THE DARK AGE OF GREECE

by IMMANUEL VELIKOVSKY

THE DARK AGE OF GREECE by IMMANUEL VELIKOVSKY

CONTENTS: A Technical Note Preface The Reconstruction of Ancient History CHAPTER I: THE HOMERIC QUESTION The Setting of the Stage Why No Literary Relics from Five Centuries? Troy in the ar! Ages The ar! Age in Asia "inor The Homeric #uestion The Allies of Priam Aeneas $lym%ic &ames in the 'lia( CHAPTER II: MUTE WITNESSES Troy an( &or(ion The Lion &ate of "ycenae $lym%ia )The Scan(al of *n!omi+ Tiryns "ute Witnesses A ,otive Cretan Cave *truria Sicily "ycenae an( Scythia CHAPTER III: WORDS SET IN CLAY Pylos Linear - eci%here( The &ree! Pantheon "ycenean City Names in the 'lia( The "ycenean ialect Ca(mus CHAPTER IV: A GAP CLOSED Seismology an( Chronology Celestial *vents in the 'lia( Changes in Lan( an( Sea A &a% Close( Com%eting for a &reater Anti.uity Summing /%

A TECHNICAL NOTE ' have 1een as!e( 1y the com%liers of the ,eli!ovs!y archive to 1riefly e2%lain the %resent con(ition of ,eli!ovs!y3s un%u1lishe( manuscri%t entitle( The Dark Age of Greece. ,eli!ovs!y 4or!e( on the manuscri%t of The Dark Age of Greece fairly intensively (uring the last years of his life5 (ra4ing in %art on the li1rary research of *(4in Schorr5 a gra(uate stu(ent at the /niversity of Cincinnati5 4hom he em%loye( for this %u%ose in Princeton for several summers in a ro4 in the mi(6seventies7 Rea(ers of Pens8e !no4 Schorr un(er his nom de plume 'srael "7 'saacson5 4hich he use( to %rotect himself from the 4rath of his %rofessors at Cincinnati7 At the time that ' 1egan to 4or! for ,eli!ovs!y in 19:;5 the manuscri%t 4as still )4or! in %rogress7+ While ,eli!ovs!y 4as 4riting an( re4riting the main te2t5 my tas! 4as to annotate the material5 (ra4ing in %art on the voluminous notes an( %hotoco%ies of articles %re%are( 1y Schorr an( %artly on my o4n research7 'n a((ition5 ,eli!ovs!y an( ' co6authore( certain sections< others5 4ritten solely 1y me5 4ere to have 1een inclu(e( in a su%%lement to the 1oo!7 Su1se.uent to 19=>5 %ursuant to *lisheva ,eli!ovs!y3s 4ishes5 ' move( some of these contri1utions from the main te2t into footnotes an( remove( the rest from the manuscri%t altogether7 Several of them 4ere %u1lishe( in Kronos ,'''70 in 19=?7 Another %lanne( su%%lement to The Dark Age of Greece 4as to have 1een *(4in Schorr3s 4or! on "ycenae5 Applying the Revised Chronology. This (etaile( stu(y on the archeology of "ycenae 4as commissione( 1y ,eli!ovs!y an( 4ritten s%ecifically for this %ur%ose7 Although incom%lete5 it is an im%ressive 4or! of scholarshi% that (eserves %u1lication7 Jan Sammer 'n this e(ition @an Sammer3s annotations are (istinguishe( from ,eli!ovs!y3s te2t 1y 1eing %lace( in s.uare 1rac!ets an( (is%laye( in re( letters7 All such annotations shoul( 1e un(erstoo( as 1eing 1y @an Sammer5 unless mar!e( 4ith the initials *"S5 in 4hich case they are 1y *(4in Schorr7 'n conformity 4ith relia1le information 4e have receive( 4ith res%ect to ,eli!ovs!y3s %lan for the 1oo!5 4e have inclu(e( Schorr3s an( Sammer3s 4or! as a su%%lement to The Dark Age of Greece7 The ditors

PREFACE The tas! of my fe4 4or(s is to as! %rominent scholars to reconsi(er their o%inions a1out the (ar! age of &reece in the light of ,eli!ovs!y3s %resent 1oo!7 "y %ersonal (ifficulty is mainly cause( 1y the fact that a short %reface cannot 1e a scholarly treatise an( therefore it is im%ossi1le to as! here all the .uestions 4hich arise 4hen ,eli!ovs!y3s theory is a%%lie( to our s%ecial %ro1lem7 An( as ' am not an archaeologist5 1ut a &ree! scholar5 ' am not a1le to control ho4 far ,eli!ovs!y is right in .uestions of stratigra%hy7 Here ' (e%en( on his .uotations of archaeological re%orts an( it is not %ossi1le for me to (eci(e ho4 far his selection of %assages from these re%orts is su1Aective7 "y (ifficulty is that no4 ' have to acce%t the vie4 that the %erio( of &eometric style overla%s5 at least %artially5 the "ycenaean an( "inoan %erio(7 This is ne4 for me5 1ut ' a(mit that it is not im%ossi1le that t4o (ifferent artistic a%%roaches can e2ist at the same time7 -ut the most im%ortant %ro1lem in connection 4ith the %resent 1oo! is ho4 far this theory is (ictate( 1y the 4hole of ,eli!ovs!y3s chronological system an( ho4 far his results in the %resent stu(y are vali( in(e%en(ently from it7 ,eli!ovs!y %uts the )true time of the events recounte( in the 'lia( in the secon( half of the eighth century an( the 1eginning of the seventh7 7 7 7 The time in 4hich the (rama of the 'lia( 4as set 4as 6;=:< yet the %oet con(ense( the events of more than one year into the tenth year of the TroAan siege5 the time of the 'lia(3s action7+ ,eli!ovs!y came to this (ate 1ecause he i(entifie( the (escri%tion of the 1attle 1et4een the go(s in the 'lia( 4ith a cosmic catastro%he7 His (ate for the con.uest of Troy is unusually late7 As Homer ha( to live after the events he (escri1es5 the s%ace of the time 1et4een Homer an( the classical &ree! literature seems to me %ersonally to 1e too short7 -ut the main .uestion is a1out the interrelation 1et4een ,eli!ovs!y3s chronological system an( the single historical facts7 $r in other 4or(sB (oes this system solve the concrete (ifficulties in our a%%roach to ancient history? The %resent 1oo! tries to solve such a serious %ro1lem5 namely5 (oes the so6calle( (ar! age of &reece really e2ist? 's the su%%ose( s%an 1et4een "ycenae an( classical &reece too long? Are 4e not in this case victim of a false *gy%tian chronology5 4hich 4as invente( 1y *gy%tian %atriots in or(er to sho4 that the &ree!s 4ere in com%arison 4ith the *gy%tians mere chil(ren? Was the history of *gy%t in reality much shorter than it is su%%ose( to(ay? 'f this coul( 1e sho4n5 then the %ro1lem of the (ar! age of &reece 4oul( (isa%%ear7 $nly o%en6min(e( s%ecialists can reAect or acce%t ,eli!ovs!y3s solutions7 $ne thing is clearB the ne4 1oo! treats a real %ro1lem7 't 4as not its author 4ho create( it7 The 4hole com%le2 of .uestions 4as re6o%ene( 1y the (eci%herment of the Linear - scri%t5 4hen it 4as (efinitely sho4n that the "ycenaeans 4ere &ree!s5 s%ea!ing a language 4hich 4as an ol(er stage of the linguistic su1strate of the 'lia( an( $(yssey7 't is a merit of the ne4 1oo! that it offers an original solution for a real %ro1lem7 Will there 1e a sufficient num1er of goo( s%ecialists 4ho are %re%are( to 4restle 4ith the %ro%ose( solution? !rof. David "lusser #e$re% &niversity

THE RECONSTRUCTION OF ANCIENT HISTORY The history of the ancient *ast is an inter4oven ne2us5 em1racing *gy%t5 'srael5 Syria an( "eso%otamia5 !no4n also as the -i1lical lan(s7 The interconnections e2ten( to Asia "inor5 to "ycenaean &reece5 an( to the "e(iterranean islan(sDCy%rus5 Crete5 an( the Aegean archi%elago7 The histories of many of these nations are5 for most of their e2istence5 (evoi( of a1solute (ates an( (e%en( on interrelations 4ith other nations7 The chronologies of the "ycenaean civiliEation in &reece an( of the "inoan civiliEation on Crete are 1uilt u%on contacts 4ith *gy%t5 for *gy%t3s chronology is consi(ere( relia1le7 'n turn5 the 4i(es%rea( "ycenaean an( "inoan contacts an( influences foun( in the archaeological sites of many countries are (istri1ute( on the scale of time 1y (etaile( stu(y of "ycenaean an( "inoan %ottery an( its (evelo%ment7 This %ottery is foun( in countries as far a%art as 'taly an( the anu1ian region7 Egyptian History Although *gy%t3s chronology is use( to (etermine the (ates of other cultures5 *gy%t ha( no 4ritten account of its history5 an( the earliest surviving effort to %ut its %ast into a narrative is from the %en of Hero(otus of the mi(6fifth century 1efore the %resent era5 regar(e( 1y mo(ern historians as largely unrelia1le71 Though various !ing6lists from earlier times have 1een %reserve(5 it is the list of "anetho5 an *gy%tian %riest of Hellenistic times5 Fthir( %re6Christian centuryG that serve( the historiogra%hers as the 1asis for ma!ing a narrative out of the *gy%tian %ast7 The names rea( on monuments 4ere e.uate(5 often 1y trial an( error5 4ith "anethonian (ynasties an( !ings7 The mathematics of history5 it 4as agree(5 coul( not 1e entruste( to "anetho5 an( is largely 1orro4e( from the si2teenth6century *uro%ean chronogra%hers5 nota1ly @ose%h Scaliger5 an( his si2teenth6 an( seventeenth6century emulators Seth Calvisius an( others5 0 4ho (ate( in the same ta1les also various mythological motifs5 such as the scan(als among the $lym%ian go(s or Heracles3 heroic e2%loits7 With the rea(ing of the *gy%tian hierogly%hs achieve( in the nineteenth century5 some selecte( (ates of Scaliger 4ere use( 1y Le%sius F1=1>6=CG to (ate the monuments an( thus the reigns of the !ings of *gy%t 4hose names 4ere on the monuments7 Le%sius 4as5 for instance5 of the vie4 that Ramses '' 4as the %haraoh of the *2o(usDan( thus -i1lical history5 too5 4as (ra4n into a com%rehensive scheme on 4hich other histories coul( fin( their first foothol(7 Such 4as also the case 4ith )Hittite+ history 1ecause of a %eace treaty of Ramses '' 4ith one of the Hittite !ings FHattusilisG7 "anethonian mathematics5 or the num1er of years allotte( to (ynasties an( !ings5 4as soon (isregar(e(7 Astronomical Dating3 *ven 1efore Houng an( Cham%ollion first rea( the hierogly%hic te2ts in the 1=0>s5 -iot an( others (eci(e( that astronomical calen(ric calculations coul( 1e use( to ascertain the (ates of the *gy%tian (ynasties7 't 4as !no4n that the *gy%tian civil year consiste( of ?;I (ays5 a%%ro2imately a .uarter of a (ay short of the true si(ereal year7 Thus the calen(ric (ates of the *gy%tians 4oul( gra(ually have fallen out of their %ro%er %lace in relation to the seasons5 an( ma(e a com%lete circle in ?;I 2 C J 1C;> years7 With the (eci%herment of the multitu(inous *gy%tian te2ts5 a fe4 references to a star spdt 4ere foun(5 an( 4ere inter%rete( as recor(ing the heliacalC rising of the southern fi2e( star SiriusDan( if from monuments it coul( also 1e learne( in 4hich months an( on 4hat (ay the star rose heliacally5 events
I

coul( 1e (ate( 4ithin the 1C;>6year6long )Sothic cycle7+ This ma(e it %ossi1le to 1uil( a chronology of *gy%t aroun( the fe4 (ates so fi2e(Dan( much 4or! 4as s%ent in such an effort7 With this as a 1asis5 refinement coul( 1e achieve( in various 4ays5 most nota1ly 1y trying to ascertain the length of the years of a !ing5 usually relying on the highest year of his reign foun( recor(e( on monuments7 *ach !ing counte( the years from his coronationD*gy%t ha( no continuous timeta1le7 Ho4ever5 in *gy%tian te2ts no reference to calculating 1y Sothic o1servations 4as ever foun(7 Archaeological 4or! in *gy%t sho4e( that 1esi(es the so6calle( %re6(ynastic times5 from 4hich the (ata are incom%lete5 the historical %ast 4as t4ice interru%te( for centuries 4hen the lan( fell into neglect7 The First 'nterme(iate Perio( intervene( 1et4een the e%ochs that receive( the names of the $l( an( "i((le King(oms< the Secon( 'nterme(iate Perio( 1et4een the "i((le an( Ne4 King(oms< the Ne4 King(om consists of the "anethonian (ynasties *ighteen5 Nineteen an( T4entyD4hat follo4s is calle( the Late King(om7 Hebrew History He1re4 history has a narrative that consists of the 1oo! of &enesisDthe history of the 4orl( in 4hich catastro%hic events Fthe eluge5 the overturning of the To4er of -a1el5 the (estruction of So(om an( &omorrahG come to the fore5 the latest of these coinci(ing 4ith the 1eginning of the age of the Patriarchs 4hich en(s 4ith the migration of the fourth generation to *gy%t 1ecause of (rought in Canaan7 This %art of the history is consi(ere( largely legen(ary7 Follo4ing a soAourn in *gy%t5 the *2o(usDthe su1Aect of the other four 1oo!s of the PentateuchDinaugurates the historical %erio(7 The historical events until the *2ile to -a1ylon are further narrate( in the 1oo!s of @oshua5 @u(ges5 Kings5 Chronicles5 an( Pro%hets an( the %ost6-a1ylonian %erio( in the 1oo!s Nehemiah5 *Era5 an( of the later %ro%hets7 "any non6Scri%tural 1oo!s 4ith varying (egrees of historical veracity a(( an( ta!e over 4here the $l( Testament ceases its narrative7 't 4as agree( since the (ays of @ose%hus Flavius5 the @e4ish historian of the (ays of *m%eror ,es%asian5 that the *2o(us of the 'sraelites from *gy%t too! %lace after the Secon( 'nterme(iate %erio(5 (uring the *gy%tian Ne4 King(om5 4hether at its very 1eginning or several generations later7 Ho4ever5 they (isagree among themselves5 some %lacing the *2o(us un(er Thutmose ''' of the *ighteenth ynasty5 others un(er Amenhote% ''' or his heir A!hnaton of the same (ynasty Fthe time of the el6Amarna corres%on(enceG5 some %lacing it un(er Ramses '' or "erne%tah of the Nineteenth ynasty F)'srael Stele+ G5 an( some as late as the T4entieth ynasty Fafter Ramses ''' re%elle( the invasion of the Peo%les of the Sea5 su%%ose(ly in the first .uarter of the t4elfth centuryG7 So many various (ates for the *2o(usDa %oint that connects the He1re4 an( the *gy%tian historiesDcoul( 1e contem%late( 1ecause these t4o histories as they are usually taught are remar!a1ly out of contact for the entire length of the Ne4 King(om5 an( e.ually so for the rest of their histories5 (o4n to the time of Ale2an(er of "ace(on7 The Revised Chronology "y a%%roach to the %ro1lem of the synchroniEation of ancient histories too! the follo4ing form7 /%on realiEing that the *2o(us 4as %rece(e( an( accom%anie( 1y natural (istur1ances (escri1e( as %lagues of (ar!ness5 of earth.ua!e5 of vermin5 accom%anie( 1y hurricanes an( follo4e( 1y a (isru%tion of the sea5 1y volcanic %henomena in the (esert an( then 1y the %rolonge( )Sha(o4 of eath+ of the years of 4an(ering5 ' loo!e( for similar (escri%tions in *gy%tian literary relics an( foun( them in a %a%yrus ascri1e( to a certain '%u4er5 an eye4itness an( survivor of the events7 A((itional (ata ' foun( in an inscri%tion carve( on a stone shrine foun( at el6Arish on the *gy%tian6Palestinian frontier7 Ta!ing the latest %ossi1le (ate for the events (escri1e( in the %a%yrus '%u4er5 namely5 the colla%se of the "i((le

King(om in *gy%t on the eve of its 1eing overrun 1y the Hy!sos5 the (ate 4as still centuries earlier than the earliest consi(ere( (ates for the *2o(us on the *gy%tian time6scale7 'f the %arallels in te2ts eluci(ate( 1y me are not a matter of coinci(ence5 then the test 4oul( 1e in 4hether it 4oul( 1e %ossi1le5 in leveling the t4o histories 1y synchroniEing the en( of the "i((le King(om an( the *2o(us5 to trace contem%oraneity also in su1se.uent generations5 not yet (eci(ing 4hether the *gy%tian history 4oul( nee( e2tir%ation of )ghost centuries+ or the 'sraelite history e2tension 1y the insertion of )lost centuries7+ The ne2t clue in my 4or! of reconstruction 4as in e.uating the Asiatic Hy!sos Fcalle( Amu 1y the *gy%tiansG that overran *gy%t5 %rostrate( as it 4as 1y the natural (isaster (escri1e( in the '%u4er Pa%yrus5 4ith the Amale!ites that the 'sraelites met on their flight from *gy%t7 The autochthonous Ara1 sources5 as %reserve( 1y me(ieval "oslem historians5 refer to a several6centuries6%rolonge( occu%ation of *gy%t 1y the Amale!ites5 evicte( from the He(AaE 1y %lagues of earth.ua!es an( vermin5 4hile ti(al 4aves s4e%t other tri1es from their lan(s7 ' coul( esta1lish that the %erio( of the @u(ges5 4hen the %o%ulation 4as o%%resse( 1y the Amale!ites an( "i(ianites5 4as the time of the Secon( 'nterme(iate Perio( in *gy%t an( that Saul5 4ho ca%ture( the ca%ital of the Amale!ites Fel6Arish 1eing the ancient Hy!sos ca%ital AvarisG %ut an en( to the Amale!ite6 Hy!sos (omination from "eso%otamia to *gy%t7 'n *gy%t the *ighteenth ynasty came into e2istence5 thus inaugurating the Ne4 King(om7 Was it ca7 61>?>5 the time the -i1lical scholars 4oul( assign to Saul3s ca%ture of the Amale!ite fortress5 or ca7 61I=>5 the time the *gy%tologists 4oul( %lace the fall of Avaris? King avi( fought the remnants of the Amale!ites< his marshal @oa1 inva(e( Ara1ia5 4hile Amenhote% ' rule( in *gy%t< Solomon accor(ingly ha( to 1e a contem%orary of Thutmose ' an( of Hatshe%sut< ' coul( esta1lish that this .ueen came to @erusalem an( ha( reliefs (e%icting her Aourney to the ivine Lan( carve( on the 4alls of her tem%le at eir el6-ahari7 'n He1re4 history an( legen( she lives as the #ueen of She1a 4ho visite( Solomon7 The ne2t generation sa4 Thutmose ''' inva(e @u(ea5 sac! the %alace an( tem%le of @erusalem5 an( im%ose a tri1ute on the no46(ivi(e( country7 The furnishings of the Tem%le5 carrie( a4ay 1y Thutmose5 4ere (e%icte( 1y him on a tem%le 4all in Karna!7 These (e%ictions match the -i1lical recor( of some of the Tem%le furnishings7 Amenhote% '' 4as i(entifie( 4ith the !ing 4hom an ancient e%ic %oem %ortraye( as lea(ing an enormous army against the city of /garit5 only to 1e %ursue( to the Sinai esert7 He 4as further sho4n to 1e the alter ego of the Scri%tural Lerah5 4hose enter%rise starte( similarly an( en(e( i(entically7 The last three cha%ters of the first volume of Ages in Chaos (eal 4ith the el6Amarna corres%on(ence< if the reconstruction is correct then the time in @u(ah must 1e that of King @ehosha%hat an( in 'srael of King Aha17 't so ha%%ene( that the 1oo!s of Kings an( Chronicles are es%ecially rich in many (etails of the events that too! %lace un(er these !ings5 an( the numerous letters on the clay ta1lets of the el6Amarna archive %resent a %erfect groun( for com%arison as to %ersons5 %laces5 names5 an( events7 Scores of i(entifications an( %arallels are 1rought forth7 i( @ehosha%hat an( his generals an( Aha1 an( his a(versaries in amascus e2change letters 4ith Amenhote% ''' an( his heir A!hnaton across the centuries? At first 4e left the %ro1lem o%en5 4hich of the t4o histories 4oul( re.uire re6a(AustmentDis the 'sraelite history in nee( of fin(ing lost centuries5 or (oes the *gy%tian history re.uire e2cision of ghost centuries?

Soon it 1ecame a matter of certainty that of the t4o timeta1les5 the *gy%tian an( the 'sraelite5 the former is out of ste% 4ith historical reality 1y over five centuries7 A chronology 4ith centuries that never occurre( ma(e necessary the intro(uction of ) ar! Ages+ 1et4een the "ycenaean an( the Hellenic %erio(s in &reece7 Thus the shortening of *gy%tian history 1y the elimination of %hantom centuries must have as a conse.uence the shortening of "ycenaean6&ree! history 1y the same length of time7 The Greek Past The theme %ursue( in this volume is the 1asic (esign of &ree! historyDthe %assage of the "ycenaean civiliEation an( the intervening ar! Age of five centuries (uration 1efore the Hellenic or historical age starts ca7 :>> years 1efore the %resent era7 This structure of the &ree! %ast is su1Aecte( to a ree2amination as to the historicity of the ar! Age7 &ree! anti.uity is conventionally (ivi(e( into three %erio(sDHella(ic5 Hellenic5 an( Hellenistic7 The Hella(ic %erio( in its later su1(ivision com%rises the "ycenaean civiliEation7 't en(s not long after the con.uest of Troy5 regularly %ut a1out 610>>7 'ts last generation is (u11e( )the Heroic Age7+ At this %oint five centuries of (ar! ages are inserte( into &ree! history7 The Hellenic %erio( em1races the 'onian an( classical ages5 an( stretches from ca7 6:>> to the con.uest of the *ast 1y Ale2an(er of "ace(on7 With his march to4ar( the Nile5 the *u%hrates5 an( the 'n(us F6??1 to 6?0:G5 the culture of &reece 4as s%rea( through the $rient an( 4as itself mo(ifie( 1y oriental elements< this 4as the 1eginning of the Hellenistic Age7 "ycenae can 1e regar(e( as the cultural center of the Late Hella(ic %erio(< Athens of the Hellenic< an( Ale2an(ria of the Hellenistic7 'n this scheme5 as Aust sai(5 the five centuries of the ar! Age are inserte( 1et4een the Hella(ic an( the Hellenic or5 in other nomenclature5 follo4ing the "ycenaean an( %rece(ing the 'onian ages7 The "ycenaean Age in &reece an( the contem%orary an( %artly %rece(ing "inoan Age on Crete have no chronologies of their o4n an( (e%en( on correlations 4ith *gy%t7 $1Aects inscri1e( 4ith the names of Amenhote% ''5 Amenhote% ''' an( #ueen Tiy of the *ighteenth ynasty5 foun( at "ycenae5 4ere li!e a calen(ar leaf7 Then e2cavations at el6Amarna in *gy%t esta1lishe( the %resence of "ycenaean 4are in A!hnaton3s short6live( city7 Such .uantities of "ycenaean 4are came to light in the course of the e2cavations that a street in el6Amarna 4as (u11e( )&ree! Street7+ Since A!hnaton3s ca%ital e2iste( for only a1out a (eca(e an( a half5 a very %recise (ating for the "ycenaean 4are coul( 1e evince(5 thus %rovi(ing a lin! 1et4een "ycenaean history an( the esta1lishe( *gy%tian chronology7 't 4as therefore conclu(e( that the "ycenaean civiliEation 4as at its a%ogee in the (ays of Amenhote% ''' an( A!hnaton of the *ighteenth *gy%tian ynasty7 The first an( most im%ortant conse.uence 4as a ra(ical recasting of &ree! history7 Since A!hnaton3s conventional (ate 4as the fourteenth an( thirteenth centuries 1efore the %resent era5 "ycenaean 4are 4as also ascri1e( to the same %erio(7 -y the en( of the t4elfth century 1efore the %resent era5 the "ycenaean civiliEation 4oul( have run its course7 The &ree! or Hellenic time (oes not start until a1out 6:>>7 The years in 1et4een are 4ithout history on &ree! soil7 There e2iste( tenacious memories of the time of the tyrants 4ho rule( in the late eighth an( seventh centuries5 1ut 1eyon( that5 there 4as com%lete (ar!ness7 Thus 1y the 1=9>s the Hellenists 4ere coerce( 1y the evi(ence %resente( 1y the *gy%tologists to intro(uce five centuries of (ar!ness 1et4een the en( of the "ycenaean Age an( the 1eginning of the Hellenic7 As 4e shall rea( on a later %age5 there 4as some consternation on the %art of classical scholars 4hen first the fact (a4ne( on them that 1et4een the "ycenaean age an( the historical &ree! time there 4as a s%an5 more in the nature of a lacuna5 of several centuries3 (uration7 'n the en( they acce%te( the

*gy%tian %lan as 1eing vali( for &reeceDstill 4ithout having investigate( the evi(ence on 4hich the claim of the *gy%tologists 4as foun(e(7I 'n Ages in Chaos 4e have seen that5 4ith the fall of the "i((le King(om an( the *2o(us synchroniEe(5 events in the histories of the %eo%les of the ancient 4orl( coinci(e all along the centuries7 For a s%ace of over one thousan( years recor(s of *gy%tian history have 1een com%are( 4ith the recor(s of the He1re4s5 Assyrians5 Chal(eans5 an( finally 4ith those of the &ree!s5 4ith a resulting corres%on(ence 4hich (enotes synchronism7 'n ,olume ' of Ages in Chaos it 4as sho4n in great (etail 4hy A!hnaton of the *ighteenth ynasty must 1e %lace( in the latter %art of the ninth century7 'f A!hnaton flourishe( in 6=C> an( not in 61?=>5 the ceramics from "ycenae foun( in the %alace of A!hnaton are younger 1y five or si2 hun(re( years than they are %resume( to 1e5 an( the Late "ycenaean %erio( 4oul( accor(ingly move for4ar( 1y a1out half a thousan( years on the scale of time7 Het in(e%en(ently of the results attaine( in Ages in Chaos' the %ro1lem of 1lan! centuries5 usually terme( )(ar! ages5+ increasingly claims the attention of archaeologists an( historians7 Although the enigma of )(ar! centuries+ rea%%ears in many countries of the ancient *ast5 in no %lace (i( it create such (iscomfort as in Hellenic history7 There it is an inveterate %ro1lem that (ominates the so6calle( Homeric .uestionB The historical %erio( in &reece5 the Hellenic Age5 is ushere( in 1y the su((en an( 1right light of a literary creationDthe Homeric e%ics5 of %erfect form5 of e2.uisite rhythm5 of a gran(eur unsur%asse( in 4orl( literature5 a su((en sunrise 4ith no %re(a4n light in a %reviously %rofoun(ly (ar! 4orl(5 4ith the sun starting its (ay at EenithDfrom almost five hun(re( years that (ivi(e the en( of the "ycenaean Age from the Hellenic Age5 not a single inscri%tion or 4ritten 4or( survive(7 Against this set6u% the Homeric #uestion gre4 to ever greater %ro%ortions7 'n the light ofDor 1etter to sayDin the (ar!ness of the Homeric %ro1lem5 4e 4ill try to orient ourselves 1y scanning some early cha%ters of &ree! archaeology5 an( having (one this5 4e shoul( return to the %ro1lem of the (eci%here( Linear - scri%t7 T4o timeta1les are a%%lie( simultaneously to the %ast of &reece5 one 1uilt on the evi(ence of &reece itself5 the other on relations 4ith *gy%t< thus instea( of any ne4 (iscovery re(ucing the .uestion to smaller confines5 every su1se.uent (iscovery enlarge( the confines an( (ecrease( the chances of fin(ing a solution7
Referen e!

17 MCf7 'on &hica5 (storiile lui rodot' vol7 '' F-ucuresti5 1910GN 07 They 4rote long 1efore the *gy%tian hierogly%hics 4ere (eci%here(7 ?7 See my essay5 )Astronomy an( Chronology5+ Su%%lement to !eoples of the Sea' FNe4 Hor!5 Lon(on5
19::G< first %u1lishe( in !ens)e (*R ', F19:?G7 C7 -y heliacal rising is meant the first a%%earance of a star after invisi1ility (ue to conAunction 4ith the sun7 I7 See my )Astronomy an( Chronology5+ cite( a1ove7

THE SETTING OF THE STAGE A traveller afoot5 stea(ily on the roa(5 marching from Athens 4est4ar(5 crosses the Corinthian 'sthmus an(5 1y continuing to the south5 may arrive at "ycenae 1efore the sunset of the secon( (ay7 He follo4s the roc!y roa( u%hill an( reaches the fortification 4all of the ancient cita(el7 Ram%ant stone lions in relief cro4n the gate of "ycenae7 'nsi(e the gate5 imme(iately to the right5 he is sho4n the shaft graves of the ancient !ings7 The %lace is (eserte(< no village occu%ies the site7 Resting at the gate5 the traveller has 1efore him the Argive %lain5 the scene of some of the most cele1rate( events of the human %ast7 -efore the historical age of &reece starte(5 calle( also the 'onian or Hellenic Age5 &reece ha( another civiliEation7 't centere( at "ycenae< it s%rea( over &reece an( over the Hella(ic islan(s< vestiges of it 4ere foun( in many %laces of the ancient 4orl(7 't 4as closely contem%oraneous 4ith the last %hase of another civiliEation5 the so6calle( "inoan5 centere( on the islan( of Crete to the south7 These t4o great cultures left cities an( %alaces5 ruine( an( (eserte(5 an( rich relicsD%ottery of e2.uisite forms5 an( gol( an( Ae4elsD1ut no history !no4n to mo(ern man7 Het of "ycenae an( of her heroes such a treasure of legen( is %reserve( in &ree! lore that some of the heroes of that !ing(om in the Argive %lain an( their contem%oraries are more familiar to us than lea(ers of other races an( other times much more recent7 Agamemnon5 "enelaus5 Nestor5 Achilles5 an( $(ysseus are 1etter remem1ere( an( more 4i(ely !no4n than most of the military lea(ers of the great 4ars of our o4n century7 Heroes of other times an( nations are too often not !no4n at all7 Their names 4ere 7 7 7 As! o1livionO )They ha( no %oet5 an( they (ie(7+1 This is sai( not Aust of heroes 1ut of 4hole civiliEations7 Agamemnon an( "enelaus 4ere sons of Atreus5 !ing of "ycenae< an( legen(s 4ere tol( a1out Atreus an( Thyestes5 1rothers 4ho .uarrele( over the throne5 an( a1out the sign in favor of Atreus that 4as seen in the sun retracing its course7 These legen(s live( in &ree! lore7 Another cycle of legen(s centere( on The1es in -oeotia5 an( on the Argonaut e2%e(ition to Colchis on the Caucasian coast of the -lac! Sea5 4hich %rece(e( the TroAan War 1y several (eca(es7 The 4orl( of these legen(s5 cruel an( heroic an( treacherous5 occu%ie( the fantasy of the &ree!s< an( &ree! tragic %oets of the fifth century5 Aeschylus5 So%hocles5 an( *uri%i(es5 ha( an ine2hausti1le store of themes to (ra4 u%on7 There is har(ly any %ro1lem in the entire history of literature that occu%ies the min(s of scholars as much as the origin of the Homeric e%icsDthe 'lia( an( the $(ysseyDes%ecially the .uestion as to the time of their origin7 The 'lia( tells of the events of the final stage of the siege of Troy 1y the host of the Achaeans un(er Agamemnon5 !ing of "ycenae7 The $(yssey tells of the long 4an(erings of $(ysseus5 one of the heroes of that siege5 on his circuitous 4ay home7 Tra(ition has it that Homer 4as a 1lin( 1ar( 4ho live( an( 4an(ere( on the Aegean coast of Asia "inor7 Among the cities an( islan(s that claime( to have 1een his 1irth%lace 4ere Smyrna5 Chios5 Colo%hon5 Salamis5 Rho(es5 Argos5 an( Athens7 -eyon( this the tra(ition is very meager as to the %ersonality of the %oet an( the events of his life7 Several a%ocry%hal 4ritings %reten(ing to tell something of him 4ere com%ose( in &reece5 1ut ha( nothing to commen( them7 When (i( he live an( create? 'n his great e%ics
1>

he (escri1e( the "ycenaean 4orl( 4hich su%%ose(ly en(e( almost five centuries 1efore him< he sho4s a very great !no4le(ge of that timeDyet he !ne4 the 4orl( of the seventh century5 too7 There are those 4ho argue that the author of the 'lia( an( $(yssey 4as not one man 1ut a grou% of 1ar(s5 or a succession of 4an(ering %oets5 each of 4hom a((e( of his ins%iration to the e%ics< an( sometimes it is also argue( that there 4as no historical siege of Troy an( that the story of the 4ar is 1ut the %oet3s creation7 The $(yssey a%%ears to 1e Aust a story of fancy7 Ho4ever5 a 4ar e2%e(ition in 4hich many lea(ers5 !ings of cities in &reece5 too! %art5 an( the ca%ture of a fortress name( 'lion or Troy5 rule( 1y King Priam5 coul( not 1e easily relegate(5 all an( sun(ry5 to the (omain of fancy7 "any &ree! an( Latin authors referre( to it5 though their source 4as invaria1ly Homer7 Among the early authors Aeschylus5 So%hocles an( *uri%i(es 4rote cycles of trage(ies (ealing 4ith the %ersonalities of the Homeric e%ics an( 4ith their families5 an( many other %oets follo4e( in the %ath of the ancient 1ar(7 ,irgil3s Aenei(5 telling the story of the %eregrinations of Aeneas5 one of the (efen(ers of Troy5 is fame( as emulation of Homer3s $(yssey7 Through the classical %erio( of &reece5 through the Hellenistic age that follo4e(5 through the age of the Roman *m%ire5 then through the "i((le Ages5 the TroAan War 4as the main event of the %ast5 com%eting in this 4ith the e2%loits of Ale2an(er of "ace(on5 for 4hom Achilles of the 'lia( serve( as the mo(el7 -ut in the nineteenth century5 in the )age of reasona1leness+ that follo4e( the )age of reason5+ the vie4 %revaile( that the TroAan War 4as %art of the imagery of a %oet an( Troy itself ha( never e2iste(7 Ho4ever in the 1=:>s the s!e%tics 4ere confoun(e( 1y Heinrich Schliemann5 an a(venturer 4ith rich imagination5 4ho as a ca1in 1oy 4ent on a merchant shi% 1oun( for America that suffere( shi%4rec!<0 he 4as a cler! in Hollan(5 an im%orter in St7 Peters1urg5 a man not to miss the California gol(rush7 Having gro4n rich through the years of a(ventures5 Schliemann 4ent to Hissarli!5 a lo4 hill near the ar(anelles5 on the Aegean shore of Tur!ey5 after %roclaiming that he 4oul( fin( Troy there7 Schliemann3s a(vance %u1lic announcement as to his intent to (iscover Troy 4as met %artly 4ith (is1elief an( sarcasm5 1ut mostly 4ith in(ifference7 He (ug5 (estroye( much valua1le material an( (istur1e( some of the archaeological se.uence< 1ut he (iscovere( 1eneath the moun( of Hissarli! the remains of seven cities5 one 1eneath the other7? He i(entifie( the secon( city from the 1ottom as the Troy of 4hich Homer sangB it 4as a fortress5 strong an( rich in treasures5 seemingly (estroye( in a violent earth.ua!e7C Later scholars i(entifie( King Priam3s city as the si2th from the 1ottom5 still later as Troy ,''a7 'n 1=:; Schliemann5 no4 cro4ne( 4ith success5 4ent to the Argive %lain in &reece5 to "ycenae5 to locate the tom1 of Agamemnon5 )!ing of men5+ the lea(er of the Achaeans at the siege of Troy7 Soon he ca1le( to King &eorge of the Hellenes that he ha( o%ene( the grave of his %re(ecessor among the five large shaft tom1s 4hich he (iscovere( he4n in roc!5 4ith the s!eletons of their occu%ants5 4ith gol( cro4ns an( gol( mas!s an( much Ae4elry5 gol( vessels 4ith oriental (esigns5 an( %ottery7 All !in(s of voices 4ere no4 hear(7 $ne scholar announce( that the fin( an( its treasures (ate from the -yEantine age Ffirst millennium A7 G< 1ut in time the royal graves came to 1e acce%te( for 4hat they 4ereDof an era %rece(ing the historical %erio( in &reeceDho4ever not of Agamemnon an( his house 4ho su%%ose(ly live( in the thirteenth or early t4elfth century5 1ut of an age several centuries earlier7 Ho4 4as this figure( out? 'n the 1uil(ings an( tom1s of "ycenae cartouches of Amenhote% ''5 Amenhote% '''5 an( #ueen Tiy5 4ife of Amenhote% ''' an( mother of A!hnaton 4ere foun(5I an( in A!hnaton3s short6live( city A!hetaton5 (e%osits of ty%ical "ycenaean %ottery 4ere unearthe(7 The age of these %haraohs in the

11

conventional timeta1le 1elongs to the first half of the fourteenth century7 Schliemann 4as 4rong again in his i(entification5 1ut right in the mainB here 4ere for all to see rich relics of the "ycenaean civiliEation7 Schliemann ma(e further (iggings at Tiryns5 in the Argive %lain5 an( ne2t inten(e( to (ig on Crete5 1ut he (i( not come to terms 4ith the o4ners of the lan(5 for 4hich he ma(e a 1argain offer7 At the 1eginning of this century Arthur *vans5 having o1taine( a concession5 (ug at Knossos on Crete an( 1rought to light the "inoan civiliEationD%alaces an( frescoes an( %ave( courts5 a silent 4orl( of 1ygone (ays7 The "inoan civiliEation coul( 1e trace( to various stages se%arate( 1y (efinite interru%tions D*arly "inoan5 "i((le "inoan5 an( Late "inoanDan( it 4as the Late "inoan age that ran %arallel 4ith the "ycenaean age7 'f anything5 the "inoan civiliEation a%%eare( as the (ominant of the t4o7 't 4as *vans3 e2cavations on Crete that esta1lishe( the contem%oraneity of "ycenaean 4are 4ith that of the Late "inoan %erio(7 $n Crete *vans also foun( ta1lets 4ith incise( signs of t4o scri%ts5 calle( 1y him Linear A an( Linear -7 Later ta1lets 4ith the Linear - scri%t 4ere foun( in large num1ers at Pylos an( at other ruine( cities on the &ree! mainlan(5 an( still later they 4ere (eci%here(7 -ut 4e are ahea( of our story7
Referen e!

17 on "ar.uis5 .uoting Po%e7 07 $f this shi%4rec! Schliemann 4rote to his sisters in Hanover an e2citing account of miraculous esca%e
from (eath7 'n his later auto1iogra%hy he e2%oses his letter6re%ort as more fantasy than truth7 ?7 'n Troy and (ts Remains FLon(on5 1=:IG Schliemann (istinguishe( four cities< in (lios' The City and Country of the Tro+ans FLon(on5 1==>G he recogniEe( seven7 C7 This is the vie4 of C7 F7 A7 Schaeffer5 argue( in his Stratigraphie compar)e et chronologie de l,Asie occidentale -(((e et ((e millenaires. F$2for( /niversity Press5 19C=G5 %7 00I7 C7 -legen ascri1e( the (estruction to a human foe7 I7 @7 7 S7 Pen(le1ury5 Aegyptiaca FCam1ri(ge5 19?>G5 %%7 I?6I:7

10

WHY NO LITERARY RELICS FROM FIVE CENTURIES" The ar! Ages left no literary remains5 not even a single 4or( on a sher( or a fe4 characters on a clay ta1let7 "7 -o4ra in his 1oo! #omer and #is "orerunners %uts the %ro1lem in straight termsB There is no evi(ence 4hatsoever that the "ycenaean scri%t continue( any4here in &reece after c7 10>>7 There is no trace of 4riting of any !in( in the su16"ycenaean an( Protogeometric %erio(s5 or in(ee( 1efore the mi((le of the eighth century5 4hen the ne4 an( totally (ifferent &ree! al%ha1et ma!es its first a%%earance7 No45 this is surely not an acci(ent7 A single scratche( letter from this %erio( 4oul( 1e enough to sho4 that 4riting survive(< 1ut not one has 1een foun(7 This is un(enia1ly a most remar!a1le %henomenon5 for 4hich it is har( to fin( either a %arallel or an e2%lanation7 A society seems su((enly to have 1ecome illiterate5 an( to have remaine( so for centuries7 Ho4 an( 4hy this ha%%ene( 4e (o not !no47 7 71 -o4ra e2%resses his 4on(er at )this astoun(ing state of affairs7+ 't )un(ermines any ho%e that the transmission of heroic %oetry 4as maintaine( 1y a succession of 4ritten te2ts from the time of the TroAan War7+ $n the one han(5 )the Homeric %oems contain material 4hich is ol(er than 10>>7+ $n the other han(5 -o4ra states his conviction that 4e can 1e )reasona1ly confi(ent that Homer 4or!e( in the latter %art of the eighth century5 since this suits 1oth the latest (ata1le elements in his (etails an( his general outloo!7+ 's this not an im%asseDthe %oet se%arate( from his su1Aect 1y almost five centuries5 4ith an intimate !no4le(ge of a vanishe( civiliEation an( no art of 4riting in 1et4een? Alan @7 -7 Wace challenge( this vie45 an( in his %reface to ,entris3 an( Cha(4ic!3s Documents in /ycenaean Greek F19I;G 4rote that future (iscoveries an( stu(y 4oul( )un(ou1te(ly ma!e clear+ 4hether the ar! Age 4as really (ar!B The ortho(o2 vie4 of classical archaeologists is that there 4as a P ar! Age3 4hen all culture in &reece (ecline( to 1ar1arism5 at the close of the -ronEe Age an( in the early %erio( of the ensuing 'ron Age7 *ven no45 4hen it is a(mitte( that the &ree!s of the Late -ronEe Age coul( rea( an( 4rite the Linear Scri%t5 it is still 1elieve( 1y some that in the transition time5 the Age of -ronEe to that of 'ron5 the &ree!s forgot ho4 to rea( an( 4rite until a1out the eighth century 4hen they a(a%te( the Phoenician al%ha1et7 't is incre(i1le that a %eo%le as intelligent as the &ree!s shoul( have forgotten ho4 to rea( an( 4rite once they ha( learne( ho4 to (o so70 Then 4here are the (ocuments5 4hat is the testimony? )7 7 7 Letters or literary te2ts may 4ell have 1een on 4oo(en ta1lets or some form of %archment or even %a%yrus< some fortunate (iscovery 4ill %ossi1ly one (ay reveal them to us7+ A .uarter century since this 4as 4ritten nothing has 1een foun( that 4oul( su1stantiate this ho%e5 as nothing 4as foun( in the %rece(ing eighty years of e2cavation in &reece7 'n the .uote( %assage the 4or(s )it is still 1elieve( 1y some that 7 7 7 the &ree!s forgot ho4 to rea( an( 4rite+ refers to almost every classicist 4ho agrees that the ar! Age left no 4ritten recor( 1ecause none 4as 4ritten7?

1?

)There is no scra% of evi(ence5+ 4rites enys L7 Page in #istory and the #omeric (liad' )an( no reason 4hatever to assume that the art of 4riting 4as %ractice( in &reece 1et4een the en( of the "ycenaean era an( the eighth century -7C7 7 7 7+C An( one hun(re( %ages laterB )7 7 7 The 'lia( %reserves facts a1out the TroAans 4hich coul( not have 1een !no4n to any1o(y after the fall of Troy ,''a7+I Then 1ac! to the .uestion one hun(re( %ages earlierB )Ho4 (i( the truth survive through the into the 'lia(?+;
Referen e!

ar! Ages

17 Sir "aurice -o4ra5 #omer and #is "orerunners F*(in1urgh5 19IIG %%7 1607 07 P7 22viii< cf7 @7 Cha(4ic!5 )The Linear Scri%ts+ in The Cam$ridge Ancient #istory' vol7 ''5 ch7 Q''' F19:1G
%7 0;< ,7 R7 (3A7 es1orough5 The Greek Dark Ages FLon(on5 19:0G %7 ?017 ?7 The contention that (uring the ar! Ages the &ree!s 4rote only on %erisha1les (oes not carry 4eight7 'n "ycenaean times5 an( again from the eighth century on5 the &ree!s left 4riting on im%erisha1le materials5 such as 1a!e( clay or stone5 as 4ell as on %erisha1le ones5 such as %a%yrus or 4oo(7 The vie4 that all 4riting (uring the ar! Ages 4as on %erisha1le materials5 none of 4hich 4as foun(5 is thus rather (ifficult to u%hol(7 'n The 0ocal Scripts of Archaic Greece F$2for(5 19;1G %7 1:5 L7 H7 @effrey convincingly (is%utes the )%erisha1les+ theory7 C7 F-er!eley5 Ca75 19I9G %7 1007 I7 ($id.' %7 0017 ;7 ($id.' %7 10>7 Rhys Car%enter is among those 4ho argue that an oral tra(ition stretching over centuries 4as not ca%a1le of %reserving a (etaile( %icture of "ycenaean &reece F"olk Tale' "iction and Saga in the #omeric picsG< yet enys Page an( many other scholars state une.uivocally that an accurate %icture %as someho4 %reserve(7

1C

TROY IN THE DARK AGES The ar! Age envelo%e( &reece< it envelo%e( Troy too5 for the site is 1arren of (e%osits 4hich might 1e referre( to the %erio( c7 11>>6:>> -7C7 Not one sher( of %roto6geometric %ottery is !no4n to have 1een foun( at TroyDnot 1y Schliemann5 or 1y oer%fel(5 or 1y -legen himself7 We are no4 in effect as!ing 4hat ha%%ene( at Troy (uring the ar! Ages of &reece5 from the M1eginning ofN the 11th to the Men( of theN =th century -7C7B an( this is the ans4er 4hich 4e must acce%tDthat there is nothing at Troy to fill the huge lacuna7 For 0>>> years men ha( left traces of their living there< some cha%ters in the story 4ere 1rief an( o1scure5 1ut there 4as never yet a cha%ter left 4holly 1lan!7 No4 at last there is silence5 %rofoun( an( %rolonge( for C>> years71 This o1servation of enys Page5 Professor of &ree! at the /niversity of Cam1ri(ge5 is in the nature of amaEementB out of a moun( covering a ruine( %lace5 an archaeologist e2%ects to e2tract stray o1Aects that accumulate( there in the s%ace of centuries7 'n Troy there is )silence %rofoun( an( %rolonge(+ as if time itself ha( sto%%e(7 -ut the same author stresses that )the 'lia( %reserves facts a1out the TroAans 4hich coul( not have 1een !no4n to any1o(y after the fall of Troy ,''a7+0 Thus not only (i( Homer !no4 of the !ing(om an( %eo%le of "ycenae that 4ere 1urie( for centuries of the ar! Ages5 1ut he !ne4 also of the !ing(om an( %eo%le of Troy 4ho5 too5 4ere (ea(5 1urie(5 an( forgotten in the (ar!ness of the ar! Ages7 The site of Troy 4as reoccu%ie( late in the seventh century< 1ut from the fall of Troy5 no4 %ut 1y archaeologists ca7 610;>5 until Homer3s time5 there 4as nothing on the surface of the moun( that coul( (isclose to the %oet the many intricate (etails 4hich he 4e11e( into his e%ics7 't is realiEe( that Homer !ne4 the scene of the Aegean coast of Asia "inor of the eighth an( seventh centuries< therefore5 it 4as argue(5 he coul( not have live( in the (ays of the TroAan War For shortly thereafterG in the 10th century7 A %oet having com%ose( the %oems in the t4elfth century 4oul( not 1e a1le to intro(uce into them innumera1le references to the 'ron Age in &reece an( the %ost6Phrygian Age in Asia "inor of the seventh century7 Was the site of Troy alone in Asia "inor an archaeological voi( for five hun(re( years5 follo4ing that city3s (estruction at the en( of the "ycenaean Age?
Referen e!

17 7 Page5 )The Historical Sac! of Troy5+ Anti1uity' ,ol7 QQQ''' F19I9G5 %7 ?17 07 ($id.' %7 0017

1I

THE DARK AGE IN ASIA MINOR Li!e &reece an( the Aegean5 Asia "inor has no history for a %erio( of close to five centuries7 Certain scholars (isagree 4ith this ver(ict5 1ut it comes from the %en of one of the foremost authorities on archaeology an( art of Asia "inor5 Professor *!rem A!urgal of the /niversity of An!ara71 )7 7 7 To(ay M19;1N5 (es%ite all in(ustrious archaeological e2%loration of the last (eca(es5 the %erio( from 10>> to :I> for most %arts of the Anatolian region lies still in com%lete (ar!ness7 The ol( nations of Asia "inor5 li!e the Lycians an( the Carians5 the names of 4hich are mentione( in the (ocuments of the secon( half of the secon( millennium5 are archaeologically5 i7e75 4ith their material heritage5 first noticea1le a1out :>> or later 7 7 7 Hence the cultural remains of the time 1et4een 10>> an( :I> in central Anatolia5 es%ecially on the %lateau5 seem to 1e .uite irretrieva1ly lost for us7+ The huge lan( of Asia "inor for almost five centuries is historically an( archaeologically voi(7 The cause of the interru%tion in the flo4 of history a1out 610>> is assume( to lie in some military con.uest< 1ut the Phrygians5 4ho are su%%ose( to have 1een these con.uerors5 (i( not themselves leave any sign of their occu%ation of the country from 1efore 6:I>7 Thus the e2%lanation that the en( of the Anatolian civiliEation a1out 10>> 4as (ue to the incursion of the Phrygians is not su%%orte( 1y archaeological fin(s7 Accor(ing to A!urgal5 the re%eate(ly un(erta!en efforts to close the hiatus 1y relics of Phrygian art )cannot 1e harmoniEe( 4ith the results of archaeological stu(y7 None of the Phrygian fin(s an( none of the oriental ones foun( 4ith them can 1e (ate( earlier than the eighth century7+ )Such results com%el us to e2clu(e from the stu(y of Asia "inor 1et4een 10>> an( :I> any Phrygian %resence an( heritage7+ 'f there is no sign of Phrygian occu%ation for the %erio(5 are there %ossi1ly some vestiges of occu%ation 1y other %eo%les? )'t is startling5+ 4rites A!urgal5 )that until no4 in Central Anatolia not only no Phrygian5 1ut altogether no cultural remains of any %eo%le5 came to light that coul( 1e (ate( in time 1et4een 10>> an( :I>7+ Nothing 4as left 1y any %ossi1le survivors of %revious occu%ants5 namely 1y Hittites5 an( nothing 1y any %eo%le or tri1e that coul( have su%%lante( them7 Also on the rim of Asia "inor the (ar!ness of the ar! Age is com%leteB )'n the south of the %eninsula5 in "ersin5 Tarsus an( Karate%e5 in recent years im%ortant archaeological 4or! 4as (one 7 7 7 here5 too5 the early 'ron Age5 i7e75 the %erio( 1et4een 10>> an( :I>5 is en4ra%%e( in (ar!ness7+0 *ven after only a fe4 (eca(es of settlement a to4n shoul( leave (iscerni1le relics for archaeologists< usually un(er such circumstances %otsher(s or a fe4 1ea(s5 or a clay figurine5 are foun(7 Ash an( !itchen refuse are u1i.uitous fin(s 4herever there 4as human ha1itation7 -ut that on an area over 0I>5>>> s.uare miles in e2tent there shoul(5 as A!urgal claims5 1e foun( nothing5 not even tom1s5 from a %erio( counte( not Aust 1y (eca(es 1ut 1y centuries5 actually a %erio( of almost five hun(re( years5 is har(ly less than miraculous7
References 17 A!urgal5 ie Kunst Anatoliens von Homer 1is Ale2an(er F-erlin5 19;1G5 %%7 I6:< cf7 his Phrygische Kunst FAn!ara5 19IIG5 %7 1107 07 '1i(75 %7:7

1;

THE HOMERIC QUESTION The i(ea of a 4i(e ga% se%arating the "ycenaean Age from the historical age of &reece has gaine( almost universal acce%tance since it 4as first a(vance( more than a century ago7 -ecause no literary (ocuments an( almost no signs of culture coul( 1e foun( for that long %erio(5 it came to 1e !no4n as the ar! Age7 Hellenists an( historians in general use the term ar! Age for the t4elfth5 eleventh5 tenth5 ninth5 an( most of the eighth centuries5 or the %erio( that lies 1et4een the "ycenaean an( Archaic ages5 the latter 1eing the o%ening of the 'onian %erio( that in (ue course (evelo%e( into the Classical %erio(7 The time from a1out 610>> to 6:I> is the ar! Age in continental &reece5 on the Aegean islan(s an( shores5 an( in the interior of Asia "inor7 The rea(er may thin! that the term is 1e.ueathe( to us from ancient times5 from &ree! historians or %hiloso%hers of the classical %erio(7 The fact5 ho4ever5 is that no &ree! historian5 %hiloso%her5 or %oet use( the term ar! Age or (ar! centuries or any su1stitute for such a conce%t< nor (i( Roman 4riters5 much occu%ie( 4ith the &ree! %ast5 have a conce%t of a ar! Age for the %erio( follo4ing the TroAan War an( %rece(ing the historical age in &reece7 The term5 an( the conce%t as 4ell5 are a creation of mo(ern scholarshi% in Hellenic stu(ies for the %erio( from 4hich 4e have neither history5 nor literary remains7 'f5 as most scholars no4 1elieve5 Homer live( an( create( at the en( of the eighth or the 1eginning of the seventh century5 an( if the TroAan War too! %lace Aust 1efore the 1eginning of the ar! Age5 he coul( har(ly have omitte( to refer in some (irect or only in(irect 4ay to the more than four centuries of the ar! Age that se%arate( him from the e%ic events he (escri1e(7 Why (i( no %oetDan( &reece ha( many Dever mention a lengthy ar! Age5 if only in %assing? Neither Hero(otus5 nor Thucy(i(es5 1 nor Qeno%honDthe &ree! historiansDha( anything to say a1out a four or five centuries3 s%an that se%arate( the &ree! history from the "ycenaean7 &reece ha( also many outstan(ing %hiloso%hers< then ho4 are 4e to e2%lain that a %erio(Dnot covering Aust a fe4 (eca(es5 1ut more than four centuriesDis %asse( over in silence 1y &ree! %oets5 %hiloso%hers an( historians ali!e? Shoul( not Aristotle or5 much later5 io(orus of Sicily or Pausanias in their voluminous 4ritings have (evote( as much as a single %assage to the ar! AgeDif there 4as one? Neither the Roman 4riters5 nor the chronogra%hers of the Renaissance5 a%%lie( themselves to the illumination of the ar! centuries5 an( it is only since the last (eca(es of the nineteenth century that the term ar! Age in &ree! history has 1een use(7 es%ite 1eing se%arate( 1y five centuries from the "ycenaean civiliEation of 4hich he sings5 Homer (is%lays a sur%rising !no4le(ge of (etails no longer e2istent in the &ree! 4orl( of his (ayB We !no4 from the archaeological evi(ence that Homer attem%ts to archaeologiEe5 even to ta!e us into the "ycenaean Age 7 7 7 yet in Homer3s (ay there 4as no science of archaeology5 no 4ritten history to assist the historical novelist7 Where then (i( he get these (etails from the %ast? So 4rites one author in the %reface to his translation of the 'lia(70 As an e2am%le of such !no4le(ge5 the author cites Homer3s (escri%tion of Nestor3s cu% 4ith (oves on its han(les5 a (escri%tion that fits a vessel actually (isinterre( in the "ycenaean strata 4hich accor(ing to the conventionally 4ritten history 4ere (e%osite( some five centuries 1efore Homer 1egan to com%ose his e%ics7 The techni.ue of metal inlay of the shiel( of AchillesD(escri1e( 1y Homer in the 'lia(D4as %ractice( in &reece in the -ronEe Age an( )(isa%%eare( 1efore its close5 an( a%%arently never returne( there7+ The 1oar3s tus! helmet (escri1e( 1y Homer 4as reconstitute( 1y Reichel from slivers of tus! foun( in many
1:

-ronEe Age graves7 )'t is (ifficult to imagine Homer transmitting a (escri%tion of an o1Aect 4hich 4e coul( not visualiEe 7 7 7 For four centuries at least no one coul( %ossi1ly have seen a 1oar3s tus! helmet 7 7 7+ $n the other han( in Homer are foun( (escri%tions of o1Aects )4hich cannot have foun( a %lace there 1efore the :th century7+ $ne such o1Aect is the clas% 4hich fastene( the cloa! of $(ysseus 4hen on his 4ay to Troy7 )'t %oints to the secon( (eca(e of the :th century as the time of the com%osition of the $(yssey Funless it is an inter%olation5 the (ates of 4hich coul( not 1e much earlier or later than the first half of the :th centuryG7+ 'f the "ycenaean Age close( 4ith the t4elfth century an( Homer com%ose( at the en( of the eighth5 four an( a half centuries constitute a hiatus5 an( se%arate the %oet from the o1Aects he (escri1es7 The 1len(ing of elements testifying to the "ycenaean Age together 4ith elements the age of 4hich coul( not %rece(e the seventh an( certainly not the eighth century is a characteristic feature of the 'lia(7 Some scholars have e2%en(e( enormous efforts in trying to se%arate %assages of the e%ics an( ascri1e their authorshi% to (ifferent generations of %oets5 from contem%oraries of the events to the final e(itor of the %oems in the seventh century7 -ut all these efforts 4ere s%ent un%rofita1ly5 an( their authors at the en( of their la1ors usually (eclare( their %er%le2ity7 The follo4ing evaluation is from the %en of "7 P7 NilssonB )To sum u%7 There is consi(era1le evi(ence in Homer 4hich 4ithout any (ou1t refers to the "ycenaean Age7 7 7 The Homeric %oems contain elements from 4i(ely (iffering ages7 The most 1e4il(ering fact is5 ho4ever5 that the "ycenaean elements are not (istri1ute( accor(ing to the age of the strata in the %oems7+ Nilsson continue(B )The "ycenaean an( the orientaliEing elements (iffer in age 1y more than half a millennium7 They are ine2trica1ly 1len(e(7 Ho4 is it cre(i1le that the former elements 4ere %reserve( through the centuries an( incor%orate( in %oems 4hose com%osition may 1e a1out half a millennium later?+?
Referen e!

17 MA %assage from the first 1oo! of Thucy(i(es3 !eloponnesian 2ars F'71:G 4hich tells of a %erio( of
%olitical chaos an( economic (e%rivation after the fall of Troy5 is sometimes cite( as a reference to the ar! Ages7 That the en( of the "ycenaean Age 4as follo4e( 1y several (eca(es of migrations an( %overty is a fact that is (iscusse( at some length 1elo4 Fsection )A &a% Close(+G7 -ut Thucy(i(es3 4or(s cannot 1e construe( as referring to a %erio( of time longer than a century7N 07 *7 ,7 Rieu5 The (liad' FLon(on5 19I?G7 ?7 "7 P7 Nilsson5 #omer and /ycenae F19??G5 %%7 1I=6I97

1=

THE ALLIES OF PRIAM ' must a(mit that not so long ago ' ten(e( to consi(er the TroAan War as a legen(5 4ith more mythology in it than historyB neither in its cause nor in its con(uct (i( this conflict seem to reflect historical events7 The cause of the 4ar5 accor(ing to tra(ition5 4as a se(uction or a1(uction of the s%ouse of one of the Hella(ic chiefs< an( this5 4e are tol(5 raise( the lea(ers of all Hellas to un(erta!e a mo1iliEation an( cam%aign to the coast of Asia an( to en(ure har(shi%s for ten years5 leaving their o4n s%ouses to 1e ravishe( or 1esiege( 1y suitors in the meantime7 An( if Hissarli! is the site of Troy5 there is the a((itional incongruity of a great 4ar effort the goal of 4hich 4as to ca%ture a fortress occu%ying not much more than t4o acres of lan( FTroy ,''aGDso Carl -legen5 the last e2cavator of the site7 An( 4hat of the %artici%ation of Ares5 Athene5 Leus5 an( other (ivinities? The em%hasis is on the courage an( %roficiency of a fe4 single heroes 4ho trace their (escent5 an( in some cases even their %arenthoo(5 to various (eities an( other mythological figures FThetis in the case of AchillesG7 With the en( of the siege of ten years3 (uration an( the fall of Troy5 the navy of the AchaeansDof 4hich the secon( 1oo! of the 'lia( gives a recor( enumerating the num1er of shi%s that carrie( the 4arriors from each of the cities1Dis as if no more e2istent7 ,ictory an( trium%h are follo4e( 1y only a fe4 4retche( returns home7 Nothing is hear( of the return to &reece of the Achaeans5 victorious in 4ar5 as an organiEe( force7 We hear of single 4arriors5 li!e Agamemnon5 the lea(er of the e2%e(ition5 returning only to fin( violent (eath 4aiting for him in his o4n to4n an( house or5 li!e $(ysseus5 s%en(ing another ten years striving to reach home 1y a roun(6a1out 4ay7 Those of the heroes 4ho succee( in returning fin( their 4ives5 some faithful5 some unfaithful5 some in cohort 4ith their scheming lovers an( having to 1e avenge( 1y their chil(renD1ut little is sai( of the continuing royal houses5 4hether of Agamemnon in "ycenae5 or of "enelaus in S%arta5 or of $(ysseus in 'thaca5 or of Nestor in Pylos7 Then in a matter of har(ly half a generation a curtain (escen(s on Achaean &reece5 4hich %resuma1ly for close to five hun(re( years %resents only a %icture of voi( envelo%e( in %rimeval (ar!ness7 Nothing is !no4n of the su1se.uent history of these city states5 the %ersonal trage(ies having en(e( in family 1loo(6 1aths7 't is as if in the theater the curtain (escen(e( for the last time5 the lights are e2tinguishe(5 the hall hurrie(ly loc!e(5 an( then five hun(re( years of im%enetra1le (ar!ness7 Het a success of the %rotracte( e2%e(ition5 if un(erta!en5 as some scholars have theoriEe(5 to %rotect the marine route through the Helles%ont5 across the -lac! Sea5 an( to the Caucasian coast5 shoul( have ma(e the Hellenes5 having forge( their national unity in 4ar5 e2%loit the success 1y e2%ansion of overseas tra(e an( traffic7 The curtain of (ar!ness (escen(s also on TroyDan( the voi( en(ures there almost as long as in &reece5 though it is %resume( that some 4retche( inha1itants settle( in hovels5 1ut not 1efore centuries %asse(7 $f the (efen(ers of Troy5 from among those 4ho survive( the siege5 4e rea( also very littleDas if they eva%orate( into thin airD4ith the e2ce%tion of Aeneas an( his househol(< an( he5 li!e $(ysseus5 s%en(s a (eca(e or so in 4an(erings5 1efore reaching 'taly7 Strangely5 in that su1stantial %ortion of the enormous literature on the TroAan War an( Troy that ' consulte(5 ' scarcely ever foun( a (iscussion of the nationality of the %eo%le of Troy70 'n the 'lia( they are regularly referre( to as )the %eo%le of Priam5+ their !ing5 1ut this is not an ethnic (esignation7 Thus 4hile it is !no4n that the 1esiegers of Troy 4ere Achaeans5 also calle( anaans5 an( it is generally acce%te( that they 4ere "ycenaean &ree!sDactually the last generation of them5 sometimes (esignate( as the Heroic &enerationDthe .uestion of 4hich race 4ere the %eo%le of Priam 4as left unans4ere( 1y
19

Homer7 -ut at least let us loo! at Priam3s allies7 Here some clear in(ications come to the fore< an( if 4e are still not hel%e( in our %ursuitD4hich nation (i( the Achaeans fight at Troy?Dat least 4e see a ray of ho%e that5 1y !no4ing the allies 4e may 1e gui(e( to the %ro%er time7 -y !no4ing the correct century of the events 4e may o1tain an insight into the inter%lay of nations an( races an( %erha%s come to realiEe the true reason for the conflict that summone( the Achaean host to the Troa(5 the region surroun(ing Troy7 Phrygians are name( as allies of Priam<? also *thio%ians are counte( among his allies7 The i(entification of 1oth these nations carries in(ications as to the century to 4hich the most famous 4ar of ancient times nee(s to 1e ascri1e(7 $f the Phrygians it is tol( that their origin stems from Thrace5 north of "ace(onia5 4est of the Helles%ont7 The time of their migration to Asia "inor is not !no4n7 No Phrygian anti.uities from 1efore the first half of the eighth century have 1een foun(5C an( the o%inion is e2%resse( that Homer3s reference to the Phrygians is an anachronism7 't seems that in one of the earliest 4aves of the eighth century migrations the Phrygians move( from Thrace over the Helles%ont to Asia "inor7 Tra(ition has it that the first !ing in their ne4 (omicile 4as &or(ias5 an( the story of his selecting the site for his ca%ital &or(ion is a 4ell !no4n legen(7I The son of &or(ias5 "i(as5 is even more than his father an o1Aect of legen(ary motifsD4hatever he touche( turne( to gol(5 he ha( the ears of an assDyet he 4as a historical figure as 4ell 4ho5 accor(ing to the chronicle of Hieronymus5 reigne( from 6:C0 to 6;9;7; Soon the Phrygians came into conflict 4ith the Assyrians 4ho o%%ose( the %enetration of ne4comers into central Asia "inor< an( Sargon '' F6:0; to 6:>IG5 the con.ueror of Samaria an( of the 'sraelite tri1es5 move( 4est4ar( to sto% the %enetration of the Phrygians7: Altogether the Phrygian !ing(om in Asia "inor ha( a short (uration7= Alrea(y the KRrte 1rothers5 the early e2cavators of &or(ion5 note( that of the royal moun(s F!urgansG only three coul( 1e (ate( 1efore the Cimmerian invasion of the early seventh century 4hich %ut an en( to the Phrygian !ing(om5 an( %ro1a1ly the num1er of royal successions (i( not e2cee( this num1er79 Little is !no4n of its history 1esi(es the fact that ca7 6;=: &or(ion 4as overrun 1y the Cimmerians7 The Cimmerians came from the north5 traversing the coastal routes of the Caucasus< their original homelan( is often thought to have 1een the Crimea in southern Russia7 They occu%ie( &or(ion5 (is%lacing the Phrygians 4est4ar(5 to4ar( the Ly(ian !ing(om an( the Aegean coast7 While the (is%lace( Phrygians may have continue( to live for a time in the 4estern confines of Asia "inor5 the year 6;=: sa4 the en( of their !ing(om7 't a%%ears that the Cimmerians (i( not tarry for any length of time in Phrygia< li!e the Scythians5 a noma(ic race from the ste%%es of Russia5 4ho soon follo4e( them on the coastal roa(s of the Caucasus5 they 4ere 1ut transient con.uerors7 The time they came from their native lan(5 6;=: or soon thereafter51> ma!es it .uite certain that they 4ere %ut on their migration 1y the natural events of that yearD(escri1e( at some length in 2orlds in Collision311 1y the 4orl(64i(e u%heavals5 earth.ua!es5 frightening a%%aritions in the s!y5 as 4ell as 1y the changes in climate that ma(e many accustome( %ursuits an( agricultural %ractices o1solete7 6;=: For %ossi1ly 6:>1G 4as also the year that Sennacheri1 met his famous (e1acle as (escri1e( in the 1oo!s of 'saiah5 '' Kings5 an( '' Chronicles5 4hile threatening @erusalem 4ith ca%ture an( its %o%ulation 4ith eviction an( e2ile7 Phrygians as allies of Priam5 in the hinterlan( of the Troa(5 in conflict 4ith the Cimmerians5 themselves %ursue( 1y the Scythians5 4oul( limit the %erio( of the TroAan War to the years 1et4een 6:0> an( 6;=:7
0>

After the %assing of the Cimmerians5 Phrygia 4as e2%ose( to the occu%ation an( influence of neigh1oring states5 in %articular to that of the Ly(ian King(om to the 4est5 4ith its ca%ital at Sar(is7 Ly(ia 4as rule( 1y &yges5 a great !ing 4ho %laye( a cons%icuous role in the %olitics of the Near *ast7 He 4as on frien(ly terms 4ith Assur1ani%al5 gran(son of Sennacheri15 !ing of Assyria< then5 feeling the threat of the gro4ing Assyrian em%ire5 he su%%orte( *gy%t3s rise to in(e%en(enceB he sent 'onian an( Carian (etachments to Psammetichus5 !ing of *gy%t5 4hich ena1le( that country to free itself from the su%remacy of Assyria7 The Homeric e%ics 4ere create( on the Asia shore of Asia "inor< it is most %ro1a1le that Homer 4as a contem%orary of &yges5 !ing of Ly(ia710 This vie4 4as also offere( an( su%%orte( 4ith arguments 1y *mile "ireau2< moreover5 "ireau2 ascri1e( also the very events of the %oems to the time of &yges71? The allies of Priam also inclu(e( *thio%ians un(er "emnon<1C the *thio%ian allies of Priam must (ate in all %ro1a1ility to the %erio( 4hen the *thio%ians 4ere one of the most honore( nations5 highly regar(e( for their military %ro4ess7 What is calle( here *thio%ians 4ere actually Su(aneseB in *gy%tian history the *thio%ian ynasty an( their most glorious %erio( is (ate( from ca7 6:10 to 6;;?5 4hen Ashur1ani%al %ursue( Tirha!a to The1es5 occu%ie( it5 an( e2%elle( the *thio%ian from *gy%t %ro%er7 The tra(ition concerning "emnon5 the *thio%ian 4arrior 4ho came to the hel% of Troy5 4oul( reasona1ly limit the time of the conflict also to the en( of the eighth an( the 1eginning of the seventh century7 1I The %ossi1ility of an *thio%ian lan(ing at Troy in the (ays of the *thio%ian %haraoh Tirha!a nee( not 1e (ismisse( 1ecause of the remoteness of the %laceB as Aust sai(5 close to the mi((le of the seventh century5 an( %ossi1ly at an earlier (ate5 &yges5 the !ing of Sar(is5 sent in the reverse (irection Carian an( 'onian mercenaries to assist the *gy%tian !ing Psammetichus in thro4ing off the Assyrian hegemony7 Thus it seems that if the %artici%ants in the TroAan War all 1elong to the eighth6seventh century5 Homer5 4ho is thought to have live( at the en( of the eighth century or the 1eginning of the seventh5 must have 1een either a contem%orary of the siege of Troy5 or se%arate( from it 1y one generation only7 A correct historical %lacement of the TroAan War may contain a clue to its real causeB 4e can surmise that the Hella(ic city6states5 alarme( 1y rumors of hor(es of Cimmerians5 %rece(e( 1y (is%ossesse( Phrygians5 %ushing to4ar(s the Helles%ont5 unite( un(er the lea(ershi% of Agamemnon an( move( across the Aegean sea to %reclu(e the invasion of their lan(5 shoul( the migrating Cimmerians or (is%lace( Phrygians attem%t to cross the straits into mainlan( &reece7 Troy 4as locate( in the vicinity of the Helles%ont5 crosse( 1y armies in ancient times5 1y Ale2an(er5 1y arius '5 an( 1y other con.uerors 1efore them7 While the &ree! e2%e(ition may have ha( some limite( success5 its forces 4ere 4rec!e( an( (is%erse( in the natural u%heavals that accom%anie( the fall of Troy7
Referen e!

17 See 1elo45 section )"ycenaean City Names in the 'lia(7+ 07 Cf7 Stra1o5 Geography Q''7=7:7 ?7 Actually5 re%eate( reference to Phrygians as Priam3s allies leaves the .uestion o%en 4hether Priam3s %eo%le
4ere not Phrygians themselves7 C7 *!rem A!urgal 4rites that their )first archaeological traces a%%ear in the mi((le of the eighth century7+ Ancient Civili4ations and Ruins of Turkey' F'stan1ul5 19:>G5 %7 1C7

01

I7 Arrian5 The Ana$asis of Ale5ander' ''7?< @ustin5 Q'7:< &7 an( A7 Koerte5 Gordion F-erlin5 19>CG %%7 10ff7<
R7 &raves5 The Greek /yths FLon(on5 19IIG5 no7 =?7 ;7 M use$ius 2erke' e(7 R7 Helm FLei%Eig5 191?G5 vol7 ,''5 %%7 =95 907N "o(ern historians usually calculate the (ate of "i(as3 (eath as 6;:;7 't 4as un(er "i(as that the Phrygian !ing(om reache( the %ea! of its %o4er5 as archaeology also attests7 See R7 S7 Houng5 )&or(ionB Preliminary Re%ort5 19I?+ in American Journal of Archaeology I9 F19IIG5 %7 1;7 :7 MAccor(ing to Assyrian recor(s5 Sargon3s cam%aign against "i(as an( the Phrygians5 4hich too! %lace in 6:1I5 4as the result of "i(as3 cons%iring 4ith the !ing of Carchemish against Assyria7 See "7 "ellin!5 )"ita5 "ush!i5 an( the Phrygians5+ Anadolu Arastirmalari F'stan1ul5 19IIG7 *7 A!urgal5 Die Kunst Anatoliens' %7 :>< P7 Naster5 0,Asie mineure et l,Assyrie FLouvain5 19?=G5 %7 ?:7 Sargon3s e2%e(ition 4as5 ho4ever5 not altogether successful in %acifying the region5 an( continuing (istur1ances 1rought Sargon several more times to the (efense of his north4estern frontier< he finally met his (eath there in 1attle in 6:>I7N =7 MR7 S7 Houng5 the e2cavator of &or(ion5 estimate( a %erio( of )a half century+ or more for the flourishing of Phrygian culture at the siteD)The Noma(ic 'm%act+ in Dark Ages and 6omads' %7 IC7 No Phrygian %resence can 1e recogniEe( in the archaeology until the mi((le of the eighth centuryDan( soon after the start of the seventh5 a1out the year ;:; -7C75 the Phrygian !ing(om 4as (estroye( in the catastro%hic Cimmerian invasion7 This is also 4hen "i(as met his en( F1y suici(e5 accor(ing to *use1ius5 -Chron. %7 90G an( Stra1o Geography '7 ?7 01G5 an( his ca%ital &or(ion 4as 1urne( to the groun(7 The Cimmerian (estruction level 4as foun( in 19I;< see Houng5 &or(ion 19I;B Preliminary Re%ort+ in American Journal of Archaeology ;1 F19I:G %7 ?0>7 Cf7 also i(em5 )The Noma(ic 'm%actB &or(ion+ %%7 ICf7N 97 M&ustav an( A(olf KRrte5 Gordion F-erlin5 19>CG7 Houng5 )The *2cavations at Hassihuyu!6&or(ion5 19I>+ in Archaeology ? F19I>G %%7 19;61997 The non6royal tumuli 4ere much more numerous7 A royal tom15 %erha%s of &or(ias5 4as e2cavate( in 19I:DHoung5 )The Royal Tom1 at &or(ion5+ Archaeology 1> F19I:G %%7 01:6 0197N 1>7 'n the $(yssey FQ'71CG there is reference to the lan( of the Cimmerians< an( if Homer !ne4 of the %resence of the Cimmerians in Asia "inor5 then the scene is not earlier than 6;=:7 117 Hero(otus5 -!7 ',7 107 The (ates of &yges3 reign are given as 6;=: to 6;I0 1y H7 &elEer an( as 6;9> to 6;I: 1y H7 Winc!ler7 1?7 *7 "ireau25 0es po7mes hom)ri1ues et l,histoire grec1ue' FParis5 19C=6C9G7 1C7 M'n the $(yssey F'''711160G Nestor recalls the (eath of his son Antilochos 4ho (ie( 1y the s%ear of )the glorious son of shining a4n5+ F$(7 ',71=I60>0G 4hich is the e%ithet reserve( for "emnon7 Later in the $(yssey the *thio%ian 4arrior is mentione( 1y name as )great "emnon7+ F$(7 Q'7 I00G 1I7 Those calle( here *thio%ians actually 4ere the inha1itants of 4hat is to(ay Su(an7 Cf7 "ireau25 0es po7mes hom)ri1ues et l,histoire grec1ue' vol7 '5 ch7 iv7

00

AENEAS Follo4ing the fall of Troy Aeneas5 son of Priam5 a TroAan hero secon( only to Hector5 fle( the fortress< he lost his 4ife in the esca%e5 himself carrying his age( father on his 1ac! an( lea(ing his young son 1y the han(7 This is the 4ay ,irgil5 in the first century 1efore our era5 imagine( the 1eginning of Aeneas3 travels< 1ut alrea(y 1efore ,irgil5 the fate of Aeneas 4as the su1Aect of %oetic tra(ition7 ,irgil3s creation is regar(e( as the greatest of Roman e%ics< ,irgil5 ho4ever5 stu(ie( the su1Aect (ra4ing on &ree! authors7 /%on visiting Thrace an( the islan(s of the Aegean Sea5 an( follo4ing a soAourn on Crete5 Aeneas an( his little 1an( of com%anions lan(e( at Carthage< there #ueen i(o fell in love 4ith him< his refusal to ma!e Carthage his home an( i(o his 4ife cause( her5 u%on his (e%arture5 to ta!e her o4n life7 Aeneas3 further 4an(erings 1rought him finally to Latium in 'taly5 the lan( of the Latini7 Accor(ing to the Roman legen(ary tra(ition5 he 1ecame the %rogenitor of the Romans through his son Ascanios5 the first !ing to reign in the ne4 ca%ital of Latium5 Al1a Longa5 of 4hich Rome 4as a (e%en(ent city< or5 in another version5 through Numitos in (irect (escent from Ascanios7 -ut a more %o%ular tra(ition ha( Aeneas himself as the foun(er of Rome< the &ree! historian Timaios Fca7 6?C; to ca7 60I>G follo4e( this tra(ition7 A still 1etter !no4n legen( has Romulus for the foun(er of Rome< sometimes Romulus is ma(e a (escen(ant of Aeneas an( Ascanios7 Rome 4as foun(e(5 accor(ing to ,arro5 in 6:I?71 As to Carthage5 the generally acce%te( vie4 is that it 4as foun(e( in the secon( half of the ninth century< Timaios %lace( its foun(ation in the year 6=1C7 Timaios 4as the first to fi2 the chronology of the $lym%ia(s70 Philistos5 a &ree! author5 1orn in 6C?I5 %lace( Carthage3s foun(ation )a man3s life length+ 1efore the TroAan War< 1ut Philistos3 (ating of the TroAan War is un!no4n7 Philistos3 (ate for the foun(ation of Carthage5 si2ty or seventy years 1efore the fall of Troy5 is thought to 1e in conflict 4ith Timaios3 (ate 1ecause the TroAan War 4oul( nee( to 1e %lace( in the mi((le of the eighth century5 shortly 1efore the foun(ation of Rome7 -ut is there a conflict 1et4een the foun(ing (ates of Carthage in Timaios an( in Philistos? A refugee from Troy in the first half of the t4elfth century coul( not fin( Carthage5 a city 1uilt almost three centuries later 1y colonists from Phoenicia< an( he coul( not 1e associate( 4ith the foun(ing of Rome either (irectly or 1y one of his (escen(ants of several generations5 the ga% 1et4een 611=?5 the conventional year of Troy3s fall5 an( 6:I?5 the tra(itional (ate of Rome3s foun(ation5 1eing more than four centuries 4i(e7
Referen e!

17 Fa1ius Pictor gave 6:C: as the (ate of Rome3s foun(ing7 07 He 4as a native of Sicily5 the history of 4hich he 4rote from the earliest times to 60;C< of that history5
regar(e( as authoritative in anti.uity5 only single %assages survive( in authors 4ho .uote( him< Carthage is across the straits from Sicily7

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OLYMPIC GAMES IN THE ILIAD The recor(ing of events in ancient &reece 4as 1y the years of the $lym%ia(s5 four years a%art5 the first year of the first $lym%ia( having 1een 6::;7 An im%ortant contest at the $lym%ia(s 4as among charioteers5 each (riving a four6horse team7 $lym%ia 4as locate( in the (istrict of *lis in the 4estern %art of the Pelo%onnesian %eninsula7 Tra(ition has it that the $lym%ic games 4ere initiate( 1y Pelo%s5 an immigrant from Phrygia in Asia "inor7 Another account ascri1es the foun(ing of the festival to Heracles5 as a cele1ration of his con.uest of *lis71 'n 2orlds in Collision the i(entity of Heracles 4ith the %lanet "ars 4as 1rought out from the statements of several ancient authorsB0 While the foun(ing of the games 4as attri1ute( to Heracles5 or "ars5 the festival also honore( Athene5 or the %lanet ,enus7 This is sho4n 1y the fact that the early games 4ere hel( at eight6year intervals5? ty%ical for ,enus festivals5 since eight terrestrial years e.ual five syno(ical years of ,enus7 Later they 4ere cele1rate( every four years5 or t4o an( a half syno(ical %erio(s of ,enus7 The eighth century 4as a time 4hen the %lanet "ars 4as %rominent among the heavenly 1o(ies an( cause( much (estruction on earth7 Nestor5 the future !ing of Pylos5 4as 1ut a young man at the time of the ram%age of Heracles6"ars through the 4estern Pelo%onneseDhe himself sa4 all his el(er 1rothers !ille( 1y the go( an( his native Pylos 1urne( to the groun( C D1ut 1y the tenth year of the siege of Troy5 Homer tells5 )t4o generations of mortal men ha( Malrea(yN %erishe(B those 4ho ha( gro4n u% 4ith him an( they 4ho ha( 1een 1orn to these in sacre( Pylos5 an( he 4as !ing in the thir( age7+I This information %ermits the rough guess that some fifty to si2ty years %asse( 1et4een the foun(ing of the $lym%ic &ames in Nestor3s youth an( the TroAan War7 'n the 'lia( the aging Nestor recalls that soon after the re1uil(ing of Pylos his father Neleus sent from Pylos a team of four horses 4ith a chariot to race for a tri%o( for a com%etition to 1e hel( at *lis7 -ut the fine stee(s 4ere (etaine( 1y the *lean !ing an( their (river 4as sent home to Pylos em%ty6han(e(7; 7 7 7 For in *lis a great (e1t 4as his MNeleus3N (ueB a four6horse team of racing horses an( their chariot that 4oul( have conten(e( in the games an( race( to 4in the tri%o(7 That this %assage from the 'lia( is a reference to the $lym%ic &ames 4as un(erstoo( alrea(y in anti.uity5 as 4e gather from a (iscussion of it 1y the geogra%her Stra1o7: This means that Homer !ne4 of the $lym%ic games an( ha( Nestor refer to them as an event that 1egan to 1e cele1rate( several (eca(es 1efore the (rama that is the su1Aect of the (liad7 Ho4ever5 it is 1eyon( (is%ute that the 1eginning of time rec!oning 1y $lym%ia(s 4as in the eighth century5 more %recisely in 6::;7 The fact that these games are mentione( as ta!ing %lace 4hen Neleus5 the father of Nestor5 4as a young man gives some in(ication of the time in 4hich the TroAan War 4as fought7
Referen e!

17 Pin(ar5 8lympian 8des' Q C?ff7< Hyginus5 "a$ula 0:?7 07 ratosthenis catasterismorum reli1uiae' e(7 C7 Ro1ert5 1=:=B )Tertia est stella "artis .uam alii Herculis
(i2erunt7+ Cf7 "acro1ius5 Saturnalia iii7 107 I6;5 re%orting the o%inion of ,arro7 ?7 W7 R7 Ri(ington5 The "inoan6"ycenean -ac!groun( of &ree! Athletics FPhila(el%hia5 19?IG5 %%7 =06=?7 C7 Homer5 (liad Q'7 ;==6;90< Pausanias ''7070< '''70;7; an( ,7?71< A%ollo(orus ''7:7?7< io(orus Siculus ',7;=7 I7 Homer5 (liad5 transl7 1y R7 Lattimore F19I1G5 -oo!7 '5 0I>60I07 ;7 Homer5 (liad Q'7 ;9=6:>17

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:7 Stra1o5 Geography ,'''7?7?>< Pausanias ,7=70

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TROY AND GORDION When Schliemann (ug through the strata of Hissarli!3s hill5 he (iscovere(5 on the secon( level from the virgin groun( 1eneath5 great 4alls of a fortress5 an( in the same level some treasures5 all of 4hich he attri1ute( to Priam3s Troy7 His vie4 4as invali(ate(5 an( %ro%erly so5 1ecause a correlation 4ith *gy%t ma(e it a%%ear too early for Troy7 The secon( level5 Troy ''5 4as sho4n to have 1een in e2istence (uring the $l( King(om of *gy%t5 an( thus long 1efore the tra(itional (ate for Troy3s fall7 The en( of Troy ,'5 i(entifie( 1y Wilhelm oer%fel( as the 'lion of the siege5 4as foun( to have 1een contem%oraneous 4ith the mi(6*ighteenth ynasty of the *gy%tian Ne4 King(om5 an( 4as therefore also too early for the TroAan War7 Carl -legen i(entifie( forty6si2 layers of occu%ation of the moun( of Hissarli!5 the Troy of the e2cavators5 1ut (ivi(e( them 1et4een the nine strata of occu%ation classifie( 1y oer%fel(7 Troy ,' 4as a 4ell61uilt fortress< -legen s%ecifie( eight se%arate levels of occu%ation in this stratum alone7 't en(e( in a violent earth.ua!e7 -legen5 ho4ever5 loo!e( for a fortress that fell not (ue to an earth.ua!e5 1ut in a siege an( assault< thus he i(entifie( the Troy sung 1y Homer as Troy ,''a7 The si2th city of Troy is conventionally %lace( in the fourteenth6thirteenth centuries 1efore the %resent era5 a (ating 4hich ultimately (e%en(s on *gy%tian chronology7 Here an o1servation 1y Ro(ney Houng5 the e2cavator of the Phrygian ca%ital &or(ion51 nee(s to 1e cite(B )'n their 1atter as 4ell as their masonry construction the 4alls of the Phrygian &ate at &or(ion fin( their closest %arallel in the 4all of the si2th city at Troy7+ -ut a gulf of time se%arates these t4o constructions in the conventional timeta1le7 Though se%arate( in time 1y five hun(re( years or therea1outs5 the t4o fortifications may 4ell re%resent a common tra(ition of construction in north64estern Anatolia< if so5 interme(iate e2am%les have yet to 1e foun(70 Still to(ay no interme(iate e2am%les have 1een foun(7 As to the (ate of the Phrygian &ate an( 4all of &or(ion5 Houng 4roteB The Phrygian King(om 4as 7 7 7 at the a%e2 of its %o4er to4ar( the en( of the eighth century5 4hen it a%%arently e2ten(e( as far to the southeast as the Taurus an( 4as in contact 4ith Assyria7 This %erio( of %o4er 4as a%%arently the time of the a(ornment an( fortification of its ca%ital city7 This %oints to the eighth century for the erection of the city 4all an( gate7? *ighth6century &or(ion is similar to thirteenth6century Troy5 yet interme(iate e2am%les of the %eculiar 4ay of 1uil(ing the gate an( the 4all 1eg to 1e foun(7C
Referen e! 17 &or(ion5 the ca%ital of Phrygia5 4as e2cavate( 1y the Koerte 1rothers at the 1eginning of this century7 'n 19I> Ro(ney Houng le( there a team an( then returne( for many seasons s%onsore( 1y the /niversity of Pennsylvania "useum7 The (ate of the Phrygian remains foun( at &or(ion 4as ascri1e( to the late eighth an( early seventh centuries 1efore the %resent era7 07 R7 Houng5 )&or(ion 19I?5+ American Journal of Archaeology' F19ICG7 MThe %ost6Hittite an( %re6Phrygian levels at &or(ion have not %rovi(e( the much loo!e(6for interme(iate e2am%les7N ?7 MThe Phrygian &ate of &or(ion 4as uncovere( in 19I? 1y a team from the /niversity of Pennsylvania le( 1y Ro(ney Houng7 't 4as in the form of a large (ou1le gate4ay 4ith a central courtyar(7 Since it 1elonge( to

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the Phrygian %erio(5 its (ate5 li!e that of most of the Phrygian constructions at &or(ion5 4as %ut sometime in the eighth century7N C7 MWhereas the TroAans ha( a long tra(ition of 1uil(ing in stone5 the Phrygian gate4ay a%%ears su((enly5 4ithout any other close antece(ents< nevertheless5 it (is%lays technical s!ills that s%ea! of a long %erio( of (evelo%ment7 This a%%arent contra(iction is also note( 1y Houng F)The Noma(ic 'm%actB &or(ion5+ %7 I0GB )7 7 7 The %lanning of the MPhrygianN gate4ay an( the e2ecution of its masonry im%ly a familiarity 4ith contem%orary military architecture an( long %ractice in han(ling stone for masonry7 The masonry5 in fact5 4ith its slo%ing 1atter an( its more or less regular coursing recalls neither the cyclo%ean Hittite masonry of the Anatolian %lateau in earlier times5 nor the commonly %revalent contem%orary construction of cru(e 1ric!7 The closest %arallel is the masonry of the 4alls of Troy ,'5 a(mitte(ly very much earlier7 'f any lin!s e2ist to fill this time6ga%5 they must lie in 4est Anatolia rather than on the %lateau7+ Accor(ing to the revise( chronology5 the TroAan fortifications 4ere stan(ing an( in use as late as the ninth century< the Phrygian fortifications at &or(ion5 (ating from the late eighth5 coul( 4ell have 1een %art of the same tra(ition of 1uil(ing in stone7N

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THE LION GATE OF MYCENAE The Lion &ate of "ycenae 4as the entrance to the city7 Ato% the gate5 t4o lions ram%ant are carve( in stone relief7 Similar 1as6reliefs of t4o lions ram%ant facing each other are foun( in a num1er of %laces in Phrygia in Asia "inor71

The Lion &ate of "ycenae

Arslantas5 tom1

Roc!6cut

Phrygian

)The resem1lance in i(ea is com%lete5+ 4rote W7 "7 Ramsay in 1===7 0 He consi(ere( the scheme )so %eculiarly characteristic of Phrygia5 that 4e can har(ly a(mit it to have 1een 1orro4e( from any other country7+ He foun( himself )(riven to the conclusion that the "ycenaean artists either are Phrygians or learne( the i(ea from the Phrygians7+? )'t is not allo4a1le to se%arate them Mthe Phrygian an( "ycenaean monumentsN in time 1y several centuries7+C )The Phrygian monuments5+ in Ramsay3s vie45 1elong to the ninth an( eighth centuries7I 7 7 7 The en( of the Phrygian !ing(om is a fi2e( (ate5 a1out ;:I -7C7+ ; 4hen the invasion of Asia "inor 1y the Cimmerians %ut an en( to the Phrygian culture an( art7 Ramsay 4ent onB ' (o not thin! it is allo4a1le to %lace the "ycenaean gate4ay earlier than the ninth5 an( it is more li!ely to 1elong to the eighth century7 The vie4 to 4hich ' fin( myself force( is as follo4s7 There 4as in the eighth century lively intercourse 1et4een Argos an( Asia "inorB in this intercourse the Argives learne( 7 7 7 to fortify their city in the Phrygian style 4ith lions over the gate7 Historically there is certainly goo( reason to assign at least %art of the fortifications of "ycenae to the time 4hen the Argive !ings Mthe tyrants of the eighth centuryN 4ere the greatest %o4er in &reece Mhere follo4 the names of several authorities among the historians 4ho hol( the same vie4N7= $n the other han(5 the almost universal o%inion of archaeologists reAects this hy%othesis7 7 7 7 $riental influences foun( in the remains of "ycenae are )%recisely 4hat 4e shoul( e2%ect in a !ing(om li!e the Argos of the eighth century5+ 4hen this !ing(om ha( intercourse 4ith Asia "inor5 Phoenicia an( *gy%t7 )' 4ish ho4ever to e2%ress no o%inion here a1out the (ate of the "ycenaean tom1s an( a1out

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"ycenaean %ottery5 1ut only to argue that the fortifications of the Lion &ate 1elong to the %erio( =>>6:>> -7C7+9 ' .uote this o%inion of Ramsay 4ith the s%ecial intention of sho4ing ho4 this vie4%oint 4as invali(ate(7 The *gy%tologist Flin(ers Petrie ma(e the follo4ing re%lyB )MAN matter 4hich (eman(s notice is Professor Ramsay3s conclusion that the lion gate4ay is of as late a (ate as the eighth century -7C7 This results from assuming it to 1e (erive( from Phrygian lion grou%s5 on the groun( of not !no4ing of any other %rototy%e7 As ho4ever 4e no4 have a 4oo(en lion5 in e2actly the same attitu(e5 (ate( to 1CI> in *gy%t 7 7 7 it seems that the Phrygian (esigns are not the only source of this motive for "y!enae7+1> 'n *gy%t of the latter %art of the *ighteenth ynasty a single instance of a ram%ant lion Fnot t4o ram%ant lions facing each other as at "ycenae an( in PhrygiaG ma(e Petrie claim *gy%t as a %ossi1le %lace of origin of this image rather than Phrygia7 He ha( (iscovere( hea%s of "ycenaean 4are in *gy%t of the time of A!hnaton7 He coul( not 1ut conclu(e that these hea%s coming from "ycenae must 1e (ate( to the fourteenth century7 11 *.ually im%ressive 4as the (iscovery at "ycenae of a num1er of o1Aects of *ighteenth6 ynasty (ate5 such as o1Aects 1earing the cartouches of Amenhote% ''5 Amenhote% '''5 an( #ueen Tiy7 10 Therefore Petrie (eci(e(ly o%%ose( Ramsay in his estimate of eighth century for the Lion &ate an( the fortification 4all of "ycenae71? Here is a case 4here evi(ence from Anatolia %ointe( to the eighth century< 1C 1ut the *gy%tologist (eman(e( of the classical scholar that he (isregar( this evi(ence in favor of the time scale of *gy%t7 The (e1ate 1et4een Ramsay an( Petrie too! %lace 1efore *vans3 archaeological 4or! on Crete< there ram%ant lions 4ere foun( engrave( on Late "inoan gems51I conveying the i(ea that "ycenae must have 1orro4e( the image from there5 from a %erio( 4ell %rece(ing the Phrygian mo(els7 1; Het one shoul( not lose sight of the fact that Crete3s chronology 4as also 1uilt u%on relations 4ith *gy%t7 'n the section )The Scan(al of *n!omi+ 4e shall rea( ho4 *vans o1Aecte( to the chronological im%lications of Cy%riote archaeology 1y stressing relations 1et4een the *gy%tian an( the "inoan FCretanG chronologies on the one han(5 an( "inoan an( Cy%riote on the other7 'n Ages in Chaos it 4as sho4n in great (etail 4hy the en( of the *ighteenth ynasty of *gy%t must 1e %lace( in the latter %art of the ninth century7 Thus even if Crete 4as the original source of the motif5 "ycenae an( Phrygia 1oth (eriving it thence5 the (e%en(ence of Cretan chronology on that of *gy%t constitutes the cru2 of the %ro1lem71: Let us !ee% in min( that in the 1==>s an( 1=9>s classical scholars of the stature of W7 "7 Ramsay F1=I16 19?9G .uestione( the inclusion of the ar! Ages of several hun(re( years3 (uration 1et4een the "ycenaean %ast an( the 'onic age in &reece7 An( let us not overloo! 4hat 4as the su%%ose(ly crushing argument for 4e(ging more than half a millennium into the history of ancient &reece7
Referen e! 17 Cf7 es%ecially the relief on the )Lion Tom1+ at Arslan Tash near Afyon!arahisar Ffig7G

07 Ramsay5 )A Stu(y of Phrygian Art5+ Journal of #ellenic Studies 'Q F1===G5 %7 ?;97 MRamsay5 )Stu(ies in
Asia "inor5+ Journal of #ellenic Studies ''' F1==0G5 %7 19D1ut see &7 "ylonas5 /ycenae and the /ycenaean Age FPrinceton5 19;;G5 %7 1:?7N

09

?7 Ramsay5 )A Stu(y of Phrygian Art5+ %%7 ?;96?:>7 M*arlier re%resentations of t4o ram%ant lions facing each
other are !no4n from Crete< ho4ever5 it is for the carving techni.ue on stone on a monumental scale that "ycenae seems to 1e in(e1te( to Phrygia7 For a lin! to Assyria5 see L7 "7 &reen1erg5 )The Lion &ate at "ycenae5+ !ens)e (*R '''5 %7 0;7N C7 ($id.' %7 :>7 I7 M*milie Has%els in #ighlands of !hrygia FPrinceton5 19:1G (ates the Phrygian reliefs at Arslan Tash to )the last thir( of the eighth century -7C75 the %erio( of the PPhrygian City3 of &or(ion+ Fvol7 '5 %7 1?I< cf7 vol7 ''5 %l7 1?16?0G7 *7 A!urgal5 ho4ever5 %uts the same reliefs in the early si2th century5 (eriving them from 'onian5 an( ultimately *gy%tian mo(elsDDie Kust Anatoliens von #omer $is Ale5ander F-erlin5 19;1G %%7 =;69>5 9I7 *"S N7 ;7 Ramsay5 )A Stu(y in Phrygian Art5+ %7 ?I17 :7 MRamsey consi(ere( the "ycenaean relief )much more a(vance( in art+ though )not necessarily later in (ate+ than the Phrygian Lion Tom1B )Some Phrygian "onuments5+ Journal of #ellenic Studies ''' F1==0G %7 0I:7 For evi(ence of Phrygian influence on eighth6century &reece5 see R7 S7 Houng5 )The Noma(ic 'm%actB &or(ion+ in Dark Ages and 6omads c. 9::: ;.C.3 Studies in (ranian and Anatolian Archaeology' e(7 1y "7 @7 "ellin! FLei(en5 19;CG5 %7 IC7N =7 /7 v7 Wilamo4itE6"oellen(orf5 )$ro%os un( (ie &raer5+ #ermes QQ' F1==;G5 %7 1115 n7 15 an( i(em5 (syllos von pidauros F-erlin5 1==;G5 %7 n71< -7 Niese5 Die nt%icklung der homerischen !oesie F-erlin5 1==0G5 %7 01?5 n7 17 A7 S7 "urray an( S7 Reinach are also among those cite( 1y Ramsay as concurring 4ith his o%inion F%7 ?:>5 n7 ?G7 97 Ramsay5 )A Stu(y of Phrygian Art5+ %%7 ?:>6:17 1>7 Sir W7 "7 Flin(ers Petrie5 )Notes on the Anti.uities of "y!enae5+ Journal of #ellenic Studies Q'' F1=91G5 %%7 0>06>?7 MPetrie also attem%te( to fi2 the (ates of many of the fin(s from the "ycenaean tom1s 1y com%aring them 4ith o1Aects from *gy%t 4hose anti.uity he consi(ere( to 1e 4ell6esta1lishe(7N 117 Cf7 @7 7 S7 Pen(le1ury5 Aegyptiaca FCam1ri(ge5 19?>G5 %%7 111ff7 M,7 Han!ey an( P7 Warren5 )The A1solute Chronology of the Aegean Late -ronEe Age5+ ;ulletin of the (nstitute of Classical Studies F/niversity of Lon(onG QQ' F19:CG5 %%7 1C061I07N 107 Cf7 Pen(le1ury5 Aegyptiaca' %%7 I?6I:< Han!ey an( Warren5 )The A1solute Chronology of the Aegean Late -ronEe Age7+ 1?7 -oar(man notes that monumental scul%ture of this !in( is un!no4n in &reece from the time the Lion &ate of "ycenae 4as 1uilt until the eighth centuryB )"ore than five hun(re( years 4ere to %ass 1efore &ree! scul%tors coul( MagainN comman( an i(iom that 4oul( satisfy these as%irations in scul%ture an( architecture7+ Greek Art FNe4 Hor!5 19;CG5 %7 007 MA fe4 other I>>6year enigmas a%%ear at "ycenae7 See 1elo45 Su%%lement5 )A%%lying the Revise( Chronology5+ 1y *(4in Schorr7N 1C7 M'n The Sea !eople San(ars %oints out the stylistic similarity 1et4een the Lion &ate of "ycenae an( the Lion &ate of -oghaE!oi7 *"SN 1I7 MSome of these gems 4ere !no4n even 1efore *vans3 (igsDsee for instance the intaglio in &7 Perrot an( C7 Chi%ieE5 #istory of Art in !rimitive Greece '' FLon(on5 1=9CG5 %%7 01C an( 0C;5 (e%icting t4o ram%ant lions facing each other in a 4ay similar to that on the Lion &ate7 Cf7 also the gems sho4n in Corpus der minoischen und mykenischen Siegel' e(7 F7 "atE an( H7 -isantE F-erlin5 19;CG nos7 C;5 1CC5 1CI5 1:07N 1;7 MN7 Platon5 F)Cretan6"ycenaean Art5+ ncyclopaedia of 2orld Art ', MNe4 Hor!5 19I=N5 %7 1>9G thought that )the techni.ue of the e2ecution Mof the Lion &ateN is clearly ins%ire( 1y Cretan scul%ture7+ -ut the Cretan scul%tures5 unli!e those in Phrygia5 are miniatures5 an( Platon nee(s to assume )the effective translation of a miniature theme into a maAor scul%tural creation+ FR7 Higgins5 /inoan</ycenaean Art MNe4 Hor!5 19;:N5 %7 90G7 San(ars in The Sea !eoples %oints out the similarity of the monumental carving style of the Lion &ate of -oghaE!oi in central Anatolia to the Lion &ate of "ycenae7N 1:7 MThe (iscovery of Late Hella(ic '''- %ottery in strata e2cavate( un(erneath the gate is use( to esta1lish the (ate of its construction7N -ut this %ottery5 too5 is (ate( on the 1asis of relations 4ith *gy%t7

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OLYMPIA The scholarly 4orl( 4ithout any further (eli1eration (eci(e( not to 1ring the "ycenaean Age (o4n to the first millennium5 1ut this (ecision (i( not eliminate the (istur1ing facts7 At the same time another one6 man 1attle 4as 1eing carrie( on at the other en( of the front7 &ree! anti.uities5 commonly regar(e( as 1elonging to the eighth an( seventh centuries5 4ere (eclare( 1y a (issenting authority to (ate from the secon( millennium5 to have 1een contem%oraneous 4ith the "ycenaean Age5 an( even to have %artly %rece(e( it7 Accor(ing to the acce%te( vie4 the "ycenaean 4are came to an en( in the secon( millennium5 an( the orian invasion su1se.uently 1rought a )%rimitive+ art5 a %ottery 4ith incise( (esigns< later a %attern of %ainte( geometric (esigns (evelo%e(5 reaching its full e2%ression 1y the late eighth century7 Thereafter ne4 motifs 4ere 1rought into &ree! artDgriffins5 s%hin2es an( other oriental figures< this is the %erio( of the orientaliEation of the art of &reece in the seventh century7 This scheme 4as acce%te(< an( to(ay5 4ith only slight variations5 it is the cre(o of archaeological art7 Accor(ing to Rr%fel( in the secon( millennium t4o or three (ifferent cultures met in &reece71 Rr%fel( insiste( that the geometric 4are ascri1e( to the first millennium 4as actually contem%oraneous 4ith5 an( even antece(ent to5 the "ycenaean art of the secon( millennium5 an( that the )%rimitive+ %ottery 4as also of the secon( millennium7 The archaeological evi(ence for the contem%oraneity of the geometric an( "ycenaean 4are an( of all other %ro(ucts of these t4o cultures5 an( even of the %artial %rece(ence of the geometric 4are5 4as the 1asic issue for Rr%fel(5 4ho s%ent a lifetime (igging in &reece7 $1serving that the "ycenaean Age is contem%oraneous 4ith the %erio( of the *ighteenth (ynasty5 an( that the geometric 4are is contem%oraneous 4ith the "ycenaean 4are5 he referre( the geometric 4are also to the secon( millennium70 This arouse( much 4rath7 A7 Furt4Sngler5 4ho (uring the e2cavations of $lym%ia in the 4estern Pelo%onnesus5 un(er the (irection of Curtius5 4as the first to attach im%ortance to 1its of %ottery5 an( 4ho s%ent over a .uarter of a century classifying small fin(s5 1ronEes5 ceramics an( other %ro(ucts of art5 an( (evise( the system of their (evelo%ment5 (isagree( on all %oints7 Rr%fel( chose to %rove his thesis on the e2cavations of $lym%ia5 on 4hich he an( Furt4aengler ha( 1oth 4or!e( since the eighties of the last century7 'n those early (ays Curtius5 one of the e2cavators of $lym%ia5 4as strongly im%resse( 1y %roofs of the great anti.uity of the 1ronEes an( %ottery (iscovere( un(er the Heraion Ftem%le of HeraG at $lym%ia< he 4as incline( to (ate the tem%le in the t4elfth or thirteenth century an( the 1ronEes an( %ottery foun( 1eneath it to a still earlier %erio(5 an( this vie4 is reflecte( in the monumental volumes containing the re%ort of the e2cavation7? At that time Furt4Sngler 4as also incline( to (isregar( the chronological value of occasional younger o1Aects foun( there7C

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Ne4 e2cavations un(er the Heraion 4ere un(erta!en 1y Rr%fel( for the s%ecial %ur%ose of esta1lishing that the fin(s5 as 4ell as the original Heraion5 (ate from the secon( millennium7 I -ut the e2cavate( 1ronEes an( %ottery strengthene( each si(e still more in its convictions7 *ach of the t4o scholars 1rought a mass of material to %rove his o4n %ointD Rr%fel(5 that the geometric 4are5 4hich he ha( himself foun( together 4ith the "ycenaean at such sites as Troy an( Tiryns ; 4as contem%oraneous 4ith the "ycenaean 4are an( therefore 1elongs to the secon( millennium< Furt4Sngler5 that the geometric 4are is a %ro(uct of the first millennium5 an( es%ecially of the ninth to eighth centuries5 an( is therefore se%arate( from the "ycenaean 1y einer ungeheueren Kluft Fa tremen(ous chasmG7: Who 1ut an ignoramus5 argue( Furt4Sngler5 4oul( %lace in the secon( millennium the geometric vases foun( in the necro%olis near the i%ylon &ate at Athens? = Were there not foun(5 he as!e(5 in this same necro%olis5 %orcelain lions of *gy%tian manufacture (ating from the T4enty6si2th5 the Saitic5 ynasty of Psammetichus an( Necho?9 Were not also a great num1er of iron tools foun( 1eneath the Heraion in $lym%ia? The "ycenaean Age is the Late -ronEe Age< the &eometric Age that of iron7 't is true5 claime( Furt4Sngler5 that a fe4 iron o1Aects have 1een foun( in the "ycenaean tom1sD1ut they only sho4 that iron 4as very %recious at the time these tom1s 4ere 1uilt7 -oth si(es lin!e( the .uestion of the (ate of the origin of the Homeric e%ic to the .uestion at han(7 "ost scholars claime( that the e%ics originate( in the eighth century7 -ut5 accor(ing to the (issi(ent Rr%fel(5 they originate( five or si2 centuries earlier5 in the "ycenaean Age5 4hich is also the &eometric Age7 The (is%ute 4as 4age( 4ith ungeh=rigen pers=nlichen ;eleidigungen Foutrageous %ersonal slan(erG<1> an( a .uarter century after one of the (is%utants FFurt4SnglerG 4as resting in his grave the other5 F Rr%fel(G5 then an octogenarian5 fille( t4o volumes 4ith arguments7 They vilifie( each other on their (eath1e(s5 an( their %u%ils %artici%ate( in the .uarrel7 'n the en( the follo4ers of Rr%fel(5 the (issi(ent scholar5 (eserte( him an( 4ent over to the cam% of his (etractors7 -ut 1y that time he ha( alrea(y 1een com%letely (iscre(ite(5 an( his o1stinacy ma(e him a target for further attac!s 1y the younger generation of scholars %ro%erly traine( in the science of archaeology5 4ho are a1le at a glance to tell the e2act age an( %rovenance of a sher(7 They have no (ou1t 4hatsoever that the "ycenaean Age came to a close ca7 611>> an( that the real &eometric Age 1elongs to the ninth an( eighth centuries5 an( for a long time no4 the issue has not 1een o%en to (is%ute7 -ut this (oes not mean that the facts cease( to %er%le27 Accor(ing to *7 A7 &ar(ner5 )fragments of geometrical vases 7 7 7 have 1een foun( on various sites in &reece together 4ith late e2am%les of "ycenaean %ottery7+11 When then (i( the "ycenaean Age en(5 ca7 611>> or ca7 6:>>? 'n this (is%ute 1et4een the t4o scholars5 1oth 4ere gui(e( 1y the chronology of the *gy%tologists5 accor(ing to 4hich the *ighteenth ynasty en(e( in the fourteenth century5 the Nineteenth came to a close 1efore ca7 610>>5 an( the T4enty6si2th ynasty 1elongs to the seventh an( early %art of the si2th centuries7 'n their a%%lication of these un(is%ute( facts to the %ast of &reece5 1oth (is%utant scholars agree( that the "ycenaean Age 1elongs to the secon( millennium7 The &eometric Age (i( not follo4 the "ycenaean Age5 1ut 4as of the same time or even earlier5 argue( one scholar F Rr%fel(G5 an( 4as he 4rong? The &eometric Age 1elongs to the first millennium5 argue(

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the other scholar FFurt4aenglerG5 an( 4as he 4rong? Wrong 4as their common 1orro4ing of (ates for the "ycenaean Age from the *gy%tologists7 'n vie4 of the fact that later generations of archaeologists follo4e( Furt4aengler an( not Rr%fel(5 it is 4orth4hile to re%ro(uce the assessment of the latter as an archaeologist 1y one 4ho !ne4 him an( his 4or!5 herself a great figure in classical stu(ies 1uilt on "ycenaean an( Classical archaeology5 H7 L7 Lorimer5 author of #omer and the /onuments F19I>G7 'n her Preface to that 1oo! Lorimer 4ritesB ' 4ish to recor( the (e1t 4hich in common 4ith all Homeric archaeologists ' o4e to a great figure5 forgotten to6(ay in some .uarters an( in others the o1Aect of an ill6informe( contem%t7 To Wilhelm Rr%fel(5 the co6a(Autor of Schliemann in his later years an( long associate( 4ith the &erman Aracheological 'nstitute in Athens5 scholars o4e not only the 1asic eluci(ation of the sites of Tiryns an( Troy 4hich ensure( their further fruitful e2%loration5 1ut the esta1lishment of rigi(ly scientific stan(ar(s in the 1usiness of e2cavation5 an innovation 4hich has %reserve( for us untol( treasures all over the Aegean area7 That in later years he 1ecame the e2%onent of many 4il( theories is true 1ut irrelevant an( (oes not (iminish our (e1t7 'n his o4n realm his 4or!5 as those testify 4ho have ha( access to the (aily recor(s of his (igs5 4as as nearly im%ecca1le as anything human can 1e7 7 7 This is an evaluation of Rr%fel( as an archaeologist from the han( of a scholar 4ho (i( not follo4 the lonely scholar on his )4il( theories7+ The archaeological 4or! that 1rought him to his theories regar(ing the se.uence of %ottery styles 4as im%ecca1le< an( his theories 4ere 4il( mainly 1ecause he (i( not ma!e the final ste% an( free &ree! archaeology an( chronology from the erroneous *gy%tian timeta1le7 The contem%oraneity of the "ycenaean an( early &eometric 4ares5 if true5 contains the clue to the removal of the last argument for the %reservation of the ar! Ages 1et4een the "ycenaean an( &ree! %erio(s of history7
Referen e!

17 W7 Rr%fel(5 #omers 8dyssee' die 2iederherstellung des urspr>nglichen pos F"unich5 190IG5 vol7 '5 %%7
?>Cff7 07 )This geometrical style is very ol(< it e2iste( 1efore an( ne2t to the "ycenaean art5 nor 4as it re%lace( 1y it7+ W7 Rr%fel(5 Alt<8lympia F-erlin5 19?IG vol7 '5 %7 107 ?7 8lympia' Die rge$nisse der von dem deutschen Reich veranstalteten Ausgra$ungen' e(75 *7 Curtius an( F7 A(ler5 1> vols7 F-erlin5 1=9>69:G7 C7 A7 Furt4aengler5 ) as Alter (es Heraion un( (as Alter (es Heiligtums von $lym%ia5+ SitEungs1erichte (er Philoso%hisch6Philologischen Klasse (er KRniglich -ayerischen A!a(emie (er Wissenschaften5 19>;5 re%rinte( in Kleine Schriften F"unich5 1910G7 I7 M Rr%fel( (istinguishe( three consecutive tem%lesDthe e2isting Heraion5 1uilt at the 1eginning of the ninth century5 the original tem%le 4hich5 on the evi(ence of Pausanias F,71;71G he (ate( to 61>9;5 an( an interme(iate structure5 4hich in his vie4 4as never com%lete(7 To(ay scholars fin( no 1asis for %ositing this interme(iate tem%le an(5 furthermore5 on the 1asis of the geometric %ottery foun( 1eneath the first tem%le5 (iscount the )erroneous tra(ition+ FH7 *7 Searls an( W7 -7 insmoor5 )The ate of the $lym%ia Heraeum5+ American Journal of Archaeology C9 M19CIN %7 :?G of Pausanias 4hich originally le( Rr%fel( to his early (ating of it7 The *lean tra(ition recor(e( 1y Pausanias has the $lym%ia Heraion 1uilt )a1out eight years after $2ylus came to the throne of *lis7+ F,71;71G *lse4here F,7?7;G he %uts $2ylus t4o generations after the TroAan War7 The tra(ition is )erroneous+ only if the TroAan War is %lace( in the thirteenth or early t4elfth centuries7 'f it 4as in fact fought in the late eighth5 the tra(ition then 4oul( accor( 4ell 4ith the fin(ings of the archaeologists 4ho %lace the first tem%le ca7 6;I> FA7 "all4itE5 8lympia und seine ;auten M"unich5 19:0N %%7 =I6==< H76,7 Herrman5 8lympia' #eiligtum und 2ettkampfstaette M"unich5 19:0N %%7 9?69C< *7 KunEe5 )Lur &eschichte un( Eu (en en!mSlern $lym%ias+ in 9:: Jahre deutsche Ausgra$ung in 8lympia M"unich5 19:0N %7 11G7N ;7 See 1elo45 section )A Palace an( a Tem%le at Tiryns7+ $nly small .uantities of "ycenaean 4are 4ere foun( at $lym%ia5 an( none 1eneath the Heraion7

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:7 M#uite early on5 Furt4Sngler ha( 1ecome convince( that none of the 1ronEes foun( at $lym%ia coul( 1e
(ate( 1efore the eighth century F)-ronEefun(e aus $lym%ia5+ A$handlungen ;erl. Akad.' 1=:95 ',< Kleine Schriften' "unich5 19105 '5 %%7 ??96C01G7 'n 1==> more 1ronEes 4ere (iscovere( in the 1lac! stratum 1eneath the floor of the Heraion -8lympia' vol7 ',G5 an( they seemingly confirme( a late eighth century (ate< this meant that the tem%le ha( to 1e some4hat more recent7 Furt4Sngler later a(mitte( that the evi(ence of several small fin(s5 in(icating a much more recent (ate of construction of the tem%le5 ha( 1een reAecte( 1y him at the time 1ecause it (iverge( too ra(ically from acce%te( vie4s7 'n 19>; he %u1lishe( his influential stu(y of the o1Aects ne4ly (ug u% from 1eneath the floor of the Heraion -?Das Alter des #eraion und das Alter des #eiligtums von 8lympia'@ Sit4ungs$erichte der philosophisch<philologischen Klasse der koeniglich $ayerischen Akademie der 2issenschaften. in 4hich he conclu(e( that the Heraion an( the %ottery associate( 4ith it 1elong in the latter %art of the seventh century7N =7 MThe i%ylon %erio(5 so name( after the funeral vessels first (iscovere( near the i%ylon &ate at Athens 1y the &ree! Archaeological Society in 1=:?6:C5 4as (ate( originally to the tenth or ninth centuries -7C7 Accor(ing to Schliemann5 i%ylon 4are 4as at one time )commonly hel( to 1e the most ancient %ottery in &reece 7 7 7 When it 4as recogniEe( that the "ycenaean %ottery 4as of a higher anti.uity5 it 4as also foun( that the i%ylon graves must 1elong to a later time7 7 7+ Tiryns FLon(on5 1==;G %7 =:7 $f course5 "ycenaean %ottery 4as )recogniEe(+ as 1eing )of a higher anti.uity+ largely 1ecause of synchronisms 4ith *gy%t7N 97 MThe t4o %orcelain lions 4ere foun( in tom1s e2cavate( in 1=91 near the i%ylon &ate5 together 4ith )vases of characteristic i%ylon 4are5+ accor(ing to *7 A7 &ar(ner5 Ancient Athens FLon(on5 19>0G %7 1I:7 Ho4ever5 cf7 Ramses (( and his Time F19:=G in 4hich monuments no4 attri1ute( to the T4enty6si2th ynasty are re(ate( for the most %art to the su1se.uent %erio( of Persian (omination7N 1>7 Rr%fel(5 Alt<8lympia' vol7 '5 %7 107 117 *7 A7 &ar(ner5 Ancient Athens FNe4 Hor!5 19>0G %%7 1I:6I=7

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#THE SCANDAL OF ENKOMI$ The lengthening of *gy%tian history 1y %hantom centuries must have as a conse.uence the lengthening of "ycenaen6&ree! history 1y the same length of time7 $n Cy%rus5 Aegean culture came into contact 4ith the cultures of the $rient5 %articularly 4ith that of *gy%t5 an( unavoi(a1ly em1arrassing situations 4ere in store for archaeology7 'n 1=9; the -ritish "useum con(ucte( e2cavations at the village of *n!omi5 the site of an ancient ca%ital of Cy%rus5 not far from Famagusta5 4ith A7 S7 "urray in charge71 A necro%olis 4as cleare(5 an( many se%ulchral cham1ers investigate(7 )'n general there 4as not a%%arent in the tom1s 4e o%ene( any 4i(e (ifferences of e%och7 For all 4e coul( say5 the 4hole 1urying6groun( may have 1een the 4or! of a century7+ )From first to last there 4as no .uestion that this 4hole 1urying6groun( 1elonge( to 4hat is calle( the "ycenaean Age5 the characteristics of 4hich are alrea(y a1un(antly !no4n from the tom1s of "ycenae 7 7 7 an( many other %laces in the &ree! islan(s an( in *gy%t7+ Ho4ever the %ottery5 %orcelain5 gems5 glass5 ivory5 1ronEe5 an( gol( foun( in the tom1s all %resente( one an( the same (ifficulty7 From the *gy%tological %oint of vie4 many o1Aects 1elong to the time of Amenhote% ''' an( A!hnaton5 su%%ose(ly of the fifteenth to the fourteenth centuries7 From the Assyrian5 Phoenician5 an( &ree! vie4%oint the same o1Aects 1elong to the %erio( of the ninth to the eighth or seventh centuries7 Since the o1Aects are re%resentative of "ycenaean culture5 the e2cavator .uestione( the true time of the "ycenaean Age7 -ut as the "ycenaean Age is lin!e( to the *gy%tian chronology he foun( himself at an im%asse7 We shall follo4 him in his efforts to come out of the la1yrinth7 He su1mitte( a vase5 ty%ical of the tom1s of *n!omi5 to a thorough e2amination7 The (ar! outlines of the figures on the vase are accom%anie( 1y 4hite (otte( lines5 ma!ing the contours of men an( animals a%%ear to 1e %erforate(7 This feature is very characteristic7 )The same %eculiarity of 4hite (otte( lines is foun( also on a vase from Caere Min *truriaN5 signe( 1y the %otter Aristonothos 4hich5 it is argue(5 cannot 1e ol(er than the seventh century -7C7 The same metho( of (otte( lines is to 1e seen again on a %ina2 M%lateN from Cameiros Mon Rho(esN in the M-ritishN "useum5 re%resenting the com1at of "enelaos an( Hector over the 1o(y of *u%hor1os5 4ith their names inscri1e(7 That vase also is assigne( to the seventh century -7C7 's it %ossi1le that the "ycenae an( *n!omi vases are seven or eight centuries ol(er?+ AnalyEing the 4or!manshi% an( (esign of s%hin2es or grifins 4ith human forelegs on the vase5 the archaeologist stresse( )its relationshi%5 on the one han(5 to the fragmentary vase of Tell el6Amarna Fsee Petrie5 Tell el<Amarna' Plate 0:G an( a fragment of fresco from Tiryns -!errot and Chipie4' ,'5 ICIG5 an( on the other han( to the %attern 4hich occurs on a terracotta sarco%hagus from ClaEomenae5 Min 'oniaN no4 in -erlin5 a 4or! of the early si2th century -7C7+ The connection 1et4een the "ycenaean an( Aristonothos vases cause( )a remar!a1le (ivergence of o%inion5 even among those 4ho (efen( systematically the high anti.uity of "ycenaean art7+ The %ro1lem of %ottery 4hich 1elongs to t4o (ifferent ages is re%eate( in ivory7 The ivories of the *n!omi tom1s are very similar to those foun( 1y Layar( in the %alace of Nimrou(5 the ancient ca%ital of Assyria7 There is5 for e2am%le5 a carving of a man slaying a griffin5

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)the man 1eing remar!a1le for the helmet 4ith chin stra% 4hich he 4ears7 't is a su1Aect 4hich a%%ears fre.uently on the metal 1o4ls of the Phoenicians5 an( is foun( in t4o instances among the ivories (iscovere( 1y Layar( in the %alace at Nimrou(7 The (ate of the %alace is given as =I>6:>> -7C7+ An o1long 1o2 for the game of (raughts5 foun( in *n!omi5 )must (ate from a %erio( 4hen the art of Assyria 4as a%%roaching its (ecline5+ five or si2 centuries after the re%ute( en( of the "ycenaean age7 )Among the Nimrou( ivories F=I>6:>> -7C7G is a fragmentary relief of a chariot in %ursuit of a lion to the left5 4ith a (og running alongsi(e the horses as at *n!omi5 the harness of the horses 1eing also similar7+ The style of the scul%ture Fof Nimrou(G )is more archaic than on the *n!omi cas!et7+ -ut ho4 coul( this 1e if the o1Aects foun( in *n!omi (ate no later than the 10th Century? Com%aring the t4o o1Aects5 '7 @7 Winter 4roteB A hunting scene (e%icte( on a rectangular %anel from an ivory gaming 1oar( of PCy%ro6"ycenaean3 style foun( at *n!omi5 4ith its 1lan!ete( horses an( chariot 4ith si26s%o!e( 4heel5 so closely resem1les a similar hunting scene on one of the %y2i(es from Nimrou( that only (etails such as the hair(o of one of the chariot follo4ers or the flying gallo% of the animals mar! the *n!omi %iece as a 4or! of the secon( millennium -7C75 se%arate( 1y some four centuries from the Nimrou( %y2is70 A 1ronEe of *n!omi re%eats a theme of the Nimrou( ivories5 re%resenting a 4oman at a 4in(o47 )The conce%tion is so singular5 an( the similarity of our 1ronEe to the ivory so stri!ing5 that there can har(ly 1e much (ifference of (ate 1et4een the t4oDsome4here a1out =I>6:>> -7C7+ )Another sur%rise among our 1ronEes is a %air of greaves7 7 7 't is conten(e( 1y Reichel ? that metal greaves are un!no4n in Homer7 He is satisfie( that they 4ere the invention of a later age Fa1out :>> -7C7G7+ -ronEe fi1ulae5 too5 4ere foun( in the *n!omi tom1s5 as 4ell as a large tri%o( )4ith s%iral %atterns resem1ling one in Athens5 4hich is assigne( to the i%ylon %erio(5+ an( a %air of scales of a 1alance li!e the one figure( on the Ar!esilaos vase7 -ut such fin(s are se%arate( 1y a 4i(e s%an of time from the t4elfth century7 The silver vases of the *n!omi tom1s )are o1viously "ycenaean in sha%e7+ )$n the other han(5+ there 4ere foun( t4o similar silver rings5 one 4ith hierogly%hics an( the other engrave( on the 1eEel )4ith a (esign of a (istinctly Assyrian characterDa man (resse( in a lion3s s!in stan(ing 1efore a seate( !ing5 to 4hom he offers an o1lation7 T4o figures in this costume may 1e seen on an Assyrian scul%ture from Nimrou( of the time of AssurnaEir%al F==C6=;>G5 an( there is no (ou1t that this fantastic i(ea s%rea( ra%i(ly 4est4ar(7+ Ne2t are the o1Aects of gol(7 &ol( %ins 4ere foun( in a tom1 of *n!omi7 )$ne of them5 ornamente( 4ith si2 (iscs5 is i(entical in sha%e 4ith the %in 4hich fastens the chiton MtunicN on the shoul(ers of the Fates on the Francois vase in Florence Fsi2th century -7C7G7+ A %en(ant )covere( 4ith (iagonal %atterns consisting of minute glo1ules of gol( sol(ere( (o4n on the surface of the %en(ant+ 4as ma(e 1y )%recisely the same %rocess of sol(ering (o4n minute glo1ules of gol( an( arranging them in the same %atterns+ that )a1oun(s in a series of gol( ornaments in the -ritish "useum 4hich 4ere foun( at Cameiros in Rho(es+ an( 4hich 4ere (ate( to the seventh or eighth century7 Among the %ottery of )the or(inary "ycenaean an( %re6"ycenaean ty%e+ gems 4ere foun(7 A scara1 )1ears the cartouche of Thi MTiyN5 the .ueen of Ameno%his MAmenhote%N '''5 an( must therefore 1e %lace( in the same ran! as those other cartouches of her hus1an(5 foun( at 'alysos Mon Rho(esN an( "ycenae5

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4hich hitherto have %laye( so cons%icuous a %art in (etermining the "ycenaean anti.uities as 1eing in some instances of that (ate Ffifteenth centuryG7+C As for the %orcelain5 it )may fairly 1e ran!e(+ 4ith the series of Phoenician silver an( 1ronEe 1o4ls from Nimrou( of a1out the eighth century7 A %orcelain hea( of a 4oman from *n!omi )seems to 1e &ree!5 not only in her features5 1ut also in the 4ay in 4hich her hair is gathere( u% at the 1ac! in a net5 Aust as on the si2th century vases of this sha%e7+ &ree! vases of this sha%e )(iffer5 of course5 in 1eing of a more a(vance( artistic style5 an( in having a han(le7 -ut it may fairly 1e .uestione( 4hether these (ifferences can re%resent any very long %erio( of time7+ "urray surveye( the glassB 'n several tom1s5 1ut %articularly in one5 4e foun( vases of variegate( glass5 (iffering 1ut slightly in sha%e an( fa1ric from the fine series of glass vases o1taine( from the tom1s of Cameiros5 an( (ating from the seventh an( si2th centuries5 or even later in some cases7 't ha%%ens5 ho4ever5 that these slight (ifferences of sha%e an( fa1ric 1ring our *n!omi glass vases into (irect com%arison 4ith certain s%ecimens foun( 1y Professor Flin(ers Petrie at &uro1 in *gy%t5 an( no4 in the -ritish "useum7 'f Professor Petrie is right in assigning his vases to a1out 1C>> -7C75I our *n!omi s%ecimens must follo4 suit7 't a%%ears that he ha( foun( certain fragmentary s%ecimens of this %articular glass 4are 1esi(e a %orcelain nec!lace5 to 4hich 1elonge( an amulet stam%e( 4ith the name of Tutan!hamen5 that is to say5 a1out 1C>> -7C7 "urray comes to the conclusion that )Phoenicians manufacture( the glass 4are of &uro1 an( *n!omi at one an( the same time7+ Conse.uently the .uestion is5 4hat 4as that time? For the %resent 4e must either acce%t Professor Petrie3s (ate Fa1out 1C>> -7C7G 1ase( on scanty o1servations collecte( from the %oor remains of a foreign settlement in *gy%t5 or fall 1ac! on the or(inary metho( of com%aring the glass vessels of &uro1 4ith those from &ree! tom1s of the seventh century -7C7 or later5 an( then allo4ing a reasona1le interval of time for the slight changes of sha%e or fa1ric 4hich may have intervene(7 'n matters of chronology it is no ne4 thing for the *gy%tians to instruct the &ree!s5 as 4e !no4 from the %ages of Hero(otus7 With this last remar! the e2cavator at *n!omi came close to the real %ro1lem5 1ut he shran! from it7 He (i( not (are to revise *gy%tian chronology< all he as!e( 4as that the age of the "ycenaean %erio( 1e re(uce(7 Ho4 to (o this he (i( not !no47 He .uote( an author FHel1igG 4ho thought that all "ycenaean culture 4as really Phoenician culture5 the (evelo%ment of 4hich remaine( at a stan(still for seven centuries7 'n 1=9; there 4as foun( in a tom1 at The1es in *gy%t a 1ronEe %atera Ma shallo4 vesselN 4hich in sha%e an( (ecoration has so much in common 4ith the 1ronEe Phoenician 1o4ls from Nimrou( that 4e feel some sur%rise on 1eing tol( that the coffins 4ith 4hich it 4as foun( 1elong unmista!a1ly to the time of Ameno%his MAmenhote%N ''' or the first years of Ameno%his ', MA!hnatonN7 't is a(mitte( that this ne4 %atera ha( 1een a foreign im%ort into *gy%t7 *.ually the relationshi% 1et4een it an( the 1ronEe Phoenician 1o4ls is un(enia1le5 so that again 4e are confronte( 4ith Hel1ig3s theory of a la%se of seven centuries (uring 4hich little artistic %rogress or (ecline ha( 1een effecte(7; 't 4as necessary to assume a state of hi1ernation of almost seven hun(re( years7 The en(eavor of the e2cavator of *n!omi 4as (irecte( to4ar( 1ringing the "ycenaean Age closer in time 1y five or si2 hun(re( years5 so that there 4oul( 1e no chasm 1et4een the "ycenaean Age an( the &ree! Age7 As curator of &ree! an( Roman anti.uities of the -ritish "useum5 he constantly ha( 1efore him the numerous connections an( relations 1et4een "ycenaean an( &ree! art5 4hich coul( not 1e e2%laine( if an interval of many centuries lay 1et4een them7 He trie( to (isconnect the lin! 1et4een "ycenaean an( *gy%tian archaeologies an( chronologies5 1ut he felt that this 4as an unsolva1le %ro1lem7

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The %ro%osal to re(uce the time of the "ycenaean Age 4as reAecte( 1y the scholarly 4orl(7 Arthur @7 *vans5 at the time having Aust em1ar!e( on a long series of e2cavations at Knossos on Crete5 came out against "urray3s 4or!5 )so full of suggeste( chronological (e(uctions an(Dif its authors Mi7e75 A7 S7 "urray an( his colla1oratorsN 4ill %ar(on the e2%ressionDarchaeological insinuations5 all %ointing in the same (irection5+ namely5 )a chronology 4hich 1rings the %ure "ycenaean style (o4n to the Age of the Tyrants+ of the eighth century5 an( ma!es it )the imme(iate %re(ecessor of the 'onian &ree! art of the seventh century -7C7+: *vans ha( to a(mit that )nothing is clearer than that 'onian art in many res%ects re%resents the continuity of "ycenaean tra(ition5+ 1ut he 1uilt his argument on the manifol( connections of "ycenaean art 4ith *gy%t of the *ighteenth ynasty7 Are not the flas!s of the *n!omi tom1 almost as numerous in *gy%tian tom1s of the *ighteenth ynasty? A fine gol( collar or %ectoral inlai( 4ith glass %aste5 foun( in en!omi5 has gol( %en(ants in nine (ifferent %atters5 eight of 4hich are 4ell !no4n (esigns of the time of A!hnaton FAmenhote% ',G5 )1ut are not foun( a century later7+ The metal ring of *n!omi5 4ith cartouches of the heretic A!hnaton5 is es%ecially im%ortant 1ecause )he 4as not a %haraoh 4hose cartouches 4ere imitate( at later %erio(s5+ an( so on7 $ne of the silver vases of *n!omi5 *vans 4rote5 )is of great interest as re%resenting the ty%e of the famous gol( cu% of the ,a%heio tom17 = These cu%s5 as their marvellous repousse (esigns sufficiently (eclare5 1elong to the most %erfect %erio( of "ycenaean art7+ This shoul( esta1lish that the theory of the latency of "ycenaean art for si2 or seven centuries after its flo4ering in the secon( millennium cannot hel% to solve the %ro1lem of *n!omi< the *n!omi fin(s (ate from the a%ogee of the "ycenaean Age7 *vans insiste( that the material su%%lie( 1y the Cy%riote graves )ta!es us 1ac! at every %oint to a %erio( contem%orary 4ith that of the mature art of the class as seen in the Aegean area5+ an( this (es%ite his o4n a(mission that a num1er of o1Aects from *n!omi %oint to a later age5 li!e the %orcelain figures )4hich %resent the most remar!a1le resem1lance5 as r7 "urray Austly %ointe( out5 to some &ree! %ainte( vases of the si2th century -7C7+ Nevertheless5 he conclu(e( 4ith regret that )vie4s so su1versive+ shoul( come from so high an authority in classical stu(ies7 T4o scholars clashe( 1ecause one of them sa4 the close connection 1et4een "ycenaean art an( the &ree! art of the seventh century5 an( the other sa4 the very same "ycenaean o1Aects (isinterre( in the *gy%t of A!hnaton5 (ate( to the fourteenth century7 The "ycenaean Age has no timeta1le of its o4n in(e%en(ent of that of *gy%t7 ' have referre( to this .uestion in the cha%ter (ealing 4ith Ras Shamra in Ages in Chaos. 'f *vans ha( ha( some evi(ence5 in(e%en(ent of *gy%t5 on 4hich to calculate the ages of the "inoan an( "ycenaean cultures5 4e 4oul( have nee(e( to ta!e into account all "inoan an( "ycenaean chronological material5 as 4e (i( 4ith the *gy%tian7 -ut there is none79 )The chronological scheme (e%en(s ultimately u%on *gy%tian (atings of Aegean %ottery5+ 4rote H7 R7 Hall51> 4ho serve( as curator of *gy%tian an( Assyrian anti.uities at the -ritish "useum7 )/sing this *gy%tian evi(ence as his gui(e5 an( chec!ing the results of e2cavation 4ith its ai(5 Sir Arthur *vans fin(s that the -ronEe Age %ottery an( 4ith it the general culture of Crete (ivi(es itself into three main chronological %erio(sB *arly5 "i((le5 an( Late5 each of 4hich again is (ivi(e( into three su16 %erio(s7+11

?=

The "ycenaean Age starte( at the same time as the Late "inoan Age7 r7 "urray3s case 4as lost7 He ha( 1uilt its (efense on t4o %oints5 one strong5 the other 4ea!7 His strong %oint 4as thisB he analyEe( an( ma(e clear the close interrelation 1et4een "ycenaean culture an( the early &ree! culture of the seventh century7 His 4ea! %oint 4as his an2iety to (isregar( the connection 1et4een "ycenaean culture an( the *gy%tian 4orl( of the en( of the *ighteenth ynasty7 -ut in el6 Amarna of A!hnaton scattere( hea%s of "ycenaean 4are 4ere foun(7 't 4as as!e(5 Which fact shoul( 1e given greater 4eight 1y an un1iase( Au(geB the close relation 1et4een "ycenaean an( &ree! cultures or the fact that "ycenaean 4are 4as foun( in the city of el6Amarna FA!het6AtonG5 4hich 4as 1uilt an( (estroye( in the fourteenth century? The ver(ict in the matter of the age of "ycenae 4as unanimousB its %erio( of greatest influence is (ate( 1et4een the fifteenth an( the t4elfth centuries7 This M"ycenaeanN 4are (i( not a%%ear in large .uantities in *gy%t until a1out 1?:I -7C75 an( little of it 4as receive( in the coastal countries after the mi((le of the thirteenth century7 Therefore5 4henever a %iece of it is foun( in %lace in an ancient city5 it (ates the conte2t 1et4een a1out 1?:I Mthe first year of A!hnaton accor(ing to the %resently acce%te( chronology10 an( 100I -7C71? The ver(ict 4ith regar( to *n!omi 4as5 in the 4or(s of Hall5 as follo4sB *2cavations of the -ritish "useum at *n!omi an( Hala Sultan Te!!e Fnear Larna!a on Cy%rusG have 1rought to light tom1s fille( 4ith o1Aects of "inoan or "ycenean art5 no4 mostly in the -ritish "useum5 most of 4hich cannot 1e later in (ate than the fourteenth an( thirteenth centuries -7C7 The *gy%tian o1Aects foun( in them are (emonstra1ly of this (ate5 an( not later5 1eing all of the late *ighteenth an( Nineteenth ynasties7 Rings of A!henaten MA!hnatonN an( a scara1 of Teie MTiy5 mother of A!hnatonN have 1een foun( here as at "ycenae5 an( fine *gy%tian nec!laces of gol( also5 4hich5 from their style5 one 4oul( a(Au(ge to the *ighteenth or Nineteenth ynasty7 Pro1a1ly5 too5 the greater %art of the treasure of gol(64or! foun( in the tom1s an( no4 in the -ritish "useum is of this early (ate7 The gol(en tiaras an( 1an(s certainly seem to connect 4ith those of the "yceanean shaft6graves7 -ut at the same time there are many o1Aects of later (ate5 such as a 1ronEe tri%o( 7 7 7 4hich are (emonstra1ly of the i%ylon %erio(5 an( cannot 1e earlier than the tenth or ninth century71C Thus5 in effect the e2cavator of *n!omi is accuse( of having 1een una1le to (istinguish 1urials of (ifferent ages in a grave71I He (enie( that the graves of *n!omi ha( 1een re6use(7 Some4here ' came u%on the e2%ression5 )the scan(al of *n!omi7+ ' as!B Was the e2cavator to 1e 1lame( for something that 4as not his fault? The allegation that %ossi1ly o1Aects (ating from t4o (ifferent e%ochs 4ere mi2e( u% in "urray3s archaeological hea%s (oes not meet his main arguments7 His ela1orate( statements (ealt 4ith simultaneous relationshi%s of single o1Aects 4ith *gy%t of the fourteenth century an( Assyria an( &reece of the ninth an( eighth centuries7 We learn from this case the fact 4hich 1oth si(es a(mitte(B the &ree! culture of the seventh century has many interrelations 4ith "ycenaean culture7 The resulting chronological ga%5 as 4e have seen in Cha%ter '5 ha( to 1e ta!en as a ar! Age7

?9

)Cy%rus no less than &reece itself %asse( through a long an( te(ious ar! Age7+ )Cy%rus 4ith(re4 into herself5 an( life (uring this transitional age 4as (ull an( %overty6stric!en5 unenter%rising an( (im5+an( after the "ycenaean Age came to its close else4here5 )in Cy%rus it 4as %er%etuate(7+1; A generation after the e2cavations at *n!omi7 in 1=9;5 other e2cavators o%ene( more graves there an( %asse( the follo4ing Au(gmentB The 1urials in the graves 1elong to the secon( or -ronEe Age5 its Late or thir( %erio(5 the secon( %art Fout of threeG of this thir( %erio(5 more %recisely to the su1(ivisions A F9 gravesG5 - F1> gravesG an( C F= gravesG also a fe4 1elong to Late -ronEe 'A an( '-7 Thus the graves on the acro%olis are )all intermingle( 4ith each other in a seemingly ar1itrary 4ay7+1: What (oes this mean? 't means that sim%le an( great .uestions are ecli%se( 1y nomenclatures7 'n recent years French an( French6-ritish cam%aigns at *n!omi1= have faile( to solve the %ro1lems left 1y the -ritish "useum e2cavations of 1=9;7 The fin(s are still evaluate( 1y *gy%tian chronology7
Referen e!

17 "urray5 )*2cavations at *n!omi5+ in A7 S7 "urray5 A7 H7 Smith5 H7 -7 Walters5 5cavations in Cyprus

FLon(onB -ritish "useum5 19>>G7 07 -(ra1 ?= M19 N %%7 961>G ?7 W7 Reichel5 #omerische 2affen 0n( e(7 F,ienna5 19>1G5 %7 I97 C7 Since the 1eginning of the %resent century5 the conventional (ate of the reign of Amenhote% ''' has 1een re(uce( to the en( of the fifteenth an( the first .uarter of the fourteenth century7 I7 Sir W7 "7 Flin(ers Petrie5 (llahun' Kahun and Guro$ FLon(on5 1=91G Plate 1:7 Com%are also Plate 1= 4ith t4o i(entical glass vases 4hich are assigne( to Rameses ''7 "urray5 )*2cavations at *n!omi5+ in "urray5 Smith an( Walters5 5cavations in Cyprus' %7 0?5 note7 Since the a1ove evaluation of the time of Tutan!hamen 1y Petrie5 the conventional (ate of this !ing5 son6in6la4 of A!hnaton5 has 1een re(uce( to ca7 61?I>7 ;7 "urray5 )*2cavations at *n!omi5+ loc. cit. :7 *vans5 )"ycenaean Cy%rus as 'llustrate( in the -ritish "useum *2cavations5+ Journal of the Royal Anthropological (nstitute QQQ F19>>G %%7 199ff7 =7 T4o gol( cu%s 4ith (esigns re%resenting men hunting 1ulls 4ere foun( in a 1eehive tom1 at ,a%heio in the neigh1orhoo( of S%arta7 97 The ancient &ree! calculations of such %ast events as the time of "inos5 of Heracles5 of the Return of the Heraclei(ae5 of the (ate of the TroAan War an( other %ast events also (e%en( on *gy%t7 1>7 H7 R7 Hall5 Aegean Archaeology FLon(on5 191IG5 %7 07 117 ($id.' %7 ?7 107 As 4as note( a1ove5 since the time of the "urray6*vans controversy the age of A!hnaton an( of Tutan!hamen has 1een re(uce( 1y a fe4 (eca(es7 This %oint nee(s to 1e !e%t constantly in min( 4hen one is e2amining the ol(er scholarly literature on these su1Aects7 1?7 &7 *7 Wright5 )*%ic of Con.uest5+ ;i$lical Archaeologist ''' No7 ? F19C>G7 1C7 Hall5 Aegean Archaeology' %%7 0?60C7 MThe tri%o( mentione( 1y Hall is (ate( to the t4elfth century 1y H7 W7 Catling Cypriote ;ron4e%ork in the /ycenaean 2orld M$2for(5 19;CN %%7 1IC6IIG7 't 4as com%are( to a tri%o( foun( in a grave on the Pny2 in Athens5 variously (ate(5 1ut no4 assigne( 1y the associate( %ottery to the eighth century -7C7 -y analogy to the *n!omi stan( an( other contem%orary e2am%les5 Catling Au(ge( the Pny2 tri%o( to 1e a t4elfth6century heirloom7 A((ing to the controversy5 C7 Rolley 0es trepieds a cuve cluee A"ouilles des Delphes I7?5 Paris5 19::N %%7 10;609G5 4ho acce%ts the *gy%tian61ase( (ate5 no4 challenges Catling3s assessment of the Pny2 tri%o(5 assigning 1oth it an( a very similar e2am%le recently (iscovere( in a contem%orary grave on the islan( of Thera to the eighth century7D*7 "7 S7 N7

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1I7 See also H7 R7 Hall5 the 8ldest Civili4ation in Greece FLon(on5 19>1G5 %7 1;5 an( *vans in The Journal of
the Royal Anthropological (nstitute' QQQ F19>>G5 %7 0>15 note 07 1;7 S7 Casson5 Ancient Cyprus FLon(on5 19?:G5 %%7 ;C5 :>7 1:7 *7 &Aersta( an( others5 The S%edish Cyprus 5pedition' 9BCD<9BE9 FStoc!holm5 19?CG5 '7 I:I7 1=7 Clau(e F7 A7 Schaeffer5 )Nouvelles (8couvertes T *n!omi FChy%reG5+ in Comptes rendus' Acad)mie des (nscriptions et ;elles 0ettres' Paris5 19C9< Revue arch8ologi.ue5 QQ,'' F19C:G5 109ff< American Journal of Archaeology' L'' F19C=G5 1;Iff7

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TIRYNS The same %ro1lem that cause( the (ifference of o%inions at *n!omi an( at the Heraion of $lym%ia arose at other e2cavate( sites7 To (emonstrate this on another case of &ree! archaeology5 ' chose Tiryns5 south6 east of "ycenae7 Tiryns 4as e2cavate( 1y Schliemann an( oer%fel( in 1==C6=I7 Along 4ith "ycenae5 it 4as an im%ortant center of "ycenaean culture7 $n the acro%olis5 foun(ations of a %alace 4ere (iscovere(7 Together 4ith "ycenaean 4are5 an( mi2e( 4ith it5 1 geometric 4are of the eighth century an( archaic 4are of the si2th century 4ere foun(5 among them many little flas!s in 4hich li1ations ha( 1een 1rought to the sacre( %lace70 Accor(ing to Schliemann5 Tiryns 4as (estroye( simultaneously 4ith "ycenae an( the %alace 4as 1urne( (o4n7 -ut his colla1orator oer%fel(5 4ho agree( 4ith him as to the time the %alace ha( 1een 1uilt5 (isagree( as to 4hen it 4as (estroye(5 an( their o%inions (ifferre( 1y si2 hun(re( years7? From &ree! literature it is !no4n that in early &ree! times5 in the eighth or seventh century an( until the first %art of the fifth century5 there 4as a tem%le of Hera in Tiryns 4hich 4as (eserte( 4hen the Argives van.uishe( the city in 6C;>7 'n later times Tiryns 4as occasionally visite( 1y travelers coming to %ay homage to the sacre( %lace of 1ygone (ays7C When the e2cavation of Tiryns 4as resume( in 19>I 1y a team hea(e( 1y A7 Fric!enhaus an( continue( in the follo4ing years5 s%ecial attention 4as %ai( to the .uestion of the time in 4hich the "ycenaean %alace there 4as (estroye(7 $n the site of the %alace an(5 in %art5 on its original foun(ations a smaller e(ifice 4as 1uilt5 i(entifie( as the tem%le of Hera of &ree! times7 The e2cavators felt that many facts %oint to the conclusion that the &ree! tem%le 4as 1uilt over the "ycenaean %alace very shortly after the %alace 4as (estroye( 1y fire7 I The altar of the tem%le 4as an a(a%tation of the "ycenaean %alace altar<; the %lan of the "ycenaean %alace 4as familiar to the 1uil(ers of the tem%le< the floor of the %alace serve( as the floor of the tem%le7: Ho4ever5 the &ree! tem%le 4as 1uilt in the seventh century7= After (eli1erating on the evi(ence5 the e2cavators refuse( to acce%t the en( of the "ycenaean Age in the secon( millennium as the time of the (estruction of the %alace5 an( (eci(e( that the %alace ha( survive( until the seventh century7 'n their o%inion the "ycenaean %ottery 4as the refuse of an early stage of the %alace< the terracotta figures an( flas!s of archaic Fseventh6centuryG ty%e 4ere offerings of the %ilgrims to the &ree! tem%le of Hera7 A continuity of culture from "ycenaean to &ree! times 4as claime(< even the 4orshi% of Hera5 they felt5 must have 1een inherite(79 Fric!enhaus an( his team realiEe( that their e2%lanation re.uire( some unusual assum%tionsB for instance5 that the inha1itants of the %alace (i( not un(erta!e any alteration for the entire %erio( of more than half a millennium51> an( that in one %art of the %alace the refuse of centuries 4as %reserve(5 4hile in another %art life 4ent on711 -ut the e2cavators !ne4 no other e2%lanation5 1ecause it 4as clear to them that )the fire of the %alace 4as follo4e( imme(iately 1y the erection of the tem%le7+10 A (eca(e later5 4hen the tem%le of Hera 4as foun( to 1e very similar in %lan to a "ycenaean 1uil(ing e2cavate( at Kora!ou5 near Corinth5 )grave (ou1ts+ 4ere e2%resse( a1out the correctness of the a1ove

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inter%retations of the e2cavators of Tiryns5 4ho ha( 1een )involve( in a num1er of (ifficulties5 1oth architectural an( chronological7+1? The critic FC7 W7 -legenG agree( that the tem%le ha( 1een 1uilt imme(iately after the %alace 4as (estroye(5 1ut he coul( not agree that the tem%le 4as a 1uil(ing of the seventh century7 Ho4 is it %ossi1le5 if a &ree! tem%le 4as esta1lishe( at the "ycenaean level in the megaron Mthe throne roomN an( if the o%en court 1efore the megaron 4as use( at its "ycenaean level from the seventh century -7C7 on4ar(5Dho4 is it then %ossi1le that this same area 4as later covere( over 4ith almost %urely "ycenaean (e1ris?1C He therefore conclu(e( that )the later 1uil(ing 4ithin the megaron at Tiryns is not a &ree! tem%le+ 1ut )a reconstruction carrie( out to4ar( the en( of the "ycenaean Perio( after the (estruction of the %alace 1y fire7+ He also (enie( the significance of the ca%ital of a oric column foun( (uring the e2cavation of the tem%le7 Although -legen3s arguments seeme( to carry 4eight 4hen he (enie( that the "yceaean %alace ha( survive( the "ycenaean Age 1y almost five centuries5 they a%%eare( 4ithout force 4hen he asserte( that the 1uil(ing erecte( on the foun(ations of the %alace 4as not a &ree! tem%le7 1I -legen3s vie4 4as also .uestione( 1y an eminent classicist5 "7 P7 Nilsson71; -ecause it is as inconceiva1le that the &ree! tem%le 4as 1uilt in the thirteenth century as it is that the "ycenaean %alace stoo( until the seventh century 4ithout alterations5 its floor not even sho4ing signs of 4ear51: Nilsson confesse( his ina1ility to (ra4 a conclusionB )The time of the reconstruction 1eing uncertain5 the .uestion 4hether or not the 1uil(ing is the tem%le of Hera remains unans4era1le7+1= 'n a 1oo! on the architecture of the %alace of Tiryns5 another e2cavator of that city5 K7 "uller5 arrive( at the conclusion that the (ifference of o%inions is irreconcila1le5 1ut he share( the vie4 of the scholars 4ho ascri1e the %alace fire to a1out 6:I> an( consi(er the e(ifice a &ree! tem%le719 "ost of the archaeologists agree( on the continuity of the culture an( cult of 1oth 1uil(ings5 0> 1ut each of the attem%ts to 1ri(ge the chasm of almost five hun(re( years met 4ith insurmounta1le (ifficulties7 The ans4er 4oul( not 1e (ifficult if the "ycenaean Age 4ere not (is%lace( 1y this interval of time5 %ushe( 1ac! into history5 1efore its %ro%er %lace7
Referen e!

17 MThe late eighth6century %ottery 4as foun( imme(iately a1ove5 or mi2e( 4ith5 Late Hella(ic '''-UC 4ares
on the cita(el5 in the lo4er to4n5 on the %lain an( in a 4all cham1erB see W7 Ru(ol%h5 )Tiryns 19;=+ in Tiryns e(7 /7 @antEen F"aintE5 19:1G %7 9?7 D*"SN 07 H7 Schliemann5 Tiryns FLon(on5 1==;G7 ?7 See A7 Fric!enhaus5 Tiryns vol7 '5 ie Hera von Tiryns FAthens5 1910G5 %7 ?C7 C7 Pausanias 4as one of those %ilgrims in the year 1:> of the %resent era7 I7 Fric!enhaus5 Tiryns' %%7 ?16C>7 MK7 "uller5 Tiryns ((( Die Architektur der ;urg und des !alastes FAugs1urg5 19?>G5 %%7 01Cff75 Per Alin Das nde der mykenischen "undstaetten auf dem griechischen "estland FLun(5 19;0G5 %7 ?07 -ut see &7 "ylonas5 /ycenae and the /ycenaean Age FPrinceton5 19;;G5 %%7 C=6I05 4ho argues that the tem%le 4as 1uilt five centuries after the 1urning of the megaron7 Cf7 W7 ,oigt6Lan(er5 Tiryns FAthens5 19:0G %7 =< /7 @antEen5 "uehrer durch Tiryns FAthens5 19:IG %7 ???< H7 Plommer in Journal of #ellenic Studies 9: F19::G5 %%7 =16=0< @7 W7 Wright in American Journal of Archaeology =C F19=>G5 %7 0C07N7 ;7 Alin' Das nde der mykenischen "undstaetten' p. EEF Jant4en' "uehrer durch Tiryns' p. EEF "rickenhaus' Tiryns ( pp. Gf.F /uller' Tiryns (((' pp. 9EDff.

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:7 Fric!enhaus5 Tiryns '5 %7 < MHo4ever5 "7 P7 Nilsson -The /inoan</ycenaean Religion and (ts Survival in
Greek Religion MLun(5 190:N %%7 C:I6::G thought the floor of the later structure may have 1een at a higher level5 a conclusion 4hich has recently 1een argue( 1y "ylonas -/ycenae and the /ycenaean Age' %7 I17GN =7 Fric!enhaus %lace( it in the mi((le of the seventh century -Tiryns '5 %%7 ?1ff7G 97 Fric!enhaus5 Tiryns '5 ?17 1>7 ($id.' %7 ?I7 117 ($id.' %7 ?;7 107 ($id.' %7 ?=7 -ut see Notes for the contrary vie4 of "ylonas an( others7 1?7 C7 W7 -legen5 Korakou' a !rehistoric Settlement near Corinth FAmerican School of Classical Stu(ies at Athens M-oston5 1901N %7 1?>7 1C7 ($id.' %7 1?07 MAt the same time5 -legen note(5 )the (e1ris an( %otsher(s 4hich 4e shoul( e2%ect from the seventh century an( su1se.uently (uring the %erio( 4hen the tem%le 4as in use5 have almost com%letely vanishe(7+ Cf7 "ylonas5 /ycenae and the /ycenaean Age' %7 C97 N7 1I7 M"ylonas5 -/ycenae and the /ycenaean Age' %7 I0G an( @antEen5 -"uehrer durch Tiryns' %7 ??G reaffirm Fric!enhaus3 conclusion that the later 1uil(ing is a &ree! tem%le7 Per Alin -Das nde der mykenischen "undstaetten' %7 ?0G su%%orts -legen3s vie4N7 1;7 The /inoan</ycenaean Religion and (ts Survival in Greek Religion 1:7 Ro(en4al(t5 .uote( 1y K7 "uller in Tiryns '''7 MHo4ever5 see a1ove5 footnote 01? a1out the floor level7 Ro(en4al(t himself agree( 4ith -legen in %lacing the (estruction of 4hat he consi(ere( a re1uilt megaron in "ycenaean timeB Tiryns ''5 %7 0?I5 n707 Cf7 i(em5 )Lur (er monumentalen Archite!tur in &riechenlan(5+ Athenische /itteilungen CC F1919G5 %%7 1:961=>< )"y!enische Stu(ien '+ in Jahr$uch des deutschen archaeologischen (nstituts ?C F1919G %7 9I an( n707 -ut cf7 a1ove5 n7 ; a1out the floor levelN7 1=7 MNevertheless5 Nilsson incline( more to the vie4 of Fric!enhaus that the later 1uil(ing 4as in(ee( a &ree! tem%le5 an( not a smaller megaron of "ycenaean time< he stresse( the evi(ence for the cult of HeraB )the thousan(s of votive terracottas of a stan(ing an( seate( go((ess an( others cannot 1e so lightly %ushe( asi(e as is (one 1y "r7 -legen+ < an( he argue( that )4e !no4 from votive (e%osits that there 4as a tem%le on the acro%olis of Tiryns5 if the 1uil(ing itself is not acce%te( as satisfactory evi(ence7 7 7 /n(er these circumstances the (ou1t concerning the i(entity seems unreasona1le7+ A((itional sacre( o1Aects 4ere foun( 1y "uller in 190; -Tiryns '''5 %%7 01Cff7G in a refuse %it< they 4ere assigne( (ates from the mi(6eighth to the mi(6seventh centuries7 An attem%t to e2%lain them in the light of -legen3s theory 4as ma(e 1y Alin -Das nde der mykenischen "undstaetten %7 ?0GN7 197 "uller5 Tiryns '''5 %%7 0>:ff7 MTime (i( not hel% to reconcile the (ivergent vie4s7 H7 Lorimer5 4riting in 19I> -#omer and the /onuments' %7 C?IG a(mitte( that at )Tiryns the circumstances are o1scure+ yet o%te( for Fric!enhaus3 an( "uller3s conclusion7 )'t a%%ears certain5+ she 4rote5 )that 7 7 7 the megaron remaine( intact an( uninha1ite( until it %erishe( in a conflagration %ro1a1ly ca7 :I>7 't is (ifficult to conceive 4hat %ur%ose it coul( have serve( through the long %ost6"ycenaean %erio( if not that of continuing to house the ancient cult7+ -ut it 4as against e2actly such a %ossi1ility that -legen ha( 1rought arguments a .uarter of a century earlier7 'n the same year W7 -7 insmoor %u1lishe( The Architecture of Ancient Greece FNe4 Hor!5 19I>G5 in 4hich he a(vocate( -legen3s solution F%7 01 an( n71G7 "ore recently Per Alin Fsee a1ove5 n7 1CG 1rought a((itional arguments in su%%ort of -legenN7 0>7 MHo4ever5 &7 "ylonas ha( argue( that the later &ree! tem%le 4as 1uilt long after the (estruction of the "ycenaean megaron 1y ne4 settlers 4ho follo4e( the %lan of the 1y then five6hun(re(6years6ol( ruins7 This vie4 is also follo4e( 1y /7 @antEen in his ">hrer durch Tiryns FAthens5 19:IG5 4ho nevertheless sees a continuation of the religious cult from "ycenaean into archaic times F%7 ??G7D *"SN

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MUTE WITNESSES The (ivergence of almost five hun(re( years in the archaeological age evaluations re%eats itself 4ith res%ect to many sites of the &ree! %ast7 -ecause t4o timeta1les are a%%lie( simultaneously to the %ast of &reeceDone 1uilt on the evi(ences of &reece itself5 the other on the evi(ences of relations 4ith *gy%tDa clash of o%inions in matters of age a%%raisal is almost inevita1le7 The theory that )a %erio( covering the seventh century an( e2ten(ing5 %erha%s5 into the eighth century5 4as the time in 4hich %ottery an( other anti.uities of the "ycenae class 4ere %ro(uce( for the home mar!et of &reece an( %ossi1ly in &reece itself+ F"urrayG 1 4as %ronounce( an )archaeological insinuation+ F*vansG0 The other attem%t at synchroniEing the geometric 4ith the "ycenaean 4are 1y ascri1ing them to the secon( millennium F oer%fel(G 4as calle( )the naivete of com%lete ignorance+ FFurt4SnglerG7? The se%aration of the "ycenaean Age from the &ree! Age 1y five hun(re( years of ar! Age 4as %ai( for 4ith an ever6gro4ing mass of conflicting facts7 Alrea(y in the shaft tom1s of "ycenae some of the fin(s 1ore conflicting an( unreconcila1le evi(enceB Nor 7 7 7 is the evi(ence of &ree! e2cavation al4ays as sim%le an( convincing as it loo!s7 't has 1een usual to regar( all the contents of the acro%olis6graves at "ycenae as (ating more or less to the same %erio(7 -ut some of the o1Aects from these graves can 1e sho4n5 if 4e are not to thro4 asi(e all that 4e have learne( of the (evelo%ment of early &ree! art5 to 1e of far later (ate than others7+C The same author a(mitte( that the graves in &reece 4ere as a rule not re6use(7 This ma!es the %resence of o1Aects of t4o (ifferent e%ochs in the "ycenaean graves in &reece very enigmatic7I The e%ochs5 as usual5 are se%arate( 1y close to five hun(re( years7;
Referen e!

17 07 ?7 C7 I7

A7 S7 "urray5 #and$ook of Greek Archaeology FNe4 Hor!5 1=90G5 %7 I:7 *vans5 Journal of the Royal Anthropological (nstitute ?> F19>>G5 %7 0>>7 Furt4Sngler5 Kleine Schriften' vol7 '5 %7 CI;7 H7 R7 H7 Hall5 The 8ldest Civili4ation of Greece FLon(on5 19>1G5 %7 1;7 MHall later retracte( his o%inion for the shaft graves of "ycenae5 1ut the same I>>6year enigma has since 1een foun( in other Late Hella(ic tom1s throughout the Aegean7 See @7 N7 Col(stream3s article on hero cults in Journal of #ellenic Studies F19:;G7 *"SN ;7 For many more I>>6year enigmas5 see5 'srael "7 'saacson5 )A%%lying the Revise( Chronology5+ Pens8e ',R5 no7 C FFall 199CG5 I60>7

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A VOTIVE CRETAN CAVE $n Crete a long interval is thought to se%arate the last %erio( of the "inoan civiliEation from the late &eometric %erio( in art an( history5 4hich 1elong in the eighth century< si2 hun(re( years of ar! Age if *vans is right that the "inoan civiliEation came to its en( in 61C>>5 an( four hun(re( years if Leonar( Palmer is right in claiming that it en(ure( to almost 610>>7 -ut if5 as 4e maintain5 the "inoan civiliEation continue( until the eighth century or even until the later %art of it5 then5 of course5 the "inoan 4are in its latest style must 1e foun( contem%orary 4ith the geometric 4are an( the same %er%le2ing relations 4oul( 1e (iscovere( on Crete as 4ere (iscovere( in continental &reece7 The ictaean Cave on Crete su%%lie( the Cretan Collection in $2for(3s Ashmolean "useum 4ith many o1Aects< the cave 4as a votive %lace in the Late "inoan ''' age an( an a1un(ance of 1ronEe figures 4as store( there7 @7 -oar(man %u1lishe( a stu(y of the Cretan Collection an( trie( to classify the fin(s 1y their style an( affiliation71 $f 1ronEe figurines of men from the votive cave he 4roteB )These Cretan figures have 1een (ate(5 a%%arently 1y style5 to Late "inoan '''7 they must 1e relate( in some 4ay to the 4ell6!no4n &eometric ty%e of mainlan( &reece 4hich e2hi1its the same characteristics7+0 $f the 1ronEe figures of 4omen from the same cave5 the author saysB )Although no such figures of 4omen have 1een recovere( from Late "inoan ''' (e%osits Melse4hereN5 it is li!ely that the cru(er s%ecimens from the cave are of this (ate5 although Pen(le1ury? thought some might 1e &eometric7+C The 1ronEe male an( female figurines (ivi(e( the e2%erts5 4ith the "inoan an( the &eometric ages contesting for them7 Woul( the animal figures from the same assem1lage ma!e the (ecision easier? )Again there is as yet no reason to 1elieve that 1ronEe animal votives 4ere 1eing ma(e uninterru%te(ly from "inoan to &eometric times7 't shoul( then 1e %ossi1le to (istinguish the early from the late5 1ut it is not easy7+I Ne2t came !nives 4ith human hea(s at the en( of the han(les7 )The style of the hea( is e2ce%tionally fine7 7 7 7 'ts su%erficial resem1lance to a grou% of Cretan &eometric 1ronEes is note4orthy5 an( although the sha%e of the 1la(e an( soli( han(le %oint to the latest -ronEe Age5 there is much in the style to 1e e2%laine(7+ The layers in 4hich it 4as foun( )suggest a "i((le "inoan '''6Late "inoan ' conte2t+ an( this )consi(era1ly com%licates the %ro1lem to 4hich no solution is offere( here7+; A )cut6out %la.ue from the cave 7 7 7 is of a 4oman 4ith a full s!irt7 The (ress an( %ose5 4ith el1o4s high5 seem "inoan5 1ut the (ecoration of the small 1osses is more &eometric in s%irit7+: Thus 1ronEe figurines5 rings an( %la.ues %er%le2 the art e2%ert 4hen he tries to (etermine the %erio( from 4hich they (ate5 an( the (ifference fre.uently amounts to more than half a millennium7 Will not then the %otteryDvases an( (ishes5 the hallmar! of their ageDthro4 some light on the %ro1lem? For the storage Aars 4ith reliefs5 -pithoi. from the ictaean Cave5 t4o authorities= )im%ly a &eometric (ate7+ -ut t4o other authorities9 )have them "inoan7+1> Then 4hat is the ver(ict of the fifth e2%ert5 familiar 4ith the o%inions of the other four?

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)'t is tem%ting to see in these %ieces the imme(iate %re(ecessors of the finely moul(e( an( im%resse( %ithoi of seventh6century Crete5 1ut for these the in(e%en(ent ins%iration of mainlan( &reece or the islan(s can 1e a((uce(5 an( the cave fragments are 1est regar(e( as %urely "inoan in (ate7+11 The very same features ten( to confuse the e2%erts7 Some Cretan vases have a very characteristic (ecoration on them an( it coul( 1e e2%ecte( that this 4oul( hel% solve the %ro1lem of the age5 1ut it (oes not7 There are several Cretan e2am%les of hea(s or mas!s 1eing use( to (ecorate the nec!s of vases7 7 7 7 The e2am%le from Knossos 4as %u1lishe( 1y *vans as "inoan5 an( the signs on the chee!s thought to 1e signs in a linear scri%t7 The techni.ue an( the (ecoration tell against this7 The %atterns are %urely &eometric7 7 7 7 The outline of the features is common in Cretan &eometric710 'n other cases the confusion is still greater 4hen a (ecision is to 1e ma(e 1et4een the "inoan For "ycenaeanG of the secon( millennium5 the &eometric of the eighth century an( the Archaic Fof the seventh6si2th centuriesG7 The case of the votive ictaean Cave an( its contents 4as selecte( here to illustrate ho4 the %ro1lem stan(s on Crete7 The ver(ict (ra4n 1y the art e2%ert .uote( on these %ages (i( not clarify the issue 1y its recourse to our ignorance of 4hat trans%ire( (uring the ar! AgeB After the colla%se or overthro4 of the maAor -ronEe Age civiliEations of the Aegean 4orl( in the t4elfth century -7C7 Crete5 4ith the rest of &reece5 entere( u%on a ar! Age 4hich the still ina(e.uate archaeological recor( can illuminate 1ut little an( the literary recor( not at all71?
Referen e!

17 07 ?7 C7 I7 ;7 :7 =7
??C7

The Cretan Collection in 85ford F$2for( /niversity Press5 19;1G7 ($id.' %7 :7 @7 7 S7 Pen(le1ury5 The Archaeology of Ancient Crete3 An (ntroduction FLon(on5 19?9G %7 ??07 -oar(man5 The Cretan Collection' %7 =7 ($id.' %7 97 ($id.' %7 0>7 ($id.' %7 C?7 F7 Cour1y5 0es *ases grec1ues a relief FParis5 1900G %%7 C0f7 an( Pen(le1ury5 The Archaeology of Crete' %7

97 @7 Schaefer5 C Stu(ien Eu (en griechischen Relief%ithoi (es =76;7 @ahrhun(erts v7 Chr7 aus Kreta5 Rho(os5
Tenos un( -oiotien F19I:G< "ustili5 Annuario della R. Scuola Archeologica di Atene Q,6Q,' F19?06??G %7 1CC5 n7I7 1>7 -oar(man5 The Cretan Collection' %7 I:7 117 ($id.' loc. cit. 107 ($id.' %7 1>?7 1?7 ($id.' %7 1097

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ETRURIA The *truscans are thought to have arrive( in northern 'taly sometime 1efore the en( of the eighth century 1efore the %resent era7 'n *truria5 1et4een the rivers Arno an( Ti1er5 are foun( vaulte( structures erecte( 1y the *truscansB they are of the ty%e !no4n as )false vaulting7+ $7 W7 von ,acano in his truscans in the Ancient 2orld F19;>G comments 4ith 4on(eringB 7 7 7The "ycenaean corri(or (esign an( tholos Mcircular (ome( tom1N structures are relate( to the vaulte( 1uil(ings 4hich ma!e their a%%earance in the orientaliEing %erio( in *truriaDan( here it is even more (ifficult to solve5 even though the connection itself is un(is%ute(71 The *truscan vaulte( cham1ers im%ress one 1y their similarity to "ycenaean architecture7 $ther *truscan structures of the seventh6si2th centuries also sho4 such similarity7 The remains of the city 4alls of Po%ulonia5 ,etulonia an( Rusellae5 consisting of huge stone 1loc!s 4hich have a P"ycenaean3 loo!5 (o not (ate further 1ac! than the en( of the si2th century -7C7B their gate4ays may 4ell have ha( arches roun(e( li!e the entrance (oors to the Grotta Campana' on the outs!irts of ,eii5 4hich (ates from the secon( half of the seventh century -7C75 an( is one of the earliest %ainte( cham1er6tom1s of *truria70 A (ilemma no less serious is %ose( 1y a vase fashione( 1y a &ree! master 4ho signe( it 4ith his name5 Aristonothos Ffig7 G< 1et4een 6;:I an( 6;I> he stu(ie( in Athens5 then migrate( to Syracuse FSicilyG an( later to *truria FTuscanyG7 The vase 4as foun( at Cerveteri5 in southern *truria7 )There is an o1vious lin! 1et4een the (esign of the Aristonothos crater an( another earthen4are vessel5 scarcely less often (iscusse( an( more than five hun(re( years ol(er5 the vase !no4n from the %rinci%al figure (ecorating it as Pthe Warrior ,ase of "ycenae73+? 't 1ecomes ever clearer that the en( of the "ycenaean Age5 %ut at ca7 610>>5 is %lace( so not 1y a true ver(ict7
Referen e!

17 ,on ,acano5 The truscans in the Ancient 2orld' %7 =17 MAfter the monuments of "ycenae an( Tiryns
receive(5 on the 1asis of *gy%tian chronology5 (ates in the secon( millennium5 some scholars attem%te( to age the *truscan tom1s 1y five hun(re( years to ma!e them contem%orary 4ith their "ycenaean conter%artsB so )stri!ing+ 4as the similarity5 so )evi(ent+ the relation of the t4o architectural styles5 that if the "ycenaean tom1s 1elong in the secon( millennium5 one e2%ert argue(5 the ones foun( in *truria )are %ro1a1ly not of inferior anti.uity7+ F&7 ennis5 The Cities and Cemeteries of truria MLon(on5 1=:=N5 vol7 '5 %7 0;I5 n70< cf7 %7 ?;=5 n7 ;7G -ut 4hat of the contents of the tom1s5 4hich invaria1ly consiste( of *truscan %ro(ucts of the eighth century an( later? The surmise that this situation reflecte( )a rea%%ro%riation of a very ancient se%ulchre+ F ennis5 op. cit.' %7 1ICG 4as unanimously reAecte( 1y e2%erts Fe7g75 A7 "osso5 The Da%n of /editerranean Civili4ation MNe4 Hor!5 1911N5 %7 ?9?G7 There 4as no reason to su%%ose that the tom1s ha( 1een 1uilt 1y anyone 1ut the %eo%le 4ho use( them< an( these %eo%le first arrive( on the scene in the mi((le of the eighth century7 The relation of these eighth6century tom1s to the five6hun(re(6years6earlier structures of "ycenean &reece has remaine( a %uEEle7 The Da%n of /editerranean Civili4ation FNe4 Hor!5 1911G %%7 ?9069?< A7 N7 "o(ona5 A Guide to truscan Anti1uities FFlorence5 19ICG5 %7 90< S7 von Cles6Re(en5 The ;uried !eople3 A Study of the truscan 2orld' transl7 1y C7 "7 Woo(house FNe4 Hor!5 19IIG5 %7 1=>< A7 -oethius an( @7 -7 War(6Per!ins5 truscan and Roman Architecture F-altimore5 19:>G %7 := an( %l7 C:7 The ol(est is the &rotta Regolini &alassi5 (ate( to ca7 -7C7N 07 ($id.' %7 =0< cf7 Cles6Re(en5 The ;uried !eople' %7 1007 MNumerous other *truscan cultural traits reflect "ycenaean mo(els5 something that 4oul( 1e not une2%ecte( if5 as the revise( timeta1le %ostulates5 the t4o cultures 4ere contem%orary5 yet most (ifficult to account for if5 as the conventional scheme re.uires5 five hun(re( years of (ar!ness intervene(7 FaG Columns. The ty%es of columns use( in *truscan 1uil(ings (erive from columns of Knossos an( "ycenae5 an( have nothing in common 4ith the oric columns of seventh an(

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si2th6century &reece7FS7 von Cles6Re((en5 The ;uried !eople3 A Study of the truscan 2orld' transl7 1y C7 "7 Woo(house MNe4 Hor!5 19IIN5 %7 ?I7G -ut it is %resume( that no "ycenaean or "inoan structures 4ere left stan(ing in *truscan times7 Where5 then5 (i( the *truscans fin( the mo(els for their 4oo(en columns? F1G "rescoes. The famous *truscan frescoes5 such as those that (ecorate the tom1s near ,eii5 (is%lay an )o1vious reminiscence of Crete+Dho4ever not of Crete of the ar! Ages5 1ut rather of "inoan Crete Fvon Cles6Re((en5 op. cit.' %7 1C?G7 -ut ha( not the Cretan %alaces 4ith their frescoes 1een (estroye( many centuries earlier? FcG ;urials. The se%ulchral sla1s use( in some *truscan tom1s5 es%ecially those 1earing reliefs of men an( animals5 resem1le those foun( 1y Schliemann at "ycenae F ennis5 op. cit.' %7 l2i25 n7 9G7 Also *truscan 1urial customs a%%ear to 1e (erive( from "ycenaean mo(els FS7 von Cles6Re((en5 op. cit.' %7 1I>7GN ?7 ,on ,acano5 The truscans in the Ancient 2orld' %7 =17 See '7 "7 'saacson5 )A%%lying the Revise( Chronology5+ !ens)e 'Q F19:CG5 %7%7 Iff7

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SICILY 'n "ycenean times Sicily ha( a %ros%erous civiliEation that carrie( on a 1usy commerce 4ith the Hella(ic city6state of mainlan( &reece an( the "inoan em%ire of Crete7 This civiliEation (isa%%ears from vie4 a1out the same time that the chief "ycenean centers 4ere (estroye(5 an( five centuries of (ar!ness are sai( to (escen( on the islan(71 Not till the 1eginning of the seventh century is the gloom (is%elle( 1y the arrival of the first &ree! colonists7 The earliest of the &ree! settlements 4as at &ela on the southern coast5 foun(e( 1y migrants from Crete an( Rho(es at a (ate fi2e( 1y the ancient chronogra%hers as 6;=97 Tra(ition also claime( that &ela3s foun(er 4as Anti%hemos5 one of the &ree! heroes returning from TroyB an( ,irgil has Aeneas5 the TroAan hero5 sail along the southern coast of the islan( an( a(mire flourishing &ela an( t4o other &ree! settlements 4hich 1y all accounts (i( not come into e2istence till the 1eginning of the seventh century7 0 -esi(es furnishing further %roof our (ating of the TroAan War5 these tra(itions are es%ecially im%ortant in lin!ing the &ree! coloniEation of Sicily 4ith the close( of the "ycenean age5 an( hel% e2%lain the many survivals of "ycenean culture in the &ree! colonies of seventh century Sicily7 A little to the north of Agrigento5 some4hat 4est of &ela on Sicily3s southern coast5 are foun( tholos tom1s of the "ycenean ty%e7 ? 'nsi(e of one of the tom1s 4ere foun( gol( 1o4ls an( seal rings manufacture( in a style that (erives from "ycenean gol( 4or!7 C Het neither the tom1s nor the o1Aects foun( insi(e them can 1e (ate( 1efore the en( of the eighth century7 't is a %uEEle ho4 )s%len(i( gol( rings+ 4ith incise( animal figures5 so reminiscent of "ycenean o1Aects an( having nothing in common 4ith contem%orary &ree! %rototy%es coul( have 1een manufacture( 1y &ree! colonists in the seventh century if )a real ar! Age+I of five hun(re( years3 (uration (i( in fact se%arate them from the latest %hase of the "ycenean civiliEation7 'n Sicily the time 1et4een the en( of the "ycenean age an( the 1eginning of &ree! coloniEation is an a1solute voi(5 4ith a total lac! of archaeological remainsB even the Protogeometric an( &eometric %ottery 4hich else4here is claime( to s%an the ar! Age5 is a1sent< only late &eometric 4are a%%ears 4ith the arrival of the &ree!s7; The (ecorative motifs use( 1y the &ree! colonists are once more un(er strong "ycenean influence< a (etaile( com%arison of the motifs in use in the seventh century 4ith those on "ycenean 4are cause( much amaEement among art historians5 1ut not even a suggestion of ho4 the motifs coul( have 1een transmitte( through the ar! Ages7 : "oreover5 "inoan influences 4ere i(entifie( in the sha%e an( (ecoration of %ottery (iscovere( at &ela5 %resenting the same %ro1lems7 All the evi(ence 4e have e2amine( argues against a long ga% 1et4een the "ycenean age in Sicily an( the arrival of the &ree! colonists in the seventh century7 Then 4hy is it necessary for historians to %ostulate a five hun(re( year long ar! Age 1et4een the t4o e%ochs? $f the sher(s foun( on the islan( some 4ere fragments of )e2actly the same %ottery as that foun( in *gy%t in the ruins of Tell el Amarna5 the ca%ital of Pharaoh Ameno%his ', MA!hnatonN F1?:061?II -7C7G+ 7 = 't 4as the erroneous timeta1le of *gy%t 4hich cause( the historians to remove the "ycenean civiliEation of Sicily into the secon( millennium5 severing its lin!s to its Hellenic successor7
Referen e!

17 L7-7 -rea5 Sicily ;efore the Greeks FNe4 Hor!5 19;;G5 %7 1?> 07 The Aeneid -oo! '''5 lines ;:16;:? ?7 P7 &riffo an( L7 von "att5 &elaB The Ancient Greeks in Sicily F&reen4ich5 Connecticut5 19;=G5 %7 C:< -rea5
Sicily ;efore the Greeks %7 1:C7

I>

C7 -rea5 Sicily ;efore the Greeks %7 1:I< cf7 &7 Karl &alins!y5 Aeneas' Sicily and Rome FPrinceton5 19;9G5 %7
=;< *7 LanglotE5 Ancient Greek Sculpture of South (taly and Sicily FNe4 Hor!5 19;IG5 %7 1I7 I7 -rea5 Sicily ;efore the Greeks %7 1?>7 ;7 T7@7 un1anin )"inos an( ai(alos in Sicily5+ !apers of the ;ritish School at Rome' vol7 Q,'7 Ne4 Series5 vol7 ''' F19C=G5 %7 97 :7 &alins!y5 Aeneas' Sicily and Rome' %7 =? =7 LanglotE5 Ancient Greek Sculpture of South (taly and Sicily 5 %7 1I7

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MYCENAE AND SCYTHIA )Accor(ing to the account 4hich the Scythians themselves give5+ re%orte( the fifth6century &ree! historian Hero(otus5 )they are the youngest of all nations7+1 't 4as the great (istur1ances an( movements of %eo%le of the eighth an( seventh centuries 1efore the %resent era that 1rought these noma(ic tri1es from the (e%ths of Asia to the (oorste% of the civiliEe( nations of the ancients *astDAssyria5 *gy%t an( &reece7 Formerly the Scythians (4elt east of the Ara2us0Dtheir first settlements in southern Russia (ate to the en( of the eighth century5 a1out the time also that the Assyrians clashe( 4ith them in the vicinity of La!e /rmia7? 'n the course of the (eca(es that follo4e( the Scythians attaine( the %ea! of their %o4er5 menacing *gy%t an( hel%ing to 1ring a1out the (o4nfall of Assyria7 Later the %o4erful Chal(ean an( Persian em%ires succee(e( to confine them to the ste%%es north of the Caucasus7 The a%%earance of the Scythians on the scene of the ancient *ast coinci(es in revise( scheme 4ith the final years of the "ycenaean civiliEation< the acce%te( timeta1le5 ho4ever5 nee(s to %lace their arrival fully five centuries after the last of the "ycenae cita(els ha( 1een a1an(one(7 The tom1s of the Scythian !ings in the Crimea 4ere 1uilt in a 4ay )sur%risingly reminiscent of "ycenaean constructions5+C the 1urial cham1er consisting of )enormous 1loc!s of (resse( stone set to overla% each other so as to meet in the center in an im%ressive vault7+I To e2%lain the use 1y the Scythians of the cor1elle( vault of the ty%e common in the "ycenaean %erio(5 it 4as suggeste( that there must have 1een a continuing tra(ition going 1ac! to "ycenaean times5 (es%ite the lac! of even a single e2em%lar 1et4een the t4elfth an( seventh centuries7 )' have no (ou1t5+ 4rote the historian RostovEeff5 )although 4e %ossess no e2am%les5 that the cor1elle( vault 4as continuously em%loye( in Thrace5 an( in &reece an( in Asia "inor as 4ell5 from the "ycenaean %erio( on4ar(s7 7 7+ ; We5 on the contrary5 must 1egin to have (ou1ts a1out a scheme 4hich nee(s to %ostulate a five hun(re( year tra(ition of 4or! in stone for 4hich not a threa( of evi(ence e2ists7 Stone constructions of the ty%e5 ha( they e2iste(5 4oul( have survive(7 &regory -orov!a in his Scythian Art 4rites of )the stri!ing circumstance that the Scytho6Si1erian animal style e2hi1its an ine2%lica1le 1ut far6reaching affinity 4ith the "inoan6"ycenaean7 Nearly all its motives recur in "inoan6"ycenaean art7+: Solomon Reinach5 long ago5 calle( attention to certain stri!ing resem1lances 1et4een Scythian an( "inoan6"ycenaean art7= For instance5 the (esign of animal 1o(ies in + Pflying gallo%+ in 4hich the animal is re%resente( as stretche( out 4ith its forelegs e2ten(e( in a line 4ith the 1o(y an( its hin( legs thro4n 1ac! accor(ingly5 is at once characteristic of "inoan6"ycenaean art an( foreign to that of all other ancient an( mo(ern %eo%les< it recurs only in Scythia5 Si1eria an( the Far *ast7+ Another e2am%le of great similarity in style is in )the Si1erian gol( an( 1ronEe %la.ues (e%icting scenes of fighting animals7+ -orov!a su%%lies his (escri%tion 4ith illustrations7 )Ho4 often are the animals (e%icte( 4ith the 1o(y so t4iste( that the fore.uarters are turne( (o4n4ar(s5 4hile the hin( .uarters are turne( u%4ar(s? Can the agoniEe( 4rithings of a 4oun(e( 1east or fury of his assailant 1e more sim%ly ren(ere(?+9 +$ther motives of the MScythianN animal style5 too5 rea%%ear in "inoan an( "ycenaean art7 We may cite the animals 4ith hanging legs an( those 4hich are curle( almost into a circle7 Conversely5 the stan(ar( motif of the "inoan6"ycenaean lion5 often re%resente( in the Aegean 4ith reverte( hea(5 rea%%ears again in Scythian an( Si1erian art7+

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The similarity first o1serve( 1y Reinach an( ela1orate( u%on 1y -orov!a is very unusual7 -ut 4hat a%%eare( to them most sur%rising 4as the fact that t4o such similar art styles shoul( 1e se%arate( not only 1y a vast geogra%hical (istance5 1ut also 1y an enormous gulf in time7 +Ho4 are 4e to e2%lain this far6reaching !inshi% in aim 1et4een the t4o artistic schools? 't remains5 on the face of it5 a ri((le7 'mme(iate relations 1et4een "inoan6"ycenaean an( Scytho6Si1erian civiliEations are unthin!a1le< the t4o are too 4i(ely se%arate( in s%ace an( time7 An interval of some I>> years se%arates them7 7 7 Still5 the !inshi% 1et4een the t4o %rovinces of art remains stri!ing an( ty%ical of 1oth of them7+1>
Referen e! 17 Hero(otus5 The #istories' -!7 ',5 ch7 I7 07 The Ara2us may 1e either the $2us5 4hich flo4s through to(ay3s Afghanistan5 or the ,olga7 ?7 'n the reign of Sargon '' F6:00 to 6:>IG7 T7 T7 Rice5 The Scythians FLon(on5 19:IG5 %7 CC7 C7 *7 g75 Altan $1a )The &ol(en -arro4+G an( Tsars!iA Kurgan F)Royal -arro4+G7 See Rice5 The ScythiansF *7 H7 "inns FScythian and Greeks' Cam1ri(ge5 191?5 %7 19CG also consi(ere( the %lan of the tom1s to 1e of "ycenaean (erivation7 I7 Rice5 The Scythians5 %7 9;7 ;7 "7 RostovEeff5 (ranians and Greeks in South Russia F$2for(5 1900G %7 :=7 Similar )"ycenaean ty%e+ constructions of the Scythians 4ere foun( in -ulgaria Fat LoEengra(G5 an( in Asia "inor FPontus7 Caria an( LyciaGD($id.' %7 ::7 R7 urn in Jahrhefte der k. Arch. (nstituts 4u 2ien' Q F19>:G5 %7 0?>7 :7 FLon(on 190=G5 %7 I?7 =7 S7 Reinach5 )La re%r8sentation (u galo% (ans l3art ancient et mo(erne+ in Revue arch)ologi1ue' ?e s8rie5 tome QQQ,''' F19>1G fig7 1CC 1is )Lion au galo% sur une ron(elle en 1ois myc8nienne7+ %7 ?=B )'l a (8AT 8t8 .uestion (3une ron(elle (e 1ois myc8nienne5 (8couverte en *gy%te5 sur la.uelle est figur8 un lion 1on(issant5 l3arriVre6train soulev8 avec une telle violence .ue les rattes (e (erriVre vinnent toucher le front Ffig7 I=G7 Nous re%ro(uisons ici cette figure Ffig7 1CC 1isG %our la ra%%rocher (3une %la.ue (3or si18rienne re%r8sentant un cheval atta.u8 %ar un tigre7 Cheval et tigre offrent 8galement ce singullier motif (es mem1res %ost8rieurs reAet8s vers le (os et l3enclosure Ffig7 11CG7+ 97 -orov!a5 Scythian Art' %%7 I?6IC7 1>7 -orov!a5 Scythian Art' %7 IC Similar o1servations 4ere ma(e 1y "inns FScythian and Greeks' %7 0;>G5 4ho terme( a Scythian (e%iction of a (eer 4ith its hea( turne( aroun( )a "ycenaean survival7+ He also com%are( an i1e2 on a cas!et from *n!omi5 Cy%rus to similar Scythian (e%ictions7

I?

PYLOS Pylos in "essenia5 on the 4estern coast of the Pelo%onnese5 4as the ca%ital of Nestor5 the el(erly statesman in the league hea(e( 1y Agamemnon5 !ing of "ycenae5 against Priam5 !ing of Troy5 an( his allies71 'n 19?9 Carl -legen came to "essenia to search the countrysi(e for signs of the ancient city of Pylos 4ith Nestor3s famous %alace5 cele1rate( 1y Homer7 -legen selecte( for his first (ig a %rominent hillto%5 a short (istance from the sea5 4hich seeme( to him eminently suita1le to 1e the site of a royal %alace< an( in fact5 as soon as he 1egan to lift the earth from his first trench5 e2tensive structures 1egan to a%%ear5 an( much %ottery of "ycenaean time7 He soon arrive( at the conclusion that the %alace 4as Nestor3s B the 1uil(ing he e2cavate( ha( 1een occu%ie(5 in his estimate5 in the secon( %art of the thirteenth century 1efore the %resent eraDthe %referre( time for the TroAan War70 Alrea(y early (uring the 4or! of e2cavation -legen unearthe( scores of ta1lets 4ritten in the Linear scri%t5 an( soon there 4ere hun(re(s of them7 Linear - ha( 1een first (iscovere( on Crete 1y Sir Arthur *vans5 4ho foun( ta1lets 4ith incise( signs of t4o scri%ts5 4hich he terme( Linear A an( Linear -7 The %rofusion of ta1lets foun( in Pylos ma(e the archaeologists .uestion 4hether the scri%t 4as "inoan or ha( its origin on the mainlan( of &reece< an( 4hen su1se.uently more ta1lets inscri1e( 4ith these characters 4ere foun( in other sites of the &ree! mainlan(Dat "ycenae an( at The1esDthe name "ycenaean 1ecame rather regularly a%%lie( to the scri%t7 For over a (eca(e after their (iscovery the ta1lets 4ere neither %u1lishe( nor rea(< ? 1ut 4hen rea(Dan( the story 4ill 1e tol( on su1se.uent %agesDthey 4ere foun( to contain no literary te2tB they 4ere regularly archive notes5 (ealing 4ith ta2ation or conscri%tion5 or human an( animal census or storage inventory7 Nevertheless5 interesting %arallels coul( 1e (ra4n 4ith the Homeric e%icsB Pylos is mentione( at the hea( of nine other to4ns that %rofess allegiance to itD1oth in Homer an( on the ta1lets< C again5 a seven6to4n coastal stri% mentione( in the 'lia( fin(s a %arallel in a stri% of seven coastal settlements referre( to on one of the ta1lets7 An( to -legen3s great satisfaction Pylos 4as foun( re%eate(ly mentione( on the ta1lets retrieve( from the %alace he i(entifie( as Nestor3s 7I Nestor3s name5 ho4ever5 4as not foun(7 The ta1lets5 originally not fire( 1ut only (rie(5 4oul( have (isintegrate( long ago5 4ere it not for the fire that (estroye( the %alace an( 1a!e( the ta1lets7 A great conflagration rage( over the structure< it came rather su((enly5 since most furniture5 %ottery5 the contents of the storage rooms an( archives 4ere not remove(B 1ut humans all fle(7; -legen %lace( the (estruction not long after the TroAan War5 at the close of the "ycenaean Age7: Ho4ever5 no signs of 4arfare5 siege5 re6occu%ation 1y %eo%le of another culture or occu%ation in general 4ere foun(7= The %alace %resente( -legen an( his colla1orators 4ith %ro1lems not unli!e those that 4ere to occu%y him later at Troy7 'n the re%ort of the e2cavations -legen 4roteB )'n some %laces 7 7 7 in the u%%er 1lac! layer 7 7 7 4ere foun(5 along 4ith the usual "ycenaean %ottery5 a fe4 glaEe( sher(s of Late &eometric Style5 as in so many other %arts of the site5 4here similar (e%osits 4ere encountere(7+9
Referen e! 17 'lia( Q'7 ;=97 $(yssey '''7?f7

IC

07 C7 W7 -legen an( "7 Ra4son5 The !alace of 6estor at !ylos in 2estern /essenia5 vol7 ' FPrinceton5 19;;G
vol7 '5 %t7 15 %%7 ?ff7 ?7 They 4ere %u1lishe( in 19I1 -The !ylos Ta$lets3 A !reliminary Transcription. an( the (eci%herment 4as com%lete( 1y 19I?7 See 1elo45 section )Linear - eci%here(7+ C7 'lia( ''7 I9169C< -legen an( Ra4son5 The !alace of 6estor' vol7 '5 %t7 15 %7 C197 I7 The !alace of 6estor' loc7 cit7 ;7 ($id.' %7 C0C7 :7 ($id.' %7 C007 =7 ($id.' %7 C007 97 The !alace of 6estor' %7 ?>>7

II

LINEAR % DECIPHERED For a long time the Linear - scri%t (i( not (isclose its secret to those 4ho 4or!e( on its solution7 Nor 4as the (eci%herment facilitate( 1y the manner in 4hich Sir Arthur *vans %u1lishe( the te2ts of the Linear - ta1letsDnot all at once5 1ut seriatim7 When -legen (iscovere( the Linear - ta1lets on the &ree! mainlan( in the ruins of the ancient %alace in Pylos5 they 4ere ascri1e( to the Heroic Age of Troy5 the final stage of the "ycenaean Age that en(e( a1ru%tly7 Het even after the Linear - ta1lets 4ere foun( on the mainlan( of &reece their language 4as not thought to 1e &ree!7 The reason for that 4as5 first of all5 in the acce%te( chronological scaleB the 'onian age5 accor(ing to conventional chronology5 4as se%arate( from the "ycenaean Age 1y five hun(re( years7 &ree! 4riting a%%ears for the first time in the eighth century7 *fforts to rea( the ta1lets ma(e 1y classical %hilologists 4ere unsuccessful5 an( 4hatever clue 4as trie( out5 the result 4as negative7 $ne of the most im%ortant an( far6reaching theses of the reconstructin of ancient history is in the conclusion that the so6calle( ar! Ages of the &ree! an( Anatolian histories are 1ut artifacts of the historians5 an( never too! %lace7 The "ycenaean Age en(e( in the eighth century an( 4as follo4e( 1y the 'onic times5 4ith no centuries intervening5 the 1rea! in culture 1eing 1ut the conse.uence of natural u%heavals of the eighth century an( of the su1se.uent migrations of %eo%les7 Conse.uently the 'onic culture must sho4 great affinity 4ith the "ycenaean heritage< an( therefore ' have claime( that the Linear - scri%t 4oul( %rove to 1e &ree!< 1ut this 4as not a vie4 that ha( many su%%orters7 'n 19I> the eminent authority on Homeric &reece5 Helen L7 Lorimer5 in her treatise #omer and the /onuments 4rote of this scri%t an( of the efforts to rea( itB )The result is 4holly unfavora1le to any ho%e entertaine( that the language of the inscri%tions might 1e &ree!7+ Nevertheless5 on the occasion of a((ressing the Forum of the &ra(uate College of Princeton /niversity on $cto1er C5 19I?5 ' formulate( my e2%ectationsB ' e2%ect ne4 evi(ence from the "inoan Scri%ts an( the so6calle( Hittite %ictogra%hs7 Te2ts in the "inoan FLinear -G scri%t 4ere foun( years ago on Crete an( in "ycenae an( in several other %laces on the &ree! mainlan(7 ' 1elieve that 4hen the "inoan 4ritings unearthe( in "ycenae are (eci%here( they 4ill 1e foun( to 1e &ree!7 ' also claim that these te2ts are of a later (ate than generally 1elieve(7 )No P ar! Age3 of si2 centuries3 (uration intervene( in &reece 1et4een the "ycenaean Age an( the 'onian Age of the seventh century7+ The a((ress 4as %rinte( as a su%%lement to arth in &pheaval' 1ut the last %assage in the a((ress 4as .uote( from my Theses for the Reconstruction of Ancient #istory' %u1lishe( eight years earlier5 in 19CI71 When s%ea!ing to the Princeton Forum in $cto1er 19I? ' (i( not !no4 that a young *nglish architect 4as 1y then on the verge of %u1lishing the solution to the ri((le of the Linear - scri%t7 $nly si2 months %asse( since my a((ressing the &ra(uate Forum5 an( the A%ril 95 19IC front %age ne4s of The 6e% Hork Times ma(e !no4n the e2citing %erformance of (eco(ing Linear - 1y "ichael ,entris7 The ancient scri%t )that for the last half century an( longer has 1affle( archaeologists an( linguists has 1een (eco(e( finally D1y an amateur7+ ,entris5 an architect an( )leisure6time scholar of %re6classic scri%ts5+ serve( as a cry%togra%her (uring Worl( War ''7 The scri%t that ha( 1een trie( 4ithout avail in a variety of languages DHittite5 Sumerian an( -as.ue among othersD4as foun( 1y ,entris to 1e &ree!70 ,entris as a 1oy atten(e( a lecture 1y Sir Arthur *vans on the "inoan ta1lets 4ith unrea( scri%ts an(5 li!e Schliemann 4ho since 1oyhoo( 4as (etermine( to fin( Troy an( the tom1 of Agamemnon5 4as
I;

intrigue( to (eci%her the scri%t of 4hich he hear( *vans s%ea!7 Thus the greatest (iscoveries in the 4orl( of classical stu(ies 4ere ma(e 1y non6s%ecialists5 a merchant an( an architect7 -ut ,entris 4as not imme(iately on the right %ath7 'n 19C9 he ha( sent out a .uestionnaire on Linear - to lea(ing authorities on Aegean .uestions< he %rivately (istri1ute( the re%lies in 19I> as The 0anguages of the /inoan and /ycenaean Civili4ations F!no4n as the )"i(6Century Re%ort+ G7 None of his .uerie( corres%on(ents came u%on the right trail7 'n 19;0 Leonar( R7 Palmer testifie( as to the stan( the Hellenic scholars an( ,entris himself ha( ta!en %rior to the achievement< in his 1oo! /ycenaeans and /inoans' Palmer 4roteB )*vans venture( no guess at the %ossi1le affinities of the "inoan language7 That it 4as &ree! never entere( his hea(7+ Also -legen5 4ho 4as the first to fin( the ta1lets on &ree! soil5 )4as Palmost certain3 that the language of his ta1lets 4as P"inoan3 7 7 7 Nor (i( the %ossi1ility that the Linear - ta1lets conceale( the &ree! language occur to "ichael ,entris7+ He )guesse( that the language 4as relate( to *truscan 7 7 7 This 4rong (iagnosis 4as maintaine( 1y ,entris right u% to the final stages of his (eci%herment7+ )'t figures in the so6calle( P"i(6 Century Re%ort53 4hich recor(s 4hat coul( 1e (e(uce( 1y the most eminent living authorities from the archaeological an( other evi(ence availa1le at the time %rece(ing the (eci%herment of the scri%t7 The remar!a1le fact stan(s out that not one of the scholars concerne( suggeste( that the language coul( 1e &ree!7+ -ut a fe4 years more an( ,entris foun( the true solution7 *ven then lou( voices of s!e%ticism an( o%%osition ma(e themselves hear(7? -ut the metho( 1eing %erfecte( (isclose( more an( more &ree! 4or(s an( names 4hich coul( not result from a mista!en (eci%herment7 The entire fiel( of early &ree! civiliEation e2%erience( the greatest shoc! since the (iscovery of Troy7 To the even greater sur%rise of the scholarly 4orl( the names of the (eities of the &ree! %antheon5 su%%ose(ly )create(+ 1y Homer an( Hesio(5 4ere foun( on the (eci%here( Linear ta1lets7 The rea(ing of these ta1lets in the &ree! language raise( the .uestionB Ho4 coul( a literate %eo%le in the fourteenth century 1ecome illiterate for almost five centuries5 to regain literacy in the eighth century? Thus the %ro1lem alrea(y ans4ere( in Ages in Chaos 4as 1rought into relief5 an( a heretical i(ea cre%t into the min(s of a fe4 scholarsB is there some mista!e in the acce%te( timeta1le? 'n the last century a ar! Age of five centuries3 (uration 1et4een the "ycenaean an( the 'onian ages 4as force( u%on the scholars of the &ree! %ast 1y stu(ents of *gy%tology5 an( in three .uarters of a century this notion5 first 1itterly o%%ose(5 1ecame as 1itterly (efen(e( 1y the ne4 generation of classical scholars5 only to 1e confronte( 4ith the ri((le of the "ycenaean ta1lets 4ritten in &ree! more than five hun(re( years 1efore the ol(est !no4n &ree! inscri%tion in al%ha1etic characters a(a%te( from the He1re46Phoenician scri%t7 ,entris (ie( young5 in an auto acci(ent5 soon after his trium%h7 $ne of the most tantaliEing ri((les of classical archaeology 4as solve(5 1ut not 4ithout creating some %uEEling situations7 The Homeric #uestion5 instea( of 1eing solve(5 gre4 no4 to astonishing5 one 4oul( li!e to say5 Homeric5 %ro%ortions7
Referen e!

17 'n this %u1lication5 (istri1ute( only to a limite( num1er of large li1raries in *uro%e an( America5 ' state(5
4ithout any ela1oration5 the fin(ings to 4hich ' ha( come in the 4or! of reconstruction of ancient history5 thus outlining the %roAecte( Ages in Chaos an( its se.uel volumes7 07 Cf7 @7 Cha(4ic!5 The Decipherment of 0inear ; FCam1ri(ge5 19I=G7 ?7 *7g75 that of Prof7 -eattie in Journal of #ellenic Studies :; F19I;G5 %%7 1ff7

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THE GREEK PANTHEON When the te2ts in Linear - 4ere rea( the so6calle( Homeric %ro1lem (i( not a%%roach a solution 1ut5 contrari4ise5 gre4 more urgent5 more enigmatic5 more %er%le2ing7 Since anti.uity it ha( 1een 1elieve( that )Homer an( Hesio( 4ere the first to com%ose Theogonies5 an( give the go(s their e%ithets777+1 Therefore rea(ing the names of &ree! go(s an( go((esses on the Linear ta1les from Knossos on Crete an( Pylos on the mainlan( 4as something of a shoc! to classical scholars7 0 Hera5 Artemis an( Hermes 4ere 4orshi%%e( in Pylos7 Leus an( Posei(on 4ere 4orshi%%e( in Pylos an( Knossos7 Athene 4as (eifie( in Knossos< ionysus3 name 4as foun( on a Pylos ta1let7? With &ree! go(s an( go((esses s%elle( 1y their names on the ta1lets5 it 4as con(ucive to recogniEe A%ollo in a figure on a vase5 singing among the "uses5 or Posei(on in a figure (e%icte( (riving a chariot over the sea5 or Leus 4ith *uro%a in the (e%iction of a 1ull carrying a 4oman7 The "inotaur an( centaurs 4ere recogniEe( as li!ely "ycenaean images7C Not less une2%ecte( 4ere the names of Achaean heroes !no4n from the Homeric e%ics 4hen foun( on the Pylos an( Knossos ta1lets5 an( a )4ealth of TroAan names5+ too7 AAa2 Fcalle( 1y his %atronymic )Telamonian+G an( his 1rother5 Telamonian Teucer5 have namesa!es in Homer< )an( 1et4een them they !ille( t4o TroAans 4ith ta1let names Pyrasos an( $%helestas5 an( a thir( Simoeisios5 4hose father3s name5 Anthemos5 occurs at Knossos7+ Hector3s name an( Priam3s name5 an( that of Tros5 are foun( in Pylos7 Achilles3 name is foun( 1oth a Knossos an( at Pylos5 an( Kastor3s at Knossos7I 'n Homer Lao(o!os3s father is Antenor an( on a Pylos ta1let Lao(o!os hol(s lan( in a village or su1ur1 4here Antenor is mayor7 'n Homer Lao(o!os is from Pylos5 4here the ta1let 4ith his name 4as foun(7 Aigy%tos of the 8dyssey has a namesa!e on a Knossos ta1let< a(mitte(ly5 there 4as no contact 4ith *gy%t (uring the ar! Ages an( until the seventh century5 an( ho4 coul( a 1ar( of one of those centuries5 if the e%os 4as not yet com%lete( in the "ycenaean Age5 come u%on calling a hero after the river Nile5 as!e( T7 -7 We1ster7 The name Neritos in met in 1oth5 the (liad an( the 8dyssey5 an( it 4as thought to 1e a misnomer for some &ree! term5 corru%te( in the later versions of the e%ics to loo! as a %rivate name5 1ut the name 4as foun( on a ta1le as that of a shee% o4ner7 )/nfortunately the esta1lishment of Neritos as a goo( "ycenaean name (oes not hel% the (ifficult geogra%hical %ro1lem of 'thaca3s location7+ The cam%aign of the Seven against The1es an( the sac! of the city 1y the *%igoni are allu(e( to 1y Homer7 )"ycenaean names int he story are Am%hiaros FKnossosG5 A(rastos5 *teocles5 Poly%hontes FPylosG7+ $ne of the sons of *teocles in Pylos 4as calle( Ale!tryon5 a name !no4n from the (liad FQ,''7;>0G7 'n Pylos a man 4as calle( Theseus an( men at Knossos 1ore the names Selenos an( 'a!chos !no4n from the 8dyssey7 The name Aeneas is rea( on a ta1let from "ycenae7 Phegeus3 name5 foun( in the (liad F,71>fG is foun( also on a ta1let from "ycenae7 The TroAan Pe(asos F(liad ,'701G ha( a namesa!e at Knossos7 Not less amaEing are the attri1utes an( a(Aectives accom%anying the names as use( 1y Homer an( foun( on the ta1lets7 )The evi(ence of the ta1lets+ is )that such formulae as Telamonian AAa2 4ere "ycenaean titles7+; Nestor of Homer )has "ycenaean titles+< : Agamemnon3s title %ana5 is )certainly "ycenaean+<= )!ing of men+ is a title most %ro1a1ly )remem1ere( from "ycenaean %oetry+ half a millennium 1efore Homer79

I=

)The e%ithet hi%%iocharmes Fchariot6fighterG5 4hich is a%%lie( to Troilos in the 'lia( an( to Amythaon Fa name foun( on the Pylos ta1letsG in the $(yssey5 has 1een recogniEe( as (erive( from the "ycenaean 4or( for chariot7+1> 'f five hun(re( years se%arate Homer from the ta1lets5 is it not a cause for 4on(er that the %oet shoul( !no4 these names an( titles an( use them for his e%ics?
Referen e!

17 Hero(otus ''7I? 07 M"7 ,entris an( @7 Cha(4ic! 4on(ere( that the ta1lets )une2%ecte(ly reveal the 4orshi% of go(s an(
go((esses !no4n from classical sources+ DDocuments in /ycenaean Greek FCam1ri(ge /niversity Press5 19I;G5 %7 0:IN ?7 M"7 ,entris an( @7 Cha(4ic!5 Documents in /ycenaean Greek' secon( e(7 FCam1ri(ge /niversity Press5 19:?G5 %%7 0:95 0=;60==7 Cf7 &7 "ylonas5 /ycenae and the /ycenaean Age FPrinceton5 19;;G5 %%7 1I961;>< F7 R7 A(ra(os5 )Les 'nstitutions religieuses myc8niennes+ D ''' )Les (ieu2 et leur culte+ in /inos Q' F19:0G5 %% 1=?6190< A7 Heu1ec!5 Aus der 2elt der fruehgrieschischen 0ineartaflen F&oettingen5 19;;5 %%7 9;61>;7N C7 These an( the follo4ing e2am%les are from T7 -7 L7 We1ster5 "rom /ycenae to #omer FLon(on5 19I=G I7 ($id.' %7 < M 7 H7 H7 &ray5 )"ycenaean Names in Homer5+ @ournal of Hellenic Stu(ies := F19I=G5 %%7 C?6C=< 7 Page5 #istory and the #omeric (liad F/niversity of California Press5 19I9G5 %%7 19:61997N ;7 We1ster5 "rom /ycenae to #omer' %7 0=; :7 ($id.' %7 01=7 =7 ($id.' %7 101< MPage5 #istory and the #omeric (liad' %%7 1== an( 0>95 n7 C=7N 97 We1ster5 "rom /ycenae to #omer' %7 1>:7 1>7 ($id.5 %7 1>?< MPage5 #istory and the #omeric (liad5 %%7 19> an( 0>95 n7 II

I9

MYCENAEAN CITY NAMES IN THE ILIAD "ost nota1le among the %assages in the 'lia( tracea1le to "ycenaean times is the so6calle( Catalogue of Cities an( Shi%s71 't is an enumeration5 in the secon( 1oo! of the 'lia(5 of the contri1utions in shi%s ma(e 1y various cities an( to4ns of the Achaeans or &ree!s of the Heroic Age to the e2%e(ition against Troy7 There are scores of localities in the list an( many of them5 actually a1out half5 (i( not survive into the mo(ern 'onian Age< then ho4 coul( the &ree! %oet5 se%arate( from the "ycenaean Age 1y (ar! centuries5 have ha( such an e2tensive an( (etaile( !no4le(ge of these localities? Archaeological research has alrea(y i(entifie( the ruins of .uite a fe4 sites 4hich ha( not 1een re1uilt an( 4ere not !no4n in the classical %erio( of &reece< an( it is safe to assume that future (igging 4ill reveal more of the cities of this list7 -y assuming that the oral (elivery from one generation to another can account for the survival of the e%ics5 it is also necessary to assume that a long list of localities5 many of them small5 many of them no more e2tant5 4as ca%a1le of surviving 1y means of such oral tra(ition7 -ut 4oul( generations of 1ar(s carry over centuries of the ar! Ages the multitu(inous names of to4ns an( villages of 4hich nothing 4as e2tant for century u%on century? 't is conceiva1le that a fe4 names of ancient %alace cities 4oul( (efy time an( survive in the memory of 1ar(s7 -ut to assume that almost a hun(re( names of localities that 4ere 1ut a1an(one( moun(s in the time 4hen the 'lia( 4as %ut to 4riting survive( in that manner im%lies nothing short of a miracle7 'n the vie4 of enys Page5 )There is no esca%e from this conclusionB the names in the Catalogue affor( %roof %ositive an( unrefute( that the Catalogue offers a truthful5 though selective5 (escri%tion of "ycenaean &reece7+0 At the same time5 )there is no scra% of evi(ence5 an( no reason 4hatsoever to assume5 that the art of 4riting 4as %ractice( in &reece 1et4een the en( of the "ycenaean era an( the eighth century -7C7+? Het )it is inconceiva1le that such a list shoul( have 1een first com%ile( (uring or after the -ut is it a solution that 1ar(s transmitte( all those names?I ar! Ages7+C

An( 4here (i( the 1ar(s sing? Was not the lan( 4ithout %alaces an( 4ith har(ly any houses of occu%ation? enys Page continues on the su1Aect 4ith gro4ing 4on(ermentB ) escri%tive e%ithets are attache( to some fifty of the %lace names7 7 7 7 "any of the e%ithets are (istinctive5 not generally a%%lica1le7 $ne %lace is a mea(o4lan(5 another is roc!y< one %lace is rich in vineyar(s5 another is famous for its shee%< one %lace is rugge(5 another has many flo4ers< one %lace is on a river1an!5 another on the seashore7+ )Let us as!5+ Page continues5 )ho4 coul( an 'onian %oet living in the 1>th or 9th or =th century -7C7 !no4 ho4 to (escri1e so many %lacesDsome of them very o1scure %lacesDall over &reece? Ho4 coul( he !no4 that there 4ere many (oves at "esse Fif anyone coul( still fin( the %laceG< an( vineyar(s at Hine Fif it ha( not yet 1een s4allo4e( u% 1y the la!eG< that Aegyli%s 4as rugge(5 $losson 4hite5 *nis%e 4in(y5 Ptellos a mea(o4lan(5 Helos on the coast?; An( is it thin!a1le that the 1ar(s came to &reece from the Aegean coast of Asia "inor to4ar(s the en( of the ar! Ages? -ut Asia "inor together 4ith its 'onian coast 4as also immerse( in a ar! Age< nor 4as there recovere( a %alace in 4hich a 1ar( u%on return from &reece coul( sing of those "ycenaean cities5 to4ns an( hamletsDso im%overishe( 4as the &ree! region of Asia "inor (uring the ar! Ages5 4ith the highlan( of Anatolia 1eing .uite em%ty of any human ha1itation7:

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The %ro1lem of the "ycenaean heritage in the Homeric %oetry is staggering an( remains unresolve( through hun(re(s of volumes (ealing 4ith it< it is the (es%air of anyone en(eavoring to solve it 4ithin the frame4or! of the acce%te( chronological timeta1le7
Referen e!

17 See R7 Ho%e Sim%son an( @7 F7 LaEen1y5 The Catalogue of the Ships in #omer,s (liad F$2for( /niversity
Press5 19:>G7 MSeveral scholars claim the Catalogue to 1e a com%ilation of the late eighth or early seventh centuries7 See Rhys Car%enter5 "olk Tale' "iction' and Saga in the #omeric pics F-er!eley5 19C;G7 @7 Cha(4ic! hel( a similar vie47 Here again is the five6hun(re( year controversy7N 07 Page5 op. cit. MA7 R7 -urn5 /inoans' !hilistines and Greeks3 ;.C. 9I::<B:: FLon(on5 19?>G5 %7 1>B )The Catalogue 7 7 7 has all the a%%earance of 1eing a genuine (ocument (ating from 1efore the orian invasion an( the 'onian migration7 7 7 7+ N7 ?7 Page5 op. cit.' %7 10?7 C7 Page5 #istory and the #omeric (liad %7 1007 Cf7&7 S7 Kir!5 The 0anguage and ;ackground of #omer Cam1ri(ge5 19;CG5 %7 1:I7 MKir! 4ritesB )7 7 7 "uch of the su1stance of the Catalogue of Achaean contingents in the secon( 1oo! of the 'lia(5 4hich gives a com%le2 an( largely accurate survey of the "ycenaean geogra%hy5 (isru%te( 1y the orian invasion5 can har(ly have 1een com%lete( more than a generation or so later than the final u%heaval7 7 7+ -ut cf7 Cha(4ic! -/inos M19:IN5 %%7 I;6I=G7N I7 Cf7 Rhys Car%enter5 "olk Tale' "iction' and Saga in the #omeric pics F-er!eley5 Ca5 19C;G7 ;7 Page5 #istory and the #omeric (liad' %7 10?7 MCar%enter -"olk Tale' "iction' and Saga in the #omeric pics' %%7 1:=6:9G (enies the %ossi1ility of such accurate transmissions an( argues instea( that the Catalogue %oints )to the situation in early archaic classical times 4hen Phei(on ha( e2ten(e( his rule over Argos5 4hen a league of to4ns 4as forming in -oeotia7 7 7 7+ His vie4 that Homer 4rote a1out recent events (oes not in fact contra(ict the assertions 1y Page an( others that the Catalogue refers to "ycenaean times7 Cf7 also Cha(4ic! in /inos+ F19:IG %%7 I;6I=7N :7 See a1ove5 section )The ar! Age in Asia "inor7

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THE MYCENAEAN DIALECT When "ycenaean Linear - 4as (eci%here( 1y "ichael ,entris5 it 4as thought to 1e an archaic form of &ree!5 %rece(ing Homer 1y almost five centuries7 A name 4as %ro%ose( for itD)$l( Achaean7+ Ho4ever5 a closer e2amination of "ycenaean resulte( in a startling conclusion e2%resse( 1y A7 TovarB )-ut contrary to 4hat 4e e2%ect from &ree! (ocuments of the fourteenth an( thirteenth centuries -7C75 the "ycenaean (ialect is not seen to 1e closer to %roto6&ree! than are Homer or Thucy(i(es7 'f sometimes "ycenaean sho4s very %rimitive features5 it also sometimes a%%ears more a(vance( than the (ialects of the first millennium7)1 @ohn Cha(4ic!5 4ho colla1orate( 4ith ,entris in the (eci%herment of Linear -5 4ritesB )Since 19I0 im%ortant ne4 4or! has mo(ifie( the general vie4 an( this has entaile( a shift of em%hasis5 an( the a1an(onment of the name %ro%ose( for this (ialect5 P$l( Achaean73+0 The "ycenaean Linear - (ialect 4as foun( to 1e 1est %reserve( in the southern FArca(o6Cy%rianG grou%5 an( to 1e (istinct from the 'onian6Attic (ialect< the theory that "ycenaean 4as the mother tongue of all &ree! (ialects conflicts 4ith the fact e2%resse( in these 4or(sB )-ut "ycenaean %resents many (ialectal %henomena of .uite recent as%ect an( is in some traits as far from Pcommon MearlyN &ree!3 as the (ialects !no4n a millennium later7+? Against the vie4 of *7 Risch that "ycenaean 4as the %roto6language of all &ree! (ialects5 Tovar 4ritesB )The 4ea! %oint in Risch3s argument is that it ignores the fact that against the innovations 4hich a%%ear in "ycenaean Fan( Arca(o6Cy%rianG5 'onic sho4s many ol( forms7+ *7 -enveniste5 too5 e2%resse( his criticism of the vie4 of "ycenaean as %roto6&ree!5 or )$l( Achaean+B 't must 1e a(mitte( that accor(ing to the hy%othesis maintaine( 1y Risch (uring this %erio( Mthe CI> years 1et4een the last "ycenaean te2ts an( the first literary testimony in eighth6century &ree!N a remar!a1le conservation of "ycenaean 4as u%hel( in its Arca(o6Cy%riote (ialect an( a %rofoun( evolution of "ycenaean in its 'onian (ialect too! %lace7 's it not more %lausi1le to assume that in the e%och of our ta1lets the 'onian Fnot re%resente( in the ta1letsG alrea(y su1stantially (iffere(?C Four hun(re( an( fifty years %asse( 1et4een the last "ycenaean te2ts an( the first literary testimony7 's not the confusion (iscusse( here a result of this erroneous %remise? 'f the true figure is something li!e si2ty years an( not five hun(re(5 all %er%le2ities (isa%%ear7
Referen e!

17 A7 Tovar5 )$n the Position of the Linear -

ialect5+ /ycenaean Studies' e(7 1y *7L7 -ennet5 @r7 F/niversity of Wisconsin Press5 19;CG7 07 @7 Cha(4ic!5 Decipherment' %7 :=7 ?7 Tovar5 %7 1C;7 C7 *7 -enveniste in tudes myceniennes FParis5 19I;G %7 0;?7

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CADMUS The classical &ree! al%ha1et5 its or(er of letters5 an( their form5 4ere 1orro4e( from the He1re46 Phoenician al%ha1et< al%ha5 1eta5 gamma5 (elta5 are 1ut &reciEe( ale%h5 1eth5 gimel5 (aleth of the He1re4 language71 'n early times &ree! 4as also 4ritten from right to left5 as He1re4 is still 4ritten to(ay7 Ca(mus5 the legen(ary hero 4ho came to &reece from Phoenicia an( foun(e( The1es in -oeotia5 is cre(ite( 4ith the intro(uction of the He1re4 or )Phoenician+ al%ha1et to the &ree! language< in its HelleniEe( early form the al%ha1et is calle( Ca(meian7 As Hero(otus tells the story5 The Phoenicians 4ho came 4ith Ca(mus 7 7 7 intro(uce( into &reece5 after their settlement in the country5 a num1er of accom%lishments5 of 4hich the most im%ortant 4as 4riting5 an art till then5 ' thin!5 un!no4n to the &ree!s7 At first they use( the same characters as all the other Phoenicians5 1ut as time 4ent on5 an( they change( their language5 they also change( the sha%e of their letters7 At that %erio( most of the &ree!s in the neigh1orhoo( 4ere 'onians< they 4ere taught these letters 1y the Phoenicians an( a(o%te( them5 4ith a fe4 alterations5 for their o4n use5 continuing to refer to them as the Phoenician charactersD as 4as only right5 as the Phoenicians ha( intro(uce( them70 Ho4ever5 Ca(mus5 the foun(er of The1es5 %rece(e( 1y several generations the TroAan War< on this the &ree! tra(ition is unanimous7 Tra(ition also has it that the Ca(meian al%ha1et originally consiste( of si2teen letters an( that four a((itional characters 4ere intro(uce( later5 a1out the time of the TroAan War7? The The1an cycle of legen(s (eals 4ith the time %rece(ing the TroAan War7 The1es in -oeotia 4as outsi(e of the "ycenaean (ominion7 No contingent from The1es %artici%ate( 4ith the other &ree! cities in the TroAan War for5 accor(ing to tra(ition5 The1es as a city ha( 1een re(uce( shortly 1efore the ne4 4ar starte(7 With the conventional (ate of the TroAan War in the 1eginning of the t4elfth century5 Ca(mus nee(e( to 1e %lace( in the fourteenthB his (ynasty com%rise( several generations of rulers 1efore the *%igoni con.uere( an( ruine( the -oeotian The1es< some of the *%igoni later %artici%ate( in the siege of Troy7 This or(er of events in the semi6historical5 semi6legen(ary &ree! %ast conflicts 4ith the fact that the Ca(meian al%ha1et has not 1een foun( in &reece 1efore a1out the mi((le of the eighth century7 Furthermore5 1ecause of certain characteristics in their form5 the earliest Ca(meian letters 1ear the 1est resem1lance to the He1re46Phoenician letters of the ninth centuryDas e2em%lifie( 1y the "esha stele7C -ut in &reece no inscri%tion in Ca(meian letters 4as foun( that coul( 1e attri1ute( to even so early a time as the ninth century7 Therefore among the classical e%igra%hists a %rotracte( (e1ate 4as 4age( 1et4een those 4ho claime( a (ate in the ninth century as the time the Ca(meian al%ha1et 4as intro(uce( into &reece an( those 4ho claime( the seventh century7 I Het in(e%en(ently of the .uestion 4hether the Ca(meian letters originate( in the ninth or in the seventh century5 it is generally agree( that the fourteenth century is out of the .uestion<; 1ut even shoul( 4e follo4 the %ro%onents of the earlier (ateDthat of the mi(6ninth century5 4e still 4oul( 1e at %ains to harmoniEe (ates so far a%art as the ninth an( fourteenth centuries5 the (ate assigne( to Ca(mus7 'f the tra(ition a1out Ca(mus5 the originator of the &ree! al%ha1et5 has any historical value5: an( if Ca(mus live( in the ninth century5 his (escen(ants5 %artici%ants in the TroAan War5 coul( not have flourishe( a1out 610>>7

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Referen e!

17 Aleph means )o2+ in He1re4< $eth means )house+ etc7 The corres%on(ing letter names have no meaning in
&ree!7 07 Hero(otus5 The #istories ,7 I= Ftransl7 1y A7 (e Selincourt5 19ICG7 ?7 MThere 4ere three tra(itions5 each of 4hich %lace( him at a (ifferent %erio(Dthree5 si2 or nine generations 1efore the TroAan War7 See R7 -7 *(4ar(s5 Kadmos' the !hoenician FAmster(am5 19:9G5 %%7 1;If7D*"SN C7 King "esha of "oa1 4as a contem%orary of King Aha1 of Samaria7 See Ages in Chaos' vol7 '5 Sections5 )"esha3s Re1ellion5+ an( )The P&reat 'n(ignation73+ I7 At that time the Ca(meian al%ha1et ha( not 1een foun( in &reece 1efore the seventh century7 Ho4ever5 since this (e1ate 1et4een Car%enter an( /llman5 an inscri%tion of the mi((le of the eighth century has come to light5 the earliest !no4n inscri%tion in &ree! em%loying the Ca(meian letters7 ;7 Cf7 the (e1ate 1et4een Rhys Car%enter F)The Anti.uity of the &ree! Al%ha1et5+ American Journal of Archaeology ?: M19??N %%7 =609G an( -7 /llman F)Ho4 $l( is the &ree! Al%ha1et?+ in American Journal of Archaeology ?= M19?CN %%7 ?I96?=1G7 Cf7 P7 Kyle "cCarter @r75 The Anti1uity of the Greek Alpha$et and arly !hoenician Scripts FAnn Ar1or5 19:IG7 MCf7 also Car%enter3s re%lyB )The &ree! Al%ha1et Again+ in the same Aournal5 vol7 C0 F19?=G %%7 I=6;97 While Car%enter (efen(e( a (ate ca7 6:>> for the a(o%tion of the al%ha1et 1y the &ree!s5 /llman argue( for )the eleventh or t4elfth century or even earlier as the time for the intro(uction of the al%ha1et into &reece7+ A7 "entE F) ie /rgeschichte (es Al%ha1ets5+ Rheinisches /useum f>r !hilologie =I M19?;N %%7 ?C:6?;;G Au(ge( /llman3s %ro%ose( (ates to 1e too lo% an( suggeste( ca7 61C>> as the (ate for the a(o%tion of the al%ha1et5 1ase( on the Ca(mus tra(ition7 W7 Rr%fel(5 -Alt<8lympia '' F-erlin5 19?IG %%7 C>16 C>9G5 ,7 -erar( 0es !heniciens et l,8dyss)e FParis5 190:60=G hel( similar vie4s7 Cf7 also Livio C7 Stecchini5 )The $rigin of the Al%ha1et5+ The American ;ehavioral Scientist ',7 ; FFe1ruary5 19;1G5 %%7 06:N7 :7 M"7 C7 Astour has suggeste( -#ellenosemitica MLei(en5 19;:N %7 G that Linear -5 the a(ministrative scri%t of the "yceneans an( "inoans5 4as 4hat the later &ree!s remem1ere( as phoinikeia grammata' or )Phoenician letters5+ intro(uce( 1y Ca(mus7 There a%%ears to 1e little Austification for such a vie4 since the Linear - scri%t ha(5 as far as is !no4n5 no connection to Phoenicia5 4hereas the &ree! al%ha1et 4as (irectly a(a%te( from the ninth6eighth century He1re46Phoenician scri%t7 Hero(otus3 statement on the su1Aect coul( not 1e less am1iguous7 'n the same 1oo!5 Astour vigorously (efen(s Ca(mus3 Phoenician origin F%%7 1C:ff7G Cf7 @7 Rason5 )La Ca(m8e5 Knossos et le lineaire -5+ Revue archeologi1ue F19::G %7 :9N7

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SEISMOLOGY AND CHRONOLOGY 'n(e%en(ently of my effort to construe a synchronical history starting 4ith the common event that over4helme( an( ve2e( all nations of the glo1eDthe great catastro%he that en(e( the "i((le King(omD a similar effort 4as ma(e 1y Clau(e F7 A7 Schaeffer5 Professor at College (e France7 The rea(er of Ages in Chaos is familiar 4ith his 4or! of e2cavating Ras6Shamra F/garitG from the cha%ter carrying this title7 He o1serve( in Ras6Shamra on the Syrian coast o1vious signs of great (estruction that %ointe( to violent earth.ua!es5 ti(al 4aves5 an( other signs of a natural (isaster7 At the occasion of his visit to Troy5 e2cavate( 1y C7 -legen5 Schaeffer 1ecame a4are that Troy 4as (estroye( 1y the elementsDan( re%eate(ly soDat the same times 4hen Ras6Shamra 4as (estroye(7 The (istance from the ar(anelles5 near 4hich the moun( of Troy lies5 to Ras6Shamra is a1out si2 hun(re( miles on a straight line7 'n mo(ern annals of seismology no earth.ua!e is !no4n to have affecte( so 4i(e an area7 Schaeffer investigate( the e2cavate( %laces in Asia "inor5 an( the archaeologists3 re%orts5 an( in every %lace foun( the same %icture7 He turne( his attention to Persia5 farther to the *ast66 an( the very same signs of catastro%hes 4ere evi(ent in each an( every e2cavate( %lace7 Then he turne( his attention to the CaucasusDan( there5 too5 the similarity of the causes an( effects 4as un(enia1le7 'n his o4n e2cavations on Cy%rus he coul( once more esta1lish the very same series of interventions 1y the frenEie( elements of nature7 He 4as so im%resse( 1y 4hat he foun( that (uring the ne2t fe4 years he %ut into 4riting a voluminous 4or!5 Stratigraphie compar)e et chronologie de l,Asie occidentale -(((e et ((e millennaires.' %u1lishe( 1y $2for( /niversity Press in 19C=7 'n over si2 hun(re( %ages su%%lemente( 1y many ta1les5 he %resente( his thesis7 Several times (uring the thir( an( secon( millennia 1efore the %resent era the ancient *ast 4as (istur1e( 1y stu%en(ous catastro%hes< he also foun( evi(ence that in the fourth5 as 4ell as in the first millennium5 the ancient *ast 4ent through great natural %aro2ysms5 1ut their (escri%tion Schaeffer reserve( for future %u1lications7 'n the %u1lishe( 4or! covering the thir( an( secon( millennia5 Schaeffer (iscerne( five or si2 great u%heavals7 The greatest of these too! %lace at the very en( of the *arly -ronEe5 or the $l( King(om in *gy%t7 At each of these occurrences5 life 4as su((enly (istur1e( an( the flo4 of history interru%te(7 Schaeffer also in(icate( that his ac.uaintance 4ith *uro%ean archaeology ma(e him feel certain that *uro%e5 too5 4as involve( in those catastro%hes< if so5 they must have 1een more than continentalDactually glo1al in (imension7 Thus Schaeffer5 li!e myself5 came to the conviction that the ancient 4orl( 4as (istur1e( 1y re%eate( u%heavals7 We even arrive( at the same num1er of (istur1ances5 a common realiEation of their gran(iose nature5 an( the same relative (ating of these events7 Ho4ever5 4e came to the same conclusions travelling 1y entirely (iffferent routes7 'n this there 4as a consi(era1le assurance of our having closely a%%roache( the historical truth7 A rea(er une.ui%%e( to follo4 Schaeffer through his large an( technical volume may 4ell let the the last cha%ter -Resume et Conclusion. im%ress him 1y its .uestions an( ans4ers7 'n conclu(ing his 1oo! Schaeffer e%itomiEe(B )$ur in.uiry has (emonstrate( that these re%eate( crises 4hich o%ene( an( close( the %rinci%al %erio(s 7 7 7 4ere cause( not 1y the action of man7 Far from itD1ecause5 com%are( 4ith the vastness of these all6em1racing crises an( their %rofoun( effects5 the e2%loits of con.uerors an( all com1inations of state %olitics 4oul( a%%ear only very insignificant7 The %hiloso%hy of the history of anti.uity of the *ast a%%ears to us singularly (eforme(+Dnamely5 1y (escri1ing the %ast of nations an( civiliEations as the history of (ynasties5 rather than as a history of great ages5 an( 1y ignoring the role %hysical causes %laye( in their se.uence7

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As to the chronologyDin his %rinte( 4or! Schaeffer follo4s 4ith certain reservations5 the acce%te( timeta1le7 'n corres%on(ence5 ho4ever5 he envisage( the %ossi1ility of shortening the *gy%tian history5 1ut not to the e2tent claime( in Ages in Chaos. Then ho4 can 4e 1e in agreement as to the times of the catastro%hes? The ans4er lies in the fact that 1oth of us relate these catastro%hes to the termination of the Fi(enticalG great %erio(s in history7 'n other 4or(s5 4e are in agreement as to the relative chronology5 not the a1solute one7 At the en( of his long (iscourse5 Schaeffer also ma(e clear his stan( even 1efore he 1ecame a4are of my 4or!7 He 4roteB )The value of a1solute (ates a(o%te( 1y us (e%en(s5 un(erstan(a1ly5 to an e2tent on the (egree of %recision o1taine( in the fiel( of stu(y of the historic (ocuments that can 1e use( for chronology an( that (erive from those collecte( in *gy%t5 Palestine5 Asia "inor5 "eso%otamia5 an( Persia7+ Thus the a1solute (ates use( in his 4or! are (e%en(ent on chronology that in its turn (e%en(s on historical (ocuments7 -ut he a((sB )$n the other han(5 than!s to the im%rovement of archaeological metho(s5 to(ay 4e no longer (e%en( so com%letely on e%igra%hic (ocumentation for an a1solute chronology7+ ' regar( myself very fortunate that the tas! of %resenting the archaeological evi(ence from the lan(s of the "i((le an( Near *ast 4as %erforme( 1y a scholar of great stature5 Clau(e F7 A7 Schaeffer7 The almost su%erhuman enter%rise of unravelling the manifol( ramifications of the recent tri1ulations of this %lanet 4as not committe( all to one scholar7

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CELESTIAL EVENTS IN THE ILIAD The eighth century5 starting 4ith 6::;5 4as together 4ith the 1eginning of the seventh a %erio( of great natural u%heavals7 Po%ulations migrate(5 %artly to Asia "inor5 an( other %o%ulations (escen(e( from the north7 The siege of Troy might therefore have 1een an effort of the &ree!s to %lant a foothol( on the coast of Asia "inor7 The true time of the events recounte( in the 'lia( 4as the secon( half of the eighth an( the 1eginning of the seventh centuries 1efore the %resent era7 'n 2orlds in Collision an effort 4as ma(e to recogniEe in the (escri%tion of theomachy an( of the natural %henomena that accom%anie( the 1attle of the go(s5 the events that too! %lace in the s!y an( on earth 1et4een 6:C: an( 6;=:71 The TroAan War 4as 4age( to the accom%animent of 1lo4s e2change( 1y the %lanetary go(sD*arth FHeraG5 "oon FA%hro(iteG5 ,enus FAtheneG5 "ars FAresG an( @u%iter FLeusG7 These celestial %henomena coul( not have ta!en %lace in the s!y over Troy aloneB the entire 4orl( ha( to 4itness the events5 if they 4ere not mere creations of the 1ar(7 That they 4ere not can 1e (e(uce( from the fact that these very events5 4itnesse( in all %arts of the 4orl(5 are also (escri1e( in sacre( e%ics from Finlan( -Kalevala.' La%lan( an( 'celan( - dda.' from "e2ico5 Peru5 'n(ia5 the South Sea 'slan(s5 China an( @a%an5 an(5 of course5 1y the %oets an( (ramatists5 annalists an( astronomers5 of the Near an( Far *ast7 't 4oul( re.uire re%eating close to t4o hun(re( %ages of 2orlds in Collision' actually the entire %art '' F"arsG of that 1oo!5 shoul( 4e (esire here to evi(ence an( illuminate this in some (etail7 Pertur1ations in the celestial s%here5 or Theomachy5 in 4hich "ars en(angere( the *arth at nearly regular intervals (uring this century5 %reoccu%ie( the min(s of men an( re%eate(ly intervene( in human history7 Pestilence also 1ro!e out5 an( many references in the cuneiform literature ascri1e its cause to Nergal F"arsG7 *arth.ua!es5 overfloo(ing5 change of climate5 evi(ence( 1y KlimasturE5 (i( not s%are a single lan(7 These changes move( entire nations to migrations7 Calen(ars 4ere re%eate(ly thro4n out of or(er an( reforme(Dan( the rea(er 4ill fin( a1un(ant material in the secon( %art of 2orlds in Collision an( also in arth in &pheaval' 4here no human testimony5 1ut only the testimony of nature 4as %resente(< an( this material coul( 1e multi%lie( 1y any (e(icate( researcher7 't a%%ears5 ho4ever5 that in the 'lia( Homer telesco%e( into a fe4 4ee!s events that too! %lace in the s%ace of several (eca(es7 At least some of the events may 1e %lace( in a chronological or(er 4ith the hel% of ancient 'sraelite sourcesB namely5 on the (ay 4hen King AhaE 4as interre( the motion of the *arth 4as (istur1e( so that the Sun set 1efore its a%%ointe( time<0 at the time of the (estruction of Sennacheri13s army in the (ays of HeEe!iah5 son of AhaE5 another (istur1ance occurre( 4ith the contrary effectB the Sun a%%eare( to return several (egrees to the east 1efore %rocee(ing on its regular 4est4ar( %ath7 't is asserte( in the ra11inical literature that the secon( (istur1ance rectifie( the effects of the firstDan( this is also the meaning of the sentence in 'saiah ?=B=B )So the sun returne( ten (egrees 1y 4hich (egrees it 4as gone (o4n7+? 'n &ree! legen(ary tra(ition the first event too! %lace in the (ays of the t4o 1rothers5 Atreus an( Thyestes5 contesting the throne of "ycenaeD4hen5 accor(ing to Seneca5 the Sun set earlier than usual7C Het a certain com%ression or amalgamating of t4o events5 se%arate( in time5 must have ta!en %lace5 for another version of the story tells of a reversal of the sun3s motion7 This version is recor(e( 1y A%ollo(orus an( several other authors7I
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The event (escri1e( as the reversal of motion of the sun too! %lace5 as illuminate( 2orlds in Collision' on "arch 0?r(5 6;=:7; The fi2ing of the event to the early s%ring of 6;=: is ma(e on the strength of the information from He1re4 sources that the event too! %lace on the night of Passover5 (uring the secon( cam%aign of Sennacheri1 against @u(ah5 the ninth cam%aign of his reign7 The e2act (ate for the last of this series of catastro%hes : is %rovi(e( 1y the recor(s of the astronomical o1servations of the Chinese5 4here 4e learn that in the year 6;=:5 on the 0?r( of "arch5 )(uring the night the fi2e( stars (i( not a%%ear5 though the s!y 4as clear7 'n the mi((le of the night stars fell li!e rain7+= This (ate is also confirme( 1y Roman sourcesDRomulus foun( his en( (uring a celestial6terrestrial catastro%he connecte( 4ith the %lanet "arsB -oth the %oles shoo!5 an( Atlas lifte( the 1ur(en of the s!y 7 7 7 The sun vanishe( an( rising clou(s o1scure( the heaven 7 7 7 the s!y 4as riven 1y shooting flames7 The %eo%le fle( an( the !ing MRomulusN u%on his father3s M"ars3N stee(s soare( to the stars79 Romulus 4as a contem%orary of HeEe!iah<1> an( the 0?r( of "arch 4as the most im%ortant (ay in the Roman cult of "ars711 We must not forget that the Romans an( the &ree!s 4orshi%%e( their go(s in the %lanets5 not as go(s of the %lanets7 'nvocations to the go(s5 such as the Homeric Hymn to Ares F"arsG are a((resse( (irectly to the %lanet as an astral %o4er710 The siege of Troy un(er Agamemnon follo4e( 1y less than one generation the natural (istur1ances of the (ays of his father Atreus5 4hen this !ing of "ycenae com%ete( 4ith his 1rother Thyestes for the cro4n of the realm an( the Sun 4as (isru%te( in its motion7 Atreus an( Thyestes5 1eing contem%oraries of AhaE an( HeEe!iah5 an( Agamemnon5 son of Atreus5 a contem%orary of the latter !ing of @erusalem5 it seems that the time in 4hich the (rama of the 'lia( 4as set 4as the secon( half of the eighth century5 an( not later than 6;=:<1? yet the %oet con(ense( the events se%arate( 1y (eca(es into the tenth year of the TroAan siege5 the time of the 'lia(3s action71C Thus 4e come to realiEe that it 4as a rather late time< clearly Homer coul( not have live( 1efore the events he (escri1e(< an( therefore Homer3s time cannot 1e any earlier than the en( of the eighth century7 -ut more %ro1a1ly he 4rote several (eca(es after the TroAan War5 4hen the events of the 4ar ha( 1ecome envelo%e( in a veil (ue to a certain remoteness in time5 an( o1taine( a halo of heroic5 go(6li!e e2%loits7 The $(yssey5 (escri1ing the 4an(erings of $(ysseus after the TroAan War5 re.uires5 too5 a (istancing 1et4een the %oet an( the TroAan War5 on the assum%tion that 1oth Homeric %oems 4ere the %ro(uct of one author7 'f not of one5 then 4e must assume that t4o %oets of uni.ue genius live( close in time to one another7 Place( in its true time5 the TroAan War may o1tain some historical %lausi1ility< an(5 as 4e have seen5 its mythological %arts also serve5 instea( of o1fuscation5 to the eluci(ation of some com%le2 chronological %ro1lems7 With theomachy (is%laye( on the celestial screen5 the story in the 'lia( gains5 rather than loses5 its historical vali(ity7
Referen e!

17 See 2orlds in Collision' section )When Was the 'lia( Create(?+

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07 Tractate Sanhe(rin 9;a< Pir!ei Ra11i *lieser I07 Cf7 L7 &inE1erg5 The 0egends of the Je%s' FPhila(el%hia5
1909G vol7 ,'5 %7 ?;:5 n7 =17 ?7 Cf7 '' Kings 0>B9ff7< Hi%%olytus on 'saiah5 an( sources cite( a1ove5 fn7 17 C7 Seneca5 Thyestes3 )Not yet (oes ,es%er5 t4ilight3s messenger5 summon the fires of night 7 7 7 the %loughman 4ith o2en yet un4earie( stan(s amaEe( at his su%%er hour3s .uic! coming7+ MCf7 Plato The Statesman 0;9a7N I7 A%ollo(orus5 -!7 ''5 ch7 2ii< cf7 scholium to the 'lia( ''71>;< *uri%i(es5 lectra ;996:?>< 8restes 99;61>10< Plato5 The Statesman 0;=e7 ;7 See 2orlds in Collision' section )"arch 0?r(7+ MSee also 'lia( '' C1?ff7 4here an e2%ecte( (elay in the setting of the Sun (uring the siege of Troy is mentione(7N :7 The other (ates are 6:C:5 an( 6:>1< 6::; is also connecte( 4ith celestial events 1et4een ,enus an( "ars that (i( not5 ho4ever5 (irectly affect the *arth7 See 2orlds in Collision' p. =7 *7 -iot5 Catalogue general des )toiles filantes et des autres meteors o$serv)s en Chine apr7s le *((e si7cle avant J.C. FParis5 1=C;G7 The statement is 1ase( on ol( Chinese sources ascri1e( to Confucius7 )The night 4as 1right+ a((s the Tso Chuen commentary F@7 Legge5 The Chinese Classics vol7 1I5 %7 =>G7 97 $vi(5 "asti' transl7 1y @7 FraEer5 ,ol7 ''5 lines C=9ff7 1>7 Augustine5 The City of God' -!7 Q,'''5 Cha%7 0:7 117 W7 W7 Fo4ler5 )"ars+ in ncyclopaedia ;ritannica' 1Cth e(7 107 W7 H7 Roscher5 Ausf>rhrliches 0e5ikon der griechischen und r=mischen /ythologie' s7v7 )Ares7+ 1?7 'f to harmoniEe the involve( chronological %ro1lems the (e1acle of Sennacheri13s army nee(s to 1e %lace( fifteen years earlier Fnot in 6;=: 1ut in 6:>1G5 an( the first invasion in 6:1I5 an( the 1eginning of HeEe!iah3s reign in 6:095 then ' 4oul( nee( to change the (ate for the last glo1al catastro%he from 6;=: to 6:>1 or 6:>07 MSee also 2orlds in Collision' %%7 0CI60I?7 )7 7 7 The time of the 1irth of the 'lia( must 1e lo4ere( to 6:C: at least5 an( %ro1a1ly to an even later (ate7+ N 1C7 At least t4o conAunctions 1et4een ,enus an( "ars are (escri1e( in the 'lia(5 in the Fifth an( T4enty6first -oo!s7 See 2orlds in Collision' %%7 0I0f7

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CHANGES IN LAND AND SEA The celestial %henomena that %erva(e the narrative of the 'lia( an( even (ominate it in 1oo!s five5 t4enty an( t4enty6one5 4ere accom%anie( also 1y terrestrial changesD*arth5 calle( Hera5 %artici%ate( in the strife among the go(s7 'n the 'lia( these terrestrial (istur1ances are narrate( tooB earth.ua!es shoo! the TroAan %lain ami( the 1attle of the celestial go(s7 Then terri1ly thun(ere( the father of the go(s an( men from on high< an( 1eneath (i( Posei(on cause the vast earth to .ua!e an( the stee% crests of the mountains7 All the roots of many6fountaine( '(a 4ere sha!en an( all her %ea!s5 an( the city of the TroAans5 an( the shi%s of the Achaeans7 An( seiEe( 4ith fear in the 4orl( 1elo4 4as Ai(oneus5 lor( of the sha(es 7 7 7 Lest a1ove him the earth 1e cloven 1y Posei(on5 the Sha!er of the *arth5 an( his a1o(e 1e ma(e %lain to vie4 for mortals an( immortals 7 7 7 So great 4as the (in that arose 4hen the go(s clashe( in strife71 Stra1o of the first century 1efore the %resent era an( Pliny of the first century of this era 4ere 4ell a4are of the %hysical changes that the area of 4estern Asia "inor an( of the Aegean islan(s (i( un(ergo7 Some of these changes are ascri1e( to the time of the TroAan War or the time closely %rece(ing or follo4ing it< 1ut others may refer to earlier u%heavals70 Stra1o cite( emocles )4ho recalls certain great earth.ua!es some of 4hich long ago too! %lace a1out Ly(ia an( 'onia as far north as the Troa(5 an( 1y their action not only 4ere villages s4allo4e( u%5 1ut "ount Si%ylus 4as shattere(Din the reign of Tantalus7 An( la!es arose from s4am%s5 an( a ti(al 4ave su1merge( the Troa(7+? Pliny (escri1e( the changes in lan( an( sea (istri1ution7 )Lan( is sometimes forme( 7 7 7 rising su((enly out of the sea7 elos an( Rho(es5 islan(s 4hich have no4 1een long famous5 are recor(e( to have risen u% in this 4ay7 "ore lately there have 1een some smaller islan(s forme(5+ an( he names themB Ana%ha5 Nea5 Halone5 Thera5 Therasia5C Hiera5 an( Thia5 the last of 4hich a%%eare( in his o4n time7I Pin(ar sai( that )the isle of Rho(es 4as not yet to 1e seen in the o%en main5 1ut 4as hi((en in the 1riny (e%ths of the sea+ < then it 4as 1orn in the (ar!nessDthe sun 4as a1sent7 When the sun finally lighte( the earth again5 a %lot of lan( 4as seen )rising from the 1ottom of the foaming main7+; /n(er the hea(ing 0ands 2hich #ave ;een Separated $y the Sea Pliny mentionsB )The sea has torn Sicily from 'taly5: Cy%rus from Syria5 *u1oea from -oeotia5+ an( other similar instances7 /n(er the hea(ing (slands 2hich #ave ;een &nited to the /ain 0and Pliny mentions Antissa 4hich 4as a((e( to Les1os5 Le%hyrium to Halicarnassus5 an( the li!e in other %laces7 0ands 2hich #ave ;een Totally Changed (nto Seas3 the sea has totally carrie( off certain lan(s5 an( first of all5 if 4e are to 1elieve Plato5 for an immense s%ace 4here the Atlantic $cean is no4 e2ten(e(7 "ore lately 4e see 4hat has 1een %ro(uce( 1y our inlan( sea< Acarnania has 1een over4helme( 1y the Am1racian &ulf5 Achaia 1y the Corinthian5 *uro%e an( Asia 1y the Pro%ontis an( Pontus7 An( 1esi(es these5 the sea has rent asun(er Leucas5 Antirrhium5 the Helles%ont an( the t4o -os%ori7+= Pliny tells a1out Cities 2hich #ave ;een A$sor$ed $y the Sea3 Pyrrha an( Antissa5 *lice an( -ura Mon the &ulf of CorinthN9 from the islan( of Cea the sea su((enly tore off ?>5>>> %aces )4ith many %ersons on them7+ 'n li!e manner it carrie( off *leusina in -oeotia5 an( half of the city of Tyn(aris in Sicily7

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An( not to s%ea! of 1ays an( gulfs5 the earth fee(s on itselfB it has (evoure( the very high mountain of Cy1otus 4ith the to4n of the Curites< also Si%ylus in "agnesia5 an( formerly in the same %lace5 a very cele1rate( city5 4hich 4as calle( Tantalis71> These (escri%tions 1y Pliny have corro1orating references in other classical authors711 "inor changes they 4ere notB the -os%orus tearing Asia a%art from *uro%e5 li!e the 1rea!ing of the "e(iterranean into the $cean at &i1raltar 4ere maAor changes7 Smaller changes 4here single cities 4ere engulfe( or isles 1orn coul( have 1een the after6effects of the cataclysms5 4hich for hun(re(s of years still agitate( the (istorte( strata of the earth< even to(ay they have not com%letely su1si(e(7 Some of these changes occurre( earlier an( some later5 1ut for the most %art they occurre( in historical times< the memory of them survive(5 an( the same testimony comes from all .uarters of the glo1e7 'n the effort to regar( the fantastic events in the s!y as %ure invention or flights of %oetic imagination5 the terrestrial changes (escri1e( 1y Homer 4ere also !e%t out of the (iscussion7 Actually5 Carl -legen reAecte( Wilhelm oer%fel(3s i(entification of Troy ,' 4ith the Troy of the siege 1ecause he foun( that the 4alls an( structures of Troy ,' ha( 1een (estroye( 1y an earth.ua!e a%%arently o1livious of the fact that the 'lia( contains a (escri%tion of an earth.ua!e at the final stage of the siege710 Thus -legen 1ecame 1esiege( 1y contra(ictions5 (erive( from misinter%reting the 'lia( an( from follo4ing an erroneous chronology as 4ell7 To the confusion of the Furt4Sngler6 Rr%fel( (e1ate5 1? a misrea(ing of the 'lia( 1rought more confusion5 an( ma(e the trage(y com%lete7
Referen e!

17 The (liad' transl7 1y A7 T7 "urray F190IG5 -!7 QQ7I;6;:7 07 MFor geological an( archaeological evi(ence5 see '7 ,eli!ovs!y5 arth in &pheaval FNe4 Hor!5 19IIG7 Cf7
Clau(e F7 A7 Schaeffer5 Stratigraphie Compar)e FCam1ri(ge5 19C9G7 See also a1ove5 )Seismology an( Chronology7+N ?7 Stra1o5 Geography' transl7 1y H7 L7 @ones F19C9G5 '7 ?7 1:< MTantalus3 reign is tra(itionally %lace( t4o generations 1efore Atreus an( Thyestes i7e75 three generations 1efore Agamemnon7 Stra1o goes on to tell of many other changes that occurre( in the region of the "e(iterranean5 among them the o%ening u% of the strait at the Pillars of Heracles5 or &i1raltar7N C7 MThe story of Thera an( Therasia is tol( at greater length 1y Stra1oB )For mi(4ay 1et4een Thera an( Therasia fires 1ro!e forth from the sea an( continue( for four (ays5 so that the 4hole sea 1oile( an( 1laEe(5 an( the fires cast u% an islan( 4hich 4as gra(ually elevate( as though 1y levers an( consiste( of 1urning massesD an islan( 4ith a stretch of t4elve sta(ia in circumference7 After the cessation of the eru%tion5 the Rho(ians5 at the time of their marine su%remacy5 4ere first to venture u%on the scene7 7 7 7+DGeography '7?71;7 $n the great volcanic eru%tion on Thera in Late "inoan times5 cf7 the 1i1liogra%hy collecte( 1y S7 Hiller5 ) ie *2%losion (es ,ul!ans von Thera5+ Gymnasium =0 F19:IG5 %%7 ?06:C7N I7 Pliny5 6atural #istory' transl7 1y @7 -ostoc! an( H7T7 Riley FLon(on5 1=I?G5 ''7=97 ;7 Pin(ar5 )Seventh $lym%ian $(e5+ transl7 1y @7 *7 San(ys FLoe1 Classical Li1rary5 1919G7 :7 M io(orus Siculus ',7 =IB )Some say that great earth.ua!es occurre(5 4hich 1ro!e through the nec! of the lan( an( forme( the straits Mof "essinaN5 the sea %arting the mainlan( from the islan(7+ Cf7 also $vi(5 /etamorphoses Q,5 09>691< Seneca5 Juaestiones 6aturales ,'7 097N =7 Pliny5 6atural #istory ''7 9C7 97 Cf7 Stra1o5 Geography '7?71=< Pausanias ''70I< Aristotle5 /eteorologica '7;5 ''7=< io(orus Q,7C9< Seneca5 Juaestiones 6aturales ,'70?50;< ,''7I51;7 1>7 Pliny5 6atural #istory ''7 9?7

:1

117 Cf7 in a((ition to the 4or!s cite( a1ove Lucretius5 De Rerum 6atura -!7 ,' passim5 $vi(5 /etamorphoses
-!7 Q,7 107 C7 W7 -legen et al75 Troy' Settlements *((a' *(($ and *(((' vol7 ', FPrinceton5 19I=G7 1?7 See a1ove5 section )$lym%ia7+

A GAP CLOSED A chronology 4ith centuries that never occurre( ma(e necessary the intro(uction of ) ar! Ages+ 1et4een the years 611>> an( 6:I> in many areas of the ancient 4orl(< these u%%er an( lo4er figures are alrea(y %ulle( together on the chronological timeta1le5 an( still some C>> years are unaccounte( forD thus it is s%o!en of the )mysterious s%ell of ar! Ages7+1 -ut 4hen the hinges of history are fastene( at correct levels the ghost centuries vanish an( the chasm is sho4n to 1e imaginary7 Het it cannot 1e (enie( that there 4as some interru%tion 1et4een the Late -ronEe an( *arly 'ron Ages in &reece an( else4here< no smooth an( evolutionary transition too! %lace from the "ycenaean to the 'onian Age7 There 4ere great migrations in the eighth century an( in the first %art of the seventh7 What !in( of interru%tion5 then5 occurre( in the entire ancient *ast? 'n his 1oo! Discontinuity in Greek Civili4ation' F19;;G Rhys Car%enter stan(s 1efore o1servations ma(e 1y a num1er of investigators in the archaeology of &reece an( the Hella(ic islan(s an(5 after revie4ing the evi(ence on the mainlan( in its various regions an( on the islan(s5 one 1y one5 he comes to the conclusionB ) es%ite the fact that there is no in(ication that the late "yceneans 4ere (riven out 1y any human intervention5 they a1an(one( the south Aegean islan(s even as they (eserte( the central Pelo%onnese7 For some reason an( for some cause over 4hich they ha( no control they foun( life in &reece an( in the southern Aegean so unen(ura1le that they coul( not remain7+0 An( Car%enter as!sB )What cause( them to evacuate their to4ns an( villages?+ From here on he gro%es in the (ar! an( as!s5 4as it a %estilence or a famine5 4as it a change of climate? an( he continuesB )'n the seventh 1oo! of his #istory Hero(otus recounts that Crete 4as so 1eset 1y famine an( %estilence after the TroAan War that it 1ecame virtually uninha1ite( until its resettlement 1y later inha1itants7 Coul( Hero(otus 1y any chance have ha( access to a true tra(ition?+? There is a rather vague reference to the orian 4an(eringB the orians migrate( from Thrace an(5 moving %resuma1ly along the A(riatic coast5 crosse( into the Pelo%onnese an( occu%ie( S%arta5 1ecoming the %rogenitors of this severe an( %uritan tri1e7 'n the a1sence of any other !no4n cause for the cessation of the "ycenaean 4orl(5 the orian invasion 4as consi(ere( as the most %ro1a1le7 -ut the "inoan civiliEation on Crete5 4hich in the later stage sho4e( much affinity 4ith the "ycenaean5 4as also terminate(< an( the orian invasion 4as ma(e to continue over the sea to Crete7 't 4as not the orians 4ho (is%ossesse( the original %o%ulation of eastern an( central &reeceB )The orian &ree!s5+ 4rites Car%enter5 )seem to have move( into a (e%o%ulate( lan(7+ F%7 1;G )777The orians ha( nothing 4hatever to (o 4ith the colla%se of "ycenaean civiliEation5 since they (i( not enter the Pelo%onnese until long after the colla%se ha( alrea(y ta!en %lace5+C 't 4as some natural eventB )A Ptime of trou1le3 4as occasione( 1y climatic causes that 1rought %ersistent (rought 4ith its atten(ant famine to most mainlan( &reece< an( it 4as this un1elieva1le con(ition of their native a1o(e that force( the

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"ycenaeans to emigrate5 en(ing their century6long %ros%erity7+ -ut 4as there any s%ecific cause for the climatic change? Car%enter surveys the availa1le evi(enceB &7 Welter5 in a monogra%h on the islan( of Aegina5 maintains that it 1ecame uninha1ite( after the "ycenaean Age7 ,7 R7 (3A7 es1orough hol(s that the islan( of "elos ha( 1een a1an(one( 1y its "ycenaean inha1itants7 iscussing the islan( of Kos5 es1orough )4as %uEEle( at fin(ing Pno clue as to the cause of its final (esertion3 in Late "ycenaean times7+ There must have 1een some serious (isaster5 Phe (eci(es7 7 7 3 't can har(ly 1e su%%ose( that there 4as a com%lete (e%o%ulation5 an( yet there is no clear evi(ence of continuity into the Protogeometric %erio(73+I Car%enter stresses here5 too5 )a (efinite instance of interru%tion of cultural continuity7+; 'n his search for climatic changes an( %hysical u%heavals Car%enter comes to cite three cases5 (uring the Li1yan an( *thio%ian (ynasties in *gy%t5 4hen unseasonal an( e2cessive floo(ing too! %lace in *gy%tB in the eighth century5 un(er the Li1yan !ing $sor!on ''5 the Nile rose5 1rea!ing all the (y!es<: in the (ays of Sha1a!a5 the elta 4as re%eate(ly floo(e( an( earth 4as hea%e( against the to4ns to %rotect them< = an( in the si2th year of Tahar!a5 )the lan( 4as li!e the sea7+9 -ut ho4 coul( these instances in *gy%t of the eighth an( early seventh centuries hel% to un(erstan( 4hat ha%%ene( in &reece at the en( of the "ycenaean Age if this en( occurre( shortly after 610>>? Car%enter goes onB *ven more s%ectacular5 1ut some4hat insecure chronologically5 is the inference from circumstantial evi(ence that the Hungarian %lain5 an immense tract of com%aratively lo46lying lan( in 4hich a num1er of large rivers converge5 must have 1ecome almost totally su1merge( early in the first millennium -7C7 Ho4 else shall 4e e2%lain the fact that the rich an( active %hase of the Hungarian -ronEe Age !no4n to archaeologists as -ronEe ', an( (ate( 1y Al1erg as lasting from a1out 1>>> to a1out =I> -7C7 Fthe (rought %erio( in &reeceOG met5 in Al1erg3s 4or(s5 Pan une2%ecte( an( su((en en(777 after 4hich the country is 4ithout any (iscovera1le sign of occu%ation an( seems (eserte(3?1> The 4or(s in Car%enter3s %reface to his 19;; 1oo! reveal that 4ere he to follo4 Plato5 .uote( 1y him5 he 4oul( have 1een le( to the realiEations familiar to rea(ers of 2orlds in Collision an( arth in &pheaval. ' .uote from Plato3s Timaeus in Car%enter3s translation7 The s%ea!er is an *gy%tian %riest an( the listener is Solon5 one of the Seven Wise "en of anti.uity7 7 7 7 All this5 though tol( in mythic guise5 is true5 inasmuch as a (eviation of the celestial 1o(ies moving %ast the earth (oes5 at long intervals5 cause (estruction of earthly things through 1urning heat7 7 7 So this is the reason 4hy among us here ol(est tra(itions still %revail an( 4henever anything great or glorious or other4ise note4orthy occurs5 it is 4ritten (o4n an( %reserve( in our tem%les< 4hereas among you an( other nations that chance to 1e 1ut recently en(o4e( 4ith the art of 4riting an( civiliEe( nee(s5 at state( turn of years there has recurre( li!e a %lague 1rought (o4n u%on you a celestial current5 leaving only an unlettere( an( unciviliEe( remnant< 4herefore you have to 1egin all over again5 li!e chil(ren5 4ithout !no4le(ge of 4hat has ta!en %lace in ol(er times either in our lan( or in yours7 7 7 711 As set forth at great length in 2orlds in Collision' %art ''5 the 4orl( in the eighth an( seventh centuries 1efore the %resent era 4as going through a series of natural catastro%hes5 4ith frightening a%%aritions in the s!y5 (istur1ances in the %osition an( (irection of the terrestrial a2is5 (rastic changes in climate5 an( su1se.uent mass movements of %o%ulations7 The Cimmerians (escen(e( from Russia into Asia "inor
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an( engulfe( the Phrygian !ing(om7 orians %resuma1ly reache( Crete5 Latins 4ere %ushe( from their homelan( into 'taly 1y ne4ly arrive( tri1esDthese 4ere only a fe4 of the migrating hor(es that then move( in many (irections all aroun( the glo1e7 The "inoan civiliEation of Crete (i( not succum1 to the orians< it succum1e( to the ravages of nature5 an( if the orians reache( the (evastate( islan(5 it 4as only 1ecause in (es%eration they loo!e( for any room to move into5 an( there 4as no1o(y a1le or 4illing to (efen( the islan( from inva(ers7 igging on Crete Arthur *vans arrive( at the conclusion that each of the various stages of civiliEation on the islan( ha( come to its en( in enormous natural %aro2ysms until the last of the stages foun( its en( in the overturne( %alaces an( cities5 not to 1e re1uilt again710 The interru%tions in the flo4 of "inoan civiliEation ha( 1affle( *vans until the (ay 4hen he e2%erience( an earth.ua!e on Crete7 No4 he un(erstoo( the nature of the agent of the (estruction that he o1serve( in the ruins of the %alacesB the agent 4as not an enemy reaching the islan(< an( from that moment *vans fille( his volumes on Knossos -The !alace of /inos. 4ith the evi(ence of seismic catastro%hes that terminate( the great ages of "inoan civiliEation71? S%yri(on "arinatos (etecte( a (evastation ascri1e( 1y him to an over4helming 4ave coming from the north an( s4ee%ing over the mountainous islan( an( carrying also ashes of volcanic eru%tions7 1C )A normal earth.ua!e5 ho4ever5 is 4holy insufficient to e2%lain so great a (isaster7+1I That climate change(5 an( re%eate(ly so5 1et4een the eighth an( seventh centuries is 4ell (ocumente(5 an( since the 4or!s of the Scan(inavian scientists A7 -lytt5 R7 Sernan(er1; an( others5 an( also of H7 &ams an( R7 Nor(hagen1: of &ermany5 no effort nee(s to 1e s%ent to %rove the %oint ane47 The change 4as glo1al5 as the 4or! of Helmut (e Terra in "e2ico 1= an( the in.uiry of C7 *7 P7 -roo!s an( F7 *7 Leuner19 am%ly (ocument7 $f the changes in nature many elo.uent (escri%tions 4ere left 1y their contem%oraries5 1y Assyrian annalists an( He1re4 %ro%hets5 an( also in many other (ocuments of the literate %eo%les of the 4orl(7 "igrations 4ere the conse.uences of (estruction of (omiciles5 su1se.uent %lagues5 an( of changes in climate that ma(e agricultural e2%erience (e%en(ent on former climates ina%%lica1le7 The climate in *uro%e that change( in the eighth century to (ry an( 4arm change( soon again to 4et an( col(7 0> This (ou1le change is (ocumente( e.ually 4ell in the Ne4 Worl( FHelmut (e TerraG701 The u%heavals of nature continue( through the maAor %art of the eighth century an( clima2e( in the last great cosmic (istur1ance 4hich ' 4as a1le to (ate on "arch 0?r(5 6;=:700 The "ycenaean age came to its en( in the catastro%hic events of the eighth an( seventh centuriesDthus there 4ere no ar! Ages 1et4een the "ycenaean Age an( the &ree! or 'onian Age7 Whether the catastro%hic changes that accom%anie( an( follo4e( these u%heavals 4ere 1y themselves enough to cause the en( of the "ycenaean Age5 or 4hether the migrations an( invasions contri1ute(5 the great "ycenaean age came to its close not 1efore the eighth century 4as over7 There 4ere no (ar! ages in 1et4een7 Certain changes (i( ta!e %lace 1et4een the en( of the "ycenaean an( the 1eginning of the 'onian agesD 1ut they are 1etter un(erstoo( not 1y assuming four or five hun(re( intervening (ar! years5 1ut 1y the very fact of (islocations create( 1y catastro%hes7 Cities 4ith their %alaces crum1le(< surviving %o%ulations migrate( an( 4ere %artly re%lace( 1y ne4 settlersDin the case of &reece 1y the orian inva(ers5 the returning Heracli( &ree!s 4ho at an earlier (ate ha( migrate( north4ar(7

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These u%heavals of nature 4ere res%onsi1le for the 1rea! in continuity that is foun( in &reece5 in Asia "inor an( in many other %laces7 There 4as a (isru%tion in occu%ation of lan(s an( a (iscontinuity in civiliEations7 -ut there 4ere no ar! Ages an( the four centuries inserte( 1et4een the "ycenaean an( &ree! %erio(s are unreal7 Thus 4e have the e2%lanation of the fact that so much in common is foun( in the late "ycenaean an( early &ree! ages5 an( also an e2%lanation of the fact that no literary relics an( scarcely any archaeological ones are foun( from the four or five centuries of the %resume( ar! Ages5 an( yet that5 on the other han(5 there %as some 1rea! in continuity7
Referen e!

17 "7 @7 "ellin!5 )Archaeology in Asia "inor5+ Journal of American Archaeology vol ;?5 no7 1 F@anuary5
19I9G7 07 R7 Car%enter5 The Discontinuity in Greek Civili4ation' FCam1ri(ge /niversity Press5 19;;G5 %7 I=7 ?7 ($id.' %7 I9B Hero(otus ,''7 1:17 C7 P7 I07 M,7 R7 (3A7 es1orough em%hasiEes that the a1an(one( sites 4ere not occu%ie( 1y any other raceB )No4here is there any evi(ence of settlement 1y ne4 %eo%les7+ This fact )has very serious conse.uences for the tra(itional conce%tion of the orian invasion7+ See The 0ast /ycenaeans and Their Successors FLon(on5 19;CG5 %%7 0I160I07 Cf7 i(em5 )History an( Archaeology in the Last Century of the "ycenaean Age5+ (ncuna$ula Graeca QQ,7? F19;=G5 %%7 1>:;6::< *7 ,ermeule5 )The ecline an( *n( of "inoan an( "ycenaean Culture+ in A 0and Called Crete FNortham%ton5 "ass75 19;:G5 %7 =;< A7 An(re4es5 The Greeks FLon(on5 19;:G5 %7 ??7N I7 Car%enter5 Discontinuity in Greek Civili4ation' %7 I=< es1orough5 The 0ast /ycenaeans and Their Successors' %%7 1I:6I=77 ;7 Carpenter' loc7 cit7 :7 ($id.' %7 :07 M@7 R7 -reaste(5 The Ancient Records of gypt' FChicago5 19>;G5 ',5 Sec7 :C?7 Cf7 @7 ,an(ier5 0a famine dans l, gypte ancienne F19?;G5 %7 10?7 The (ate of this inun(ation5 calculate( 1y Car%enter5 is 6::;5 the very year assigne( to the first $lym%ia(< ho4ever5 the 1asis of this calculation is the acce%te( chronology of the Li1yan ynasty5 4hich is .uestiona1le7 The (escri%tion of the inun(ation may actually refer to a later u%heaval7N =7 Car%enter5 loc. cit.< Hero(otus F''7 1?:G (escri1es the construction of massive earth4or!s (uring the reign of Sa1acon FSha1a!aG< these 4ere evi(ently floo( control measures7 97 Car%enter5 loc7 cit7< cf7 the Co%tos Stele of Tahar!a in ,7 ,i!entiev5 0a haute crue du 6il et l,averse de l,an K du roi Tahar1a FCairo5 19?>G7 1>7 Car%enter5 Discontinuity' %7 :C7 117 Car%enter5 Discontinuity' %7 vii< the .uote( %assages are from Timaeus 00 C6 an( 0? A6-< cf7 2orlds in Collision' section )Phaethon7+ 107 *vans5 The !alace of /inos at Knossos F1901619?IG< cf7 arth in &pheaval' section )Crete7+ 1?7 arth in &pheaval' section )Crete7+ 1C7 "arinatos5 )The ,olcanic estruction of "inoan Crete5+ Anti1uity Q''' F19?9G5 %%7 C0Iff7 MFor a revie4 of the e2tensive literature5 cf7 Hiller5 ) ie *2%losion (es ,ul!ans von Thera5+ Gymnasium =0 F19:IG5 %% ?06:C7 L7 Pomerance has suggeste( that the colla%se of Thera an( the resulting tsunami (evastate( not only Crete5 1ut the entire *ast "e(iterranean 1asin at the en( of the Late Hella(ic '''- ceramic %haseDThe "inal Collapse of Santorini -Thera.' Studies in /editerranean Archaeology vol7 QQ,' F&Rte1org5 19:>G7N 1I7 "arinatos5 )The ,olcanic estruction of "inoan Crete5+ %7 C097 1;7 R7 Sernan(er5 )Klimaverschlechterung5 PostglaEiale+ in Realle5ikon der *orgeschichte e(7 "a2 *1ert5 ,'' F190;G7 1:7 )PostglaEiale Klimaaen(erungen un( *r(!rusten1e4egungen in "ittel6*uro%a5+ /itteilungen der geographischen Gesellschaft in /uenchen' vol7 Q,'5 no70 F190?G5 %%7 1?6?C=7 1=7 /an and /ammoth in /e5ico -0ondon' 9BGD.. 197 -roo!s5 Climate through the Ages 0n( e(ition FNe4 Hor!5 19C9G< Leuner5 The !leistocene !eriod FLon(on5 19CIG7

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0>7 MCar%enter (ate( the change to a (ry climate to 1efore 610>>< he %osite( )a north4ar( shift of the Saharan
(rought Eone into southern *uro%e5+ F%7 1>G 4ith the resulting famine causing the a1an(onment of large areas5 no longer a1le to sustain the large %o%ulations characteristic of late "ycenaean times7 The shift 4as reverse(5 in his vie45 in the eighth century5 4ith the return of a 4et climate7 Car%enter3s ina1ility to e2%lain the cause of these shifts has invali(ate( his thesis in the eyes of many of his colleaguesDcf7 H7 *7 Wright5 )Climatic Change in "ycenaean &reece5+ Anti1uity C0 F19;=G5 %7 10;7 For a recent revie4 of the %hysical evi(ence for Car%enter3s thesis5 see R7 A7 -ryson5 H5 H7 Lam1 an( 7 L7 onley5 ) rought an( the ecline of "ycenae+ in Anti1uity C= F19:CG5 %%7 C;6I>7 Cf7 P7 -etancourt5 )The *n( of the &ree! -ronEe Age5+ Anti1uity I> F19:;G5 %%7 C>6CI7 Cf7 also @7 Cam%5 )A rought in the Late *ighth Century -7C7+ in #esperia C= F19:9G7 The shifts in the *arth3s climatic Eones5 if real5 4oul( have 1een a (irect conse.uence of shifts in the inclination of the terrestrial a2is in the eighth an( early seventh centuries5 as (ocumente( in 2orlds in Collision Fes%7 sections )Poles /%roote(+ an( )A Hemis%here Travels South4ar(+ G an( in arth in &pheaval.N 017 /an and /ammoth in /e5ico' %7 :;7 007 2orlds in Collision' section )"arch 0?r(7+

COMPETING FOR A GREATER ANTIQUITY The (ate of TroAan War is tra(itionally %lace( in the 1eginning of the t4elfth century 1efore the %resent eraB this tra(ition goes 1ac! to *ratosthenes5 a &ree! scholar in the em%loy of Ptolemy ''' *uergetes in the thir( %re6Christian century7 He calculate( that the last year of the ten6year6long siege of Troy fell in the year that in the mo(ern calen(ar corres%on(s to 611=?71 This (ate is still u%hel( to(ay 1y many scholarsDa very unusual case of a(herence to a chronological com%utation ma(e over t4enty6t4o centuries ago5 an( (ealing 4ith an event %resuma1ly nine hun(re( years earlier70 'n anti.uity some other5 (iffering calculations 4ere ma(e5 too5? 1ut that of *ratosthenes survive( until our time as the conventional (ate of Troy3s fall7 $nly in recent years has a tren( sho4e( itself among the Homeric scholars to remove the (ate in .uestion 1y a fe4 (eca(es into the %astCDinto the thirteenth centuryB 4ith the chronological scheme arrange( accor(ing to the timeta1le of *gy%tian history5 certain a(vantages 4ere seen in moving the TroAan War to greater anti.uity than the inroa( of the Peo%les of the Sea into *gy%t5 com%ute( to have ta!en %lace in 611:C7 I *ratosthenes5 ho4ever5 (i( not connect in any 4ay the events that too! %lace in the (ays of Ramses ''' 4ith the TroAan e2%e(ition7 Was there any s%ecial intent in *ratosthenes3 effort to %lace the TroAan War more than nine centuries 1efore his o4n time? 'f his motive 4as to %rove that the &ree!s 4ere an ancient nation5 then his reasoning shoul( 1e vie4e( as ten(entious7 This is5 in fact5 the case7 When the &ree!s un(er the lea(ershi% of Ale2an(er of "ace(on su1Augate( "eso%otamia an( *gy%t5 an( soon thereafter esta1lishe( there &ree! (ynasties of Seleucus an( Ptolemy5 an( intro(uce( the &ree! language an( Hellenistic civiliEation5 the eru(ites in 4hat 4as once -a1ylonia an( e.ually so in *gy%t felt an urge to %rove to their con.uerors that they5 the con.uere(5 1elonge( to cultures more e2alte(5 1ecause more ancient7 -erosus5 a Chal(ean %riest 4ho flourishe( in -a1ylon in the first %art of the thir( century5 4rote his fame( ;a$yloniaca' or5 us History of -a1ylonia an( Chal(ea5 an( in it he stretche( the history of his lan( an( nation to a gargantuan length7 'n or(er to (o so he ascri1e( unnatural lengths of reign to earlier !ings an( also invente( !ings Fhis list largely (isagrees 4ith the cuneiform !ing6listsG7; "anethoDa &ree!64riting *gy%tian5 an( a contem%orary of -erosusDcom%ose( un(er Ptolemy '' Phila(el%hus the story of his nation5 an( a fe4 %assages from it are %reserve( 1y @ose%hus< his genealogies of !ings an( (ynasties are %reserve( in the 4ritings of the Fathers of the Church5 Pam%hilius5 *use1ius5 an( @ulius Africanus7:

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The regnal years ascri1e( to single "anethonian (ynasties F?> in num1er until shortly 1efore the arrival of Ale2an(er in *gy%tG are e2cessively longB !ings are often invente(Dno monumental confirmation of the e2istence of many of them 4as ever foun(< com%lete (ynasties 4ere invente( 1y him5 too7 Li!e -erosus5 "anetho trie( to im%ress the &ree! masters 4ith the fact that his nation 4as alrea(y ancient 4hen the &ree!s only 1egan to emerge from their 1ar1arous state7 Such an attitu(e to4ar( the &ree!s 4as alrea(y e2%resse( almost three centuries earlier in the narrative of the %riest of Sais to Solon as tol( in the Timaeus 1y Plato7 -ecause of 4ritten recor(s store( in their tem%les5 the *gy%tians 4ere a4are of the %ast of their lan(5 )so this is 4hy among us here ol(est tra(itions still %revail5 an( 4henever anything great or other4ise note4orthy occurs5 it is 4ritten (o4n an( %reserve( in our tem%les5 7 7 7 M1utN you an( other nations that chance to 1e 1ut recently en(o4e( 4ith the art of 4riting an( civiliEe( nee(s at state( turn of years there has recurre( li!e a %lague 1rought (o4n u%on you5 a celestial current5 leaving only an unlettere( an( unciviliEe( remnant5 4herefore you have to 1egin all over again li!e chil(ren5 4ithout !no4le(ge of 4hat has ta!en %lace in ol(er times in our lan( or in yours7 7 7+= The same %ri(e in the anti.uity of the nation is foun( also in the narrative of another %riest of Sais5 a hun(re( years later5 4ho gave the follo4ing account to Hero(otusB From their first !ing until Sethos5 the !ing6%riest 4ho 4as a1out to meet Sennacheri1 in 1attle 4hen the latter3s host 4as (estroye( 1y a natural cause5 ?C1 generations %asse(7 Calculating three generations to a century5 Hero(otus foun( that it 4oul( com%rise 115?C> years9D.uite a long time if 4e shoul( consi(er that from the foun(ation of Rome to the %resent (ay not even a .uarter of such time has %asse(7 When the *gy%tians came un(er foreign (omination they e2%erience( an even greater nee( to im%ress their masters 4ith the e2cellence of their culture an( its (uration5 in or(er not to 1e counte( as 1ar1arians< they 4ishe( to %rovo!e an( sustain a feeling of a(miration on the %art of the su1Augators7 Such claims coul( %ro(uce in the &ree!s a feeling of their o4n ina(e.uacy an( inferiorityDthey ha(5 since their first contacts 4ith the *gy%tians5 (evelo%e( for them a feeling of res%ect 1or(ering on a4e5 4hereas to the Persians5 (es%ite the magnificence of their court an( 1earing5 the &ree!s a%%lie( the name )1ar1arians7+ With e2cessive claims as to national anti.uity the orientals 4ere com1atting their o4n feelings of shortcomings as %olitically su1or(inate nations71> *ratosthenes 4as a contem%orary of "anetho an( -erosus7 -orn in Cyrenaica5 he 4as of &ree! origin7 'n his calculations of the time of the TroAan War he 4as evi(ently gui(e( 1y the same motive as -erossus an( "anetho5 namely5 to sho4 the anti.uity of his nation< the (ate of 611=? for the en( of the TroAan War serve( that %ur%ose711 The ) ar! Age+ inserte( 1et4een the "ycenaean an( 'onic ages originate( in the ol( calculations %erforme( 1y *ratosthenes as to the time of the TroAan War5 an( on the reliance of mo(ern historians of &reece on *gy%tian chronology an( or(er of (ynasties as offere( 1y "anetho< 1oth them live( in *gy%t in the Ptolemaic age in the thir( century 1efore the %resent era7 't is not e2clu(e( that *ratosthenes 1ase( himself on "anetho710 Ho4ever5 neither *ratosthenes5 nor 1efore him Homer5 nor any other &ree! historian or %hiloso%her ever referre( to such a ar! Age<1? it is a creation of mo(ern historians7 -ut they foun( su%%ort for its historical e2istence in the *gy%tian chronology 1uilt on "anetho3s list of (ynastiesDthe "ycenaean Age 4as (ate( 1y the archaeologically (ocumente( contacts of "ycenaean sites 4ith *gy%t7 Thus *ratosthenes foun( su%%ort in "anetho an( "anetho in *ratosthenes71C
Referen e!

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17 *use1ius5 Chronicle in *use1ius5 2erke FLei%Eig5 191?G5 vol7 ,''5 %7 ;>7 Cf7 @7 Fors(y!e5 Greece ;efore
#omer FLon(on5 19I;G %%7 0=ff7 07 MA7 R7 -urn5 /inoans' !hilistines' and Greeks3 ;.C. 9I::<B:: FLon(on5 19?>G %%7 I06ICB )'t cannot 1e too strongly em%hasiEe( that the tra(itional (ate of the TroAan War5 119C6=C5 a(o%te( 1y *ratosthenes an( more or less tentatively acce%te( in so many mo(ern 1oo!s5 is a1solutely 4orthless+ 1eing 1ase( on *ratosthenes3 )4il( overestimate of the average length of a generation7+ Cf7 i(em5 ) ates in *arly &ree! History5+ Journal of #ellenic Studies II F19?IG %%7 1?>61C;7 Cf7 also 7 Page5 #istory and the #omeric (liad F/niversity of California Press5 19I9G %7 9;5 n7 1I9B + Fthe (ateG given 1y *ratosthenes is nothing 1ut a guess %rocee(ing from flimsy %remises 4hich coul( not %ossi1ly have le( to a scientific calculation7+ Another 4riter a((sB )so1er historical Au(gement must (iscar( the ancient chronological schemes in toto< they are nothing more than ela1orate harmoniEations of myths an( legen(s 4hich 4ere !no4n in later times an( have no in(e%en(ent value 4hatever for historical %ur%oses7+ F&7 Starr5 The 8rigins of Greek civili4ation3 99::<KG: ;.C. FNe4 Hor!5 19;1G %7 ;:7N ?7 Hero(otus5 for instance5 %ut the TroAan War a little more than =>> years 1efore his time5 or ca7 610I>7 A%%ian (ate( it after the foun(ing of Rome5 tra(itionally %ut at 6:I? or 6:C:7 C7 C7 -legen et al75 Troy5 vol7 ', F19I=G %%7 1>61? an( i(em5 )The "ycenaean Age7 The TroAan War5 the orian 'nvasion5 an( $ther Pro1lems5+ Lectures in "emory of Louise Taft Sem%le FPrinceton5 19;:G %7 ?17 Cf7 also &7 "ylonas5 "ycenae an( the "ycenaean Age FPrinceton5 19;;G %7 01I7 I7 See '7 ,eli!ovs!y5 !eoples of the Sea' F ou1le(ayB Ne4 Hor!5 19::G7 ;7 P7 Schna1el5 ) ie 1a1ylonische Chronologie in -erossos -a1yloniaca5+ /itteilungen' *orderasiatisch< Lgyptische Gesellschaft F19>=G7 See also F7 Cornelius5 ;erossus und die Altorientalische Chronologie' KL'$ ?I F19C0G %%7 1ff7 :7 See the volume /anetho in the Loe1 Classical Li1rary7 =7 Transl7 1y Rhys Car%enter in Discontinuity in Greek Civili4ation FCam1ri(ge /niversity Press5 19;;G %7 vii7 97 Hero(otus ''7 1C07 1>7 'saac Ne4ton -The Chronologyes of Ancient Kingdoms Amended' MLon(on5 1:0=NG recogniEe( this hi((en intent of -erosus an( "anetho an( therefore refuse( to give them cre(ence as chronogra%hers7 Cf7 Fran! "anuel5 (saac 6e%ton' #istorian FHarvar( /niversity Press5 19;?G7 117 M*ratosthenes allege(ly relie( on the S%artan !ing6lists to esta1lish his chronology< in %art he may have 1een influence( also 1y "anetho7 -ut since the (ate he gives is i(entical to that com%ute( 1y Ctesias5 it is ac!no4le(ge( that it 4as Ctesias3 4ritings 4hich actually forme( the 1asis of *ratosthenes3 system7 Since anti.uity scholars have .uestione( the relia1ility of Ctesias7 Cf7 the o%inion of Plutarch in his 0ife of Arta5er5esF also Fors(y!e5 Greece ;efore #omer' %%7 ;=6:97N 107 M*ratosthenes 1ecame li1rarian of the Li1rary of Ale2an(ria in 60C>5 an( must have ha( access to "anetho3s 4ritings7N 1?7 ,7 R7 (3A7 es1orough5 The Greek Dark Ages FLon(on5 19:0G %7 ?01< A7 "7 Sno(grass5 The Dark Age of Greece F*(in1urgh5 19:1G %%7 16017 1C7 MAs early as the fifth century5 4riters li!e He!ataeus an( Hero(otus F''71CIG %ut the TroAan War into the 1Cth610th centuriesDthey5 too5 4ere misle( 1y the *gy%tians7 See for e2am%le the a1ove6mentione( story tol( to Hero(otus 1y a %riest of Sais7N

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SUMMING UP Having starte( on a Aourney that first too! us to "ycenae5 1ut then also to Tiryns5 $lym%ia5 Pylos an( a num1er of other ancient sites on the mainlan( of &reece an( the Pelo%onnesos5 also on Crete5 Cy%rus5 the Troa( an( the interior of Asia "inor5 4e foun( at all sites one an( the same em1arrassing %ro1lemB close to five hun(re( years 1et4een conflicting evi(ences or (iscor(ant vie4s7 The list of archaeological sites (iscusse( coul( 1e enlarge( to encom%ass almost every e2cavate( %lace in the area5 4ith har(ly any of them stan(ing a chance of esca%ing the very same %er%le2ing state of affairs71 What ' call here )the %er%le2ing state of affairs+ often too! the form of a (is%uteDto 4hich of the t4o ages5 se%arate( 1y nearly half a millennium5 (oes a stratum5 a 1uil(ing5 or a tom1 1elong? The hol(ers of conflicting vie4s are usually at e.ual (isa(vantage in meeting archaeological facts that5 4ith the conventional chronological scheme not .uestione(5 %oint simultaneously to t4o 4i(ely se%arate( ages7 Was Tiryns3 %alace re1uilt in the "ycenaean or in the 'onic AgeDin other 4or(s5 in the -ronEe Age or in the 'ron Age? An( if the first alternative is selecte(5 ho4 coul( it 1e that for almost five hun(re( years the 1uil(ing lay a1an(one(5 unoccu%ie( 1y any of the t4enty interme(iate generations5 since they left nothing of their o4n5 no relic 4hatsoever? The alternative situation is e.ually 1eset 4ith %er%le2ing evi(ence7 Are the "ycenaean lions5 carve( in the %eculiar %osition of stan(ing erect on their hin( legs facing a %illar that (ivi(es them5 contem%orary 4ith similar Phrygian monumental scul%tures5 an( if not5 ho4 (oes one e2%lain the many centuries3 ga%? Ho4 is it that the 4all of the Phrygian &ate at &or(ion is 1uilt li!e that of Troy ,'5 if some five hun(re( years se%arate them? 'n 4hat 4ay (oes one e2%lain the affinity of "ycenaean art of the %re6t4elfth century 4ith the art of Scythia5 the anu1ian region5 an( *truria of the eighth an( seventh centuries? Was the great strife 1et4een Furt4aengler an( oer%fel( ever resolve(? -ecause t4o timeta1les are a%%lie( simultaneously to the %ast of &reece5 a clash of o%inions is almost inevita1le7 Ho4 is it that &reece an( the entire Aegean area of the "ycenaean Age su((enly 1ecame (e%o%ulate(5 4ith scarcely any traces of human activity surviving? An( if such 4as the case5 ho4 is it that so many (etails of "ycenaean life5 ha1its an( armaments 4ere 4ell !no4n to Homer 4ho !ne4 e.ually 4ell the life5 ha1its5 an( armaments of the eighth an( seventh century5 though a ar! Age of several centuries3 (uration intervene(? When the (eci%herment of the "ycenaean Linear - scri%t5 to the sur%rise of many Hellenist scholars %rove( the language to 1e &ree!5 the so6calle( Homeric %ro1lem (i( not a%%roach a solution 1ut5 contrari4ise5 gre4 more urgent5 more enigmatic5 more %er%le2ing7 The historians 4ere startle( 1ecause the "inoan6"ycenaean inscri%tions are ascri1e( 1y them at the latest to the t4elfth century5 an( the earliest &ree! te2ts 4ere of the eighth century7 Ho4 coul( a %eo%le that 4as alrea(y literate forfeit its literacy so com%letely for over four hun(re( years? The very fact that none of the &ree! %hiloso%hers5 historians5 geogra%hers5 statesmen or %oets ever referre( to a ar! Age %recee(ing the 'onic Age an( se%arating it from the "ycenaean Age5 shoul( have 1een enough to cast (ou1t on the soun(ness of the overall construction7 Wherever 4e turnD%oetry5 arms5 architecture5 artsDthe same Nemesis (istur1s the e2cavator5 the e2%lorer an( the critic5 an( from all si(es the very same %ro1lem in various forms moc!ingly stares in the face of all of them5 4hatever their %ersuasion7

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Where lies the root of all this confusion5 a root hi((en from sight an( (iscussion? The "ycenaean Age in &reece an( in the Aegean5 as 4ell as the "inoan Age on Crete5 (o not have an a1solute chronology of their o4n5 an( this is not (is%ute(7 As ' have alrea(y stresse( on several occasions on %rece(ing %ages5 the (ating (e%en(s on contacts 4ith other countries that have an a1solute chronology of their o4n5 an( *gy%t 4as selecte( for that %ur%ose70 When a cartouche of #ueen Tiy 4as foun( at "ycenae5 that stratum 4as (ate( accor(ingly to ca7 61C>>7 When in the short6live( city of A!het6Aton5 1uilt 1y A!hnaton an( a1an(one( in the same generation5 "ycenaean 4are 4as foun( in %rofusion5 the 4are 4as regar(e( as contem%orary 4ith A!hnaton5 an( 4as (ate( to the fourteenth century7 We have alrea(y (4elt on the su1Aect5 1ut it nee(s re%etition in the light of 4hat 4as 1rought to (iscussion all through the foregoing cha%ters an( sections7 'n an e2ten(e( e2amination of the *gy%tian chronology its structure 4as %ut on a scale an( foun( 4anting7 No4 it is clear that if there is a miscalculation in *gy%tian (atings5 the error must have s%rea( through more than one lan( an( vitiate( more than one nations3s chronology7 The %ro1lem is once more thro4n to *gy%t7 'n Ages in Chaos 4e have seen that5 4ith the fall of the "i((le King(om an( the *2o(us synchroniEe(5 events in the histories of the %eo%les of the ancient 4orl( coinci(e all along the centuries7 For a s%ace of over one thousan( years recor(s of *gy%tian history have 1een com%are( 4ith the recor(s of the He1re4s5 Assyrians5 Chal(eans5 an( finally 4ith those of the &ree!s5 4ith a resulting corres%on(ence 4hich (enotes synchronism7 'n ,olume ' of Ages in Chaos it 4as sho4n in great (etail 4hy A!hnaton of the *ighteenth ynasty must 1e %lace( in the latter %art of the ninth century7 'f A!hnaton flourishe( in 6=C> an( not in 61?=>5 the ceramics from "ycenae foun( in the %alace of A!hnaton are younger 1y five or si2 hun(re( years than they are %resume( to 1e5 an( the Late "ycenaean %erio( 4oul( accor(ingly move for4ar( 1y a1out half a thousan( years on the scale of time7 'f the ages of Amenhote% '''5 of Tiy an( of A!hnaton5 nee( to 1e re(uce( 1y a1out five hun(re( years5 classical stu(ies coul( ta!e a (ee% 1reath7 Actually5 4hen in the eighties of the nineteenth century5 the Hellenists 4ere coerce(5 u%on the evi(ence %resente( 1y *gy%tologists5 to intro(uce those five (ar! centuries5 they (i( it only after a %erio( of %rotest an( resistance7 -ut no4 that three generations of historians have live( 4ith those (ar! centuries as a historical reality5 it is even more (ifficult to %art 4ith them7 Nevertheless5 sooner or later5 they 4ill have to %art 4ith the %hantom centuries5 an( have the history of &reece an( the (evelo%ment of its 4riting as a normal %rocess 4ithout a four6hun(re(6year ga%7 The conclusion at 4hich 4e have arrive( is thisB 1et4een the "ycenaean an( the 'onian Ages there 4as no ar! Age5 1ut one follo4e( the other5 4ith only a fe4 (eca(es intervening7 The natural catastro%hes of the eighth century an( of the 1eginning of the seventh 1rought an en( to the civiliEation that centere( at "ycenae in &reece5 to cities an( cita(els an( !ing(oms< even the %rofile of the &ree! mainlan( change( an( many islan(s su1merge( an( others emerge(7 These changes move( entire nations to migrations in the ho%e that 1eyon( the horiEon fertile lan(s5 not (amage( 1y unchaine( forces of nature5 a4aite( the con.uerors7 This e2%lains the 1rea! in continuityDthe change is not (ue to some intervening (ar! ages that left no vestige of themselves5 1ut to the %aro2ysms of nature an( the migrations7 Classical stu(ies have 1een trou1le( 1y many unresolve( situations5 archaeological an( cultural7 The fiel( has 1een %lague( 1y the %resence of the ar! AgeDa %resence only schematic5 never in effect7 't engen(ere( an( continues to engen(er an ever6gro4ing scholarly literature7 'f it can 1e sho4n that the

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*gy%tian timeta1le is off its hinges5 the 1on(age of these stu(ies an( their (e%en(ence on *gy%t may terminate7 The removal of the ar! Age from the historical se.uence unshac!les 4hat 4as for centuries shac!le( an( releases the scholarly en(eavor from travelling on the same circular %aths 4ith no e2it from the mo(ern version of the Cretan La1yrinth7 "oreover5 it reha1ilitates scholars accuse( of ignorance or negligence5 their having 1een guilty only of not %erceiving that the %ro1lems they (ealt 4ith 4ere not %ro1lems at all5 as soon as unreal centuries are stric!en out7
Referen e!

17 See the article of 'srael "7 'saacson5 )A%%lying the Revise( Chronology5+ !ens)e ,ol7 ',5 no7 C F19:CG5
%%7 I60>7 07 )The Aegean %rehistorians have no choice 1ut to a(a%t themselves to the *gy%tologists+D@7 Ca(ogan5 ) ating the Aegean -ronEe Age Without Ra(iocar1on5+ Archaeometry 0> F19:=G %7 0107

SUPPLEMENT A%%lying the Revise( Chronology $y *(4in Schorr Ne4 Light on the ar! Age of &reece $y @an Sammer

=1