 1ottvojoo,
8tobmndopotno, locovlnsotltottvo, 8oko oqostto, Nltmolojoo (oLherwlse known as

10
A dlscusslon of Lhls phenomenon and a llsL of LexLs publlshed up Lo Lhe early slxLles may be found ln
Pooykaas 1963.
11
Curlously, an ojl snkbyo - meanlng elLher 'Lhe Snkhya docLrlne(s)' or 'Lhe Snkhya ScrlpLure(s)' - ls
menLloned ln Sarga 23, sLanza 21 of Lhe Cld !avanese kakawln kmyono (probably 9Lh cenLury Au).
8egreLLably, Lhe exacL meanlng and purporL of LhaL dlfflculL passage ls sLlll obscure.
12
1hls ls a prlnLed edlLlon publlshed (and prefaced) by l keLuL 8epeL and uewa u[l ln 1abanan.
13
lLself bearlng wlLness Lo Lhe facL LhaL, even afLer Lhe advenL of modern prlnLlng, LradlLlonal palm-leaf
manuscrlpLs remalned an lmporLanL medlum for propagaLlng rellglous lore (Lhls sLlll holds Lrue nowadays,
see my noLe 4 above). 1he lootot conLalnlng a LexL LlLled 1otot Ajl 5ooqkyo, whlch ls ln facL ldenLlcal Lo Lhe
publlshed Ajl 5ookyo, are ln usaL uokumenLasl 8udaya 8all (1/l/12 = k31, 60 follos), and ln a prlvaLe
collecLlon ln kaslmpar, Abang, karangasem (a LypewrlLLen LranscrlpL ls avallable aL Lhe Lelden unlverslLy
Llbrary and aL Lhe Menzles Llbrary of Lhe AusLrallan naLlonal unlverslLy as respecLlvely PkS 3373 and
Sydney 8undle 221.11). lL ls llkely LhaL one of Lhe lootot edlLlons preceded Lhe flrsL prlnLed edlLlon
(posslbly an auLograph).
14
1hls edlLlon ls LlLled Ajl 5ooqkbyo, Allb 8oboso oleb CeJe 5ooJbl, 8.A. Iokotto, 8 Aqostos 1972. AlLhough
Lhe xeroxed bookleL ln my possesslon carrles no deLalls abouL Lhe publlsher, uharma alguna (2009)
menLlons an lndoneslan LranslaLlon of Lhe Ajl 5ooqkyo publlshed by Lhe ulrekLoraL !enderal 8lmblngan
MasyarakaL Plndu dan 8uddha ln !akarLa ln 1973, whlch lndeed may be Lhe same edlLlon as Cede Sandhl's.
As Lhe LranslaLor wrlLes ln hls preface, hls lnLenLlon was Lo make Lhe LexL more popular and dlssemlnaLe
lLs unlversal Leachlngs so as Lo make Lhem accesslble noL only Lhrough 8ahasa uaerah (8allnese) buL also
8ahasa lndonesla.
13
l Lhank rof. Wlndhu Sancaya of unlverslLas udayana (uenpasar), who klndly leL me xerox hls copy of Lhe
orlglnal prlnLed edlLlon of Lhe work.

6
Novotocl), 5on nyon uoso Atm, 5tosomoccoyo, lootot 5omJbl, cotot oqo vlJbl 5stto, 5opto
8bovooo.

Whlle Lhe Ajl 5ooqkyo consLlLuLes a synLhesls and resLyllng of maLerlals drawn from SanskrlL-Cld
!avanese sources, lL dlsplays unmlsLakable Lraces of orlglnallLy. !elanLlk, hlmself a proflclenL
Lheologlan and eclecLlc lnLellecLual, should noL be regarded as a mere synLheslzer and sysLemaLlzer
buL raLher as an auLhor ln hls own rlghL, almlng aL lmplemenLlng a well-deflned docLrlnal and
morallsLlc agenda. 1o sLudy hls LreaLlse ls Lherefore lnLeresLlng ln order Lo esLabllsh where Lhe
boundarles beLween orlglnallLy and adherence Lo a canon lle ln Lhe !avano-8allnese LradlLlon.

!elanLlk's maln lnLenLlon ls Lo descrlbe Lhe characLerlsLlcs of lda Sang Pyang Wldhl, who creaLed Lhe
world and everyLhlng llvlng Lhere, especlally human belngs, and Lo characLerlze Lhe baslc dlchoLomy
descrlbed ln 1aLLvas, namely beLween Lhe meLaphyslcal prlnclples of SenLlence (cetooo) and
lnsenLlence (ocetooo), whlch accounLs for Lhe enLlre creaLlon. 1hls dlchoLomy reflecLs Lhe one
espoused by Lhe Snkhya school of lndlan phllosophy, whlch names Lhe Lwo prlnclples SplrlL (potoso)
and naLure (ptokrtl). 1he LreaLlse unfolds Lhrough Len chapLers, each dedlcaLed Lo a parLlcular (seL of)
consLlLuLlve prlnclple(s) of Lhe unlverse (tottvo), beglnnlng from Lhe uppermosL, LhaL ls Lhe Lord ln
Pls varlous aspecLs (potomoslvotottvo, soJslvotottvo, slvotottvo), Lhe Soul, Lhe lower LwenLy-flve
tottvo of Snkhya from SplrlL down Lo Lhe flve gross elemenLs, and Man. 8esldes deallng wlLh
onLology, !elanLlk provldes hls readers wlLh dlrecLlons Lo Lhe worshlp of Cod and Lhe pracLlce of yoga.

1he Ajl 5ooqkyo has been appralsed by varlous 8allnese auLhors as a documenL of greaL lmporLance
for Lhe sLudy of 8allnese rellglon.
16
Pooykaas (1931:434-33) regarded lL as groundbreaklng slnce lL
beneflLed from Lhe advanLages of prlnLlng Lechnology, whlch enabled Lhe work Lo have a far-
reachlng lmpacL among Lhe common 8allnese. Pooykaas furLher remarked LhaL, unllke
conLemporary manuscrlpLs, Lhe Ajl 5ooqkyo was reproduced free of copylng mlsLakes, and Lhanks Lo
Lhls any mlsLakes ln Lhe exposlLlon could be aLLrlbuLed Lo Lhe auLhor hlmself raLher Lhan Lo sloppy
anonymous copylsLs. More lmporLanLly, !elanLlk may be regarded Lo be among Lhe flrsL 8allnese
reformers Lo have looked aL lndla as Lhe cradle of Plndulsm (see 8akker 1993:302).

1%( 2$3-0$ ,$-/0$ 3$- 24.$

Cur lasL source ls Lhe Lheologlco-phllosophlcal LreaLlse ksl oJoyo 5ookyo Joo oqo (68 pp.), wrlLLen
ln 8ahasa lndonesla and publlshed ln klungkung ln 1973. 1he auLhor, Shrl 8sl Anandakusuma (for Lhe
record CusLl ngoerah Sldemen, 1912-1992), was a polymaLh wlLh nlneLy books Lo hls name.
17
Pe was
a respecLed rellglous personallLy of Lhe reform movemenL. 8earlng Lhe presLlglous Llle of 8sl ('seer'),
he served as Lhe head of Lhe SaLya Plndu uharma usaL from 1939 Lo hls deaLh. ln an lnLervlew he
gave ln 1989 Anandakusuma sLaLed LhaL Lhrough hls work he wlshed Lo spread 'Lrue Plndulsm'
among Lhe 8allnese so LhaL Lhey would galn 'greaLer knowledge of Lhe phllosophlcal background and
more emphasls on Lhe mysLlcal slde of Lhe rellglon'.
18
Pe was lnfluenced by Plndu phllosophers and
rellglous leaders such as Swaml vlveknanda (1863-1902), Swaml Slvnanda (1887-1963), and
Sarvepalll 8adhakrlshnan (1888-1973).

16
See, for example, uharma alguna 2009.
17
A comprehenslve llsL of Anandakusuma's publlcaLlons may be found ln 8akker 1993:333-9.
18
As reporLed by 8akker (1993:80). 8egreLLably, 8akker nowhere ln hls book provldes Lhe deLalls around Lhe
lnLervlew, for lnsLance wheLher Lhe lnLervlew was conducLed by 8akker hlmself, wheLher he had hlm
lnLervlewed on hls behalf by an lnLerpreLer, or wheLher Lhe lnLervlew was held ln a conLexL and occaslon
LhaL were unrelaLed Lo 8akker's own research.

7
Llke hls predecessor !elanLlk, Anandakusuma composed hls LexLbook by maklng use of exlsLlng
sources, whlch he llsLed ln a blbllography, Lhese are, followlng Lhe orlglnal order, ksl 5bosooo,
wtebospotl 1ottwo, 5wotlko 5otto (slc, read 5wostlko 5otto) by Anandakusuma hlmself, and
kooJollol oqo by Swaml Slvnanda. Pls LreaLlse ls dlvlded lnLo Lhree parLs, LlLled respecLlvely ksl
oJoyo, 5ookyo, and oqo. arL l, ksl oJoyo, forms an exLended lnLroducLlon ln whlch Lhe auLhor
explalns Lhe background and alms of hls llLerary and edlfylng endeavour. Pe embarks on a semanLlc
analysls of Lhe words qoto and sottwom, declares LhaL ln Lhe veda Lhe Lord (toboo yooq mobo eso) ls
SaL-ChlL-Ananda, explalns whaL are Lhe prerogaLlves of a 8sl or 8hagawan, narraLes Lhe sLory of Lhe
8sl vyasa, llsLs Lhe moral duLles of human belngs, deflnes Lhe supreme prlnclple of 8rahman as
ALman Alkyam ('one wlLh Lhe Self'), and descrlbes Lhe characLerlsLlcs of an Acharya or Wlku.

arL ll, 5ookyo, sLarLs wlLh Lhe lnLroducLory remarks abouL Lhe meanlng of Sankya phllosophy and lLs
sharlng Lhe same alm (mempooyol soto tojooo) wlLh ?oga. Anandakusuma's declared alm ls Lo
lmprove splrlLuallLy (ketokbooloo, kejlwooo), whlch ls a parL of phllosophy (tottwo), by clarlfylng or
dlsenLangllng (meoqotolkoo) Lhe Leachlng of Lhe Lord (lsbwoto), so LhaL LhaL afLer deaLh one may
become one wlLh Plm. Pe Lhen very brlefly lnLroduces Lhe frame sLory of lshwara Leachlng Lhe gods
on Lhe peak of Lhe kelasa, who are [olned by WrehaspaLl. lrom Lhls polnL onwards Lhe LexL closely
follows Lhe vrbospotltottvo, excepL for a few addlLlons as well as docLrlnal dlvergences, mosL noLably
Lhe descrlpLlon of Lan[ala yoga ln parL lll (oqo). AlLhough Anandakusuma ls llkely Lo have been
famlllar wlLh !elanLlk's Ajl 5ooqkyo, hls ksl oJoyo 5ookyo Joo oqo does noL bear any speclflc
lnfluence Lraceable Lo Lhe laLLer work and musL Lherefore be regarded as a largely lndependenL
endeavor ln Lhe panorama of 8allnese reformlsm.

1nL IAVANC-8ALINLSL 1U1Uk]1A11VA CCkUS AS 1nL SCkI1UkAL 8ASIS CI SAIVA Ck1nCDCk
IkCM 1nL kLMCDLkN 1nkCUGn 1nL MCDLkN LkICD

8efore embarklng on an lnLerLexLual lnvesLlgaLlon of our sources, almed aL showlng how modern
8allnese Plndu wrlLers have approprlaLed Lhe preexlsLlng scrlpLural corpus of Cld !avanese Salva
LexLs, l should llke Lo argue LhaL such a corpus does lndeed exlsL, and LhaL lL consLlLuLes Lhe basls of
whaL may be regarded as a '8allnese Salva 1heology'.

MosL anLhropologlsLs have noL recognlzed 8allnese rellglon a proper Lheologlcal and speculaLlve
LradlLlon, leL alone a body of sacred canonlcal scrlpLures carrylng Lhe foundaLlon of lLs 'orLhodoxy'.
1he sancLloned vlews, flrsL advanced by Cllfford CeerLz ln hls lnfluenLlal essay 'lnLernal Converslon"
ln ConLemporary 8all' (1973) and Lhen furLher developed by subsequenL anLhropologlsLs,
19
may be
summarlzed as follows: (pre-reformed) 8allnese rellglon ls characLerlzed by a locallzed and
embedded characLer, lL does noL owe slgnlflcanLly Lo SouLh Aslan rellglons, lL lacks docLrlnal unlLy, or
lL lacks docLrlne alLogeLher. lurLher, whereas mosL anLhropologlsLs have lgnored alLogeLher Lhe
corpus of Salva 1uLurs and 1aLLvas, Lhe few ones who have acknowledged lLs exlsLence have made
raLher dlsparaglng remarks abouL lLs naLure and relevance for Lhe sLudy of 8allnese rellglon, argulng
agalnsL lLs coherence and meanlngfulness on Lhe one hand, and lLs llnk wlLh SanskrlL scrlpLures from
SouLh Asla one Lhe oLher.
20

19
lor example, Powell (1978:263), 8arLh (1993:262), lcard (1997:188, 1999:42), Cuermonprez (2001:276-7),
Powe (2001:148), see also Lhe remarks by phllologlsL lrlLs SLaal (1993:31).
20
See 8oon (1990:xlll, 138-64), 8arLh (1993:216-17), Cuermonprez (2001:277).

8
Slnce l have already revlewed and challenged such vlews ln deLall, and slnce my space here ls llmlLed,
l address Lhe reader Lo my prevlous conLrlbuLlon (Acrl 2011a). Sufflce lL Lo say here LhaL, as l have
Lrled Lo argue, Lhe above sLaLemenLs may be dlspelled by serlous LexL-hlsLorlcal research on Lhe
!avano-8allnese 1uLur/1aLLva corpus, Lo say noLhlng of more LexL-grounded anLhropologlcal research
conducLed ln presenL-day 8all.
21
My concluslons may be summarlzed as follows: 1) Lhe reformed
'raLlonallzed Lheology' and (allegedly) ensulng 'scrlpLurallzaLlon' of 8allnese rellglon ls no new
phenomenon, buL has lLs rooL ln Lhe sophlsLlcaLed Cld !avano-8allnese corpus of speculaLlve Salva
scrlpLures, 2) Lhe '1aLLva' corpus was noL an unlquely local, embedded and place-and-person-speclflc
8allnese producL, buL parLook of a complex Lranslocal culLural phenomenon LhaL flourlshed along Lhe
neLworks of lnLra-Aslan conLacLs wlLhln Lhe geographlcal and culLural enLlLy called by ollock (1996)
'SanskrlL Cosmopolls', 3) 1aLLvas presenL a shared 'mlnlmum common denomlnaLor' of Salva
(monoLhelsLlc) Lheology, whlch consLlLuLed Lhe basls for whaL we may call an 'orLhodoxy' of rellglon,
and, 4) 1aLLvas share a slmllar agenda of 'LranslaLlon' of SanskrlL docLrlnal elemenLs lnLo a local
llngulsLlc and lnLellecLual framework, dlsplaylng a slmllar degree of falLhfulness Lo Lhe common and
proLoLyplcal SanskrlL canon-Lhe corpus of SouLh Aslan SlddhnLaLanLras.
22

WhaL ls lmporLanL Lo sLress ls LhaL boLh 1uLurs and 1aLLvas consLlLuLed, Lo a greaL exLenL, Lhe very
ob[ecL of debaLe among Lhe varlous facLlons of Lhe 8allnese lnLelllgenLsla who soughL Lo reform Lhelr
rellglon:
23
Lhe 8bovoookoso, vrbospotltottvo, 1ottvojoo and 5tosomoccoyo are llsLed among Lhe
sources used by !elanLlk ln hls Ajl 5ooqkyo, Lhe vrbospotltottvo, whlch ls ln all respecLs Lhe mosL
sysLemaLlc and speculaLlon-orlenLed LreaLlse Lo have survlved on 8all, consLlLuLed Lhe maln
proLoLyplcal source for boLh !elanLlk and Anandakusuma, among oLher auLhors.
24
lL ls Lhose LexLs
LhaL, supplemenLed wlLh lndoneslan LranslaLlon, have been publlshed agaln and agaln on Lhe lsland
slnce Lhe early 20Lh

cenLury, lL ls Lhose LexLs LhaL flnd a wldespread dlffuslon ln Lhe form of palm-leaf
manuscrlpLs ln several LradlLlonal qtlyo on 8all. lL seems Lhus hardly denlable LhaL Lhose LexLs
formed a sorL of canon, Lo whlch Lhose ln search of 8allnese 'Salva orLhodoxy' musL Lurn.

21
Such as LhaL carrled ouL by anLhropologlsLs llke A. PobarL, 8ublnsLeln, Lovrlc, and SLephen. SLephen's work
(2003, 2010) ln parLlcular sLands ouL as an example of how eLhnologlcal fleldwork comblned wlLh LexLual
sLudles could lead Lo a much deeper undersLandlng of many aspecLs of 8allnese bellef and rlLual.
22
Cn Lhls corpus of LexLs, malnly characLerlzed by mlldly 1anLrlc, duallsL and non-Lransgresslve scrlpLures,
see Coodall (2004:xll-lvll) and WaLson (2006:70-79).
23
lL ls lnLeresLlng Lo noLe LhaL Lhe 8allnese reformers Lhemselves, lncludlng our Lwo auLhors, never clalmed
Lo add anyLhlng new Lo Lhelr rellglon buL only Lo flnd lLs 'Lrue' meanlng, whlch was 'hldden' ln Lhe body of
Cld !avanese scrlpLures.
24
Anandakusuma ln hls letqolokoo nloJo ubotmo (1966) Loo resorLed Lo Lhe vrbospotltottvo whenever he
soughL Lo explaln phllosophlcal and Lheologlcal concepLs. 1he auLhor's rellance on LhaL Cld !avanese LexL
also resulLs from hls lnLervlew publlshed by 8akker (1993:62-4).

9
I|gure 1: Lvo|ut|on of the r|nc|p|es of the Un|verse |n the *+( ,$-./0$
(adapLed from Pooykaas 1931)


10
I|gure 2: Lvo|ut|on of the r|nc|p|es of the Un|verse |n the "#$%&$'('$'')$

S!"#
$%
&'#()*#
$++,-
.'!/0n#
10(()!
2)#n3'#
45#!3r,#6 4.#!7#-#6 41),(!6
Iac#80(()i*('!%#
9
Iac#3#':+*('!%#
$#*#- Iac#,#*:,'# Iac#:#)8),#
;+<=- ! ;+<=-
A,:#*
>+,#*# 2?+,#*#
&#'#:#s!"#
@#(s!"#
!"#$%&'
()*%&'
$%s!'#-
S#d'-#
S03<# 9 SB*!,#
C&B--+--!*/ Iac#/B<#3#D E#s#8%0D E#s#ndiD +,?FG
$n0s#
H
S#t3Bs#
H H
E)#':# 2()#':#
}*# A*#
5#!'/%# 2"#!'/%#
2!s"#'%# 2*!s"#'%#
Iac#"!=#'%#%#
I#"#,0st!
2st#-!(()!
H

ILLAN1Ik AND ANANDAkUSUMA'S WCkkS VIS--VIS 1nL kLMCDLkN CLD IAVANLSL 1kADI1ICN:
CCN1INUI1ILS .

A mere glance aL Lhe Lable Combot ketetooqoo oeoJooq-oeoJooqoo reproduced by !elanLlk aL Lhe
end of hls Ajl 5ooqkyo (see flg. 1) sufflces Lo reveal Lhe lnLellecLual and formal lndebLedness of LhaL
work Lo Lhe 1aLLva LradlLlon, mosL noLably Lhe vrbospotltottvo (see flg. 2). !elanLlk composed hls
LexLbook followlng Lhe exposlLlon of reallLles accordlng Lo Lhe same phllosophlcal and onLologlcal
organlzaLlon lmplemenLed ln Lhe vrbospotltottvo and, lndependenLly, ln oLher 1aLLvas Loo. !elanLlk
beglns hls exposlLlon from Lhe flnesL, and hlerarchlcally hlgher, dlvlne prlnclple and proceeds down
Lo Lhe coarsesL elemenLs formlng Lhe maLerlal reallLy. 8esldes onLology, he fully espouses Lhe

11
perspecLlve of Lhe 1aLLva wlLh regard Lo Lhe orlgln of Lhe unlverse and human belngs as arlslng from
Lhe baslc dlchoLomy of SenLlence and lnsenLlence.

Analogous conslderaLlons can be made wlLh respecL Lo Anandakusuma's ksl oJoyo 5ookyo Joo
oqo. Anandakusuma may be regarded as even more LradlLlonal Lhan !elanLlk ln hls approach, for he
empowers and auLhorlzed hls LexLbook Lhrough Lhe reenacLmenL of Lhe sacred dlalogue beLween
Lhe dlvlne lnLerlocuLors Slva and vrhaspaLl on kallsa LhaL forms Lhe frame sLory of Lhe
vrbospotltottvo.
23
AfLer Lhe orlglnal lnLroducLory parL l (ksl oJoyo), parL ll (5ookyo) lmmedlaLely
lmmerses lLself ln Lhe narraLlve flcLlon, wlLhouL acknowledglng LhaL whaL follows ls baslcally a
paraphrase of Lhe vrbospotltottvo. lndeed LhroughouL parLs ll and lll Anandakusuma adheres Lo Lhe
vrbospotltottvo wlLh a remarkable degree of fldellLy. ln addlng an orlglnal lnLroducLlon plus a flnal
corollary, and occaslonally resLyllng some polnLs of hls core LreaLlse, Lhe 8allnese auLhor followed a
LexL-bulldlng sLraLegy documenLed ln several !avano-8allnese scrlpLures, such as Lhe Conopotltottvo
and Lhe 1otot AJbytmlko/IooslJJboto, boLh of whlch add an lnLroducLlon and flnal corollary Lo
a core of SanskrlL-Cld !avanese LranslaLlon dyads clrculaLlng on 8all under Lhe LlLle of 1otot
komoksoo.
26

Anandakusuma paraphrased Lhe vrbospotltottvo by lnLerpreLlng lLs docLrlnal lLems accordlng Lo hls
own 'LradlLlonal' undersLandlng of SanskrlL and Cld !avanese. 1hls moJos opetooJl aL Llmes glves rlse
Lo whaL from an eLlc perspecLlve may be regarded as 'mlsundersLandlngs' and lncorrecL llngulsLlc
analyses, or, from an emlc perspecLlve, as LradlLlonal lnLerpreLaLlons resorLlng Lo 'folk-semanLlc
analyses' and analogles of sound and meanlng raLher Lhan sLrlcLly eLymologlcal derlvaLlons. Pe
reconflgured, or added Lo, Lhe vrbospotltottvo when he percelved cerLaln gaps or lnadequacles,
especlally when hls source presenLed obvlous LexLual problems such as Lhe omlsslon of cerLaln
elemenLs due Lo corrupLlon ln Lransmlsslon. Slnce Lhese LexLual problems obvlously gave rlse Lo
docLrlnal lnconslsLencles, Anandakusuma lmplemenLed cerLaln soluLlons Lo overcome Lhem. A
comparlson wlLh Lhe Ajl 5ooqkyo shows LhaL !elanLlk proceeded ln a largely slmllar fashlon, devlslng
hls own soluLlons ln an lndependenL way. An example of Lhls meLhodology ls deplcLed ln Lhe dlagram
below, whlch shows how boLh auLhors changed Lhe llsL of lLems collecLlvely called Lhe 'nlne
conLenLmenLs' (oovotostl) deLalled ln SanskrlL sources, ln Lhe ubotmo ltojolo, and ln Lhe
vrbospotltottvo - where one lLem ls mlsslng because of LexLual corrupLlon - lnLo Lhe 'elghL
conLenLmenLs' (ostotostl):

23
1he presence of a frame-sLory Lhrough whlch docLrlne ls presenLed ln Lhe form of a dlvlnely LransmlLLed
LruLh ls a common lnLernal LexLual sLraLegy of auLhorlzaLlon and empowermenL ln boLh SanskrlL and Cld
!avanese llLeraLure. 1he frame-sLory ls usually a dlalogue beLween dlvlne lnLerlocuLors such as Lhe Lord
Slva and hls son kumra, Lhe god 8rhaspaLl, Lhe Coddess uevl or a Rsl. 1he dlalogue Lakes place on Lhe
summlL of Lhe mounL kallasa, a locus deLached from Lhe human Lemporal dlmenslon, so as Lo lend lL Lhe
auLhorlLaLlveness of eLernal LruLh dlrecLly revealed by Cod. A dlscusslon of slmllar LexLual sLraLegles of
meLa-narraLlon, power-clalms and performaLlve prescrlpLlons ln connecLlon wlLh Lhe lssues of LexLual
auLhorlLy and 'Lrue' or 'orLhodox' dlscourse ln Lhe SanskrlL LradlLlon may be found ln 1aylor 2008a (wlLh
regard Lo Lhe 5lvopotno) and 2008b (wlLh regard Lo Lhe vlsnopotno and oLher LexLs).
26
A deLalled dlscusslon of Lhe relaLlonshlp beLween Lhese LexLs may be found ln Pooykaas 1962.

12
1ab|e 1: 1he Contentments

Sk
navaLustl
?u, Caud8h
navaLustl
uhL
navaLustl
vrh
navaLustl
A[l Sangkya
AsLa-1usLl
8?aS?
AshLaLusthl
prakrLl prakrLl pradhnaka otjooo ojoooo otjooo
updnaka updnaka upadnaka toksooo toksooo toksooo
kla kla (a)kla
27
ksoyo ksoyo ksoyo
bhgya bhgya (a)bhgya
23
sanga sooqqo sooqqo
plus oLher flve noL
labeled buL descrlbed
ar[ana
plus oLher flve noL
labeled buL descrlbed
hlns obloqso blmso
raksana bhgya oboqlo oboqlo
ksaya kla okolo kolo
sanga Lm oootmo otmo
hlns 1

ln order Lo make sense of Lhe lncompleLe llsL of 'nlne conLenLmenLs' menLloned ln Lhe
vrbospotltottvo, boLh !elanLlk and Anandakusuma Lransformed lL lnLo a llsL of 'elghL conLenLmenLs',
Lhereby ellmlnaLlng any lnLernal docLrlnal lnconslsLency. ln Lhls case lL can be observed LhaL Lhe
same LexLual and docLrlnal problem prompLed boLh auLhors Lo devlse analogous soluLlons ln a
seemlngly lndependenL manner.
28

now, l argue, lL ls preclsely such examples of LexLual 'problem-solvlng' LhaL belle whaL has been
prevlously (mls)labeled as a reform-drlven 'raLlonallzaLlon' of 8allnese rellglon. Cenerally speaklng,
boLh Lhe Ajl 5ooqkyo and Lhe ksl oJoyo 5ookyo Joo oqo do noL appear Lo be any more
'raLlonallzed' and 'unlversallzed' Lhan Lhelr proLoLyplcal source, Lhe vrbospotltottvo, and oLher
relaLed speclmens of Lhe 1aLLva corpus. 1here ls llLLle hard evldence of paradlgm-shlfL lnduced by
forelgn (mosL noLably WesLern or lslamlc) values. lmprovemenLs are mosL of Lhe Llmes superflclal
and connecLed Lo speclflc LexLual or docLrlnal lssues, whlch never alLer Lhe fundamenLals of Lhe
underlylng Lheology. 1he lmpacL of modernlLy seems small: for lnsLance, no aLLempL ls made Lo
auLhorlze Lhe Salva revelaLlon Lhrough raLlonal or sclenLlflc [usLlflcaLlons. 8aLher, our auLhors
resorLed Lo lndlan Plndulsm ln order Lo (furLher) auLhorlze Lhelr rellglon. As l wlll show ln Lhe
followlng secLlon, !elanLlk's aLLempL aL valldaLlng Lhe 8allnese Salva LradlLlon conslsLs almosL
unlquely ln Lhe lnLroducLlon of Lan[ala yoga. Cn Lhe oLher hand, Anandakusuma (ln hls
lnLroducLlon) Lrles Lo llnk Lhe 8allnese and Lhe Plndu LradlLlons Lhrough Lhe auLhorlLy of Lhe vedas,
buL aL Lhe same Llme (ln Lhe resL of hls LexLbook) he malnLalns Lhe valldlLy of Lhe Salva revelaLlon
Lhrough Lhe reenacLmenL of Lhe sacred dlalogue beLween Lhe Lord and vrhaspaLl, Lhrough whlch Lhe
dlvlne revelaLlon ls LransmlLLed.

My concluslon ls LhaL !elanLlk and Anandakusuma may be regarded as 'creaLlve' LransmlLLers and
preservers of Lhe premodern !avano-8allnese Salva eplsLemlc paradlgm. ln as much as Lhey acLlvely
pursued Lhe role of rellglous lnnovaLors and reformers, Lhey largely acLed along Lhe llnes of Lhe

27
Pere Lhe (a) represenLs Lhe Cld !avanese ad[ecLlval preflx and noL Lhe SanskrlL olpbo ptlvoos.
28
WlLness Lhe small dlvergences ln Lhe llsLs of elghL lLems glven by !elanLlk and Anandakusuma.

13
premodern 8allnese LradlLlon of LexLual (re)producLlon and exegesls.
29
ln Lhls respecL, Lhe Ajl
5ooqkyo and ksl oJoyo 5ookyo Joo oqo may be regarded as represenLlng Lhe apex of a cenLurles-
long LradlLlon of 8allnese rellglous speculaLlon, lnvolvlng Lhe reconflguraLlon and medlaLlon of
exLernal elemenLs (SanskrlL, Cld !avanese, eL ceLera).

. ooJ cbooqes. 5olvo oqo vs. ltojolo oqo

My comparaLlve lnvesLlgaLlon now focuses on one speclflc and hlghly slgnlflcanL feaLure, namely our
sources' LreaLmenL of yoga. My maln concern here ls Lo plnpolnL our sources' adherence Lo elLher
one or Lhe oLher maln LradlLlon of yoga lmporLed lnLo Lhe Archlpelago from Lhe lndlan SubconLlnenL,
and Lhen Lry Lo unravel Lhe eplsLemlc forces LhaL led our premodern and modern auLhors Lo
lnLroduce, ln a largely lndependenL manner, analogous docLrlnal lnnovaLlons.

1he commonesL form of yoga known ln !avano-8allnese llLeraLure, lncludlng 1uLurs and 1aLLvas, ls
Lhe (more or less markedly) 1anLrlc varleLy of yoga of Lhe slx anclllarles (sodonqoyoqo), as opposed
Lo Lhe Lan[ala or 'classlcal' yoga of Lhe elghL anclllarles (ostnqoyoqo). llrsL descrlbed ln SouLh
Aslan SanskrlL LexLs, boLh varleLles may be regarded as Lhe Lwo maln dlsLlncL sysLems of yoga ln
SanskrlLlc culLure. 1he sodonqoyoqo, of uncerLaln chronologlcal orlgln, flnds lLs earllesL aLLesLaLlon ln
Lhe corpus of Salva and 8auddha scrlpLures sLemmlng from Lhe early medleval perlod (ca. 3Lh-8Lh
cenLury Au), and especlally Lhrlves ln 1anLrlc scrlpLures of varlous persuaslons (namely Salva,
valsnava, and 8auddha) wrlLLen LhroughouL Lhe medleval and early modern perlod (16Lh cenLury
Au). Lan[ala yoga ls aLLesLed for Lhe flrsL Llme ln Lhe LreaLlse of aLan[all, Lhe oqostto wlLh an
appended commenLary (8bsyo), collecLlvely referred Lo as ltojoloyoqosstto (probably 4Lh-early
3Lh cenLury Au).
30
ln Lhe course of Llme aLan[all came Lo be recognlzed as Lhe ulLlmaLe auLhorlLy on
yoga ln Lhe malnsLream 8rahmanlcal LradlLlon, and hls LexL assumed Lhe conLours of Lhe 'classlcal' or
'orLhodox' formulaLlon of yoga ln Lhe Plndu LplsLeme Lhrough Lhe cenLurles unLll Lhe presenL.
Lan[ala yoga flgured among Lhe classlcal sysLems (Jotsooo) of 8rahmanlcal phllosophy, closely
relaLed - and yeL dlsLlncL - from Snkhya, wlLh whlch lL shared many baslc onLologlcal,
eplsLemologlcal and phllosophlcal LeneLs.

Salva yoga and Lan[ala yoga are dlsLlncL from each oLher lnsofar as Lhey admlL dlfferenL llsLs of
anclllarles (onqo, ofLen less correcLly LranslaLed as 'llmbs') or medlLaLlve Lechnlques by means of
whlch Lhe adepL should carry ouL hls yoglc pracLlce. Accordlng Lo Lan[ala yoga Lhese are elghL,
namely: Lhe Lwo seLs of rules of conducL known as general commandmenLs (yomo) and parLlcular
commandmenLs (olyomo), posLures (sooo), breaLh-conLrol (ptnymo), wlLhdrawal (ptotybto),
flxaLlon (Jbton), vlsuallzaLlon (Jbyoo) and absorpLlon (somJbl). 1he Salva yoga admlLs only slx,
namely wlLhdrawal, breaLh-conLrol, flxaLlon, vlsuallzaLlon, reflecLlon (totko) and absorpLlon. 1hus,
besldes Lhe omlsslon of posLures, general commandmenLs and parLlcular commandmenLs from Lhe
llsL of Lhe anclllarles, sodonqoyoqo dlffers from ostnqoyoqo ln LhaL lL lncludes reflecLlon (totko or

29
noLe, however, LhaL boLh auLhors seems Lo puL Lhemselves ln a poslLlon of radlcal dlsconLlnulLy wlLh Lhe
pasL ln one lmporLanL respecL, namely Lhelr radlcal alm Lo make whaL had hlLherLo been esoLerlc
knowledge accesslble Lo a wlder audlence. 8uL slnce Lhe maLLer ls complex and sLlll conLroverslal - wlLness
8ublnsLeln's clalms (2000:13-38) LhaL llLeracy and access Lo sacred LexLs on 8all was much more
wldespread Lhan prevlously assumed - furLher research ls requlred ln order Lo beLLer undersLand Lhe
poslLlon of Lhe reformers wlLh respecL Lo Lhe exlsLlng slLuaLlon.
30
As convlnclngly argued by Maas (2006:vlll-xvl), Lhe aLLrlbuLlon of Lhe commenLary Lo vysa clearly
represenLs a spurlous LradlLlon, for Lhe 8bsyo ls llkely Lo have been wrlLLen by Lhe same auLhor, named
aLan[all, who also broughL Lhe (probably already exlsLlng) suLra LogeLher ln Lhe form we know Lhem.

14
bo).
31
lurLher, lL someLlmes aLLrlbuLes a role of prlmary lmporLance Lo LhaL anclllary - ln conLrasL
wlLh Lan[ala yoga, whlch values somJbl above all Lhe oLhers. Sodonqoyoqo ls, moreover,
characLerlzed by a fundamenLally LhelsLlc naLure, havlng as ulLlmaLe goal Lhe unlLy wlLh one's own
elecLed delLy (lstoJevot) raLher Lhan Lhe cessaLlon or resLralnlng of Lhe acLlvlLles of mlnd (clttovrttl)
and lsolaLlon (kolvolyo) of SplrlL (potoso) from mlnd (cltto), whlch ls Lhe goal Lo be sLrlven afLer ln
ostnqoyoqo.

lnsofar as Lhe !avano-8allnese Salva llLeraLure had as lLs proLoLyplcal scrlpLural basls Lhe canon of
medleval Salva (1anLrlc) SanskrlL LexLs, lL ls only naLural LhaL Lhe sLandard form of yoga wldespread ln
Cld !avanese sources ls sodonqoyoqo raLher Lhan ostnqoyoqo. lL ls Lherefore of lnLeresL LhaL Lhree
of our LexLual sources, namely Lhe ubotmo ltojolo, Lhe Ajl 5ooqkyo and Lhe ksl oJoyo 5ookyo
Joo oqo, consLlLuLe excepLlons lnsofar as Lhey adhere Lo Lhe ostnqoyoqo LradlLlon.

1he synchronlclLy ln maLLers of yoga beLween Lhe ubotmo ltojolo and Lhe Ajl 5ooqkyo was
already noLed by Lnslnk ln 1974. When dlscusslng Lhe Salva and 8auddha varleLles of yoga descrlbed
ln Lhe 14Lh-cenLury Cld !avanese kakawln of 8uddhlsL persuaslon 5otosomo,
32
Lnslnk (1974:198)
made Lhe followlng observaLlons:

We may noLe, as Mrs. Soebadlo (1971:30) has done, LhaL Lhe yoga course of elghL
sLages (ostnqo-yoqo) as LaughL ln aLan[all's oqosttos (?S 2.29-3.3) ls hardly
known ln !avano-8allnese llLeraLure. So far only one LexL dlscusslng lL ls known.* 1hls
ls Lhe ubotmo ltojolo (uh.L. 688-76v, where Lhe order of ptnymo and
ptotybto has been lnverLed). lL has been handed down only ln !ava.

*[Lnslnk's noLe:] 1he 8allnese auLhor lda keLoeL u[lanLlk ln hls AJjl 5ookyo (1947:13-
8, uuLch LranslaLlon Pooykaas 1931:433-60) dld glve an exposlLlon of ostnqoyoqo,
buL he used Lhe kltob Ioqo 5oetto lotooJjoll, whlch ls a Malay LranslaLlon, by
lnLermedlary of a !avanese and a uuLch LranslaLlon, of Woods's (1914) LranslaLlon of
?S.

AlLhough a mlnor deLall ln Lnslnk's sLaLemenL musL be revlsed - Lhe edlLlon and Lngllsh LranslaLlon
of Lhe oqostto used by !elanLlk was noL Lhe one by Woods buL an earller one by Manllal
nabhubhal uvlvedl
33
(1890) - Lhe laLe scholar rlghLly marked ouL Lhe lndependenL adopLlon of
analogous, and apparenLly 'exoLlc', sysLems of yoga by Lwo auLhors whose mllleus were
geographlcally seL aparL, and separaLed by aL leasL flve cenLurles.

31
Crnbold (1983) dlsLlngulshed a 'totko-based' (soJonqo) yoga from an 'sooo-based' (ostnqo) yoga. 1hls
dlsLlncLlon may be vlsually appreclaLed ln 1able 2.
32
Whlch expllclLly regards Lhe sodonqoyoqo as Salva ln naLure, as opposed Lo Lhe 8uddhlsL yoga of non-
duallLy (oJvoyoyoqo), see Lnslnk 1974.
33
Pooykaas (1931) descrlbed !elanLlk's 'new' source, Lhe kltob ujoqo 5oetto lotooJjoll, as a Malay
LranslaLlon, by lnLermedlary of a uuLch and !avanese LranslaLlon, of 'Manl-Lana-8oehedwl-Wenl' (slc, ln
Pooykaas and ln Lhe Malay verslon, buL obvlously referrlng Lo Manllal nabhubhal uvlvedl)'s Lngllsh
LranslaLlon of aLan[all's oqostto. 1he fronLlsplece of Lhe book (LhaL ls, Lhe copy Lyped on behalf of
Pooykaas and deposlLed aL Lhe Lelden unlverslLy Llbrary ln 1930) reads: kltob Ioqo 5oetto lotooJjoll,
Jlsollo keJolom boboso loqqtls oleb Mool-looo-8oebeJwl-weol, JlJjoJlkoo boboso 8elooJo oleb k. v. C.,
lolo Jlsollo keJolom boboso ujowo oleb k.w. lottowltojo, Jl ostomo kopllowosto, 5otokotto, kemoJloo
Jlsollo keJolom boboso Melojo, tettjetok poJo pettjetokoo 8oekbooJel eo utokketlj 5wostlko, losotpoo,
5otokotto (no daLe). 1he prlnLed !avanese verslon ls LlLled 5ltot oqostto ltojoll, and Lhe Lngllsh
LranslaLor ls referred Lo as Monl lono 8bobe uwlweJl.

1ab|e 2: 1he Anc|||ar|es of oga

MalLryanlya
upanlsad
San Pyan
kamahynlkan
(Salva)
uaksasmrLl
1anLrloka-
vlveka
AmrLanda upanlsad,
8auravasuLra-sangraha,
MaLanga-paramesvar-gama,
Mrg-endrgama, CanapaLl-
LaLLva, !nna-slddhnLa, 1uLur
kamo-ksan, vrh, 5otosomo
Cuhyasam[a
1anLra
1aLLva[nna

uhynablndu
upanlsad
Coraksasataka,
Skanda urna
?ogasuLra
Llnga
urna
A[l Sangkya
8?aS?
uharma
Lan[ala
yama yama
nlyama nlyama
sana sana sana sooo
prnyma prnyma prnyma praLyhra praLyhra prnyma prnasamrodha
34
prnyma praLyhra
praLyhra praLyhra dhyna dhyna dhyna praLyhra praLyhra praLyhra prnyma
dhyna dhran praLyhra prnyma prnyma dhran dhran dhran dhran
dhran dhyna dhran dhran dhran dhyna dhyna dhyna dhyna
Larka Larka Larka totko anusmrLl Larka
samdhl samdhl samdhl samdhl samdhl samdhl samdhl samdhl samdhl

34
Also ptnosomyomo.

1he slgnlflcance of !elanLlk's docLrlnal lnnovaLlon was lndependenLly noLlced aL a laLer daLe by
8akker.
33
Accordlng Lo 8akker (1993:302), Lhe mosL sLrlklng feaLure of Lhe Ajl 5ookyo ls preclsely Lhe
lnLroducLlon lnLo 8all of Lan[ala yoga, lL ls because of Lhls very facL LhaL '1947 can be glven as Lhe
daLe when for Lhe flrsL Llme Lhe conLrlbuLlon of lndla beglns Lo be seen ln 8allnese LhoughL'. Lven
Lhough Lhls sLaLemenL as lL sLands ls unwarranLed, for lndla's conLrlbuLlon Lo 8allnese LhoughL goes
back well lnLo premodern Llmes, lL ls Lrue LhaL !elanLlk musL be acknowledged as Lhe flrsL exponenL
of Lhe 8allnese rellglous ellLe of Lhe modern perlod Lo have made use of an lndlan Plndu source.
!elanLlk ls Lo be regarded as a ploneer ln rellglous reform as he expllclLly encouraged hls fellow
bellevers Lo look aL lndla ln order Lo lnLegraLe Lhelr falLh and pracLlces wlLh elemenLs of lndlan
Plndulsm ln order Lo recover Lhe 'purlLy' of 8allnese Plndulsm. As foreseen by Pooykaas (1931:433),
!elanLlk's adopLlon of Lan[ala yoga and hls aLLlLude Lowards conLemporary lndlan Plndu auLhors
was bound Lo have far-reachlng consequences on 8all, lmpacLlng on many of Lhe manuals of
Plndulsm wrlLLen on Lhe lsland ln subsequenL years.

Among Lhese manuals Lhere ls Lhe Lhlrd source dlscussed ln Lhls arLlcle, namely Anandakusuma's ksl
oJoyo 5ookyo Joo oqo, a work LhaL dlsplays some evldenL lndlan Plndu lnfluences lnsofar as lL
adheres Lo Lan[ala ostnqoyoqo. ln Lhls respecL, unllke !elanLlk, Anandakusuma chose Lo follow a
more eclecLlc and non-excluslve approach, adopLlng ostnqoyoqo alongslde Lhe sodonqoyoqo
feaLurlng ln hls proLoLyplcal source - Lhe vrbospotltottvo.

1he somewhaL syncreLlc adopLlon of ostnqoyoqo on Lhe Lop of sodonqoyoqo ls one of Lhe very few
polnLs where Anandakusuma devlaLes from, or raLher adds Lo, hls proLoLyplcal SanskrlL-Cld !avanese
source. Pavlng explalned Lhe anclllarles of sodonqoyoqo as per vrbospotltottvo (dyads 33-39), afLer
a few paragraphs he menLlons ostnqoyoqo, sLaLlng LhaL lL ls 'flLLlng Lo be known by everyone
wlshlng Lo obLaln Lhe awareness of hls Soul' (potot Jlketobol oleb setlop otooq yooq loqlo meocopol
kesoJotoo jlwooyo). Pe goes on explalnlng only Lhe Lhree anclllarles mlsslng ln Lhe llsL glven ln Lhe
vrbospotltottvo, namely yomo, olyomo and sooo. Pe Lhen concludes hls LreaLlse wlLh Lhe
explanaLlon of Lhe places for performlng yoga and Lhe food and drlnk permlLLed Lo Lhe yogln - Loplcs
whlch do noL feaLure ln Lhe vrbospotltottvo.

!elanLlk's lnfluence on Lhe LhoughL and work of Anandakusuma ls undenlable, yeL lL ls unllkely LhaL
Lhe laLLer auLhor drew dlrecLly upon Lhe Ajl 5ooqkyo Lo lnLroduce Lhls docLrlnal varlaLlon ln hls ksl
oJoyo 5ookyo Joo oqo. 1he former 8allnese LexL does noL appear among Lhe sources llsLed ln
Anandakusuma's blbllography, and Lhe LreaLmenL of ostnqoyoqo lndeed does noL conform Lo LhaL
of !elanLlk. When lnLroduclng ostnqoyoqo (lncoherenLly spelled ostbooqqo yoqo), Anandakusuma
expllclLly refers Lo Lhe book kooJollol oqo by Swaml Slvnanda. now, Slvnanda Lhereln descrlbes a
varleLy of Pathayoga LhaL, even Lhough eclecLlc ln lLs approach, owes llLLle Lo aLan[all's formulaLlon
of yoga. Slvnanda only fleeLlngly menLlons ostnqoyoqo and lLs anclllarles ln Lhe lnLroducLlon (p.
xxv),
36
elsewhere, he merely pays llp servlce Lo aLan[all, focuslng lnsLead on Lhe descrlpLlon of a
complex sysLem of subLle cenLres (cokto) and subLle bodlly Lubes (odl), a wlde array of posLures
(sooo), and yoglc Lechnlques almlng aL awakenlng Lhe power of Lhe 'colled serpenL' (kondollol). lL ls
obvlous LhaL Lhe Lan[ala yoga referred Lo by Slvnanda ls medlaLed Lhrough Pathayoglc LexLs such
as Cbetondosomblt and Cotoksostoko.
37

33
lL ls apparenL LhaL 8akker dld noL consulL Lnslnk's arLlcle as he nowhere refers Lo lL ln hls book.
36
1he only oLher (fleeLlng) menLlon of Lhe word ostnqoyoqo ls found ln p. 134.
37
Cn Lhese LexLs, and on Lhe relaLlonshlp beLween aLan[all and Pathayoga, see Larson 2009 and Malllnson
2007.

2
lL ls cerLalnly Lhrough Slvnanda's surrogaLe LhaL Anandakusuma lnLroduced aLan[all's anclllarles ln
hls work. 1haL Lhls ls Lhe case ls also suggesLed by Anandakusuma's reference Lo Lhe 840000
posLures LaughL by Slva,
38
of whlch 84 are Lhe besL and 32 are useful, deLalls LhaL can be found
nelLher ln Lhe orlglnal scrlpLures of Lan[ala yoga nor ln !elanLlk, buL feaLure ln Slvnanda's
kooJollol oqo (p. 110). lL musL be sLressed, however, LhaL Lhese deLalls consLlLuLe Lhe only
slgnlflcanL lnfluence of Slvnanda's work on Lhe ksl oJoyo 5ookyo Joo oqo, whlch oLherwlse
closely follows Lhe vrbospotltottvo.

Cn Lhe oLher hand, Anandakusuma creaLlvely elaboraLed on cerLaln docLrlnal elemenLs by drawlng
from oLher sources of Lhe 8allnese LradlLlon. lor example, besldes Lhe serles of Len moral rules
(Jososllo) borrowed from Lhe Cld !avanese exegesls Lo sloka 60-61 of Lhe vrbospotltottvo, llsLlng Lhe
flve general commandmenLs (yomo) and Lhe flve parLlcular commandmenLs (olyomo),
Anandakusuma presenLs an alLernaLlve serles LhaL ls found nelLher ln Lhe oqostto nor ln kooJollol
oqo. 1he serles of Len yomo and Len olyomo he descrlbes ls aLLesLed only ln hls own 5wostlko 5otto
23-23, whlch apparenLly borrowed lL from 5tosomoccoyo 239-260 (see 8akker 1993:87).
39

1ab|e 3: 1he Genera| and art|cu|ar Commandments

?S, kundallnl ?oga ?S, uhL vrh (SkL) A[lS 8?aS?, SwasLlka SuLra,
Srasamuccaya,
valkhnasadharmasuLra
?ama
nlyama ?ama nlyama ?ama nlyama ?ama and
nlyama

Summarlz
ed ln
general,
buL noL
enumer-
aLed
lndlvldu-
ally
?ama nlyama
vrh (C!) / 8?aS?
uasaslla
ahlms
sauca ahlns sauca ahlms akrodha anresangsya dhana
saLya
sanLosa saLya sanLosa brahma-
carya
gurususrus ksama l[ya
asLeya
Lapas asLalnya Lapa saLya sauca saLya Lapa
brahma-
carya
svdhyya brahma-
crl
svdhyya avyavahrl-
ka
hrala-
ghava
ahlmsa dhyana
aparl-
graha
lsvara-
pranldhn
a
aparlgrah
a
lsvarapran
ldhna
asLalnya
40

apramda dama swadhyaya

ar[awa upasLha-
nlgraha

prlLl braLa

prasada upawasa

madurya mona

mardawa snana

38
Slvnanda acLually speaks of 84 lakhs of posLures, hence 84 x 100000 = 8400000. Anandakusuma appears
Lo have mlsundersLood Lhe meanlng of 'lakh' (Laklng lL Lo be 10000 lnsLead of 100000).
39
1he only close parallel ln SanskrlL llLeraLure LhaL l have been able Lo flnd ls ln Lhe volkboosoJbotmostto
(02.04, 124.9-12). lL ls very unllkely LhaL Anandakusuma had access Lo Lhls LexL, so l presume LhaL he
borrowed Lhe llsL of Len yomo and olyomo from Lhe 5tosomoccoyo.
40
Spelled osteyo ln 8?aS?, compare oqostto.

3
Cne wonders why Anandakusuma chose Lo follow Lhe serles llsLed ln Lhe 5tosomoccoyo, Lhereby
devlaLlng from Lhe auLhorlLy of Lhe vrbospotltottvo, aLan[all, as well as Slvnanda. erhaps he
consldered a llsL of LwenLy lLems Lo be more compleLe and comprehenslve Lhan one of Len - all Lhe
more so slnce such an expanded llsL was aLLesLed ln an auLhorlLaLlve source of Lhe !avano-8allnese
LexLual LradlLlon, Lhereby maklng lL useless Lo recur Lo an lndlan source.

now, lL ls clear LhaL slmllar operaLlons of docLrlnal lnnovaLlon were carrled ouL by Lhe auLhors of Lhe
Lhree sources dlscussed above ln a largely lndependenL way. 1hese operaLlons have produced slmllar
ouLcomes, resulLlng ln comparable sLrucLural reconflguraLlons of docLrlnal elemenLs perLalnlng Lo
Lhe domaln of yoga. CerLalnly, Lhls stotos poo ls of lnLeresL from a LexL-hlsLorlcal and culLural polnL of
vlew as lL sLrengLhens Lhe maln hypoLhesls underlylng Lhls arLlcle, namely LhaL a Lhread of conLlnulLy
can be deLecLed ln premodern and modern Salva (or 'Plndu') sources belonglng Lo Lhe !avano-
8allnese LexLual LradlLlon. 8uL Lhen we should ask ourselves why such synchronous reconflguraLlons
have come Lo exlsL, LhaL ls Lo say why our auLhors felL Lhe need Lo elLher re[ecL or lnLegraLe Lhe
famlllar Salva yoga feaLurlng ln Lhelr own LexLual LradlLlon and lnLroduce Lan[ala yoga, whlch was
no doubL flrmly assoclaLed - aL leasL ln Lhe mlnds of our modern 8allnese auLhors - wlLh Lhe lndlan
Plndu LradlLlon.

Clven Lhe lack of chronologlcal and oLher hlsLorlcal lnformaLlon around Lhe culLural conLexL of Lhe
ubotmo ltojolo, we can only speculaLe on Lhe moLlvaLlons of lLs auLhor. llrsL of all, lL ls lLself
slgnlflcanL LhaL hls syncreLlc adopLlon of Lan[ala yoga remalned a docLrlnal oolcom ln Lhe
panorama of Cld !avanese Salva llLeraLure. 1he auLhor's ldlosyncraLlc sLance reflecLlng an aLLempL aL
merglng Lhe Lan[ala yoga LradlLlon lnLo a Salva docLrlnal background does noL seem Lo have
Lravelled beyond hls own mllleu - a facL LhaL ls lndlrecLly suggesLed by Lhe survlval of Lhe ubotmo
ltojolo ln a slngle manuscrlpL.

Cne may argue LhaL Lhe Lan[ala yoga LradlLlon was uncommon or alLogeLher unknown ln !ava, as
much as lL was seemlngly unknown ln early 20Lh cenLury 8all. lf Lhls ls Lhe case, lL ls concelvable LhaL
our anonymous !avanese auLhor forLulLously came ln possesslon of a SanskrlL manuscrlpL conLalnlng
a commenLed verslon of Lhe oqostto, whlch was regarded by hlm as an exoLlc rarlLy as well as a
phllosophlcally lmpresslve LreaLlse, and LhaL he deemed worLhwhlle of belng lnLroduced ln hls Salva
mllleu. Cn Lhe conLrary, one may hypoLheslze LhaL our auLhor carrled ouL hls lnnovaLlve docLrlnal
operaLlon ln order Lo approprlaLe, and Lhereby domesLlcaLe, a LradlLlon LhaL was percelved as
'forelgn' and rlval. WheLher by hls Llme Lan[ala yoga was known ln !ava, or was aL leasL by Lhen
sLarLlng Lo galn ground, cannoL be esLabllshed wlLh cerLalnLy, however, my prevlous remarks on Lhe
unlqueness of Lhe ubotmo ltojolo wlLh regard Lo lLs physlcal supporL and docLrlnal agenda go
agalnsL Lhe laLLer hypoLhesls. lf one accepLs Lhe former hypoLhesls as Lhe mosL probable, one may
speculaLe abouL Lhe clrcumsLances around Lhe lnLroducLlon of aLan[all's yoga sysLem lnLo Lhe
lndoneslan Archlpelago. 8eLurnlng Lo Lhe formulaLlon of a hlsLorlcal parallellsm wlLh 20Lh cenLury
8all, l wanL Lo advance Lhe hypoLhesls LhaL Lhe Lravelllng of (whaLever verslon of) Lhe oqostto lnLo
Lhe hands of Lhe !avanese auLhor, however forLulLous, was favoured by Lhe facL LhaL Lan[ala yoga
achleved a promlnenL sLaLus among conLemporary Salva clrcles ln Lhe lndlan SubconLlnenL, and LhaL
Lhls developmenL prompLly reached !ava. ln order Lo LesL Lhls hypoLhesls, l should llke Lo make an
excurslon beyond Lhe llLeraLures of Lhe Archlpelago and casL a look aL Lhe forLunes en[oyed by Lhe
oqostto ln SouLh Asla. lor reasons of space and opporLunlLy, l wlll focus on lLs recepLlon among
Salva auLhors, wheLher anonymous or hlsLorlcally known, who mlghL have been chronologlcally noL
far removed from our !avanese auLhor.

lnsofar as lLs prlmary focus ls noL on phllosophy buL on pracLlce, Lhe Lan[ala yoga as formulaLed ln
Lhe oqosstto (LhaL ls, Lhe oqostto-cum-8bsyo) was prone Lo Lranscend Lhe boundarles of
dlsLlncL phllosophlcal schools, lendlng lLself Lo lnLegraLlon lnLo Lhe scrlpLures of rlval sysLems. 1hls

4
semlnal LexL has been descrlbed by Larson (1999) as a 'LradlLlon LexL' of 'non-secLarlan' naLure,
whlch, conflaLlng Snkhya and 8uddhlsL formulaLlons, was lLself characLerlzed by a somewhaL hybrld
characLer. 1he oqosstto appealed even Lo cerLaln Salva exegeLes, who Lended Lo pay llp servlce Lo
aLan[all as an auLhorlLy ln maLLers of yoga.
41
Powever, cases of auLhors who programmaLlcally
aLLempLed Lo absorb elemenLs of Lhe oqosstto Loward a hlgher synLhesls are rare, and mosL Salva
exegeLes adopLed a more crlLlcal sLance Loward Lan[ala yoga. 1hus, Lhe ma[orlLy of hlsLorlcal
auLhors, as well as Lhe 'dlvlnely LransmlLLed' scrlpLures llke SlddhnLaLanLras, adhered Lo Lhe Salva
sodonqoyoqo and someLlmes expllclLly conLrasLed lL Lo Lan[ala vlews.

8uL a few noLable excepLlons exlsL. SyncreLlsLlc aLLempLs aL merglng Lan[ala yoga, especlally wlLh
respecL Lo Lhe number and order of Lhe anclllarles, lnLo a Salva framework are aLLesLed ln
SalddhnLlka scrlpLures. As noLed by 8runner (1994:439-440), Lhls ls especlally, lf noL unlquely, Lrue
ln Lhe case of relaLlvely laLe (LhaL ls, posL 12Lh cenLury), and ofLen SouLh lndlan, SalddhnLlka sources,
see, for lnsLance, 5optobbeJqomo (?ogapda 3.33-36), lsnaslva's lsooslvoqotoJevopoJJbotl (ch.
2), Ajltqomo (2.29), Mokotqomo (11.1-21), and Lhe kashmlrlan Nettotootto (8.9, 21). 1o Lhls llsL
could be added Lhe SouLh lndlan (uevakttal) edlLlon of Lhe kltonotootto (38.2c-3), whlch ls noLable
ln LhaL lL subsLlLuLes totko wlLh sooo,
42
and Lhe yoga secLlons of Lhe MrqeoJtotootto and Lhe
5otvojoottoto, whlch Leach a varleLy of ostnqoyoqo represenLlng an lnLermedlary poslLlon of slx
anclllarles wlLhouL totko (see vasudeva 2004:370, noLe 3).

1he Lendency Lowards Lhe adopLlon of ostnqoyoqo documenLed ln Lhe above sources, mosL of
whlch are relaLlvely laLe and of SouLh lndlan provenance, ls slgnlflcanL. 1hls ls especlally evldenL ln
Lhe cases of such sources as Lhe kltono and Lhe 5otvojoottoto, whlch are preserved ln boLh (earller)
nepalese and (laLer) SouLh lndlan manuscrlpLs: whereas Lhe verslons recorded ln Lhe nepalese
manuscrlpLs reLaln Lhe anclllarles of sodonqoyoqo, Lhe verslons recorded ln Lhe SouLh lndlan ones
subsLlLuLe Lhem wlLh Lhose of ostnqoyoqo. 1hls remarkable subsLlLuLlon arguably amounLs Lo an
aLLempL by laLe LransmlLLers Lo lnLerpolaLe cerLaln relevanL passages ln order Lo make Lhem
compllanL wlLh Lan[ala yoga, whlch by Lhen en[oyed a promlnenL sLaLus ln Lhelr mllleu. 1he facL
LhaL Lan[ala yoga exerLed a greaLer appeal on posL-11Lh cenLury Salva auLhors and/or LransmlLLers
cannoL be dlsmlssed as a mere colncldence buL has Lo be regarded as belng connecLed Lo Lhe rlse Lo
promlnence, and consequenL 'canonlclzaLlon', of Lan[ala yoga and Lhe oqostto ln Lhe
conLemporary 8rahmanlcal LplsLeme. 1he rlse and 'canonlclzaLlon' of Lan[ala yoga lnLo Classlcal
?oga seems Lo have occurred parallel Lo Lhe rlse and 'canonlclzaLlon' of Lhe phllosophlcal sysLem of
vednLa wlLhln Plndulsm. 1he vednLa lndeed elecLed Lan[ala yoga as one of Lhe valld means Lo
achleve llberaLlon. 1he rlse of vednLa lnfluenced also Salvlsm, whlch ln SouLh lndla wlLnessed Lhe
flourlshlng of a non-duallsL 1amll varleLy of SalvaslddhnLa from Lhe 11Lh cenLury onwards.
43
1hls
process of 'vednLlclzaLlon' of lndlan rellglons appears Lo have conLlnued Lhrough Lhe colonlal
perlod lnLo Lhe modern and conLemporary perlods.

41
lor example, posL 10Lh-cenLury SalddhnLlka commenLaLors such as Srl kumra or nryanakantha ofLen
quoLe aLan[all wlLh approval.
42
Slnce Lhe nepalese manuscrlpLs reLaln totko, vasudeva (2004:377) has regarded Lhls subsLlLuLlon 'as an
aLLempL [by a modern edlLor] Lo approxlmaLe Lhe yoga of Lhe kltono Lo Lhe classlcal sysLem of aLan[all',
Coodall (2004:331-2 noLe 733), however, has shown LhaL Lhe SouLh lndlan palm-leaf manuscrlpLs on whlch
Lhe uevakttal edlLlon was based already read sooo.
43
Cn whlch, see especlally Lhe remarks by Coodall (2004:xlv-xxll, 2006).

3
now, lL ls posslble LhaL Lhe auLhor of Lhe ubotmo ltojolo was exposed Lo Lhe developmenLs golng
on wlLhln conLemporary Salva clrcles ln SouLh lndla, where Lhe Salva scrlpLural canon was wlLnesslng
a 'syncreLlsLlc' adopLlon of Lan[ala yoga.
44
!usL as Lhe SouLh lndlan LransmlLLers of Lhe SalddhnLlka
canon selecLlvely and lnLelllgenLly lnLerpolaLed cerLaln scrlpLures, or composed oLhers anew, by
subsLlLuLlng Lhe slx anclllarles of Salva yoga wlLh Lhe elghL of Lan[ala yoga, our !avanese auLhor
lmplemenLed an lnnovaLlve docLrlnal agenda by adopLlng Lan[ala yoga wlLhln a Salva maLrlx, yeL
clearly dlsLlngulshlng Lhe pracLlcal slde of LhaL sysLem from Lhe oLherwlse Salva Lheologlcal and
phllosophlcal naLure of hls LreaLlse.

lL ls enLlrely plauslble LhaL Lhe lnLroducLlon of Lan[ala yoga lnLo Lhe 8allnese Salva LplsLeme ln Lhe
early 20Lh cenLury followed slmllar llnes. 1he hlsLorlcal process of 'canonlclzaLlon' and 'classlclzaLlon'
of Lan[ala yoga ln vednLlclzed Plndu clrcles of 19Lh- and 20Lh-cenLury lndla reached Lhe
Archlpelago Lhrough LexLs and rellglous or culLural personallLles. 8y Lhe early 20Lh cenLury many
8allnese lnLellecLuals, among whom !elanLlk flgured noLably, learned abouL Lhe preemlnenL sLaLus of
Lan[ala yoga ln conLemporary Plndu clrcles Lhrough Lhelr dlrecL conLacLs wlLh lndlan (neo-)Plndus
and Lhelr readlngs of Plndu auLhors. 8allnese reformers were ln facL eager Lo esLabllsh an
auLhorlLaLlve canon for Lhelr 'Plndu' rellglon, a canon LhaL would be sancLloned Lhrough Lhe
comparlson wlLh Lhe Plndu scrlpLural corpus ln SanskrlL from whlch Lhe 8allnese LradlLlon was
recognlzed Lo have orlglnaLed ln a remoLe pasL. 1hls agenda by Lhe mld 20Lh CenLury was promoLed
by 8allnese lnLellecLuals ln order Lo resLore Lhe supposedly losL purlLy of Lhelr rellglon on Lhe one
hand, and Lo geL Lhe recognlLlon of Lhelr sLaLus as Plndu, and hence adherenLs of a Lrue 'World
8ellglon', ln Lhe eyes of Lhe cenLral governmenL of Lhe recenLly consLlLuLed 8epubllc of lndonesla on
Lhe oLher.

lL ls Lherefore only naLural LhaL, when Lhe rare !avanese LranslaLlon of Lhe oqostto came lnLo hls
hands, !elanLlk used lL as a basls Lo lnLroduce Lan[ala yoga lnLo 8all.
43
?eL lL ls remarkable LhaL
!elanLlk and oLher conLemporary and laLer 8allnese lnLellecLuals, lncludlng Anandakusuma, dld noL
re[ecL lo toto Lhelr own Salva Lheologlcal and yoglc LradlLlon buL lnLelllgenLly lmplemenLed speclflc
lnLerpolaLlons whenever Lhey felL Lhelr LradlLlon Lo be 'lnadequaLe'. Such percelved 'lnadequacy'
was noL due, as modern LheorlsLs have sLressed, Lo Lhe lack of Lheologlcal and speculaLlve
consLrucLlons - for Lhe 8allnese LradlLlon was more Lhan adequaLe Lo provlde Lhe docLrlnal and
pracLlcal (yoglc) means Lo salvaLlon - buL raLher Lo Lhe lack of compllance of cerLaln elemenLs wlLh
Lhe newly-esLabllshed (or raLher re-esLabllshed) crlLerla of orLhodoxy and canonlclLy, LhaL ls harmony
wlLh Lhe malnsLream canon of lndlan (neo-)Plndulsm.
46
lor lnsLance, 8allnese reformers musL have
felL dlsparaged by Lhe facL LhaL Lhelr LradlLlon of Salva sodonqoyoqo was nelLher feaLured ln Lhe
SanskrlL LexLs LhaL were accesslble Lo Lhem, nor LaughL by Lhe Plndu leaders and masLers who were
belng Laken as models ln 8allnese reformlsL clrcles. 1hus, lL ls noL surprlslng LhaL Lhe popularlLy of
aLan[all among Lhose leaders exerLed lLs fasclnaLlon on 8allnese lnLellecLuals.

WhaL needs sLresslng here ls LhaL mosL 8allnese reformlsL auLhors never re[ecLed alLogeLher Lhe
fundamenLal LeneLs and deeply Salva persuaslon of Lhelr LradlLlonal Lheology, buL slmply soughL Lo
reconflgure and lnLegraLe lL ln order Lo ensure compllance wlLh cerLaln Lrends of neo-Plndu
orLhodoxy. ln adopLlng Lan[ala yoga boLh !elanLlk (Lhrough Lhe LranslaLlon of Lhe SanskrlL prlmary

44
l assume LhaL Lhe auLhor of Lhe ubotmo ltojolo llved beLween Lhe 11Lh and Lhe laLe 14Lh cenLury.
43
lL would be lnLeresLlng Lo know under whlch clrcumsLances a copy of a fourLh-hand LranslaLlon of Lhe
oqostto prlnLed ln Lhe CenLral !avanese Lown of SurakarLa (now Solo) forLulLously reached !elanLlk.
46
l fully endorse 8akker's concluslon (1993:302) LhaL 'lndla's conLrlbuLlon can be seen ln Lhelr LhoughLs on
modern sclence, Lhe relaLlonshlp wlLh oLher rellglons and famlly plannlng, buL as regards Lhelr Lhlnklng on
Cod, man and Lhe cosmos Lhe lnfluence of lndla ls small'.

6
LexL) and Anandakusuma (Lhrough Lhe 'dlsLorLlng lens' of Swaml Slvnanda) pursued an operaLlon of
docLrlnal synLhesls, whlch aLLuned Lhe more pracLlcal parL wlLhln Lhe sysLem of aLan[all - LhaL ls,
Lhe yoga of Lhe elghL anclllarles - Lo Lhelr Salva LhelsLlc LradlLlon, whose prlnclpal alm was Lhe unlon
wlLh Lhe Lord. 1hls ls radlcally dlfferenL from Lhe goal of somJbl ln Lan[ala yoga, whlch raLher
sLrlves afLer lsolaLlon of Lhe splrlL from Lhe menLal. ln Lhls respecL, boLh !elanLlk and Anandakusuma
may be regarded as merely paylng llp servlce Lo aLan[all's sysLem by adopLlng such exLernal means
as Lhe anclllarles whlle malnLalnlng Lhe lnLernals of Salva yoga, namely Lhe concepLlon of somJbl as
unlon wlLh Cod raLher Lhan lsolaLlon.

An analogous operaLlon of lnLelllgenL selecLlon and reconflguraLlon, raLher Lhan wholesale adopLlon,
of aLan[all's meLaphyslcs, cosmology and salvaLlonlsL phllosophy was carrled ouL by Lhe !avanese
auLhor of Lhe ubotmo ltojolo several cenLurles before. AlLhough he closely followed Lhe SanskrlL
proLoLyplcal LexL, no doubL Lhanks Lo hls superlor knowledge of LhaL sysLem, proflclency ln SanskrlL
and chronologlcal proxlmlLy Lo Lhe SanskrlL LplsLeme, Lhls auLhor noneLheless sLrove afLer Lhe
lmplemenLaLlon of a hlgh docLrlnal synLhesls LhaL adopLed cerLaln pracLlcal means and phllosophlcal
perspecLlves of Lan[ala yoga whlle aLLunlng Lhem Lo hls Salva LhelsLlc sLance (see Acrl 2011b).

8allnese reformers were keen Lo supplemenL Lhelr 8allnese Salva (1anLrlc) canon wlLh elemenLs
borrowed from Lhe canon of (neo-)Plndulsm. lndeed Lhe SanskrlL Salva (1anLrlc) canon was unknown
Lo Lhese 8allnese lnLellecLuals, as much as lL was unknown Lo, or lgnored by, Lhe flrsL phllologlsLs
who sLudled SanskrlL LexLs ln lndla and Cld !avanese LexLs ln 8all. As a maLLer of facL, Lhe vasL canon
of SanskrlL 1anLrlc scrlpLures preserved ln manuscrlpLs from nepal and SouLh lndla ls a relaLlvely
recenL dlscovery, and '1anLrlsm' - ln lLs Salva, SkLa, 8auddha and valsnava varleLles - has been
made ob[ecL of serlous phllologlcal and lnLerpreLaLlve work only ln Lhe pasL Lwo or Lhree decades.
47

uurlng mosL of Lhe 19Lh and 20Lh cenLury Lhls 1anLrlc corpus has been neglecLed, lf noL made ob[ecL
of ouLrlghL conLempL, by WesLern lndologlsLs, who have generally regarded Lhe 1anLras as leanlng
Lowards exLravaganL, anLlnomlan and demonlc pracLlces requlrlng Lhe use of maglc, sex and blood.
1he phenomenon of '1anLrlsm' was regarded as perlpheral and 'secLarlan', as opposed Lo Lhe
'orLhodox', and represenLaLlve, malnsLream 8rahmanlcal Plndulsm.
48
1hls purlLan aLLlLude appears
Lo have been lnLerlorlzed by Lhe ma[orlLy of Lhe early modern and modern lndlan Plndu ellLes, who
sancLloned malnsLream 8rahmanlcal rellgloslLy as Lhe 'real' and 'pure' form of Plndulsm, and
consLrucLed Lhelr canon accordlngly.
49
1hls Lrend ls deLecLable ln presenL-day lndla, and also ln 8all.

CCNCLUSICN

1he (lnLer)LexLual and hlsLorlcal analysls of selecLed sources presenLed ln Lhls arLlcle ls buL a
prellmlnary sLep Lowards Lhe reconsLrucLlon of a '8allnese Lheology' ln lLs hlsLorlcal dlmenslon,
leadlng Lo a deeper undersLandlng of Lhe culLural dynamlcs LhaL characLerlzed Lhe !avano-8allnese
rellglous dlscourse from Lhe premodern Lhrough Lhe modern perlod. 1he maln assumpLlon
underlylng my sLudy ls LhaL early modern and conLemporary 8allnese llLerary and exegeLlcal

47
See Coodall and lsaacson 2011.
48
See Coudrlaan, CupLa and Poens 1979:3-3.
49
Powever, lL now appears LhaL whaL ls ofLen referred Lo as '1anLrlsm' lndeed consLlLuLed Lhe malnsLream
mode of rellgloslLy (lncludlng rlLuallsm) ln SouLh Asla from aL leasL Lhe 7Lh cenLury Au Lo Lhe early modern
perlod and beyond, crosslng Lhe boundarles of dlsLlncL rellglous currenLs (for lnsLance LhelsLlc schools,
such as Salva and valsnava, or non-LhelsLlc schools, such as 8uddhlsm and !alnlsm). 1he same holds Lrue
for !ava and 8all.

7
pracLlces show a remarkable conLlnulLy wlLh Lhe earller LradlLlon as Lhey conLlnue Lo engage wlLh
Cld !avanese and SanskrlL LexLual maLerlals.

My concluslon ls LhaL Lhe premodern (Salva) !avanese auLhor of Lhe ubotmo ltojolo and Lwo
modern 8allnese (Plndu-Salva) reformlsL auLhors carrled ouL sLrucLurally slmllar operaLlons of
docLrlnal lnnovaLlon and reconflguraLlon ln a largely lndependenL way. WhaL our sources appear Lo
documenL ls Lhus a malnly orLhogeneLlc
30
model of adapLaLlon and lnnovaLlve dlsplacemenL of
SanskrlLlc elemenLs lnLo a !avano-8allnese framework. 8esldes Lhe docLrlnal sphere, drlven by an
agenda almlng aL lncorporaLlng exogenous (and exoLlc) elemenLs from lndlan SanskrlL LexLs, Lhe
conLlnulLles and analogles may be deLecLed also wlLh respecL Lo LexL-bulldlng sLraLegles, dlscourse-
empowermenL, and leglLlmlzaLlon of rellglous auLhorlLy.
31
Slnce Lhe flrsL prlnLed LexLbooks of
Plndulsm, wrlLLen ln elLher 8allnese or lndoneslan, were largely compendla on maLLers of docLrlne
found ln 1aLLva, whlch Lhey ofLen followed wlLh a remarkable degree of falLhfulness, lL ls arguable
LhaL Lhe modern 8allnese rellglous dlscourse was drlven by a process of polarlzaLlon LhaL developed
along Lhe llnes characLerlzlng Lhe !avano-8allnese Salva eplsLeme long before Lhe lmpacL of WesLern
colonlallsm and modernlLy. 8aLher Lhan reflecLlng Lhe lnfluence of modernlsL, wesLern-drlven
ldeologles or SemlLlc rellglons, Lhls process may be regarded as represenLlng Lhe ouLcome of a
cenLurles-long Lranslocal LradlLlon. lL ls Lhe Cld !avanese Salva corpus LhaL provlded Lhe 'menLal
mapplng' Lhrough whlch modern 8allnese auLhors coped wlLh Lhe new prlorlLles and challenges of
Lhe presenL.

A88kLVIA1ICNS

A[lS Ajl 5ooqkyo
uhL ubotmo ltojolo
Caud8h CoodopJobbsyo on Sk
8?aS? ksl oJoyo 5ookyo Joo oqo
Sk 5nkbyoktlk
vrh vrbospotltottvo
?u oktlJlplk
?S oqostto

30
1he Lerm 'orLhogeneLlc', as opposed Lo 'heLerogeneLlc', has been applled Lo soclal and culLural changes by,
among Lhe oLhers, 8oberL 8edfleld and MllLon Slnger (see especlally 1972:7-8, 397, 409), and employed ln
relaLlon Lo Lhe 8allnese conLexL by 8oon (1977:218).
31
lL ls relevanL here Lo polnL ouL LhaL analogous concluslons have been reached by 1aylor (2008b:324) wlLh
respecL Lo Lhe LexLual sLraLegles and meLa-dlscourse lmplemenLed ln Lhe SanskrlL urnas: 'Pow can we
LesL my supposlLlon LhaL Lhese Lhemes enable Lhe urnas Lo funcLlon as Lrue" dlscourse? 1he eplsLeme
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8
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