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Apostrophes
Apostrophes
Apostrophes
Definition: An apostrophe indicates possession. In addition, apostrophes are used to replace missing letters or numbers and to prevent misreading of confusing words.
Rule 1
To form the possessive case of most singular nouns, add an apostrophe and an -s, such as "the soldiers knapsack."
Rule 2
When singular nouns end in -s or -es, add an apostrophe and an -s to the end of the word, such as "the bosss anger."
Rule 3
Add an apostrophe and an -s to show the possessive case of plural nouns that do not end in -s or -es, such as the children's toys."
Rule 4
To show the possessive case of plural nouns ending in -s or -es, add only an apostrophe, such as "the boys clothes."
Words that would be confusing without the use of an apostrophe ins and outs crossing the is and dotting the ts
The plural form of letters and abbreviations if the context is unclear three Ds purple p.j.s
Amounts, time, and the word sake one weeks pay two dollars worth for Petes sake
Add an apostrophe s to form the possessive case of most singular nouns. For plural nouns, add the apostrophe without the s to make it possessive. Correct Incorrect Correct Incorrect Bills house is small. (Singular possessive) Bills house is small. (Missing apostrophe) The babies blankets are dirty. (Plural possessive) The babies blankets are dirty. (Missing apostrophe)
Singular Possessive Nouns Add an apostrophe s to form the possessive case of most singular nouns. The bodyguards role The soldiers knapsack
Add an apostrophe s to form the possessive case of singular nouns ending in s or es. The bosss anger The witnesss testimony
If adding the additional -s after the apostrophe would make the word difficult to pronounce, add only an apostrophe. Correct Incorrect Charles Dickens books were sold at auction. Charles Dickenss books were sold at auction.
Plural Possessive Nouns After creating a plural noun, add an apostrophe s to show the possessive case of plural nouns that do not end in s or es. The childrens toys The peoples choice
Add only an apostrophe to show the possessive case of plural nouns ending in s or es. The boys clothes The girls hairstyles
Careful!
Do not use an apostrophe with a plural noun that is not possessive. Incorrect: He ate three hamburgers and four hot dogs for the contest. Correct: He ate three hamburgers and four hot dogs for the contest.
Do not use an apostrophe in the wrong place. Incorrect: dont' Correct: don't should'nt shouldnt wo'nt wont
Do not use an apostrophe with a plural abbreviation that is not possessive. Incorrect: four DVD's Correct: four DVDs two VIP's two VIPs some R.N.'s some R.N.s
Be vs. Have
Definition: Two of the most commonly used verbs in the English language are to be and to have. Because both are irregular verbs, they do not follow a typical pattern with tense or number. Like all irregular verbs, forms of these verbs must be memorized individually.
Uses of To Be
The tense conjugations of to be are as follows:
Present: I am, you are, he/she/it is, we are, they are Past: I was, you were, he/she/it was, we were, they were Future: I will be, you will be, he/she/it will be, we will be, they will be Present Perfect: I have been, you have been, he/she/it has been, we have been, they have been Past Perfect: I had been, you had been, he/she/it had been, we had been, they had been Future Perfect: I will have been, you will have been, he/she/it will have been, we will have been, they will have been
Present Progressive: I am being, you are being, he/she/it is being, we are being, they are being Past Progressive: I was being, you were being, he/she/it was being, we were being, they were being Future Progressive: I will be being, you will be being, he/she/it will be being, we will be being, they will be being
Present Perfect Progressive: I have been being, you have been being, he/she/it has been being, we have been being, they have been being
Past Perfect Progressive: I had been being, you had been being, he/she/it had been being, we had been being, they had been being
Future Perfect Progressive: I will have been being, you will have been being, he/she/it will have been being, we will have been being, they will have been being
Uses of To Have
The tense conjugations of to have are as follows:
Present: I have, you have, he/she/it has, we have, they have Past: I had, you had, he/she/it had, we had, they had Future: I will have, you will have, he/she/it will have, we will have, they will have Present Perfect: I have had, you have had, he/she/it has had, we have had, they have had Past Perfect: I had had, you had had, he/she/it had had, we had had, they had had Future Perfect: I will have had, you will have had, he/she/it will have had, we will have had, they will have had
Present Progressive: I am having, you are having, he/she/it is having, we are having, they are having Past Progressive: I was having, you were having, he/she/it was having, we were having, they were having Future Progressive: I will be having, you will be having, he/she/it will be having, we will be having, they will be having
Present Perfect Progressive: I have been having, you have been having, he/she/ it has been having, we have been having, they have been having
Past Perfect Progressive: I had been having, you had been having, he/she/it had been having, we had been having, they had been having
Future Perfect Progressive: I will have been having, you will have been having, he/she/it will have been having, we will have been having, they will have been having
Careful!
Note that the verbs in the perfect tense use a form of to have as the helping verb, verbs in the progressive tense use a form of to be as the helping verb, and verbs in the perfect progressive use a form of to have as a helping verb plus the past participle of to be (been).
Brackets
Definition: Brackets are used in different instances to add information to a sentence that is not necessary to the meaning or to clarify content.
Rule 1
A bracket encloses a correction or insertion in a quotation (...and Queen Elizabeth returned to her residence castle [Buckingham Palace] after...).
Rule 2
A bracket is used when a parenthetical element appears in a larger parenthetical passageMy cousin laughed at me (little did he know I had my own plan [a snowball behind my back] to strike the first blow), and his smiled quickly disappeared.
Rule 3
In direct quotation, a grammatical error or incorrect spelling in the original sentence is indicated by the Latin term sic ("thus," meaning "we found it this way") enclosed in brackets (...and we saw Danl Boone weren't nowheres [sic] around!).
Bracket Usage
Within parentheses Pamela's court case (which was lost when her lawyer [Paul Jones] made a crucial error) was dismissed. [The name in brackets is not necessary but clarifies who the lawyer was].
Within direct quotes Henry said, "I never suspected it [winning the award]." (Adds additional information to clarify meaning)
Henry said, "I never suspected I would win" [emphasis added]. (Indicates special emphasis in a direct quotation)
Sally said, "It was fortunate [sic] that Bobby won the award." (Indicates an error within a direct quotation) On the reference page to clarify the type of reference so that the reader can easily locate the source Smith, Q. A. (2006, September 19). Student Drivers [Letter to the editor]. New York Times, A5.
Capitalization
Definition: Capitalization is used to begin a sentence and indicate proper nouns in a sentence to make reading easier.
Rule 1
Capitalize the first word to begin a sentence, direct quotation, each line in a list, or the first word after a colon when a complete sentence follows the colon.
Rule 2
Capitalize a proper noun. A proper noun is a name that specifies a specific person, place, or thing.
Rule 3
Capitalize the pronoun I.
Capitalization Usage
To begin a sentence, direct quotation, each line in a list, and the first word after a colon when a complete sentence follows the colon. He walked across the street.
The official will discuss Increasing troop strength Leaving the current number of troops Pulling out of the country This is my favorite saying: An apple a day keeps the doctor away.
To indicate a proper nounExamples of proper nouns are Someones nameChad Smith walked home from school.
Nouns followed by numbers or lettersMy cousin took Flight 1034 from Atlanta.
Titles before a person's nameChairman Peter Gates made the decision public.
Organizations and departments within organizationsThe Florida Department of Education announced more funding for special education resources.
Government groups and lawsCongress passed a bill to support the First Amendment.
Brand names and trade marksMy favorite drink is A&W root beer.
Days of the week, months, and holidaysThis year Valentine's Day is on a Friday. Historical events and time periodsAs the Middle Ages drew to a close, the Renaissance marked a rebirth of culture and learning.
Races, languages, and nationalities While many Brazilians are of African-American descent, others in the southern portion of the country are Caucasian and speak German and Italian due to their European ancestry.
Careful!
Do not capitalize articles (a, an, the), conjunctions (and, but, nor, or), and prepositions (in, for, or) in titles and headings. Incorrect: Fiddler On The Roof. Correct: Fiddler on the Roof.
Do not capitalize nonspecific geographical features. Incorrect: Sally went to the Mountains. Correct: Sally went to the mountains.
Do not capitalize the names of departments unless they are specific departments within an organization. Incorrect: Send a report to the Marketing Department. Correct: Send a report to the marketing department.
Do not capitalize state unless it is preceded by or followed by a specific state name. Incorrect: We drove on a State highway. Correct: We live in the State of Washington. Correct: We live in Washington State.
Incorrect: It is a City rule that dogs must be on a leash. Correct:We live in the City of San Francisco. Correct: We live in Oklahoma City.
Do not capitalize a person's title when it is followed by an appositive (which names the specific person). Incorrect: I went to see the Managing Director, Harold Stone. Correct: I went to see the managing director, Harold Stone.
Do not capitalize a person's title that is used instead of the name. Incorrect: The President of the association called the group to order. Correct: The president of the association called the group to order.
Do not capitalize names of general areas of study unless they are proper nouns. Incorrect: I am studying Geography at school. Correct: I am studying geography at school.
Do not capitalize general terms referring to governmental entities. Incorrect: The Government ruled in favor of individual rights. Correct: The government ruled in favor of individual rights.
Capitalize military organizations when referring to the armed forces of the United States. Correct: The Army and Navy mobilized for the war games in California. Incorrect: An Army mobilized for the assault. (The Army means the U.S. Army; an army could be from anywhere). Correct: The army of salespeople canvassed the neighborhood. Correct: A navy is difficult for landlocked countries. Incorrect: We were riding in an army Jeep.
Capitalize Marine when referring to the U.S. Marine Corps (without capitalization, marine refers to sea life), but do not capitalize duty titles of personnel unless associated with a name. Correct: Two Marines were walking down the street. Correct: Two marine plants were growing in the aquarium. Correct: The soldiers visit distant cities when on leave. Incorrect: Modern Airmen can take on-base college courses. Correct: I visited Sergeant Jones in the barracks. Incorrect: The men were marching to the cadence of a Sergeant.
Do not capitalize general words referring to acts, laws, and amendments. Incorrect: The Act was designed to provide more rights to victims. Correct: The act was designed to provide more rights to victims.
Do not capitalize the names of laws, theories, or models in scientific writing unless they contain the author's name. Incorrect: The Theory of Relativity is basic to physical science. Correct: The theory of relativity is basic to physical science. Correct: Mendels Law of Gravity is taught in physics classes.
Do not capitalize the names of general products that are preceded by brand names. Incorrect: Guess Watches are popular among teens. Correct: Guess watches are popular among teens.
Do not capitalize the names of centuries. Incorrect: The Industrial Revolution began in the late 19th Century. Correct: The Industrial Revolution began in the late 19th century.
Do not capitalize nouns indicating a belief rather than membership in a specific group. Incorrect: Many people categorize Republican principles as conservative. Correct: Many people categorize republican principles as conservative.
Do not capitalize intranet, which is a private network not connected to the global system of networks. Incorrect: The company Intranet provides information on company policy. Correct: The company intranet provides information on company policy.
Do not capitalize directions unless they refer to a specific section of the country. Incorrect: We will travel North to Canada. Correct: We will travel north to Canada.
Do not capitalize the first word after a dash or parenthesis unless it is a proper noun, the pronoun I, or the beginning of a direct quote. Incorrect: It snowed last nightThe chickens waddled to their coops. Correct: It snowed last nightthe chickens waddled to their coops.
Clauses
Definition: A clause contains a subject, verb, and modifiersbut is not necessarily a complete sentence. Below are some types of clauses that should help you ensure that you write clear, concise sentences.
Types of Clauses
Independent Clause: An independent clause is a group of words that can stand alone as a complete sentence. While independent and dependent clauses can have a subject and a verb, only an independent clause can stand alone. Another name for an independent clause is main clause. The book [subject] that you want [that you want = modifier] is [verb] at the library.
Two independent clauses can be joined together to make a compound sentence by either adding a comma and a coordinating conjunction or a semicolon between the two clauses. The book that you want is at the library [independent clause 1], and I want to check it out [independent clause 2].
Dependent Clause: A dependent clause is a group of words containing a subject and a verb that cannot stand alone. Dependent clauses are introduced by subordinating conjunctions and followed by a comma. The example below could
be added to the independent clause example to form a complex sentence; however, the phrase is not a complete sentence on its own. But [subordinating conjunction] it [subject] is [verb] checked out [modifier].
Relative Clause: A relative clause is the clause introduced by a relative pronoun. Relative pronouns are who, whom, which, and that. The book that you want [that you want = relative clause] is at the library.
Nonrestrictive Clause/Nonessential Clause: A nonrestrictive clause or nonessential clause adds information about the antecedent but does not limit the antecedent. Remember, an antecedent is the word being referred to. The human brain [antecedent], which weighs about three pounds, [which weighs about three pounds = nonrestrictive clause] contains nearly 100 billion neurons.
Restrictive Clause/Essential Clause: A restrictive clause or essential clause limits the antecedent and is necessary to the meaning of the sentence. Everyone [antecedent] who has a motorcycle [who has a motorcycle = restrictive clause] is required to attend a safety course.
The clause, who has a motorcycle, restricts the antecedent, everyone, because it further defines who everyone is in the sentence.
Careful!
Do not mistake a verb phrase for one of the types of clauses. A verb phrase is a group of words containing a verb but no subject. A verb phrase contains additional words that function as a single verb and modify another word in the sentence (usually the subject). Verb phrase: Standing next to his brother, the boy did not look as short. Restrictive phrase: The boy, who was standing next to his brother, did not look as short. (This is a restrictive phrase because we do not know who the boy is, and physical location is critical to our recognition of him.) Nonrestrictive phrase: The boy, who was standing next to his brother, did not look as short. (This is nonrestrictive because in paragraphs above or by some universal knowledge, we already know who the boy is, so "standing next to his brother" is just extra information and is set off by commas).
Do not mistake a noun clause for one of the types of clauses. A noun phrase can be a noun or pronoun with additional words that function as a single noun. Noun phrase: A vision of perfection in an evening gown, Susan realized she had left her makeup case at home. Relative clause: Susan, while waiting for the train, realized she had left her makeup case at home. Nonrestrictive phrase: Susan, a vision of perfection in an evening gown, realized she had left her makeup case at home.
Restrictive phrase: Susan the vision of perfection in an evening gown realized she had left her makeup case at home. (The implication is that two Susans were at the ball, and the one not dressed so well had her makeup with her).
Colons
Definition: A colon [ : ] is primarily a mark of introduction pointing to something that follows in a sentence. Use a colon only after a complete sentence.
Rule 1
Use a colon to introduce a series after a complete sentence.
Rule 2
Use a colon to introduce an element that explains the previous sentence.
Rule 3
Use a colon to form an appositive (a word that further explains a noun or pronoun).
Rule 4
Use a colon in special situations.
To introduce an element that completes, summarizes, or explains the previous sentence. The speaker concluded with an important thought: pay yourself first.
To form an appositive (a word that further explains a noun or pronoun). We will learn to make quiche from a talented chef: Rachael Ray.
Careful!
Do not use a colon for a list if it is not preceded by a complete sentence. Incorrect: The recipe requires: fresh eggs, bananas, and butter. Correct: The recipe requires the following ingredients: fresh eggs, bananas, and butter.
Do not use a semicolon [;] in place of a colon [:]. Incorrect: Julie's goal was simple but costly; visit Mozambique. Correct: Julie's goal was simple but costly: visit Mozambique.
Place a colon outside quotation marks. Incorrect: Henry is sending us two packages marked "Fragile:" the large mirror and the Tiffany lamp. Correct: Henry is sending us two packages marked "Fragile": the large mirror and the Tiffany lamp.
Conjunctions
Definition: Conjunctions are words that connect other words, phrases, and sentences together. The following material will explain each of the different conjunctions.
Coordinating Conjunctions
Definition: A coordinating conjunction connects similar elements in a sentence. Few in number, the coordinating conjunctions are easy to remember. They are theFANBOYS: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, and so.
Rule 1
Coordinating conjunctions are preceded by a comma when they separate two main clauses. Example: Ms. Ortega rose quickly in the executive hierarchy, and the old-school males gladly made room for her because she made them all look a little better.
Rule 2
Eliminate commas with coordinating conjunctions in the following instances: Between one main clause and a subordinate clause (a clause that needs something else to make it a complete sentence). Example: Ms. Ortega rose quickly in the executive hierarchy [no comma here] and became one of the favorites of the board of directors.
Subordinating Conjunctions
Definition: A subordinating conjunction connects two thoughts in a sentence, but one of the thoughts depends on the other. There are many common subordinating conjunctions; these are some of the most frequently used: although, when, after, before, since, so that, as, once, and though.
Rule 1
When the sentence begins with the subordinating conjunction, a comma is required between the clauses. Example: Although their critical-thinking skills were extraordinary, [comma required] the new grads needed to adjust their writing skills.
Rule 2
When the subordinate clause is second, the comma is optional. Do not use a comma if the information following the subordinating conjunction is essential to the meaning of the sentence. Example: The human resources manager spoke sternly to the new employees about harassment [no comma] so that they would not have to learn hard lessons through experience.
Correlative Conjunctions
Definition: The correlative conjunctions often occur together: [not only and but also] [neither and nor] [either and or] [both and and]. Example: Neither the director nor the supervisors were able to find the bug.
Example: Not only the carpets but also the computers were ruined by the ceiling sprinklers during the false alarm.
Conjunctive Adverbs
Definition: Other words that connect independent (or main) clauses are called conjunctive adverbs because they function both like conjunctions and like adverbs. (Sometimes they are called adverbial conjunctions). The table below lists some of the common conjunctive adverbs:
However
Moreover
Nonetheless
Hence
Otherwise
Consequently
Indeed
Therefore
Rule 1
Use a conjunctive adverb as a transition between ideas. These words function as conjunctive adverbs only when they connect two complete sentences. Example: Joe would have come to the movie with us; however, [this is a conjunctive adverb because it connects two complete sentences] he had to study for a test.
Example: Connie went sunbathing, however, [this is not a conjunctive adverb because the following is not a complete sentence] not swimming.
Rule 2
Use a semicolon before a conjunctive adverb and a comma after. Example: I took the job, [the comma is incorrect] however, I did it with grave reservations.
Commas
Definition: A comma is used to define the relationships of various elements of a sentence and to clarify meaning for the reader.
Rule 1
Use a comma to define relationships in a sentence.
Rule 2
Use a comma to clarify meaning for the reader.
Interest rates are low, so more people are buying new homes.
To set off nonessential elements from the rest of the sentence. The company, which is located in Ohio, has a good reputation.
Between items in a series of three or more. We had potato salad, corn on the cob, and hot dogs at the picnic.
To set off introductory elements at the beginning of a sentence. When her husband died, Clarice inherited $60 million.
Between two or more adjectives that equally modify the same word (these are called coordinate adjectives each adjective describes the noun independently). The winding, scenic highway follows the coastline from Los Angeles to San Francisco.
To separate adjectives following a noun. Tommy, bruised and bloody, ran home crying after he fell.
In dates with at least three parts: day, month, year (place comma after the day and after the year if the sentence does not end there). He received the letter March 23, 2006. Utahns commemorate July 24, 1847, as the year the state was settled.
To separate the city from the state and the state from the rest of the sentence. Phoenix, Arizona, is the location of the corporate office.
In numbers larger than three digits. The crowd at the game was estimated to be more than 20,000.
To set off an appositive (a word that further explains a noun or pronoun). George Washington, the first President, lived at Mt. Vernon.
After the name of a person being addressed in the beginning of a sentence. Lucy, please put the soap in the dishwasher.
Before and after names of people being addressed in the middle of a sentence.
Before such as, including, and especially when the information that follows is not essential to the meaning of the sentence. Martha likes several kinds of ice cream, such as pistachio, chocolate fudge, and cherry cheesecake.
To separate transitional words from the rest of the sentence. The mayor, therefore, voted against building the arena downtown.
After a conjunctive adverb (however, consequently, furthermore, otherwise, therefore, otherwise) that separates two complete sentences. (A semicolon must also be used before the conjunctive adverb.) I like to go bowling; however, I do not bowl well.
Careful!
Do not use a comma before a conjunction unless a complete sentence follows. Incorrect: I will bring the hot dogs, and the punch. Correct: I will bring the hot dogs, and Julie will bring the punch.
Do not use a comma after a coordinating conjunction. Incorrect: Interest rates are low so, more people are buying homes. Correct: Interest rates are low, so more people are buying homes.
Do not use a comma after short introductory elements indicating when. Incorrect: Tomorrow, we will take a short shuttle to the airport. Correct: Tomorrow we will take a short shuttle to the airport.
Do not use a comma after the final adjective with coordinate adjectives. Incorrect: Fragrant, stately, magnolia trees lined the street in Atlanta. Correct: Fragrant, stately magnolia trees lined the street in Atlanta.
Do not use a comma with only the month and year. Incorrect: He received the letter in March, 2006. Correct: He received the letter in March 2006.
Do not use a comma if the following information is necessary to the meaning of the sentence. Incorrect: Gestures, such as rolling your eyes and clenching your teeth, are offensive to listeners. Correct: Gestures such as rolling your eyes and clenching your teeth are offensive to listeners.
Comma Splices
Definition: A comma splice occurs when two main clauses are separated by a comma without a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet). The following rules are ways to correct a comma splice.
Rule 1
Place an end mark (period, question mark, exclamation mark) between the two clauses to form two sentences. Comma Splice: The ship was huge, its mast stood 80 feet high. Correction with end mark: The ship was huge. Its mast stood 80 feet high.
Rule 2
Leave the comma and add a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet) to link the sentences. Comma Splice: The ship was huge its, mast stood 80 feet high. Correction with coordinating conjunction: The ship was huge, and its mast stood 80 feet high.
Rule 3
Use a semicolon to separate and connect the two closely related ideas. Comma Splice: The ship was huge, its mast stood 80 feet high. Correction with semicolon: The ship was huge; its mast stood 80 feet high.
Careful!
Do not use a semicolon to correct a comma splice unless the two sentences are closely related. Incorrect: The score was lopsided; I am not a good loser Correct: The score was lopsided; it was a blowout.
The red dress is more attractive on Donna than the blue dress.
The movie we watched last week was less violent than the movie we watched yesterday.
With most one-syllable modifiers, add an est to form the superlative. The elephant at the circus was the biggest animal Joey had ever seen.
From the hotel window, the couple looked out over the loveliest view.
With most modifiers of two or more syllables, use most or least to form the superlative. Of Go Fish, Crazy Eights, and Old Maid, Go Fish was the least entertaining for the children at the sleepover.
The deep dish apple pie was the most appealing dessert on the menu.
Careful!
Avoid using a comparative when there are more than two items under discussion. Incorrect: The kindergartners were happiest today than yesterday. Correct: The kindergartners were happier today than yesterday.
Avoid using a superlative when there are only two items being compared. Incorrect: Between Mary and Sean, Mary is nicest. Correct: Between Mary and Sean, Mary is nicer.
Avoid using the incorrect comparative/superlative for words that change form. Incorrect: Chocolate ice cream is gooder than vanilla. Correct: Chocolate ice cream is better than vanilla. Incorrect: Who is the baddest movie villain of all time? Correct: Who is the worst movie villain of all time?
Avoid using more than one comparative or superlative form at a time. Incorrect: Jerry paints more faster than Tom. Correct: Jerry paints faster than Tom. Incorrect: The pretzels are the most saltiest I have ever tasted. Correct: The pretzels are the saltiest I have ever tasted.
Dashes
Definition: Dashes () are used to provide emphasis or clarity. Create a dash with two hyphens, and do not space before or after the dash.
Uses of Dashes
To create emphasis (The dash creates greater emphasis than commas or parentheses). The opera singerif you can call her thatused to sing with a rock band.
To create greater clarity when other punctuation is used in a sentence. Some of the things needed in the playprops, costumes, and trumpetstill need to be rented.
To set off a final statement that completes the main idea found at the beginning of the sentence. The opera singer began her training in a strange music genrerock.
To separate elements in the sentence that abruptly interrupt the meaning. Charlie needs to earn $8,000more or lessfor his upcoming trip to Europe.
To introduce items in a series (The dash creates greater emphasis than a colon). On our way to Washington, DC, we drove through every kind of bad weather sleet, rain, snow, hail, and fog.
Careful!
Do not use a closing dash if it comes at the end of a sentence. Use the appropriate end punctuation mark for the sentence. Incorrect: You will have the check by Fridayin two days. Correct: You will have the check by Fridayin two days.
Ellipsis Points
Definition: Ellipsis points consist of three dots with spaces in between each dot. [ . . . ] Ellipsis points are used to indicate missing words in a direct quotation. Ellipsis points can also be used at the end of a sentence when it seems to fade out before completing the thought.
Rule 1
To indicate missing words in a direct quotation.
Rule 2
To indicate the sentence fades out before completing the thought. Use only the ellipsis points (three dots) and eliminate the period in this kind of construction.
To indicate missing words in a direct quotation. The professor stated, "Many Americans . . . wanted to join the fight in the first years of World War I."
To indicate the sentence fades out before completing the thought. Pam was known for raising African violets, but her husband . . . he was an expert at growing wild orchids.
Careful!
Use four dots instead of three to indicate missing words at the end of a sentence of a direct quotation. (The first dot is the period and next three dots are the ellipsis points). Incorrect: The professor stated, "In the first years of World War I, many Americans wanted to join the fight . . . America didn't enter the war until 1917." Correct: The professor stated, "In the first years of World War I, many Americans wanted to join the fight. . . . America didn't enter the war until 1917."
Do not use ellipsis points at the beginning or end of a direct quotation. Incorrect: Ingrid said, " . . . come to the park with us." Correct: Ingrid said, "Come to the park with us."
Fragments
Definition: A sentence fragment is a group of words that does not express a complete thought. Sentence fragments can be turned into complete sentences by adding words that will complete the thought. Remembera sentence must contain a subject (noun) and a verb and be able to stand alone. The reasons fragments occur are listed below.
Rule 1
Fragment contains no subject.
Rule 2
Fragment contains no verb.
Rule 3
Fragment results from a missing thought with an introductory word.
Avoiding Fragments
Adding a subject to the fragment can create a complete thought. Fragment: Splashing some olive oil in the pan and quickly adding onions. Sentence with subject: Splashing some olive oil in the pan and quickly adding onions, Sally burned herself.
Adding a verb to the fragment can create a complete thought. Fragment: Hot dogs, apple pie, ice cream, and soda.
Sentence with verb: Hot dogs, apple pie, ice cream, and soda are favorite American foods.
Adding an additional element to a dependent clause (a phrase that cannot stand alone as a complete sentence). Dependent clause: Although Steve said he would reboot the computer.
Complete sentence: Although Steve said he would reboot the computer, he forgot to do it before he went to bed.
Careful!
Do not be deceived by the length of a sentence fragment. Many times a fragment can be long and complicated, so it is assumed that the fragment is a complete sentence. Incorrect: Waiting in the airport with her dog Corky in a pet container on her lap. Correct: Waiting in the airport with her dog Corky in a pet container on her lap, Cindy was dismayed to hear the plane had been delayed.
Many times a sentence fragment occurs because it should have been attached to either the previous or the following sentence. Incorrect: When my mother came for dinner. We barbequed steak. Correct: When my mother came for dinner, we barbequed steak.
Any sentence that begins with the following words needs to have a complete thought: as, after, because, before, when, although, as soon as, and since. Incorrect: Since I went to bed late. I was grumpy in the morning. Correct: Since I went to bed late, I was grumpy in the morning.
Rule 1
The adjective good will always modify (describe) a noun or a pronoun.
Rule 2
The adverb well will always modify (describe) a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.
The members of the track team are good runners, so they always win first place.
Use good to modify a noun. Because they are good, they always win first place.
Use well to modify a verb. The members of the track team run well, so they always win first place.
Use well to modify an adjective or adverb. When it is cold outside, the members of the track team stay well-covered.
Careful!
Do not use the words good and well interchangeably. Well cannot function as an adjective, and good cannot function as an adverb. Incorrect: The cheese pizza tastes so well when it is hot and fresh. Correct: The cheese pizza tastes so good when it is hot and fresh. Incorrect: Home in bed with a severe cold, Ben did not feel good. Correct: Home in bed with a severe cold, Ben did not feel well.
Hyphens
Definition: A hyphen (sometimes referred to an en dash) is used to connect two or more words in a sentence. Hyphenated words can act as modifiers or as compound words that can stand alone.
Rule 1
Use a hypen to connect two or more words in a sentence in order to prevent misreading and misunderstanding.
Rule 2
Use a hypen in special situations with numbers that are written out and some computer terms.
With some prefixes and suffixes (The prefixes pre, post, self, pro, and ex always require a hyphen, and the suffix elect always requires a hyphen.) The author is a self-proclaimed leader of women's rights.
With numbers between 21 and 99 that are written out There were fifty-four people in the waiting room at the doctor's office.
With some computer terms that contain e The e-book contains information relevant to the course.
Careful!
Do not use a hyphen when a compound modifier comes after the noun. Incorrect: The secretary was well-organized. Correct: The secretary was well organized.
Do not use a hyphen with common compound modifiers that are recognized as a single unit. Incorrect: I ordered a chocolate ice-cream cone. Correct: I ordered a chocolate ice cream cone.
Do not use a hyphen with an adverb that describes another word. Incorrect: The owners of the badly-kept house have many domestic animals. Correct: The owners of the badly kept house have many domestic animals.
The prefix mid requires a hyphen when used with a number or a capitalized word. Incorrect: The world experienced a grain crisis in the mid 1970s. Correct: The world experienced a grain crisis in the mid-1970s.
Do not use a hyphen with words beginning with Web. Write them as two words. Incorrect: The Web-site contained information on the company's goals and objectives. Correct: The Web site contained information on the company's goals and objectives.
Irregular Verbs
Definition: Verbs that do not consistently form the past tense by the addition of ed or d to the base are known as irregular verbs. The forms of these verbs do not follow a pattern and must be memorized individually.
begin / began / had begun drink / drank / had drunk ring / rang / had rung swim / swam / had swum
Some irregular verbs do not change with the change of tense. Examples:
hit / hit / had hit let / let / had let put / put / had put shut / shut / had shut
Some irregular verbs change forms completely with the change of tense. Examples:
bring / brought / had brought buy / bought / had bought catch / caught / had caught teach / taught / had taught
be: I was, you were, he/she/it was, we were, they were to have: I had, you had, he/she/it had, we had, they had to do: I did, you did, he/she/it did, we did, they did
Careful!
To determine whether to use simple past tense or the past participle, check to see if a helping verb also appears in the sentence. If it does not, use the simple past tense. If it does, use the past participle. Past Tense: Andrea spoke to the teacher about Jimmys classroom behavior problems. Past Participle: Andrea and the teacher had spoken before about Jimmys classroom behavior problems.
Modifiers
Definition: A modifier further explains or restricts another word in a sentence. A modifier can consist of one word or a series of words that function as the explanation.
Rule 1
A modifier is an adjective or adverb that further explains or restricts a noun, verb, or an adjective.
Rule 2
A modifier is a group of words that further explains or restricts another word in a sentence.
Uses of Modifiers
An adjective modifying a noun The belligerent student was placed in detention.
An adverb modifying an adjective Only highly skilled workers are hired in the IT department.
An adverb modifying a verb The swiftly running water in the stream posed a hazard to children.
Multiple-word modifiers
The secretary who won the award received a raise. While on the runway, the airplane had an electrical system malfunction.
Careful!
Place a modifier as close to the word it modifies to avoid confusion. A dangling modifier is placed at the beginning of a sentence and modifies the incorrect word. Incorrect: Crushed beyond repair, Jenny found her watch on the street [This says that Jenny was crushed beyond repair]. Correct: In the street, Jenny found her watch crushed beyond repair [This says that the watch was crushed beyond repair].
A misplaced modifier modifies the wrong word in a sentence and alters the meaning of the sentence. Incorrect: The UPS messenger spoke to the secretary who delivered the package [this says the secretary delivered the package]. Correct: The UPS messenger who delivered the package spoke to the secretary [this says the UPS messenger delivered the package].
Number Usage
Definition: Although the basic rule for number usage is to spell out numbers one through nine and use figures for numbers 10 and above, there are exceptions. The following rules will help you use numbers correctly.
Numbers as Words
Rule 1
Spell out numbers from one to nine, including street names. We will be gone for three days.
Rule 2
Spell out indefinite numbers that can be expressed in one or two words. We received hundreds of requests for our product.
Rule 3
Spell out numbers that introduce a sentence, title, or heading. Twenty-one children rode the bus.
Rule 4
Spell out fractions that are used alone. More than one-third of the students received an A on the test.
A. Amounts of money
B. Dates
C. Time
D. Ages
E. Dimensions
After the gas station, turn left in 1.4 miles to find the stadium.
G. Degrees of temperature
L. Mathematical functions
Rule 1
Use a figure for the number and spell out million and billion in round numbers for easier reading. The machine counted 1 million votes.
Rule 2
Use a figure for the large number and spell out the small number for greater clarity when two numbers are used together. I have to read 22 fifteen-page reports by Friday.
Careful!
Spell out one cent. Incorrect: Ken had .01 left after he paid the parking ticket. Correct: Ken had one cent left after he paid the parking ticket.
Use figures for all dates written in ordinal numbers. Incorrect: We will be in New York on the second of June. Correct: We will be in New York on the 2nd of June.
Use figures for ages expressed in years and months. Incorrect: Billy walked at one year and two months. Correct: Billy walked at 1 year and 2 months.
Write out large numbers at the beginning of a sentence or rewrite the sentence. Incorrect: 2,345,615 people voted in the recent state election. Correct: In the recent state election, 2,345,615 people voted.
If several numbers in a sentence perform the same function, express them uniformly. If one should be written as a figure, write them all as figures. Incorrect: We have 32 ranges, three dishwashers, eight refrigerators, 22 washers, and 12 dryers in stock. Correct:We have 32 ranges, 3 dishwashers, 8 refrigerators, 22 washers, and 12 dryers in stock.
Parentheses
Definition: Parentheses enclose information that is independent of the main idea of the sentence. Parentheses are used when dashes would be too emphatic and commas would create confusion. Here is an example for a citystate combination or when the nonessential element already contains commas: Recruiting is up in the New Orleans (Louisiana) military offices. Gulf Coast seafood (shrimp, oysters, mullet, etc.) are world famous.
Parentheses Usage
To add explanations that are not essential to the meaning of a sentence. The party cannot be outside in February (the coldest month of the year).
Use parentheses to add a citation or reference page entry to a paper or essay. . . .according to the research (Smith, 2002)
Smith, Q. A. (2002). . .
Use parentheses to enclose numbers or letters that designate elements in a series. Before her trip, Peggy must purchase the following items: (1) a guidebook to Spain, (2) a money belt, (3) a Eurail pass, (4) an international driver's license, and(5) a good pair of hiking boots.
Use parentheses to enclose an acronym after a complete name. John works for the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI).
Primary purpose of adult education Acquisition of knowledge Skills development Job training Technological development (a) Computer skills (b) Internet functions
Careful!
Place other punctuation required in a sentence outside the closing parenthesis. Incorrect: If Dan does not finish the paperwork by Monday, (July 15) he will lose his job. Correct: If Dan does not finish the paperwork by Monday (July 15), he will lose his job.
If a complete sentence is contained within a set of parentheses, place the closing punctuation mark inside the closing parenthesis and do not use any additional punctuation. Incorrect: William signed in at his dorm on campus. (He arrived on September 5.) Correct: William signed in at his dorm on campus. (He arrived on September 5.)
Pronouns
Definition: A pronoun is used in place of a noun and is used to refer to persons, places, or things.
Rule 1
Use a pronoun to eliminate awkward phrasing caused by unnecessary repetition. Types of Pronouns Indefinite Pronouns: An indefinite pronoun is one that does not refer to a specific person, place, or thing. Below are three charts identifying singular and plural indefinite pronouns.
Anyone
Each
Either
Every
Neither
None
No one
One
Someone
Something
Anybody
Anything
Everybody
Everyone
Everything
Much
Nobody
Nothing
Somebody
Both
Few
Many
Several
Reflexive Pronoun: A reflexive pronoun ends in self or selves and reflects action from the verb back to the subject. John is going by himself.
Intensive Pronoun: An intensive pronoun ends in self or selves and adds emphasis to a noun or another pronoun.
Pronoun Usage
Forms: Pronouns have different forms [Number, Person, Gender, Case], and each must be used correctly in a sentence. Number: Indicates whether the pronoun is singular or plural. Bill [singular noun] checked his [singular pronoun] grades on the computer.
Bill and Henry [two singular nouns combine to make a plural noun] checked their [plural pronoun] grades on the computer.
Person: Pronouns have three person forms: first person, second person, and third person. The following three charts indicate first-, second-, and third-person pronouns. First Person Pronouns I Me Mine We
Us
Our
Ours
You
Your
Yours
He
She
It
Him
Her
They
Them
Hers
His
Its
Theirs
Gender: Indicates whether the pronouns are masculine, feminine, or neuter. Case: This is the form of a pronoun that indicates how it is used in a sentence and its relationship to other words in the sentence. The following tables define the three pronoun cases and how they are used.
Case
Use in a Sentence
Subjective
Objective
Possessive
Shows ownership
Subjective
Objective
Possessive
Singular
Plural
We You They
Us You Them
A pronoun must agree in number, person, gender, and case with its antecedent [a word that the pronoun refers to]. Click here to read more about PronounAntecedent Agreement. Nancy wore her favorite black dress.
Cindy and Janie hailed a taxi so they would be on time for the play.
Careful!
Shifting the number, person, or gender of a pronoun will cause agreement errors. Incorrect: A student must study to receive good grades on their test. Correct: Students must study to receive good grades on their tests. Incorrect: Jill is studying Spanish, a course you need to take before studying abroad. Correct: Jill is studying Spanish, a course she needs to take before studying abroad. Incorrect: Every hurricane is given its name in alphabetical order when she becomes more than a tropical storm. Correct: Every hurricane is given its name in alphabetical order when it becomes more than a tropical storm.
Use a singular pronoun with two singular nouns or pronouns joined by or or nor. Incorrect: Neither Tommy nor Sam walks to their work. Correct: Neither Tommy nor Sam walks to his work.
Incorrect: A nurse should take the patient's temperature; she should also write the blood pressure on the chart. Correct: A nurse should take the patient's temperature; he or she should also write the blood pressure on the chart. Better: Nurses should take the patient's temperature; they should also write the blood pressure on the chart.
Use the correct pronoun case with compound subjects. Incorrect: Nate and him want spaghetti for dinner. Correct: Nate and he want spaghetti for dinner.
Do not use an apostrophe with a possessive pronoun. Incorrect: The bag is your's. Correct: The bag is yours.
Do not confuse the possessive pronoun its with the contraction it's (meaning it is). Incorrect: The dog buried it's bone. Correct: The dog buried its bone.
Use a reflexive pronoun carefully. It must have a clear antecedent in the sentence. Incorrect: My mother bought Jennifer and myself a plane ticket. Correct: My mother bought Jennifer and me a plane ticket.
Use the second person personal pronoun you only when referring to the reader or listener. Eliminate you in academic writing unless your assignment specifies otherwise.
PronounAntecedent Agreement
Definition: The function of pronounsI, me, you, he, him, she, her, it, we, us, they, themis to replace nouns or other pronouns in a sentence. The antecedent is the word to which the pronoun replaces or refers. Be certain that a pronoun agrees with its antecedent.
When using pronouns to refer to collective nouns, remember such nouns are always considered singular because they are taken as a single entity. Incorrect: Starbucks sent quarterly reports to their shareholders.
Common collective nouns: audience, class, company, department, family, public, school, society, team
Pronouns should clearly reference a particular word. Avoid using vague pronouns alone. Vague: They are always telling us what to do! To whom does the word they refer?
Vague: They are always telling us what to do! To whom does the word they refer?
Vague: Claire goes to dance classes six days a week. That is why she is so good at it. To what does that refer? To what does it refer?
Common vague pronouns: it, that, these, they, this, those, which
Careful!
Be careful with pronounantecedent agreement when the pronoun is indefinite and does not replace a specific noun. Common singular indefinite pronouns: another, anybody, anyone, anything, each, everybody, everyone, everything, nobody, nothing, one, other, somebody, someone, something When an indefinite pronoun could be singular or plural (all, any, none, some), choose the number according to the referenced noun. Singular: None of the pizza was left. Plural: None of the children wanted to swing.
Quotation Marks
Definition: Double quotation marks are used to set off someone's words or thoughts, titles of minor literary works, words that need special emphasis, and formal definition of words.
Rule 1
To indicate a person's exact words or thoughts (direct quote).
Rule 2
To set off literary titles that can be found within larger works.
Rule 3
To create emphasis.
Rule 4
To indicate the formal definition of a word.
Use quotation marks only for titles within larger works, such as magazine articles, chapters in books, essays, and titles of songs and short stories The chapter "Writing a Case Study" was helpful in completing my English assignment.
Use quotation marks to create emphasis If we "ever" get to Washington, we can visit the Smithsonian.
Use quotation marks to indicate the formal definition of a word A poker is "a metal rod used to stir a fire."
Careful!
Single quotation marks are used to indicate a direct quotation contained within another quotation. Incorrect: Donna told me, "Jean said, "I am not going to attend graduation," but I think she'll go any way." Correct: Donna told me, "Jean said, 'I am not going to attend graduation,' but I think she'll go any way."
Do not use quotation marks for phrasing that indicates what someone said but does not use the person's exact words (indirect quote). Incorrect: Helen said "that her dog sat down instead of fetching the stick." Correct: Helen said that her dog sat down instead of fetching the stick. [The word that indicates general meaning of what was said.]
Place commas and periods inside quotation marks. Incorrect: "Knowledge is power", wrote Francis Bacon. Correct: "Knowledge is power," wrote Francis Bacon.
Place semicolons and colons outside quotation marks. Incorrect: Mrs. Harper said, "Use only your pencils on the test;" automatic grading systems will not read pen marks. Correct: Mrs. Harper said, "Use only your pencils on the test"; automatic grading systems will not read pen marks.
Place question marks inside quotation marks when the quoted material is a question. Incorrect: Cindy said, "Did Sharon win the award for best actress"? Correct: Cindy said, "Did Sharon win the award for best actress?"
Place question marks outside quotation marks when the entire sentence is a question.
Incorrect: Did you say, "Sharon won the award for best actress?" Correct: Did you say, "Sharon won the award for best actress"?
Place exclamation marks inside quotation marks when the quoted material is an exclamation. Incorrect: Cindy said, "Sharon won the award for best actress"! Correct: Cindy said, "Sharon won the award for best actress!"
Place exclamation marks outside quotation marks when the entire sentence is an exclamation. Incorrect: Cindy was shocked and shouted, "Sharon won the award for best actress!" Correct: Cindy was shocked and shouted, "Sharon won the award for best actress"!
Do not use quotation marks for quotes of 40 words or greater [block quote]. Use an indent to offset block quotes. The example below is a correct illustration of block quotes. We honor Rose Banks not just for what she did when she was here at work but for what she did when she was not at work. She was a PTA president and a constant advocate for children. She adopted several children herself.
Run-on Sentences
Definition: A run-on sentence is two complete sentences (main clauses) that are run together without correct punctuation. The rules below are for correcting a run-on sentence.
Rule 1
Place an end punctuation mark (period, question mark, exclamation mark) between the two sentences. Sparky was not hungry. He wanted a treat.
Rule 2
Use a comma and a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet) to link the two sentences. Sparky was not hungry, but he wanted a treat.
Rule 3
Use a semicolon to separate and connect the two closely related ideas. Sparky was not hungry; he wanted a treat.
Rule 4
Form a simple sentence by adding a word to subordinate one sentence to the other. Sparky was not hungry because he already had a treat.
Careful!
Do not use more than two main clauses in a sentence. This causes overly long and awkward sentences. Incorrect: Sparky was not hungry, and he wanted a treat, so Sue gave Sparky a bone. Correct: Sparky was not hungry, but he wanted a treat. Finally, Sue gave Sparky a bone.
Semicolons
Definition: A semicolon is stronger than a comma but weaker than a period because it does not indicate the end of a complete thought. Use a semicolon only when two sentences are closely related. Use a semicolon to separate the following elements:
Rule 1
Two complete sentences that are closely related when no conjunction (and, but, or, nor, for, yet, so) is between them. Correct It snowed 12 inches last night; most major roads were closed today. Incorrect It snowed 12 inches last night most major roads were closed today. [missing semicolon between the two sentences] Incorrect It snowed 12 inches last night; and most major roads were closed today. [semicolon used with a conjunction]
Rule 2
Items in a series when one or more of the main elements already contains commas. Correct I have lived in Duluth, Minnesota; Denver, Colorado; and Dallas, Texas. Incorrect I have lived in Duluth, Minnesota, Denver, Colorado, and Dallas, Texas. [Commas instead of semicolons separate the main elements.]
Rule 3
Two complete sentences joined by a transitional expression that functions as a conjunctive adverb (however, moreoversee the list of conjunctive adverbs below). Correct Interest rates were at an all-time low; consequently, more people bought homes. Incorrect Interest rates were at an all-time low consequently more people bought homes. [No punctuation separates the conjunctive adverb consequently from the rest of the sentence.] Incorrect Interest rates were at an all-time low, consequently, more people bought homes. [Commas separate the conjunctive adverb consequently from the rest of the sentence.]
Use a semicolon only between two closely related sentences. Correct Incorrect Jerrys favorite food was lasagna. His mother had a stroke. Jerrys favorite food was lasagna; his mother had a stroke.
Make sure that elements on each side of the semicolon are complete sentences. Correct Incorrect Henry vacationed in Switzerland; he returned home broke. Henry vacationed in Switzerland; returned home broke.
Sentences can be separated to form two sentences if you dont want to use a semicolon. Henry vacationed in Switzerland. He returned home broke.
If a semicolon is used with quotation marks, always place the semicolon outside the quotation marks. Correct Incorrect The professor said, Study hard; I might give a pop quiz tomorrow. The professor said, Study hard; I might give a pop quiz tomorrow.
A conjunctive adverb is a transitional word that can be used to connect two complete ideas that are closely related.
However
Moreover
Therefore
Otherwise
Consequently
For example
Furthermore
Nevertheless
Indeed
Accordingly
Thus
Finally
Use a dash instead of a semicolon if an even stronger break is needed between two sentences. The ship stopped at three portsGrand Cayman wasnt one of them.
Careful!
Avoid using a semicolon between a complete sentence and a dependent clause (an incomplete sentence). Correct Incorrect It rained all night before the horse race. It rained all night; before the horse race.
Avoid using a space before a semicolon; use one space after a semicolon. Correct Incorrect Elizabeth won the lottery; she bought a new car. Elizabeth won the lottery ; she bought a new car.
Correct Incorrect
Tim received all As in his classes; Princeton gave him an academic scholarship. Tim received all As in his classes: Princeton gave him an academic scholarship.
Avoid using a comma before a conjunctive adverb that joins two sentences. Correct Incorrect The Tigers won the baseball game; nevertheless, they still had to practice. The Tigers won the baseball game, nevertheless, they still had to practice.
Avoid using a semicolon before an opening or closing parenthesis or an opening dash. Correct Incorrect Correct Incorrect Eleven inches of snow fell TuesdayJane missed Judys birthday party. Eleven inches of snow fell Tuesday; Jane missed Judys birthday party. There was a snowstorm Tuesday (11 inches); Jane missed Judys birthday party There was a snowstorm Tuesday (11 inches;) Jane missed Judys birthday party.
Spelling
Definition: English contains basic spelling rules that make reading easier. Although many people today send e-mail and text messages without worrying about spelling, standard rules for spelling apply in business and academic writing. One of the problems with using correct spelling is that even though spelling has specific rules, so many exceptions exist that it is frequently difficult to spell correctly. The rules below are a good start to help you on your journey to become a better speller.
Rule 1
Use the letter I before E except after C or when sounded like A. See the charts below for some common words that follow this rule and irregular words that do not follow this rule.
I before E
Believe
Brief
Grief
Siege
Thief
Except after C
Ceiling
Conceive
Deceive
Perceive
Receive
Beige
Eight
Freight
Sleigh
Weight
EI Exceptions
Counterfeit
Either
Foreign
Forfeit
Heifer
Height
Heir
Leisure
Neither
Seismology
Seize
Seizure
Sheik
Sleight
Sovereign
Their
Weird
IE Exceptions
Ancient
Conscience
Efficient
Sufficient
Financier
Rule 2
Plural Words: Plural Words are another source of spelling errors. Regular plural words are formed by adding an s to the end of the word. However, words that end in s, ss, x, z, sh, ch form the plural by adding an es at the end of the word. The exception to this rule is when words end in ch with a k sound, only add an s to create the plural, such as monarchs. See the chart below for basic examples of this rule and the exception.
Circus
Circuses
ss
Business
Businesses
Box
Boxes
Waltz
Waltzes
sh
Dish
Dishes
ch
Church
Churches
ch exception
Monarch
Monarchs
Words ending in y preceded by a consonant, change the y to an i and add es. For words ending in y preceded by a vowel, add s.
y Preceded by a Consonant
Singular
Plural
Copy
Copies
Query
Queries
Policy
Policies
Story
Stories
y Preceded by a Vowel
Singular
Plural
Attorney
Attorneys
Day
Days
Monkey
Monkeys
Donkey
Donkeys
Words ending in f or ff form the plural by adding an s, such as with chief to chiefs and cliff to cliffs. However, some words ending in f and ff form the plural by changing the f to a v and add es, such as leaf to leaves and loaf to loaves. Words ending in fe form the plural by changing the f to a v and add an s, such as with life to lives and knife to knives. Irregular Plural words: Irregular plural words are those that do not form the plural by adding an s or es. Below is a chart of common irregular plural words.
Singular
Plural
Child
Children
Crisis
Crises
Goose
Geese
Man
Men
Mouse
Mice
Ox
Oxen
Tooth
Teeth
Woman
Women
The following chart shows words that are the same in the singular and plural form.
Singular
Plural
Deer
Deer
Fish
Fish
Sheep
Sheep
The following nouns only use the plural form: pliers, slacks, scissors, and thanks. Words derived from foreign languages also have irregular plural forms. Below is a chart of some common words derived from foreign languages and their plural forms.
Singular
Plural
Alumna (female)
Alumnae
Alumnus (male)
Alumni
Appendix
Appendices
Criterion
Criteria
Curriculum
Curricula
Datum
Data
Medium
Media
Memorandum
Memorandums/memoranda
Phenomenon
Phenomena
Radius
Radii
Rule 3
Words with a Prefix: A prefix consists of letters attached to the beginning of a word that change the meaning of the word. Some words do not use a hyphen to establish the prefix at the beginning of the word. Some words use a hyphen. Below is a chart with common prefixes with and without a hyphen.
Self-centered
Selfish
Self-discipline
Selfless
Self-indulgent
Selfsame
De-escalate
Preexisting
De-emphasize
Preempt
Pre-owned
Reeducate
Co-op
Reelect
Co-organizer
Coauthor
Co-owner
Cofounder
Redress
Reform
Rule 4
Words with a suffix: A suffix consists of letters attached to the end of a word that change the meaning of the word. See the points below for adding a suffix to a word. Words Ending in a Silent e, drop the e before adding the suffix.
Issue
Issuing
Desire
Desirable
Consume
Consumable
Argue
Argument
Words ending with y preceded by a consonant change the y to i and add the suffix.
Likely
Likelihood
Happy
Happiness
Ordinary
Ordinarily
Easy
Easier
Exceptions
Dry
Dryly
Shy
Shyly
Country
Countrywide
Copy
Copying
Forty
Fortyish
Joy
Joyful
Obey
Obeying
The use of the suffixes ible and able cause many spelling errors. Most words use able rather than ible. If you do not need to change the base word use able. If you do not need to change the base word, use able. Most words use able rather than ible. The chart below contains some common words that end in ible.
Audible
Edible
Legible
Responsible
Compatible
Feasible
Negligible
Sensible
Credible
Flexible
Permissible
Terrible
Digestible
Horrible
Possible
Visible
For words that end in ede, ceed, and sede, only one word ends in sede [supersede], only three words end in ceed [exceed, proceed, succeed], and the rest end in ede. For words that end in ance, ant, ence, and ent, there are no rules that exist. Use a dictionary to determine the correct spelling of these words.
Subject-Verb Agreement
Definition: In grammatically correct sentences, the subject should agree with the verb. To determine if the subject and verb agree in a sentence, first locate the subject. Second, decide whether the subject is singular or plural. Finally, write the appropriate form of the verb. Using the rules below will help you to write sentences free from subject-verb agreement errors.
Rule 1
Use a singular verb with a singular subject and a plural verb with a plural subject. Singular: Betsy [singular subject] walks [singular verb] to the bus stop on Wednesday. Plural: The boys [plural subject] are going [plural verb] to the circus.
Rule 2
Use a plural verb with two or more subjects joined by and. This is known as a compound subject. The Chihuahua [subject 1] and the poodle [subject 2] are [plural verb] in the top five winners of the dog show.
Rule 3
Use a singular verb with two or more singular subjects joined by or or nor. Sam [subject 1] or Charlie [subject 2] is receiving [singular verb] the prize.
Rule 4
Use a verb that agrees with the closer subject when a singular subject and a plural subject are joined by or or nor.
Ken [singular subject] or the Cub Scouts [plural subject] bring [plural verb] refreshments.
Rule 5
Use a singular verb with a collective noun that names a group of people acting as a single unit. The jury [collective noun] has been deliberating [singular verb indicates the collective noun was acting as a single unit] for several days.
Use a plural verb with a collective noun that names a group of people acting independently of one another. The faculty [collective noun] are beginning [plural verb indicates the collective noun was acting independently] their own projects to receive credit for continuing education in the field.
The list below contains common collective nouns. Common Collective Nouns Army Club Fleet Number Team
Assembly
Committee
Flock
Public
Troop
Audience
Crowd
Herd
Squadron
Board
Faculty
Jury
Staff
Class
Family
Majority
Swarm
Rule 6
Use a singular verb with a title even though the title might be plural. Little Women [plural movie title] is [singular verb] a touching movie.
Rule 7
Use a singular verb with the name of one company even though it might contain a compound noun. Smith and Brown [company] is [singular verb] the best law firm in town.
Rule 8
Use a singular verb with an amount (money, distance, time) when it is expressed as a single unit. Four hundred dollars [amount expressed as a single unit] is [singular verb] a fair price.
Rule 9
Use a verb that agrees with the antecedent of the pronoun with who, which, and that. Lilia wants the teachers [antecedent of who] who work [plural verb] tirelessly to win an award.
Rule 10
Use the appropriate singular or plural verb form with an indefinite pronoun, depending on whether the indefinite pronoun is singular or plural. For a list of indefinite pronouns visit the Pronoun section of the Grammar Mechanics section. Singular: Each [singular indefinite pronoun] of the departments works [singular verb] independently. Plural: Both [plural indefinite pronoun] of the departments work [plural verb] independently.
Careful!
Beware of subjects that are inverted in a sentence. Incorrect: High above the sea perched near the edge of the cliffs stand [plural verb] the dilapidated house [singular subject]. Correct: High above the sea perched near the edge of the cliffs stands [singular verb] the dilapidated house [singular subject].
Beware of subject-verb agreement errors in questions, where the subject usually comes after the verb. Incorrect: Are [plural verb] each [singular indefinite pronoun] of the departments fully staffed? Correct: Is [singular verb] each [singular indefinite pronoun] of the departments fully staffed?
Understood subjects that are not listed, such as when someone gives orders or directions, can cause subject-verb agreement errors. Incorrect: (you) [understood singular subject] Please returns [plural verb] the car keys to Peter. Correct: (you) [understood singular subject] Please return [singular verb] the car keys to Peter.
Beware of subject-verb agreement errors in sentences with there and here. These words are false subjects. Locate the true subject and make sure the verb agrees with the subject in number. Incorrect: There is [singular verb] only two tickets [plural tickets] to the basketball game. Correct: There are [plural verb] only two tickets [plural tickets] to the basketball game.
Vague Pronouns
Definition: When pronouns do not refer to a specific antecedent, they are termed vague pronouns, causing the meaning of the sentence to be unclear. The most common vague pronouns are this, that, which, it, and they. Pronouns must clearly refer to the word or word group being replaced or referenced.
Vague: Ethan was grounded for 2 weeks after he talked back to his parents. This was a huge disappointment.
Clear: Ethan was grounded for 2 weeks after he talked back to his parents. This punishment was a huge disappointment.
Add an accompanying noun before the pronoun. Vague: David chewed with his mouth open, which disgusted the others at his table.
Clear: David chewed with his mouth open, a behavior which disgusted the others at his table.
Replace the pronoun with a noun. Vague: Erin was always getting into trouble because they singled her out for talking in class.
Clear: Erin was always getting into trouble because the teachers singled her out for talking in class.
Combine two sentences into one. Vague: The Smiths order from the pizza place on South Main. This is the best.
Clear: The Smiths order from the pizza place on South Main, the best place in town.
Rewrite the sentence for clarity. Vague: Joey looked the answer up on the companys Web site only to find it to be completely false.
Clear: Joey looked the timeline up on the companys Web site only to find the background information surrounding the lawsuit to be false.
Careful!
Avoid the use of expletive constructions (it is, here is, there is) in academic writing because these word groups are usually too vague or do not add anything of substance. Instead, use specific nouns or pronouns and active verbs when possible for clear and effective sentences. Vague: It is the best book I have ever read. Clear: To Kill a Mockingbird is the best book I have ever read.
Vague: There are several group exercise classes to try at the gym. Clear: Several group exercise classes are available at the gym.
Verbs
Definition: A verb is a part of speech that indicates time and expresses action, condition, or existence. Without a verb, a group of words can never be anything but a sentence fragment.
Types of Verbs
Action Verbs: These verbs indicate the action someone or something is performing. Action verbs can represent a visible action or mental action. Shout is a visible action, butlearn is an action that takes place in the mind, so it cannot be seen. Visible: Hank dropped the hammer when he tried to put it away. Mental: Sally appreciates the kindness of her friends.
Appreciate
Dream
Promise
Thought
Worry
Ask
Learn
Think
Wonder
Wish
Transitive and Intransitive Verbs: An action verb is either transitive or intransitive. A transitive verb requires a direct object, and an intransitive verb cannot have a direct object. A direct object is placed after an action verb and describes who or what received the action. To determine whether a verb is transitive or intransitive, use this simple test: Ask who or what after the verb. If you can find an answer, the verb is transitive. Transitive: Karl ate five hot dogs [Ate what? Hot dogs] Intransitive: The fans cheered loudly [Cheered what? No answer]
Linking Verbs: A linking verb links a noun or pronoun at the beginning of the sentence to something that follows the verb. In other words, a linking verb describes the subject. A linking verb does not show action. The house smelled bad because of the dead fish [smelled describes the smelly house].
Linking Verbs
Appear
Grow
Seem
Stay
Become
Look
Smell
Taste
Feel
Remain
Sound
Turn
Helping Verbs: Helping verbs are used with other verbs to create a more specific meaning in the sentence. The most common helping verb is any form of the verb to be. He can write clearly and concisely.
Helping Verbs
Can
Does
Has
Might
Should
Could
Did
Had
Must
Will
Do
Have
May
Shall
Would
Verb Tenses
Definition: The tense of a verb indicates when an action or state of being took place. The following is a chart of verb tenses and the time sequences they represent.
Tense
Verb Usage
Representation
Present tense
I drive
Past tense
I drove
Future tense
I will drive
I have driven
I had driven
I am driving
I was driving
I will be driving
Regular Verbs: A verb is called a regular verb if the tense of the verb can be formed using a regular and expected pattern, such as the example of the verb to drive in the chart above. Irregular Verbs: The tense of irregular verbs is formed on a varied pattern. Consult a dictionary to locate irregular forms of a verb. If the forms of the verb are not listed, the word is a regular verb.
Verb Usage
A verb must agree with its subject. Number refers to whether the subject and verb are singular or plural. To create the present singular form of a regular verb add an s or es. For more information on subject-verb agreement, visit the subject-verb agreement section of the Grammar Mechanics section. Verbs have three moods: indicative, imperative, and subjunctive. Mood indicates changes in the verb that specify the viewpoint of the writer. Indicative: makes a statement or asks a question Bob and Ben went to play soccer. Imperative: issues a command Put the clothes in the dryer. Subjunctive: states a desire or wish. Use the subjunctive mood for information that is contrary to what is true. Sally wishes she were able to dance.
Verbs can be written in the active or passive voice. Active voice sentences are much more effective than sentences written in the passive voice. Below are some examples of active and passive voice verbs. However, for more extensive information on active and passive voice, visit the active and passive voice in the writing style section of the Grammar Guide. Active voice: The subject performs the action Jesse found a Rolex watch. Passive voice: The action is performed on the subject A Rolex watch was found by Jesse.
Careful!
Most action verbs can be transitive in one sentence and intransitive in another. Transitive:Harvey rushes home after work. Intransitive: Harvey rushes after work.
Linking verbs can also be action verbs. Linking Verb:The baby appears sleepy. Action verb: The stray dog appears after dark.
Incorrect: I joined [past tense verb] the sorority and sing [present tense verb] the pledge. Correct: I joined [past tense verb] the sorority and sang [past tense verb] the pledge.
The verbs lie versus lay, rise versus raise, and sit versus set can be difficult to use properly. Use lay, raise, and set only when the sentence contains a direct object(transitive). Use lie, rise, and sit only when no direct object is in the sentence (intransitive). Transitive: Lay the book [direct object] on the desk. Intransitive: I lie down with the baby [no direct object]. Transitive: Raise the shades [direct object] to let in more sun. Intransitive: Temperatures always rise by the afternoon [no direct object]. Transitive: Set the tea set [direct object] in the center of the table. Intransitive: Students sit in a semicircle around the teacher's desk [no direct object].
To practice using verbs, click on the link below to take a quiz. Skill-and-Drill: Verbs Quiz
Case Identification:
Subjective Case Objective Case Possessive Case
Singular
Who Whoever
Whom Whomever
Whose Whosever
Plural
Who Whoever
Whom Whomever
Whose Whosever
Case
Pronoun
Use in a sentence
Subjective
Who Whoever
Objective
Whom Whomever
Possessive
Whose Whosever
Indicates ownership
Rule 1
Use who or whoever when the pronoun is The subject of a verb. Who wants to eat the drumstick? A subject complement. The man who offered the reward was who? The subject of a subordinate clause. I wonder who wrote the letter to the editor.
Rule 2
Use whom or whomever when the pronoun is The direct object of a verb. Whom did she finally ask to the party? The object of a preposition. With whom were you discussing the merger? The object of a verb in a subordinate clause. I wonder whom the CEO will select as the manager.
Rule 3
Generally, you can use the following hints to determine when to use who or whom. (Note that these hints might not work with questions.) When a pronoun is followed by a verb, use who. When a pronoun is followed by a noun, use whom.
Careful!
Do not use that in place of who when referring to people and animals with specific names.
Incorrect: He is a project manager that always develops a contingency plan. Correct: He is a project manager who always develops a contingency plan.
Spelling Demons
The following list contains words that might not follow the common rules of spelling. You might want to memorize the spelling of these words or keep the list of Spelling Demons handy to prevent spelling errors. Create your own list of spelling demons (words that you use and misspell regularly). This should be a perpetual list you will keep adding to it.
Accommodate
Embarrass
Millennium
Renaissance
Accumulate
Existence
Miniscule
Resistance
Asinine
Feasible
Mischievous
Resuscitate
Auxiliary
Freight
Moccasin
Sacrilegious
Baboon
Gauge
Moccasin
Seize
Battalion
Genealogy
Nickel
Separate
Bureaucracy
Glamour
Noticeable
Siege
Chauffeur
Grammar
Occurred
Silhouette
Chihuahua
Harass
Occurrence
Souvenir
Chrysanthemum
Inane
Pastime
Stupefy
Connoisseur
Independence
Pavilion
Subpoena
Coolly
Indispensable
Permanence
Supersede
Dalmatian
Inoculate
Perseverance
Tattoo
Defendant
Iridescent
Pharaoh
Toboggan
Definitely
Lackadaisical
Precede
Traveler
Desperate
Ladle
Privilege
Ukulele
Dilettante
Legend
Proceed
Unparalleled
Diphtheria
Liaison
Questionnaire
Vaccinate
Dysfunction
Liqueur
Rarefy
Weigh/Weight
Ecstasy
Mayonnaise
Reckless
Weird
Spelling
Definition: English contains basic spelling rules that make reading easier. Although many people today send e-mail and text messages without worrying about spelling, standard rules for spelling apply in business and academic writing. One of the problems with using correct spelling is that even though spelling has specific rules, so many exceptions exist that it is frequently difficult to spell correctly. The rules below are a good start to help you on your journey to become a better speller.
Rule 1
Use the letter I before E except after C or when sounded like A. See the charts below for some common words that follow this rule and irregular words that do not follow this rule.
I before E
Believe
Brief
Grief
Siege
Thief
Except after C
Ceiling
Conceive
Deceive
Perceive
Receive
Beige
Eight
Freight
Sleigh
Weight
EI Exceptions
Counterfeit
Either
Foreign
Forfeit
Heifer
Height
Heir
Leisure
Neither
Seismology
Seize
Seizure
Sheik
Sleight
Sovereign
Their
Weird
IE Exceptions
Ancient
Conscience
Efficient
Sufficient
Financier
Rule 2
Plural Words: Plural Words are another source of spelling errors. Regular plural words are formed by adding an s to the end of the word. However, words that end in s, ss, x, z, sh, ch form the plural by adding an es at the end of the word. The exception to this rule is when words end in ch with a k sound, only add an s to create the plural, such as monarchs. See the chart below for basic examples of this rule and the exception.
Circus
Circuses
ss
Business
Businesses
Box
Boxes
Waltz
Waltzes
sh
Dish
Dishes
ch
Church
Churches
ch exception
Monarch
Monarchs
Words ending in y preceded by a consonant, change the y to an i and add es. For words ending in y preceded by a vowel, add s.
y Preceded by a Consonant
Singular
Plural
Copy
Copies
Query
Queries
Policy
Policies
Story
Stories
y Preceded by a Vowel
Singular
Plural
Attorney
Attorneys
Day
Days
Monkey
Monkeys
Donkey
Donkeys
Words ending in f or ff form the plural by adding an s, such as with chief to chiefs and cliff to cliffs. However, some words ending in f and ff form the plural by changing the f to a v and add es, such as leaf to leaves and loaf to loaves. Words ending in fe form the plural by changing the f to a v and add an s, such as with life to lives and knife to knives. Irregular Plural words: Irregular plural words are those that do not form the plural by adding an s or es. Below is a chart of common irregular plural words.
Singular
Plural
Child
Children
Crisis
Crises
Goose
Geese
Man
Men
Mouse
Mice
Ox
Oxen
Tooth
Teeth
Woman
Women
The following chart shows words that are the same in the singular and plural form.
Singular
Plural
Deer
Deer
Fish
Fish
Sheep
Sheep
The following nouns only use the plural form: pliers, slacks, scissors, and thanks. Words derived from foreign languages also have irregular plural forms. Below is a chart of some common words derived from foreign languages and their plural forms.
Singular
Plural
Alumna (female)
Alumnae
Alumnus (male)
Alumni
Appendix
Appendices
Criterion
Criteria
Curriculum
Curricula
Datum
Data
Medium
Media
Memorandum
Memorandums/memoranda
Phenomenon
Phenomena
Radius
Radii
Rule 3
Words with a Prefix: A prefix consists of letters attached to the beginning of a word that change the meaning of the word. Some words do not use a hyphen to establish the prefix at the beginning of the word. Some words use a hyphen. Below is a chart with common prefixes with and without a hyphen.
Self-centered
Selfish
Self-discipline
Selfless
Self-indulgent
Selfsame
De-escalate
Preexisting
De-emphasize
Preempt
Pre-owned
Reeducate
Co-op
Reelect
Co-organizer
Coauthor
Co-owner
Cofounder
Redress
Reform
Rule 4
Words with a suffix: A suffix consists of letters attached to the end of a word that change the meaning of the word. See the points below for adding a suffix to a word. Words Ending in a Silent e, drop the e before adding the suffix.
Issue
Issuing
Desire
Desirable
Consume
Consumable
Argue
Argument
Words ending with y preceded by a consonant change the y to i and add the suffix.
Likely
Likelihood
Happy
Happiness
Ordinary
Ordinarily
Easy
Easier
Exceptions
Dry
Dryly
Shy
Shyly
Country
Countrywide
Copy
Copying
Forty
Fortyish
Joy
Joyful
Obey
Obeying
The use of the suffixes ible and able cause many spelling errors. Most words use able rather than ible. If you do not need to change the base word use able. If you do not need to change the base word, use able. Most words use able rather than ible. The chart below contains some common words that end in ible.
Audible
Edible
Legible
Responsible
Compatible
Feasible
Negligible
Sensible
Credible
Flexible
Permissible
Terrible
Digestible
Horrible
Possible
Visible
For words that end in ede, ceed, and sede, only one word ends in sede [supersede], only three words end in ceed [exceed, proceed, succeed], and the rest end in ede. For words that end in ance, ant, ence, and ent, there are no rules that exist. Use a dictionary to determine the correct spelling of these words.
Preparing to Write
Use the steps below to prepare to write an essay. Following these steps should reduce or prevent writing anxiety because they help you understand the assignment so you know what to write.
Identify the audience. Determine the purpose of the assignment. Evaluate the assignment.
More information about these topics can be found in the Guidelines for Writing Academic Papers link in the Tutorials & Guides section of the CWE site. Developing Ideas After preparing to write, the next step is developing ideas for your essay. Instead of staring at a blank screen or piece of paper, trying to figure out what to write, you should first use some prewriting activities to generate ideas. See the Guidelines for Writing Academic Papers link in the Tutorials & Guides section of CWE and click The Writing Process for detailed information about the following:
You can find more information about writing an outline in Developing the Topic in the Guidelines for Writing Academic Papers link in the Tutorials & Guides section of CWE. Writing the Essay
Use all the information you created during the prewriting and outlining process, and the notes from your research, to write your essay. You can begin writing at any point in the outline; the outline is your essay's organizational pattern. Remember that essays do not need to be written from the introduction straight through to the end. You can begin writing from anywhere in the outline. Keep in mind that the first draft is considered to be a rough draft of your essay. You have words on paper, and that is more than half the battle of curing writing anxiety. Before revising your essay, let it rest for a short time. Then you can begin proofreading and revising the essay. See the Writing the Essay link located within the Guidelines for Writing Academic Papers link in the Tutorials & Guides section of CWE for detailed information about revising the essay. Conclusion Now you have written a paper. Congratulations! The next time you receive a writing assignment, consider the steps mentioned above. Progressing from one step to the next should make writing easier.