The Anatomy and Physiology of The Horse

/.
EXPLANATION OP FIGURE
OSSEOUS STRUCTURE.
1.
I.
Frontal bone.
Parietal.
Occipital.
2. 3. 4.
5.
Temporal.
Nasal.
6.
7.
Lachrymal.
Malar. Superior maxillary. Anterior
Inferior
8.
9.
" "
10. 11.
Cervical vertebrae.
33.
Scapula.
34.
Humerus.
to 7
is
From 4
the zjgomatic arch.

HEiiD, NECK, AlTD
MUSCLES OF THE
*.
SHOULDER.
Ligamentum
colli.
a". Trapezius.
6".
c".
e".
Rhomboideus longus.
Scalenus.
Stcrno scapulari
pectoralis transversus.
f". Antea spinatus. g". Postea spinatus.

h". Teres.
c.
d.
e.
Dilator naris lateralis. " " anterior.

Orbicularis oris.
f.
ff.
NasaKs longus.
Levator
labii superioris.
h.
i.
Buccinator.
Zygomaticus.
j. k.
Retractor
Masseter.
labii inferiorus.
Abducens I. m. Attolentes
n.
o.
aiu:em.
et
adducens aiu-em.
Retrahentes aurem.
p.
q.
s.
t.
r.
Adducens vel deprimens aurem. Tendon of the splenius and complexus major. ObUquus capitis superior.
Splenius.
Obliquus capitis inferiorus,
u.
V.
Levator humeri.
Sterno maxillaris.
Subscapulo-hyoideus.
X.
1.
Temporal
vein.
2.
Facial vein.
3. 10.
Jugular vein.
Parotid gland.
THE
A.I:^^TOMY ^NT>
FHYSIOLOaY
THE HORSE:
ANATOMICAL AND QUESTIONAL ILLUSTRATIONS.
CONTAINING, ALSO,
A SERIES OF EXAMINATIONS ON EQUINE ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY, WITH INSTRUCTIONS m REFERENCE TO DISSECTION, AND THE MODE OF MAILING
ANATOMICAL PREPARATIONS.
TO WHICH
IS
ADDED,
#lossarg of ycttrinarjt Eethnicaliiits, oTovuological (fbart, anb giritonarg of tftrhiarn ^rirnre.
GEORGE
AnTHOK OP
"
H.
DADD,
M. D., V.
S.,
ETC.,
THB MODERN HORSE DOCTOR," "CATTLE DOCTOR,"
ETO
BOSTON:
PUBLISHED BY JOHN
P.
:
JEWETT AND COMPANY.
CLEVELAND, OHIO H. P. B. JEWETT. NEW YORK: SHELDON, BLAKEMAN AND COJIPANY.
1857.
ST76ir
Entered accoriliug to Act of Congress, in the year 1866, by
JOHN
In the Clerk's
Office
1".
JEWETT AND COMPANY,
of the District Court of the District of Massachusetts.
UinOTYPED BV THE AJIERICAN STEREOITPE COMPANY,

PnOSNIX BUILDING, BOSTON.
PREFACE.
American Veterinary Literature has hitherto possessed no work devoted to consequently such subjects are But either discussed theoretically and imperfectly, or else fail to be noticed.
;
the anatomy and physiology of the Horse
new era is now dawning upon Veterinary Science a spirit of inquiry is abroad; and the people of this Republic find themselves in possession of some of the most magnificent specimens of "Uve stock" to be found in the world.
;
The natural inquiry

conclusion arrived at
is,
"How
shall
we
protect our property?"

offers
And
the
is,
"Veterinary science
the only probable and
practicable security against the
numerous
casualties incidental to the halitats
of the barn and

Hitherto,
stable."
much
indifference has
difficulty
;
consequence of the
encountered in
its
been manifested regarding this science, in its study, for want of proper
text-books and teachers
and
unsatisfactory results
when
tested
by men
unacquainted with its fundamental principles. The well-known works of Enghsh and French authors furnish all the necessary information, yet their cost is beyond the means of many, and, therefore, their circulation is very
limited.
In view, therefore, of supplying the above deficiency, which
is
disclosed in
the barrenness of our anatomical and 23hysiological knowledge, and for the
purpose of furnishing a work that shall come wuthm the reach and financial
means of
all
men, the author has undertaken the double task
and
it is
hoped
that the effort will not be thought untimely.
There are a vast number of highly educated physicians in this country are often urged by their employers to give advice in the management, medical and surgical treatment, of the inferior orders of creation yet decline to do so, in consequence of a lack of authoritative knowledge regarding anatomy, physiology, therapeutics, and pathology. To such, whose sympathies lean in the right direction, and who are wiUing to give counsel, and lend a helping hand in the restoration of a sick or d3dng animal, this work is offered, and the author, therefore, submits it to their candid perusal and criticism.
who
The work, however,

of the
art,
is
principally intended for veterinary surgeons, teachers
and students of veterinary medicine, whose wants the author professes to have some knowledge of; and he has endeavored, to the best of
his abiUty, to cater to the same.
The
necessity for such a work, at the present time,
is
evident from the
facts,
that three veterinary colleges have lately
come
into legislative existence,

(in)
and
it is
very
uatui-al to
suppose that, ere long,

and,
many
candidates for the honors of

;
these institutions will knock at the door of science, and seek admittance
they
must then need
fe.ii-ho6ks
m view of furnishing a part of what the author
foresees every teacher
and student must necessarily need, he oifers this, not as own ideas, for that were presumptuous, when anatomy and physiology are the texts ; but, as a work carefully prepared from the writings of our best authorities, the work may be considered as the legitimate offspring of scientific observation and experience. Another argument in favor of the necessity that will soon exist for a textbook of anatomy and physiology is founded on the fact, that agricultural colleges will soon be endowed in every State of the Union many already exist; and each mil, probably, endow a professorship of veterinary science. With such, and among the young and aged men that may seek for knowledge^ the author hopes that his work may find favor; and, if such should be the result, he will have the satisfaction of knowmg that he has not labored in vain. There are other classes of men that need a work of this description; namely, the husbandman, the horse-owner, and the horse-lover, as well as the purely scientific man. The three first, incited by laudable sentiments, or pecuniary motives, will read the following pages, and study the anatomical illustrations some with veneration of that wonderful piece of mechanism, a horse's structure others for the purpose of making themselves acquainted with the form, action, and capacities of the same. The purely scientific man, who desires to inform himself how veterinary science is to be studied, what are its legitimate objects, and its appropriate
a work pregnant with his
;
sphere,
will read these
pages with considerable
profit.
GEORGE
Boston, January, 1857.
H.
DADD.
REMARKS IN REGARD TO THE COMPOSITION OF THIS WORK.

work, was to prepare a The plau of the author, in the commencement of this of the Horse Physiology and Anatomy the on examinations complete manual of withm the prescrilêd limits, the but findino- that he could not bring the mutter The examinations, exceptmg those descnptive plan was speedily abandoned. elicit some physiological tact, of the osseous structure, are intended, either to of in the body of the work. treated been not have that topics or to introduce treatise on Anatomy systematic with a public the In attempting to furnish must necessarily avail and Physiolocrj" it wiU be obvious that the author science of anatomy, no one himself of the labor of others; for, as regards the anatomists and dissectors ot early industrious The offer. to new anythinohas remains but little, if anything, times haveborne off all the laurels, and there As regards physiology, also, there are very few tacts to for future discovery. physiology that science which discover: we now allude," however, to practical ihe uses of its parts, teaches us the functions of the animal body, or the details of practical the beyond stepped occasionally however, author has, on the complex combinaphysiolo^ry, and has endeavored to throw some light and the nature ot their tions in which vital phenomena present themselves, Matter of this kind he has thought best to dependencies one upon another.
_
introduce in the form of examinations. , x , ^ select the most recent In preparincr this work, the author has endeavored to comand consulted authors of list following The and rehable information. names appended will pUed from, together with the foot notes and the writers' the author has rehed tor which on sources principal the indicate to serve information. , ^ , , composing Mr PercivaU's Aiiatom>/ of the Horse has been freely employed viscera abdommal the of the anatomical part of the work. The description was witten as a pme cssai/, and pubis from the pen of Mr. Gamgee, and Carpenter's Physiology, general and comparlished in the London Veterinarian. UcppaLiebig's Chenmtry, Hooper's Dictionary, Percivalls ative, is also quoted. been consulted, and extracts pathology, Eoget's Outlines of Physiology, have also Inrard; made from the same. The iUustrations, not otherwise indicated, are by French plates, the explanations translated by the author. For the loan of the .. author is indebted to C. C. Grice, V. S., of New York City. ^ ^^ , s Manual, The plan of the examinations was suggested to the author |jy Ludlow had medicine, studying formerly, while of Examinations, ii work which he diflers kom that ot occasion to use. The subject matter, in this work, of course
m
.
"fcliG
and In preparino- the ''Definitions of Veterinary Technicalities," Hooper, Cleveary" the author has availed himself of the works of Cooper, method of making analand, Blaine, Mahew, and White and, regarding the and Swan, have been Pope, Parsons, of works the etc., preparations, tomical ^- ^- ^;
foniiGr
"Diction-
consulted.
CONTENTS.
Preface,
Remarks regarding the composition of the work, Remarks on the osseous, cartilaginous, and ligamentous structures, On the hair of horses examinations on the common integument; TeGUMEXTARY System.
;
examinations on the same, membrane, of the adipose ogy of the of the magnitude the wall and Of the External Parts. The hoof; form, spread,
skin,
.-.-..--.. .-..-.
-
FAas
3 6
11
physiol-
cellular
tissue
14-17
its
color,
its
situation
relation, connection, figure, di\'ision, solar border, laminae, quarters, heels,
coronary border and
bars,
17-23
and connection, figure, arch, di\ision, surfaces, and thickness, Its situation and connection, figm-e, division, surfaces; the cleft of the frog, its supedevelopment of sm-face, the sides, the commissures, toe, heels or bulb, coronary frog band
The Sole. The Frog.

rior
Situation
23-25
hoof; structure of the hoof; production of the hoof; propftties of horn,
Intern.u- Parts of the Hoof.

organization,
The
C.\RTn,AGES.
sensitive sensitive
situation,
and form the false cartilages, and their use the laminae division of the same elasticity, number, dimensions, and organization the the sensitive frog its sole its structure, connection, thickness, and organization division, sti-uctm-e, and organization,
situation, attachment,
;
;
Their
; ;
tabular \iew of the bones of the horse,
Anatomy
of the skeleton, introduced in the form of questions and answers, embracing a complete
system of osteology,
..-.-...-....-. ...-..---...-...--.--...------ The coronary substance

;
....
; ; ; ;
25-30
30-31
its situation,
connection, structure, and
31-34
35
36-54
54-56 57-60
Remarks on Myology.
the changes which horses' teeth undergo, with examinations on the same,
table of the
names and number of muscles, divided

number, name, region,
situation,
into regions,
...
-
A
Ox
tabular s}'nopsis of the
insertion,
and action of
all
the
muscles,
Dissecting instruments; subjects of muscles, Anatomical Prep.aratioxs. Injecting instruments; directions using the On THE DiFFEREXT KiXDS OF INJECTIONS. FormultB coarse warm
DissECTlox.
dissection
suitable for dissection;
for for
injections
teals,
;
.......-..-.sjTinge,
;
61-78
79-80
80-81
;
rides in reference to
injections
fine injections
;
minute do; plaster mjection; cold injection; as regards the course of injections
quicksilver
mode
of injecting the Ij-mphatics

;
and parotid gland and distending the limgs

and lungs
;
method of injecting the lacwet preparations preparations by distension method of preparing menstrua for preserving specimens method of preserving the brain
with quicksilver
; ; ; ; ;
method of macerating and cleaning bones to render bones flexible and transpamethod of cleanmg and separating the bones of the cranium; exposition of Mr. Swan's of making dry anatomical preparations, Digestive System. The mouth, lips, cheeks, gums, palate, tongue, salivary glands, pharj-nx, oesophagus, and nasal fossa; cavity of the cranium; the orbits and cavities of the nose the mouth, peritoneum, stomach, intestines the vessels, nerves, and IjTnphatios of the intestines
rent;
new method
-------;
81-87
the spleen,
liver,
GENER.vTrvE Org.vns OF THE M.ALE.

trate
0RG.4NS
Vasa gland, Cowper's glands, OF Generation Continded.

-
pancreas, kidneys, supra, renal capsules, ureters, bladder, urethra,
-......-..Testicles
87-119
119-121
defercutia, vesiculae seminales, ejaculatory ducts, pros-
and scrotum, spermatic cord,
epididjTnis, penis,
and urethra,
121-125
Fem.\le Organs of Generation,

Physiological considerations on the reproduction of organized beings,
.....
-
125-128
128-136 136-138 139-143
(vii)
Examination on the digestive system,
Remarks and examinations on the
eye,
vni
Respiratory System. Circulatory System.
and heart,
CONTENTS.
Observation Remarks on
on the same; the larynx,

the blood
chial tubes, pleura, mediastinum, lungs, bronchial glands,
Arterial System.
------
;
------glottis, epiglottis, trachea,

-
hron-
144-154
examinations resumed on the blood, pericardium,
155-167
Distribution of the arteries,
158-163
arteries,
A table
The
showing the modes of the distribution of the
Distribution of the veins,
A table showuig the mode of distribution*bf the

brain and
its
appendages
the nervous system,
Examinations on neurology,
Distribution of the lymphatics,
...-.--.-.---.--...---.-veins,
-
164^166 166-168
169-170 171-177
177-180
181-184 185-193 195-209

-
glossary of veterinary technicalities,

-
Toxicological chart,
A dictionary
Appendix.
of veterinary science,
articulations
Ligamcntary mechanism of
and joints,
-----
211-287 289-291
INDEX OF THE ILLUSTRATIONS.
FIGUKE
I.
Presents two îews

;
and shoulders
precedes the
and the other

page.
title
FIGURE FIGURE FIGURE
II.
Is
a section of the osseous
of the rear, anterior, and posterior extremities.

III.
Is
a representation of the superficial muscles of the body, of a part of the neck, and
of the extremities,
-------------...------------'0
is
one of a portion of the osseous structure, showing the head, neck, composed of the supei-ficial muscles, covering the above parts
a side of the spinal column, ribs, and a part
structui'e, giving
10
No. 1 is a side -view of the Has fom- illustrations of the hind extremities, as follows rS'. bones of the oft-hind leg No. 2 shows the muscles and tendons of the oiT-hind leg No. 3 is a No. 4 shows the muscles and tendons in the anterior region, front view of the bones of the same
: ;
;
or front part, of the off-hind extremity.
.----
30
FIGURE
V.
Presents Ueo
illustrations
the
first
;
shows the
superficial
is
muscles in the region of the
head, neck, and shoulders, on the near side
ous structm-e, on wliich the insertions of the ligamentum
and dorsal
spines, are sho\ra.
...----------40
colli into
and the other
a corresponding section of the ossethe occiput, cervical vertebrae,
FIGURE
No. 1 shows the bones which enter No. 2 is a side view of the muscles and tendons of the near fore-leg No. 3 is an anterior \iew of No. 1 No. 4 is an anterior view of No. 2. FIGURE Vn. Presents four views of the near fore-extremity Nos. 1 and 3 are side and posterior
VI.
:
Presents four views of the forward extremities

; ; ;
into the composition of the near fore-leg
50
views of the bones of the near fore-limb

to the above regions.
FIGURE
Vin.
Has
four views of the off-hind extremity:
of the bones entering into the composition of the
dons of the same.
..-.---------.-.----------;
Nos. 2 and 4 show the muscles and tendons belonging
oO
Hmb
;
and 3 are side and posterior views Nos. 2 and 4 show the muscles and tenNos.
1
70
FIGURE FIGURE
FIGURE
IX.
Presents two views

two cuts
:
one, of the bones
the other shows the superficial muscles of the
head, neck, shoulders, and breast, viewed in an anterior direction.
------;
80
X.
Has
Umhs
;
one of wliich shows a portion of the osseous framework
the other
shows the
XI.
superficial
muscles belonging thereto.
90
Is illustrated
it is
neck, and
one of which shows a portion of the muscles of the body, a sort of anterior side riew the second cut shows the bones which enter into
by two
cuts
the composition of these parts.
FIGURE Xn. Has

site
two
illusti-ations,
or posterior dii'ection.
.-.-.-------: : ;
--.---------100
;
which are the counterpart of Fig. XI., as seen from the oppo119
FIGURE XHI. Presents

Knes," and
is
a side view of the deep-seated muscles it is talien from Mr. Blaine's " Outone of the most magnificent plates ever presented to the pubKc.
120
140
FIGURE XrV. Is a riew of the mu.scles and tendons of the fore and hind extremities. FIGURE XV. Is illustrated with five views of the off and rear fore extremity Nos. 1, 2, 3 show very
tendons and muscles.
Umb, as well as their location, and that of the extensor The triceps extensor brachii, and pectoral muscles, are also quite prominent and easily recognized No. 4 is the same hmb divested of the soft parts No. 5 is an interior view of the near fore-leg, and shows some of the tendons and muscles wliich are not seen in the other
distinctly the action of the flexors of the
;
cuts.
----:
150
FIGURE
views of the hind extremities, in wliich the use and action of several very Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4 compose the bones, important muscles and tendons are accurately delineated muscles, and tendons of the near-hind extremity No. 5 shows the muscles and tendons on the
XVI.
Presents
five
inside of the near-hind leg. 2
------------;
160
(ix)
INDEX TO THE ILLUSTRATIONS.
FIGURE XVn. Presents

structure.
of the superficial muscles of the
FIGURE XVm.
--.-.--...-----
body and
limbs,
Is the skeleton of
two views
(as seen
from a posterior direction)
one contains a great portion and the other shows the basis of their super:
170
of the Veterinary Art."
FIGURE XIX. Is a counterpart of Fig. XVn., as seen from an opposite direction. FIGURE XX. Is an excellent representation of the muscles of one side of the head,
Kmbs.
..--
a horse, for which the author
is
indebted to Blaine's " OutUnes
...
neck, body, and
180 175
211
[The author considers it due to himself to remark, that, in consequence of not seouiing from the engraver good proofs of the plates, there will occur a few inaccuracies between the lettering ou the cuts and explanations accompanying them. by comparing one plate These, however, are not of material consequence yet, if necessary, the reader can, from analogy,
with another,
correct the errors with a pen.]
EXPLANATION OF FIGURE
OSSEOUS STRUCTURE.
11. 12. 13.
14. 15.
16.
II.
Cervical vertebra. " Dorsal
Lumbar
Sacrum.
"
Coccygeal bones.
True
False
ribs.
17. 18. 19.
"
Sternum.
Pelvis.
20. 21.
22. 23. 24. 33. 34. 35.
e.
Posterior part of the pelvis, or ischiatic spines.

Inferior, or pubic region.
Femur.
Patella.
Tibia.
Scapula.
Humerus.
Radius.
Fibula.
/.
Ulnar.
REMARKS
OSSEOUS, CARTILAGINOUS,
AND LIGAMENTOUS STRUCTURES.
The bones are the solid framework which fibrous arrangement is more irregular and gives stability to the whole fabric, and af- difficult to trace. The basis of the osseous structure is ford fixed bearings upon which the powers parts,* regulating the varied movements operate. nearly the same as the membranous
The bones, then, are considered as the most being composed of fibrous laminae or plates, dense and solid structures of the animal which are connected together so as to form,
frame
the
:
affording support,
and
in
many parts by
;
their intersection,
series of cells
anal-
protection, to
some of
the softer parts
at agous to
those of
the cellular structure.
same
time, the leverage
which regulates This
the action of a
Kmb
is
derived from the distinguished
theory has been disputed by some physiologists; the moderns

is
osseous structure.
contend that the osseous fabric
ceUular.f
on their exterior, exwe find that its external surface is the hard- cept those parts plated with cartilage, with periosteum. Through est part, and it differs very much in thick- a membrane termed venous comness in different bones, and in different this medium an arterial and The long bones (or cylmdrical) animals. * " The analysis of a bone into its two constituent parts of the horse contain less marrow, and are
On making
an examination of a bone,
Bones
are invested,
more cancellated
the
within, than the bones of
is
easily eftected
By
by the agency either of acids or of heat. macerating a full-gro-mi bone for a sufficient time in
muriatic acid, the earthy portion of the bone,
human
subject: in
is
many
of the former
diluted
the whole arena
The
occupied by cancelli. amounting to nearly one-thu-d of its weight, is dissolved This the acid; the animal portion only remaining. have an osseous plat- by ribs the bones of retains the bulk and shape of the original
animal basis
bone, but
is
ing differing in thickness in various subjects, and within is a cellular structure which
soft, flexible,
and
clastic
possessing, in
parts,
word,
all
the properties of
its
membranous
and
corres-
may
be termed diploe.
as
it
ponding in
is
chemical character to condensed albumen.
The marrow,
termed,
is
soft
substance of an oleaginous character, contained in an infinite number of sacs, deposited and suspended in the cavities of bones
this solid animal substance affords gelatin by long boiling in water, especially under the pressure, admitting of a high temperature, to which it may be si'.bOn the other hand, by subjeeted in Papin's digester.
A portion of
jecting a bone to the action of

will
fire,
the animal part alone
be consumed, and the earth
left
untouched, preservlost the
and in the canceUi. The marrow sacs are composed of a delicate vascular membrane, which isolates them from each other, and
prevents the
ing, as before, the
form of the bone, but having
material which united the particles, presenting a fragile mass which easily crumbles into powder. Tliis earthy
basis,
marrow from
gravitating or
when chemically examined,

;
cipally of phosphate of lime,
is found to consist prinwhich composes eighty -two
passing into the osseous structure. Bones present the appearance of lamella,
yet they are fibrous
drical
;
hundredths of
to Berzelius,
the fibres of the cylin-
and to contain also, according its weight minute portions of fluate and carbonate of lime, together with the phosphates of magnesia and of
soda."
t
Eoget.
bones are longitudinal; in the flat bones they have a radiated appearance, and in the short and peculiar shaped bones, the
The
Scarpa.
theories.
best authority in support of the cellular theory is Percivall advocates the laminated and fibrous
(11)
12
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OP

is
munication
established between the dense posed of gelatin, albumen,
and phosphate
and
soft parts.
The periosteum
is
anal- of calcis.
agous to the fibrous textures, being composed of numerous inelastic fibres of great strengtJi and density. The inner surface of the periosteum is connected with the bone by the vessels passing from the one to the other, and also by numerous prolongations, which pervade the
osseous substance.
Cartilage occurs in
and permanent.
vious to adult
two forms, temporary The former prevails pre;
life
the latter are identical
with the permanent structures after the animal has migrated from colthood. There are three or four different forms of
cartilages, viz
articular,
:
the membriform, interosseal,
and
inter-articular.
Tlie membriforni are fibro-cartilaginous The blood-vessels of the periosteum are numerous, and are easily demonstrated by they furnish a basis of support to the softer parts, supply the place of bone, and give injection.
form, shape, and firmness, to parts miossi-
CARTILAGE.*
fied.
By
then- elasticity, they
The
lage.
structure
which appears most
inti-
siderable variation of figure
admit of conand form, yield
mately connected with the osseous is carti- to external pressure, and recover their proper It is a firm and dense substance, shape as soon as pressure is removed. This apparently homogeneous in its texture, semi- kind of cartilage is found in the nostrils,
and of a miUc-white or pearly color. ears, larynx, and trachea. T/ie interosseal cartilages pass from one is smooth and uniform, presenting neither eminences nor bone to another, adhering firmly by their cavities, pores nor inequalities. They permit of an It has, extremities to each. however, minute capillary vessels, the diam- increase of extent or motion, as observed eters of which are too small for ocular between the ribs when macerated, they are demonstration. Notwithstanding its den- divisable into lamina of an oval shape, sity, it has a minute circulating apparatus, which are united by fibres passing obliquely wliich is demonstrated in diseases known between them. The articular cartilages are those plates as spavin and ringbone, in which absorpof articular substance which adhere firmly tion of cartilage occurs. Cartilaginous structures are chiefly com- and inseparably to t'lie surfaces of bones which arc opposed to each other in the * " The mechanical property which particularly distinjoints, or over which tendons and ligaments guishes cartilage is elasticity, a quality wliich it possesses
pellucid,
The
surface of cartilage
in
a greater degree than any other animal structure, and

it
play.
The
elastic resistance of this carti-
which adapts
to
many
useful purposes in the
economy. lage
Hence
it
forms the basis of
many
;
parts where, contrary to
the purposes answered
as well as firmness are required
by the bones, pliancy and resistance and hence cartilage is actions.

is
has a powerful tendency to lessen the shocks incident to sudden and violent
employed when a certain shape
to
be preserved, to-
The
fer
inter-articular cartilages
do not
dif-
gether with a capability of yielding to an external force.
in
composition
from
the
preceding.
The
place.
flexibility
of cartilage, however, does not extend

limits
;
beyond certain
if
these be exceeded, fracture takes

stnictiu'e,
They
are attached to the inside of the cap-
Great density bestowed upon an animal
indeed, ajipears to be in all cases attended with a proportionate degree of brittleness.

ties
These mechanical propertheir

all,
of
cartilages,
as
well as
intimate structure,
although nearly homogenous in

cation
in
different kinds
are subject to modifiCartilages are
of cartilage.
covered with a fine membrane, termed the perichondrium,
analogous in
the fibrous
its
structure
and
office
to the periosteum,
which we have already had occasion
to point out
membranes, as investing the bones."
among
Ror/et.
by which they arc rendered somewhat movable and, being interposed between the bones of the knee and hock, allow them a greater latitude of motion, while at the same time they contribute to adapt their siu-faces more perfectly to each other. The structure of these cartilages is
sular ligament,
;
laminated.
THE HOESE.
FIBRO-CARTILAGINOUS STRUCTURES.
Fibro-cartilage appears to be of
13
an
in-
cludes fibrous membranes, fibrous capsules, tendinous sheaths, and aponsurosis.
termediate nature
cartilage.
between ligament and

it
Fibrous membranes: these resemble or-
to a
membranes, only that their fibres are combines the denser. The periosteum is a membrane of has a characteristic properties of both of the above this description, and the dxira mater
Having a
fibrous texture united dinary
cartilaginous basis,
textures.
similar structure.
Fibrous capsules are presented in the to unite the bodies of the bones of the ver- form of sacs, which surround various tentebrae they then get the name of inter- verte- dons and joints. These capsules are also bral svibstance. They impart great elasticity lined by a synovial membrane, which secretes
;
Fibro-cartilaginous sti-uctiures are found
to the spine,
and
also diminish the effects of the synovia.
concussion.
LIGAMENTOUS STRUCTURES.
Tendinous sheaths are formed by fibrous membranes which surround the tendons, in
those parts that are subjected to fi-iction, or The ligamentous structures are dense; liable to displacement, during the action of possess a considerable degree of solidity in the muscles which move the joint. modiare some parts, while in others they Aponeurosis are those extended sheets The ligaof fibrous membrane.
fications
mentous system includes a number of parts of fibrous texture wliich in some instances which have received different names, such form coverings of parts, while in others
points of attachment to as ligaments, tendons, faschia aponeurosis, they constitute the former case they are termed capsiiles or bursse mucosa; and fibres of muscles. In ligamentous matter also enter into the com- faschiae, and either surround the muscles of
else invest position of other organs, imparting to them a limb, forming a sheath for it, or particular muscle. different degrees of mechanical strength. or confine some In the latter case the aponeurosis presents The ligamentous structures vary; we find
that in
some
faschia, etc., at others they collect into dense, give
places they are expanded into broad, or narrow, surfaces and fibres which attachment to particular portions of
enlonsated cords.
The
first
division in- muscle.
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

TEGUMENTARY SYSTEM.
ON THE HAIR OF HORSES.
whilst the medullary
is
derived from the
Hair is
mals.
oUicles
produced in unusual abundance at the .coecal extremity a peculiar tegumentary appendage, and it is by the constant development of
cells are
deeper stratum whose
characteristic of the horse

It is
and other mam- new
cells at this
point, that the continual

is
developed on the interior of gi-owth of the hair
kept up.
which are formed by a depression of An excoriation or moulting of the hair, These folUcles are lined by a which falls off, is replaced by a new gro^vth, the true skin. continuation of the epidermis, the cells of which as it comes to maturity assumes the which are developed in peculiar abundance original color. This change in the covering from a spot at its deepest portion the dense with which nature has so wisely clothed exterior of the cluster thus formed being the horse, usually takes place either in spring known as the bulb of the hak, while the or autumn, or at both periods. The hair The of the mane and tail, however, is not subsofter interior is termed its pulp. elementary parts of hair are a cortical or jected to these periodical changes; hence, investing substance of a dense horny tex- it acquires considerable calibre and length. ture; and a medullary or pith-like subBy analysis, the hair yields carbon, hystance, of a mvich softer character, occupy- drogen, nitrogen, oxygen, and sulphur, and ing the interior. The cortical envelope of its variation in color is due to the presence hairs is a continuation of the outer scaly of dilTerent shades of matter which infil;
:
layers of the epidermis that lines the follicle
trates the cortical substance.
EXAMINATIONS ON THE COMMON INTEGUMENTS.

do the common integuments Q. What are the attachments of the cutis? A. and rete mueosum. The cutis is attached to the subjacent parts by celluA. It is a lar membrane, in some places so tensely that Uttle or Q. Describe the cuticle or epidermis? thin, transparent, tough, and elastic porous membrane, no motion is admitted of; in others so loosely that it
^. Of how many
?
consist
A.
parts
:
Three
cuticle, cutis,
It is admits of being thro-mi into folds. About the forehead, composed of flexible lamellae, so arranged as to bear upon the back, around the tail, and upon the pasterns, some analogy to the scales of fish it pervades the it can scarcely be pinched up but upon the sides of the whole body, and insinuates itself into porous struc- face and neck, upon the ribs, along the flanks, and upon tures and folHcular passages, inlets, and outlets of the the anus and thighs, it wQl easily admit of duplication. system ; it is supposed to be continous from the mouth Q. "What varieties are there in the density of the cutis ? to the anus. A. It varies in density, not only where it covers A. There difierent parts in the same animal but in horses of Q. Describe the pores or perforations. First, those surrounding the hair. Secdifierent are tliree. breeds and temperaments, it varies very essen-
serving as an envelope to the cutis, or true skin.
ondly, exhalent pores.

Q.
Tliirdly,
absorbent pores.
How
is
the cutis designated?
A.
tially.
As
the cutis
Q.
What
is
the organization of the rete mucosimi
vera, or true skin.
Q. '\Vhat
is
the structure of the cutis?

clastic,
a fibrous texture, tough,

sensitive,
A. It is composed of a fine, deHcate, laminated tissue, of interposed between the cuticle and cutis, and serves as vascular, and highly their connecting medium, and is supposed to secrete
A.
It is
and
is
what we commonly denominate
leather.
the coloring matter of the external surface and

(14)
haii-.
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HORSE.

PHYSIOLOGY OF THE SKIN.
15
This tissue consists of a net-work of
yet those minute fibres and bands, which are interwoven in every direction, so as to leave inpersons who are in the habit of making free numerable areola, or spaces, which commuuse of the whip scarcely ever realize the
The
sldn
is
highly sensitive
fact.
the
sliin
The author has an impression that of a horse is more sensitive than
nicate fi-eely with one another.
Of
these fibres,
some
are of the yellow or
that of
a small quan- elastic kind, but the majority are composed and, as in the to a horse's of the white fibrous tissue applied be turpentine tity of other form of elementary structure, they very soon he evinces signs of pain, back, present the form of broad flatwhich cannot be elicited when a 7nan be- frequently tened bands, or membranous shreds, in experiment. same the of subject the comes no distinct fibrous arrangement is Every horse-owner, also, must have noticed which The proportion of the two forms visible. the uneasiness a horse manifests when a common fly, or gad-fly, alights on him; and varies, according to the amount of elasticity or simple resisting power which the enin a variety of other ways the highly sensiThe interdoA\Tnents of the part require. tive state of a horse's skin admits of demstices or areolEB are fiUed, during life, with onstration. resembles very dilute serum -The skin is one of the principal emunc- a fluid which of the blood consisting chiefly of water, but tories of the body, from the surface of which a sensible quantity of common passes ofl" a large quantity of morbid fluid containing It is the undue accumusalt and albumen. or insensible perspiration, the form of
man
for
example,
let
in
sensible, as the case
may
;
be.
The
skiii is
lation of this fluid wliich constitutes drop-
the great external outlet
gravity upon and, should the sical effiision, the influence of which, shows the free communikidneys or any other organ fail to play their the seat of cation that exists among the interstices. part in eliminating useless fluids, the skin of eommunication is still opens its flood-gates, and thus purifies the This freedom more shown, however, by the fact, that body. The amount of fluid exhaled from
either air or water may be made to pass, by the external siurface has been the subject of pressure, into almost some very interesting experiments, and the a moderate continued every part of the body containing cellular results are truly astonisliing. or areolar tissue, although introduced only
OF THE CELLULAR MEMBRANE BENEATH THE at a

SKIN.
single point.
Li this
manner
it
is
the
habit
of
butchers to inflate veal; and
This tissue abounds in almost every part impostors have thus blown up the scalps of the body; thus, says Carpenter, "it binds and faces of their children, in order to exThe whole body has together the ultimate fibres of the muscles cite commiseration. into minute fasciculi, unites this fasciculi been thus spontaneously distended with air
into larger ones, these again into
which are obvious

;
still larger, by emphysema in the lungs; the air having and these into escaped from the air-cells into the surroundthe entire muscle and also forms the mem- ing areolar tissue, and thence, by the conbranous divisions between distinct muscles. tinuity of this tissue with that of the body In like manner it unites the elements of in general at the root or apex of the lungs,
to the eye,
nerves, glands,
cells into
etc.,
binds together the
fat- into
the entire fabric.
The structure of the serous and synovial minute masses, these into larger ones, and so on and in this manner pene- membranes is essentially the same as the The true cellular membrane is trates and forms a considerable part of all above. It also serves sometimes termed reticular, while that conthe softer tissues of the body.
;
as the bed in which blood-vessels, nerves, taining fat
is
called adipose
and lymphatics may be
carried
into
the
substance of the different organs."
16
ANATOilY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF
ADIPOSE OR FATTY TISSUE.
case, however, as
some have maintained

evidence that animals
The adipose
lated
cells,
tissue is
composed of
iso- for there is sufficient
which appropriate fatty matter may produce fatty matter by a process of from the blood after the same manner as chemical transformation, from the starch or the secreting cells appropriate the elements sugar of their food, when there is an unusual of bile, urine, and milk. " The portion of deficiency of it in the aliment." Liebig fatty matter separated from the circulating writes " Whatever views we may entertain fluid to form adipose tissue, is only that regarding the origin of the fatty constituwhich can be spared from the other pur- ents of the body, this much, at least, is unposes to which they have to be applied and deniable, that the herbs and roots consumed hence the production of this tissue depends, by the cow contain no butter that, in the in part, upon the amount of fatty matter hay or other fodder of oxen, no beef-suet taken in as food.* This is not entirely the exists that no hog's-lard can be found in * " Deposition. In almost all animals that are healthy, the potato refuse given to swine and that copious food of a nutritive kind, combined with little labor, the food of geese or fowls contains no will increase the deposition of fat but in the human sub- goose nor capon fat. The masses of fat ject, and, indeed in many quadrupeds, the animal spirits found in the bodies of these animals are appear to hare very considerable influence over this secretion. We see numberless examples of people, wlio appear formed in their organism; and, when the
:
and yet are constantly full value of tliis fact is recognized,it entitles life tend to an opus to conclude, that a certain quantity of posite state and we may occasionally obsei-ve horses and dogs, particularly circumstanced, in which, from their oxygen, in sorrie form or other, separates natural leanness, or poorness upon the rib, something of from the constituents of their food, for a mental nature would appear to be operating indeed, it
meagre, though their food and habits of
;
;
to enjoy the best bodily liealth,
is
a well
to
known
be
truth, that if
irritable disposition
tomed
stalled,
(to
you separate a horse of an from others with whom he is accus- fat could possibly be he wUl fall away in condition, in conof these substances."
without such a separation of oxygen, no formed from any one
sequence of
beinrj alone;
use the vulgar expression) fretting from

affect
The chemical
of the
analysis of the constituents
some, that
and so much does tliis act of segregation I have known them even refuse then-
food.
food of the graminivora shows in
Those horses are commonly the

easily digestible food
such as
:
fattest that are fed
on the clearest
braised or scalded corn,

etc.,
manner that they contain carbon and oxygen in certain proportions; which,
to equivalents, yield the folseries
roots of
nutritive kind,
chopped hay,
and that
but
in-
have
little
or no exercise
when reduced
lowing
a fact well appreciated by the

Jit for sale,
horse-dealer,
whose horses are^fne and
capable of fatigue.
Absorption.
Constitutional
" In vegetable fibrine,

diseases, generally speak-
albumen, and cas-
eine, there are contained, for

120 eq. carbon, In starch,
" cane sugar, "
ing, extenuate the body,
and more particularly such

;
as are
of the acute or painful description
lience, tlie irritation

will, if it
:
caused by a simple puncture in the foot,
be of
120 " 120 " 120 "

"
" " " " "
36 eq. oxygen. 100 "

110 " 110 "
120 " 140 "
" " " "
long duration, induce a state of emaciation
under which
circumstances, the absorbents are supposed to act with more than ordinary effect, and to take up the adeps from the
interior of its cells
gum,
" sugar of milk, 120

" grape sugar,
Percivall.
120 "
EXAMINATIONS RESUMED.
CELLULAR MEMBILVNE.
Q.
How
do capsules of joints
.'
A.
Q.
Q.
What
It is
is
the principal use of cellular

in uniting, covering,
membrane ?
cellidar
it,
membrane
A.
differ
from
common
They
are a modification of
employed
and defending
under a condensed form.

Q. In
exist in greatest
;
various parts of the body.
Does
?
branes
A.
cellular differ
from serous or nervous membrane

all
No, they are
resolvable into the
same beneath the

?
what part of the animal does cellular memabundance? A. Immediately skin upon the ribs, and about the breast,
constituents.
and under the jaws,

differ
in the scrotum,
on the inside of
A.
Q.
How
does the periosteum
from the above
the elbow and thigh.
It presents itself in
a more condensed form.
THE HORSE.
"
17
ele-
Now in
all fatty
bodies there are con-
it
tained,
"
on an average
cq. carbon,
is a separation of oxygen from the ments of food."
For 120
only 10 cq. oxj-gen.
" Since the carbon of the fatty constit-
OF THE EXTERNAL PARTS.

THE HOOF.*
hoof is the horny case or covering nature has pro\Tided for the protection of
"
uents of the animal body

the food,
is
derived from
is
seeing that there
no other
The
source from
obvious,
if
whence
it
foot. It may be from albumen, fibrine, or casein, that for said of itself to constitute such a shoe or every 120 equivalents of carbon deposited defence, as enables the animal in his wild as fat, 26 equivalents of oxygen must be state to travel about in quest of food, not separated from the elements of these sub- only without injury to the structures understances and, further, if we conceive fat to neath it, but with a degree of elasticity that be formed from starch, sugar, or sugar of preserves his whole frame from concussion.
we
suppose
can be derived, it is fat to be formed the sensitive parts of the
mUk, that for the same amount of carbon must be separated 90, 100, and 110 equivalents of oxygen from these compounds respectively. " There is therefore but one way in which the formation of fat in the animal body is possible, and this is absolutely the same in which its formation in plants takes place
there
forced into any comparison of must be admitted that the hoofs of animals bear some anatomical affinity
the sort,
it
Were one
to
the
human
;
nails,
or claws,
of
other
though they are vastly superior in physiological importance to any such appendages as these.
animals
*
Percivall's
Anatomy.
EXAIVIINATIONS RESUMED.
ADIPOSE TISSUE.
Q.
matter, at the expense of which the respiration
may be
when other materials are deficient. the fatty matter contained in the adipose maintained Q. Suppose you desired to fatten a horse or an ox, cells composed of? A. Stearine, margarine, and should you adopt ? * method A. I should keep what oleine.
What
is
Q.
How
do they appear when isolated

solid,
A.
The the animal

Q. In
at rest,
and furnish him with an abundance
two former are

Q.
and the
latter
is fluid.
of nitrogenized food.
How
are they preserved in a fluid state in the
animal body ?
the body.
Q.
A.
By
the ordinary temperature of
abound?
caseine.
A.
what vegetable constituents does nitrogen In vegetable fibrine, albumen, and
What
are the
observable
differences
in color
* Experience teaches us that,
in poultry, the
maximum
of fet
is
occurring in different parts of the body, and in animals obtained by tying the feet, anil by a medium temperature. These of diverse temperaments ? A. In some parts of the animals in such circumstances may be compared to a plant possessing
body
it
is
white, in others
it
has a yellow tinge
in
is
ia the highest degree tlie power of converting

its
all
the food into parts of
own
animals of IjTnphatic and ner\-ous temperaments

white; in the
tinge
;
it
flesh
structure. The excess of the constituents of blood forms and other organized tissues, while that of starch, sugar, etc., is
fat.
sanguine
it
it
has somewhat of a red
converted into
When
animals are Cittened on food destitute of

size.
in the bilious,
presents a yellow appearance.
nitrogen, only certain parts of then- structure increase in
Thus,
method above aUuded to, the liver becomes Q. The fat at the ordinary temperature of the li\-ing three or four times larger than in the same animal, when well fed body being fluid, how is it retained in the fat cells Tvith- with free motion, while we cannot say that the organized structure out transudation ? A. The mtervals of the fat cells of the liver is thereby increased. The liver of a goose fed in the ordinary way is firm and elastic that of the imprisoned animal is are traversed by a minute net-work of blood vessels, soft and spongy. The difference consists in a greater or less expanfrom wliich they derive their secretion and it is prob- sion of its cells which are filled with fat.
in a goose, fattened in the
ably by the constant moistening of then- walls with a
watery
Q.
fluid,
that theu- contents are retained.

are uses of the
fill
What
adipose tissue? A.
It is
Insome diseases, the starch, sugar.etc., of the food obviously do not undergo the changes which enable them to assist in respiration, and consequently to be converted into fat. Thus, in diabetes mellitus, the starch is only converted into grape sugar, which is expelled
the body without further change. In other diseases, as for example in inflammation of the
liver, we and in the composition of the
intended to
up spaces
fomis a sort of cushion or from

It also acts as
pad
for the support of
movable parts.
a non-conductor of heat, thus preserring the animal
find the blood loaded with fat

bile there is
and
oil
nothing at
all
inconsistent with the supposition that
temperature
it
serves as a reservoir of combustible
some of
its
constituents
may
be transformed into
fat.
18
"
Form. Sainbel viewed the foot as or protrude at bottom, whereby its groundsegment of an oval, opened at the surface becomes augmented, particularly back, and nearly round in front.' To a around the outer quarter. To a certain excommon observer, the hoof exhibits a conoid tent tliis is worthy of observation although, form the part resting upon the ground in my opinion, it is to be regarded rather as being the basis, the vacuity above, the ob- an effect of pressure than one of abstract truncated apex. Mr. Bracy Clark asserts growth. The surface of inclination upon that this -view is incorrect, and that the which the horn is produced has no such general figure of the hoof is a cylinder, spread, nor can the hoof itself be said, /row very obliquely truncated upon its ground growth alone, to have any such natural tensurface. This he demonstrates in two dency; but, as it continues to grow and ways either by rolling up a piece of paper shoot beyond the inner foot that produced into the shape of a cylinder, and afterwards it, and to which it was so intimately united, cutting one of its ends in a very slanting it yields to the pressure of the animal's direction or by taking a carpenter's square, weight, and bulges or spreads out, and and placing one limb beneath the foot more at the outer side than the inner, in across the quarters, then sloping the other consequence of the pressure tending more backward against the side of the quarters, in that direction. If we examine a num'the
; ; ;
;
parallel to the front,
when
the edge of the ber of hoofs of neglected growth, and con-
sequent exuberance and deformity, of vaThis corrected view of its figure rious descriptions, we may discover that, will serve to account for the general equi- in them all, the spread seems to have been formity manifest in the hoof, and also for the first or incipient deviation from that line
the hoof.
iron will be found parallel to the wall of
the undeviating correspondence found to of growth viewed as consistent with the exist between its slope or slant, as well in health and well-doing of the foot. It is
which in an ordinary or only in the unshod hoof that any spread is healthy foot may be estimated at an angle found as soon as the ground-surface comes of 45. Around the coronet, where the to be confined by a shoe, pressure can no
front as behind,
:
hoof unites with the

cut directly across
right angles with it
:
skin, the cylinder is longer exert its influence to
its
perpendicular
produce such
'
at consequences.
" Mjc.
it is
the oblique trun-
Goodwin
of
its
aptly observes, that
to
cation of
its
ground-surface that occasions take the form of the hoof correctly,
we must
the slant, which latter

increase
at
we may consequently
strip
it
exuberant or
superfluous
by any means that parts, the same as one would pare the suaugment the former, viz. i by lowering the perabundant growth off" our own nails. heels by cutting away a prominent frog The neglect of this necessary preparative or by putting on thin-heeled shoes. At the has led to a considerable difl'erence of same time that we increase the slant of the opinion about the natin-al, healthy, or true
pleasure
;
hoof,
terns,
we
increase the obliquity of the pas- form

liliewise proportionately
of the ground-surface
of
the foot.
and
augment Mx. Bracy

the
;
Clark, I conceive, has inclined
the ground-surface of the hoof, from heel to to

toe, the
side
of
error
in
this
particular
cylin-
breadth remaining unaltered

ratio,
and though, in the substitution of the
in the
consequently, extend the drical for the conical figure of the entire hoof, he has certainly the advantage of surface of tread.*
" Spread.
same
By the
spread, is
meant the other

left
inclination the
hoof manifests, when

sides,
unshod, around the toe and

* For
foot,
on the cylindrical form of the consult Mr. Bracy Clark's works on the Foot of the the
further elucidation
writers. His natural foot is one with great spread to it, much of which to bulge the smith would find it necessary to deprive it of, even on the first shoeing ; and
protuberance
of
the
outer
quarter
Horse.
(which Mr. C. points out as an attribute
THE HORSE.
19
will, of course,
of health) being wholly owing to the spread, to a body capable of translation, and condisappear with the annihi- sidered in a state of actual motion; because, then, the
* lation of the spread.' " Although Mr. Goodwin has not here
mass and weight of the

of the exI
foot overburthen the muscles
explained
what he conceives
to
be the tremity.'
And
because,
would add, the
we
it is evident surfaces of contact being greater, the attracboth concur in viewing it rather as a tion of cohesion becomes greater, and so deviation from health or nature than a cir- much the more muscular force is required cumstance worthy of the consideration it to raise the foot (particularly in moist
origin or cause of the spread,
ground) from the earth. Besides which, a has been accounted of by Mr. Clark. " Color. Hoofs are black or white, or large foot is apt to become objectionable some intermediate shade, or they may ex- from its striliing, during action, the opposite
a black and white striped or marbly leg. On the other hand, it is contended, It is an old observation, and one that a large foot will not sink so deep into that passes current among us at the present soft ground as a small one, and conseday, that black or dark-shaded hoofs pos- quently will not demand so great an effort This is an sess greater strength and durability, and of strength to draw it out. indicate less proneness in the feet to dis- argument, however, that can only hold good ease, than such as are composed of white under the supposition, that in both cases The rationale of which the muscular strength is equal, which we or striped horn.
hibit
aspect.
in general, appears to be, that white horn (the same as know but rarely to happen, white hair) is the product of parts weaker broad or flat-footed horses possessing supeby nature than such as produce dark or rior strength small, nan'ow-footed ones, There cannot be a doubt black horn, and, being weaker, consequently superior speed. are more liable to disease, less able to resist about a large foot being unfavorable for those impressions that tend to disorder. speed, a small one for stability; neither
;
hoofs are more porous than black one nor the other can be indiscriminately and consequently absorb moisture and found fault with both within certain limits lose it again by evaporation with more fa- possess their respective advantages though cility a fact tlfet may probably aid us in to turn out as such, they each of them reaccounting for the failures attributed to quire to be combined with suitable conformation and action. them. " Large bulky hoofs are found to be It requires no veterinary ''Magnitude. skill to discover any very material dispro- mechanically weaker than others, in conseit quence of being composed of a thin, soft, portion in the magnitude of the foot wUl strike us at once as being large or porous description of horn. Sainbel ascribes a relaxation of the fibres comsmall, in comparison to the limb or the size all this to of the animal. A foot of any description posing the hoof: in which case, the diame-
White
ones,
'
that
is
out of proportion
it
is
to the
horse ters of the vessels are increased, the porosities are multiplied,
possessing
more
or less
objectionable
and the
fluids
;
abound
conse-
but, for all that, these out-of-proportion feet, in
them
in
too great quantities

is soft,
abstractedly considered, have their advan- quently this kind of foot
tender,
and
Small feet, on the contrary, in bel tells us, that a large wide hoof, by ex- general possess a close -woven horn, thick tending the surface of tread, will increase in substance, and consequently prove strong: they are rather oval than circular in figure, the stability and firmness of the fabric but then, he adds, this partial advantage with great depth of substance, and are In feet grows into an evil when it becomes applied found to be of a durable nature. description,' says Sainbel, from the * Goodwin's New System of Shoeing, edit, second, of this too close union and too close tension of page 33.
tages as well a& their disadvantages. Sain- sensible.'
' ; '
'
'
20

conduct ward, afterwards forward and inward, and
their fibres, the vessels destined to
the
nutritious
;
fluid
are
contracted and are elongated in the latter direction untU

that dryness they reach the centre of the bottom of the
obliterated
whence proceeds
*
of the part which renders the horn brittle foot, where they terminate: these inflec-
and
liable to split.'
" Division.
To
;
tions or processes of the wall constitute the
the
common
observer bars.
Altogether, the wall
may
be said to
the hoof appears to consist of one entire form about two-thirds of the entire hoof.
or indivisible case
but the anatomist

that
it
:
finds,
" Connection.
Superiorly,
is
its
around the
sldin;
by subjecting
or even to
itself into
it
to maceration, or coction, coronet, the
waU
;
united with the
putrefaction,
resolves interiorly, within

still,
circumferent border,
three separate pieces

its
so with the sole
posteriorly,
between
its heels,
long as the hoof maintains
with the heels of the frog; interiorly, besuch is the force of cohesion existing between the bars, with the sides of the frog tween these three parts, that we as easily and internally, with the sensitive laminEB. rend it in any other place as dissever one Let us now consider the waU in its detached
integrity,
These constituent parts or separate state. " Figure. and the frog: That of a hollow cylinder, having the sides presented to the ground cut THE AVALL. much aslant, and whose circle exhibits a " The wall or crust is the part of the hiatus or deficiency behind, from the latetEil hoof which is visible while the foot stands boundaries of which issue two narrow proupon the ground. It forms a circular Taking a lateral cesses or appendages. boundary wall or fence inclosing the interview, the wall assumes a conical shape, nal structures. On taking up the foot, we being broad and deep in front, and gradually find the wall prominent all round beyond narrowing as it stretches backward. the other parts, making the first impression '^Division. For facility of reference, and upon the ground, and evidently taking the
of
its jointures.
are the wall, the sole,
in aid of our descriptions,
we
distinguish
largest share of bearing.
It is
the part to
in the wall. First, the toe; secondly, the
which the shoe is nailed. It is, in fact, the quarters; thirdly, the heels; fourthly, the most important division of the hoof; apsuperior or coronary bordevg fifthly, the inpearing to form (in the words of Mr. Clark) ferior or solar border ; sixthly, the lamincB 'the basis or first principle in the mechanor lamellcB; lastly, the bars or appendages. ism of the hoof, the other parts being all " The Toe forms the bow or front of the subordinate to this.' hoof, and comprehends about two-thirds of " Situations and Relations. The wall the superfices of the waU. It is the deeptakes its beginning at the coronet, from the est, broadest, and thickest part of the wall terminating circular border of the skin, for reasons that wUl appear hereafter. It their with which it is intimately united exhibits a degree of slant about equal, natline of union being concealed by a row of urally, to an angle of forty-five degrees; overhanging hairs. From the coronet the though there are variations from this which wall descends in an oblique direction to (as was explained before) will be found, in the bottom of the foot, where it ema measiure, to be dependent upon the oblique braces the sole, and terminates in a cirWhen we come truncation of the cylinder. cular projecting border. The anterior and to understand the physiology of this part, lateral parts of the hoof are formed entirely however, a more operative and efficient by the wall but at the posterior part, incause for this variation wUl be found in the stead of the heels of the wall being conweight the wall has to sustain, and in its tinued one into the other so as to complete own mechanical strength or force of resistthe circle, they become inflected, first downance on which principle it is that light * Sainbel's Lectures on the Elements of Farriery. horses, thorough-breds, and ponies, as well
III.
MUSCULAR STRUCTURE.
o". Trapezius.
6.
c". e".
Rhomboideus longus.
Scalenus; and Z. Splenius.
Pectoralis par\-us.
spinatus.
y". Antea
g". Postea spinatus.
a and D. Serratus magnus.

6'.
c'.
Intercostales.
d'.
e'.
ObUquus externus abdominis. ObUquus internus abdominis.

Erector coccygis.
f.
g':
Depressor coccygis.
Compressor coccygis.
i'.
K.
K..
Gluteii muscles.
J'.
Triceps abductors.
Biceps abductor femoris.
m\
n'.
o'.
Tensor vaginae.
Rectus.
Vastus externus.
r". s'.
Gastrocnemius externus, and plantaris.

;
'.
Flexor pedis accessorius
its
fleshy belly.
y\ Peroneus. x\ Extensor pedis.

7".
Teres major.
Latissimus dorsi.
Pectoralis
i".
J.
magnus.
(Pectoral region.)
K. Humero
cubital.
V. Scapulo-ulnaris. m". n". Triceps extensor brachii.

o". Pectoralis transversalis.
p". Flexor metacarpi, externus.

u. V. Levator humeri,
s".
and Sterno
maxillaris.
Extensor metacarpi magnus.
x". Extensor pedis.
At the inferior part of the abdomen the letter h. occurs; it should be 4. 4 The subcutaneous thoracic vein A., hdwever, serves to indicate the region of
the rectus abdominalis.
7.
*.
The sheath. Ligamentum
colli.
THE HORSE.
21
belonging to the inner part, which is the differ only in being of a finer texture. Mr. beginning of the wall itself; the external Bracy Clark appears to entertain some sinedge to the white band by which the other gular notions in regard to the structure, but is embraced, and to which Mr. Clark has in more particularly the uses, of this part;
particular
drawn our
attention, under the which, in the respect I bear for their author,
appellation of Coronary Frog-band.
This
I shall consider,
when
the time
may
arrive
covers the proper or veritable coronary bor- for
me
to treat of the physiology of the
der of the hoof; having, tlnrough
its fibres,
foot.
" The Inferior or Solar Border offers but which are very fine, a sort of dove-tailed connection with it. As it recedes backward, little worthy of observation. It constitutes it grows broader to that degree, that its the ground or wearing surface of the wall, breadth at length becomes doubled being and is the part to wliich we nail the shoe. about half an inch broad in front, and one It grows thicker and more exuberant around inch behind. It is thickest around its mid- the toe than in other places, and, from its prodle parts its inferior edge, like the superior, jecting beyond the sole, presents a convenbecoming attenuated, until it grows so fine ient and suitable hold for the naUs of the as to end in imperceptible union with the shoe. Around the anterior and lateral parts, substance of the wall, giving it its beauti- it embraces the sole behind, it joins the from the heat, how- bars, which two points of union form two fully polished surface ever, to which the hoof is artificially exposed, principal bearing places for the shoe. The the thin part below the coronet often grows inferior border possesses a larger circumferarid, splits from the crust, and becomes ence than the superior, in consequence of
;
everted
turning, at the
same
time, in con- the oblique detruncation of the hoof.
" This is a part that requires paring sequence of dryness, of a whitish complexion. Posteriorly, we find it continued round every time the horse is shod. Such
down
is
its
the heels of the wall and frog, and from exuberating nature, that (like the
human
thence across the back of the

altogether a complete circle,
cleft, forming nail), were it not continually kept worn and everywhere down, or broken, or cut off, it would elonshowing itself to be the medium of connec- gate very considerably, and gradually turn It has up, exliibiting forms not only of the most tion between the skin and the hoof.
been already stated that the cutis terminates unsightly but even grotesque description, in a circular border, let into a groove around and proving incommodious to a degree to the summit of the wall the cuticle, how- be almost entirely destructive of progresever, does not end here it is continued sion.
:
down; in fact, we trace it to the horny band we have been describing, the one being
The LamincB (better named lamellts) numerous narrow^ thin plates or continuous in substance with the other. In- processes, arranged with the nicest order deed, the only detectible diflferences in them and mathematical precision upon the interare, that one is thicker than the other, and nal surface of the wall. They extend, in grows hard, and dry, and white, from the uniform parallels, in a perpendicular direceffects of heat upon it from without, and tion from the lower edge of the superior the want of moisture from within. This border down to the line of junction of the cuticular origin and assimilation may be wall with the sole and are so thickly set demonstrated in the putrefied foot or, bet- that no part of the superfices remains un"
consist of
ter
is
still,
in the foot of the foetus.
The band occupied by them.
They
are likewise con-
broader at the heels than elsewhere, in continued upon the surfaces of the bars.
In
sequence of the greater breadth of exposed the recent subject they are found soft, yieldcutis at those parts. In its texture it is ing, and elastic; but from exposure they
fibrous,
and
its fibres
pursue the same direc- become dry and
rigid.
tion as those of the wall,
from which they
"
Every
lamellEe exhibits
two edges and
22
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF
feet
as mules and asses, have vpright or strong- prominence describe gentle curves, the outer a wider sweep than the inner. (i. e.), walls but moderately sloped; making
and This gives the hoof altogether a sort of weak twisted appearance, and makes the inner feet (i. e.), walls that slant immoderately. part of the toe look more projecting than And (as was before observed) upon the the outer; a deviation that seems principally degree of obliquity of the wall must very to have originated in the spread, and one, much depend that of the pasterns. In esti- methinks, that has had more attention given mating the slant or slope of the wall, it is it than any consequences attachable to it The quarters range proper to distinguish between that which is render it deserving of. consequent on the detruncation of the hoof, in depth from two to three inches; and
whereas
heavy
horses,
cart-horses,
flat or
coach-horses, have
commonly
and such as is the effect of a biu-then under which the wall succumbs. The depth of horn in front of the toe, measuring from the termination of the sldn to the most prominent point below (and supposing the hoof to be cut and ready to receive the shoe), may be rated at about three and a half
inches.
measure in thickness from one-fourth to three-eighths of an inch. " The Heels are the two protuberant portions of the wall by which it is terminated They are the shallowest, and posteriorly. thinnest, and {in connection) only flexible
parts of the wall.
Though
their surfaces
The bow
or degree of convexity recede from the perpendicular, they main-
of the toe in front must depend upon its tain the same slope as the toe and quarters. obliquity as well as upon the circularity of At their angles of inflection, from which
the foot.
The
thickness of the horn
com-
are continued the bars, they form (in con-
posing the toe
may
be estimated at three- junction with the heels of the sole) pouches
eighths of an inch, or from that to half an or sockets into which are received the heels In depth they range inch, and this substance is the same from of the sensitive foot.
from one and a half to two inches. In subdo not exceed a quarter of an which part there is an accession of horny inch, the outer heel being rather thicker than matter to block up the interstices between the inner. " The Superior or Coronary Border is the the laminffi, and also to fill the angular vacuity that would otherwise exist here circular, attenuated, concavo-convex part
immediately beneath the coronary the junction of the wall with the
circle to
sole
at stance they
between the wall and

the toe
is
sole.
In the fore-feet, entering into the composition of the coronet.
thicker in substance than either Its extent

;
the quarters or heels

Sainbel)
heels
'
but (we have
it
from aspect
in the hind,
on the contrary,
marked exteriorly by the whitish and also by some partial the separation and eversion of the outer flakes
is
it
exhibits,
and quarters
are generally thicker than of horn
around
its
junction with the wall
the
it assumes the same The Quarters are the portions of the character as the wall below it but its inwall intermediate between the toe and the ternal surface is altogether different. In-
toe.'
below.
Externally,
"
heels.
They
are
commonly
described as stead of possessing laminae, the surface
is
standing vpright, and, according to a car- smooth and uniformly excavated, being penter's square set against the wall, so they moulded to the form of the sensitive coro-
appear to do
this is not,
however, the view
net,
and everywhere presenting numerous
the anatomist ought "to take of their posi- pores for the purpose of receiving the secretSuperiorly, the coronary border to him the oblique course of their ing villi. tion
:
component
in the
fibres,
together with the slant of presents
two edges, having a groove
be-
their laminae, demonstrate that they slope
tween them
for the reception of the termi-
does.
lines
same manner and degree as the toe nating border of the cutis. It is this groove The quarters do not run in straight that marks the reception of the coronary from before backward, but by their border into two parts: the internal edge
THE HORSE. one edge it grows to the which is somewhat attenuated, hangs loose and floating within the The surfaces, which are cavity of the hoof. two lateral, are smooth, and, considering the magnitude of the lamella itself, of enormous extent so much so that it might be
23
two
surfaces.
;
By
fleeted
wall
the other,
from its heels obliquely across the bottom of the foot. For a long time, by farriers, they were confounded with the substance of the sole, an error that owed its origin and perpetuation to the malpractice
they exercised in paring the foot
ting both bars
in cut-
said almost to be constituted entirely of distinction,

superficies.
and sole down, without any to a common level. In the
And
this leads us to the con- natural healthy foot the bars appear, exter-
templation of the great and magniiicent nally, as elongated sharpened prominences,

design which Nature evidently had in view extending from the bases of the heels into
in their formation,
viz.,
the production of the centre of the foot, between the sole the frog
;
and
ample surface mthin a small space, an end that has been obtained tlirough the means Mr. Bracy Clark proof multiplication. cured fi'om the late Thos. Evans, L.L. D., mathematical teacher of Christ's Hospital,
posteriorly, they are continuous
in substance with the wall, with
which they
form acute angles
anteriorly, they stretch
as far as the point of the frog, constituting
two
inner walls or lateral fences

sole.
between
a calculation of what their united that body and the

;
Sainbel conceives,
amounted to and it appeared from their position, that they offer resistance an increase of actual surface more to the conti'action of the heels. Their inthan the simple internal area of the hoof ternal surfaces exhibit rows of lamellEe, would give of about twelve times, or about continued from those lining the wall, but 212 square inches, or nearly one square foot which are here shoi't, and in their direction and a half. transverse, two circumstances referable to " The lamellae exhibit no differences but the narrowness and inflection of the bar. In length they corres- Towards the extremity of the bar they in their dimensions. pond to the respective depths of the wall gradually grow shorter, and less distinctly being longest, and likewise broadest, around marked, until we at length lose aU vestige the toe, and gradually decreasing towards of any more of them. While the promithe liinder parts. nence of the bars is such as to give them a " In composition they are horny. Viewed secondary bearing upon the ground, their through a microscope, ]\Ir. Clark discovered sharpened forms wiU sinlt them more or in their substance two planes of fibres, the less deeply into every impressible surface.
superficies
to aflbrd
'
one running
these.'
in parallel lines to the axis of
the hoof, the other obliquely intersecting
" "
THE SOLE.
arched plate entering
its
When
;
stretched, they exhibit signs
The
sole is the
of elasticity
but
this
appears greater in into the formation (as

bel's definition,
name
or,
implies) of
the transverse than in the perpendicular the bottom of the hoof:

direction.
"
'
to adopt Sain-
it is
that part which covers
By means
for
of
its
lamellae,
the wall the whole inferior surface of the foot, ex-
presents a superficies of extraordinary

plitude
am- cepting
the
frog.'
It is
a very just practical

is in-
the attachment of the cofiin- observation of Mr. Coleman's, that although
bone.
structure consisting of similarly a
knowledge of every part of the foot
formed lamellae envelops the bone, and these are dovetailed in such a manner wdth the horny lamellae, as to complete a union which, for concentrated strength, combinin elasticity, may vie with any piece of animal
dispensably necessary to render us scientific

overseers of the farrier's art,
no individual
part requires such undivided attention, as
regards shoeing, as the sole, since the suc-
mechanism
" TJie
at present
known
to us.
in
Bars are processes of the wall,
operation mainly depends on the paring and defence of this arched horny plate.
cess of this mechanical
24
" Situation and Connection. It fills up united by horny matter, the two together the interspaces between the outer and inner forming a stout bulwark of defence to those I differ in parts of the internal foot included between walls (or bars) of the crust.
opinion from those
who
describe
it
to sur- them.
The
points or heels are the
two pos-
round the toe of the frog. I hold its circum- terior salient angles received into the anguferent support and connection to be the wall lar intervals between the outer and inner Although naturally the of the hoof, to which it is firmly cemented walls or bars. by an interstitial horny matter, filling the least exposed, these are the parts most subject to injury or pressure from the shoe, crevices between the laminEe.
" Figure.
The
circumferent outline of being the seat of that disease mistakenly

cir-
the sole meastires about two-thirds of a

cle,
called corn.
is
The middle
or centre of the
sur-
the remaining third being omitted to sole
the portion
more immediately
form a triangular-shaped hiatus or opening This for the reception of the frog and bars. circular form, however, is by no means true, or even invariably the same, in its dimensions.
rounding the fore parts of the frog, and would (were the sole a regular arch) be the
most elevated part
but, in general,
;
we find
the sole flattened hereabouts
the highest
Generally, the longitudinal exceeds parts of the arch being the angles alongside
Its greatest
the transverse diameter.

eter is
diam- of the bars; the lowermost, those around

toe.
shown by a
its
line
extended from either the
heel across
middle to the opposite point

the
sole
" Surfaces.
rior (as
of the toe.
" Arch.
Commonly,
Of the was mentioned

is
surfaces, the supe-
before)
is
unevenly
presents convex
cave.
the inferior, correspondently con-
an arch of more or less concavity inferiorly, and convexity superiorly. But it is not a
regular or uniform
arch,
The former
everywhere pitted,
particularly about the heels, with
numerous
being one that circular pores, running in an oblique direcrather waves or undulates, so as to bear a tion, the marks of which remain evident
comparison,
the
made
of
it
by Mr. Clark,
'
to
upon the
inferior smrface likewise.
These
mouth
of a bell extremely extended or pores are the impressions
made
in the soft
flattened.'
is
highest in
slopes,
Like that of the bell, the arch horn by the villi of the sensitive sole, from the middle, from which it whose orifices the horny matter is produced. laterally, down to a flat, subsequently They also form the bond of union between
:
wliich is its border, in order to the horny and the sensitive soles a dilated surface for attachment of a nature so strong and resisting, that it towards the wall. There is, however, vast requires the whole strength of a man's arm
to rise again around
present
variety in the degree of arch of the sole
in to effect their separation
an operation of
was wont
sole
'
some
feet
it
is
of surprising depth;
in a cruel description that
to be
others, the arch is converted into a flattened practised in times past,

svirface
;
under th& fallacious
and yet both seem
to
perform notion that

is
'
drawing the
was
extir-
equally well.
In the hind feet the sole
pating the malady.
" Thickness. generally more arched than in the fore, and The natural thickness of approaches in figure nearer to the oval than the sole may be estimated at about oneThere will be found, the circle. sLxth of an inch.
" Division.
In
the sole
we
distinguish however, variations from this standard in

;
an anterior part or toe ; a middle or central different horses and it will also very much part ; two points or heels ; and two surfaces. depend on the part selected for measureThese divisions are not very well defined ment. The portion of the sole most elebut they prove serviceable in aid of our de- vated from the ground that which forms
scriptions.
The
toe of the sole
is
the part a union with the bars
is
nearly double
encircled
which
it
by the toe of the wall, against the thickness of the central or circumferent abuts, and to which it is intimately parts and next to this, in substance, comes
;
THE HORSE.
the heel.
'
25
thinner
centre,'
I do not find that the sole grows two sides ; a point or toe ; and two bulbs or from the circumference to the heels. Both surfaces of the frog ''Surfaces. as has been stated by an author
of celebrity.
manifest striking irregularities, and these

are respectively reversed,
making one
sur-
'THE FROG.
"
face the exact counterpart of the other.
In
The
frog is the prominent, triangular, other respects, the only difference they exleft
spongy body, occupying the chasm

the inflection of the bars.
" Situation
by
liibit, is,
that the superior exceeds the in-
The frog and Connection. between the bars the three, altogether, filling up the vacuity in the sole, and thereby completing the circle, and estabhshing the solidungulous
is fitted
ferior
both in length and breadth.

inferior
"
The
sm-face
presents to
our
into the interval
view a remarkable
triangular in
sides
cavity, broad, deep,
and
its shape, bounded on the by two sloping prominences, which
divaricate from the convexity forming the
character of the foot.
The
frog extends toe of the frog,
and terminate,
after
forward, towards the toe, about two-thirds divergent course, at the heels.
a short This cavity
of the longitudinal diameter of the ground- or hollow

surface of the hoof, terminating a
little
is
be-
"
The
Cleft of the
denominated Frog: with seeming

the
relationship
existing,
yond the
the
central point (or
what would be
central
point) of the sole

it,
reference
to
its
or rather through
presence, between the horse's
and the cloven one of the ox, deer, embraced sheep, etc. In consequence of its sides by the heels of the wall; laterally, it pos- sloping inward, the cleft at bottom gapes sesses firm and solid junctions with the wide open but along the top is roofed by bars, and through their medium with the a simple linear mark running from before sole and these unions are effected not by backward. The horn is kept continually simple apposition and cohesion of surface, soft and pliant within the cleft by a pecubut by a lamellated structure, apparent on liar secretion from the sensitive parts it the sides both of the frog and bars, by which covers, the odor of which is notorious.
shooting directly through
so as to anni- foot
hilate the spot.
Posteriorly,
it is
the parts are reciprocally
dovetailed into
"
The
solid wedge-like portion of horn
each other.
its sides,
LameUse
all
are discoverable
upon
in front of the cleft, extending
from
it
to
even
round the toe of the frog
the point of the toe, has been observed
by
and
in
this is
a circumstance that confirms
me
Mr. Clark to exhibit, in the natural foot at

its
my
belief that the bars reach thus far.
" Figure.
The
fuU growth,
'
a considerable bulbous en-
fi-og
may be called
pyra- largement,'
which, by
way
of distinction,
midal, or cuneiform, or triangular in figure; he caUs the cushion of the frog. On making its outline forming the geometrical figure a perpendicular section of the foot, Mr. C.
denominated an isosceles triangle. I know finds tliis part is situated nearly opposite of no comparison so familiarly apt as that or under the navicular bone.' And it would
'
of resembling
it to a ploughshare not only do they both correspond, as near as such comparisons can be expected to do, in outline and make, but they likewise exhibit a
:
appear (according to
reproduced after
it
tliis
author) that this
'rotundity, or swell of the frog,' is never
has once been annihi-
singular coincidence in function

like the
lated by the knife of the smith. " The superior surface of the frog, everythe frog,
its
ploughshare, being intended by

in that
point to plough or divide the surface of the

earth,
where continuous, uniform, and porous, b^ng the counterpart in form of the infe-
and
manner
serve as a stay or rior, presents us with nothing but reverses
stop to the foot.

" Division.
We distinguish
an
inferior
where the one

vice versa.
is
hoUow
or depressed the
in the frog other rises into swells
and eminences, and

for
two
surfaces,
and a superior;
This accounts
our finding
26
the part opposite to the cleft elevated into pearance and texture to the one in the midthe frog-stay on the sides of which a conspicuous eminence, bounded on its dle
sides
by two deep channels, and a hollow they
are
rising.
In the
natural
state,
of broader but shallower dimensions in the the

front.
To
this
central
conical
elevation
Mr. Clark has given the name of frog-stay, from some novel notions he entertains of its Such a bold promontory of physiology. horn rising in the middle of broad and deep channels is well calculated to form that dovetailed sort of connection with the
sensitive foot,
which greatly augments their surfaces of apposition, and establishes their union beyond all risk or possibility of disloconical to the frog. It cation. It is a part which (as far as my using the epithet observations on it have extended) grows possesses solidity of substance, firmness of and becomes developed together with other texture, and luxuriance of growth in an parts of the foot and one that is apt to eminent degree facts well known to the vary in its relative volume in different feet. farrier, who, in paring the foot, seldom fails In front of the frog-stay, the lateral borders, to make more free with this than any other bounding the hollow in the middle, describe part of the frog. " The Heels or bulbs of the frog are the a waving line, which, near half-way to the point of the toe, exhibits a dip or impres- posterior protuberant parts embraced by the sion this marks the impression of the heels of the wall, and separated from each navicular bone, and is the part immediately other by the cleft, forming, together, the a base of the wedge or triangle. They preopposite to the cushion of the frog,'
commissures must unavoidably get plugged with dnt, or whatever the animal may happen to tread upon a circumstance from which some far-fetched notions have been extracted concerning their use. " The Toe or point of the frog is the anterior, undivided, elongated portion; that which forms the apex of the pyramid or wedge the acute or extended angle of the triangle the only part displaying that prominent or rounded form that would warrant us in
;
'
'
'
coincidence important to be borne in mind, sent greater depth of substance than the
as tending to throw
some
light
on the na-
toe,
but are of a
softer,
more spongy
tex-
ture, and are less resisting and stable, in ture of this new-christened structure.* " The Sides are the parts by which the consequence of being deprived of mutual
frog establishes
of the triangular vacuity in the hoof into
which
it is
union with the borders support by the division of the cleft. Anteriorly, the heels unite with the lateral promiadmitted. Along their superior nences bounding the cleft interiorly, they
its
;
borders they are transversely lamellated, or present

rather indentated, in order that they
two
surfaces of tread to the ground,
may
be eivdently designed to take a share in the

;
bearing of the foot posteriorly and supewhich exhibit a similar structure. riorly, they exhibit a bulbous fulness, in " The Commissures are the two deep consequence of receiving at this part a suptriangular-shaped hollows between the bars plementary covering from a production and the sides of the frog. It being only which has been (in the description of the
fitted to the internal surfaces of the bars,
the superior borders of these parts that are wall) adverted to, under the appellation
engaged in their union, their broad, unat- given it by Mr. Clark, of " Coronary Frog-band. tached parts, below, form the boundary It was there walls of the commissures. Looking into stated, that the coronary groove (the groove the interior of the hoof, we discover that or canal in the coronary border of the cutis)
the commissures, internally, are converted broadened considerably as

into rounded promontories, similar in ap* In fact, the cushion of the frog appears to be nothing more than a bulge of the part produced by the superincumbent pressure of the navicular bone.
it
descended to
;
and turned round upon the heels in like manner does the horny band produced by it broaden, and not only grow broader but thicker in substance, and consequently in
THE HORSE.
the
27
same degree augments the substance of horn or hoof is to be found. The foot is them covered with a substance, white, firm, and which has suggested the appellation bulb.' elastic, resembling cartilage in its appearThe horny band itself is everywhere lamel- ance, but proving more of the nature of but these cuticle on examination, which supplies the lated upon its internal surface broadened parts of it display lamellae of a place of hoof. At the coronet this substance much bolder character, and consequently takes its origin from the cutis, being found
the heels, occasioning that swell of
' ;
render their union with the heels so

the more intimate and enduring.
ferior
much to be continuous with the The inwhich covers the bottom
and production from the
cuticle
but that
is
of the foot
edge of the band
is
denticulated,
sensitive sole
and
frog.
the denticulations become so interlaced Altogether, it possesses the general form with the lamellated fibres of the wall, that and appearance of the hoof, differing howtheir union is rendered, in the ordinary ever in these particulars that the sub-
state of the hoof, altogether imperceptible. stitute for the wall is comparatively thin in
For drawing our attention

are indebted to Mr. Clark as he considers
cutis (not
it
;
to this
part-,
we
its
substance
while that which grows from

is
and, insomuch the bottom of the foot
enormously
thick,
to be a production of the and, instead of being shaped into sole

frog, exuberates to
and
having any connection with the

'
a degree to constitute
glandular circle that secretes the wall), and club-footedness.

to serve the purpose of
parts with the insensible,' I agree with him.
I find
About the same period
uniting the sensible at which the pastern and coffin-bones take

this
on ossification, horn makes its appearance grow- underneath this cuticular wall, in the form ing upon the human nail, issuing from the of plates descending from the coronet, exsuperior edge of the terminating border of liibiting with peculiar distinctness the lamelthe cutis, and continued from the cuticle, lated structure. The horny wall becomes
something very similar to
which proceeds for some way upon the naU, considerably advanced before we perceive uniting it more closely and firmly with the any change in the bottom of the foot. At cutis, and protecting the latter from exter- length, horn is detected forming underneath nal injury. This production is no more the the cuticular substance, which, increasing in beginning of the nail itself than is the so- thickness, gradually represents sole and frog. called /rog'-band the commencement of the Not, however, in an undeveloped state for wall they are both distinct parts, though even at birth these parts are yet concealed but supplementary ones, and seem to be of by the exuberant cuticular covering, now a nature partaking both of horn and cuti- become loose in its textiue, and shaggy and cle. It has no more important relation to ragged, in consequence of not receiving any the frog, in my opinion, than it has to the further supply from the parts that produced wall it serves the same piirpose to both, it, and of being near its decadence for it that of strapping up the heels of the not long after falls off, disclosing sole and frog and binding them in closer and more frog both ready formed.
;
:
intimate connection with the neighboring

parts.
Were
asked what other use
it
ap-
"structure of the hoof.

"
peared to have, I should say, that
it
was
Horn
is
found to
differ in its
texture or
formed to cover and protect from injury the new-formed horn of the hoof, guarding it in its passage downward, until it has acquired substance and hardness sufficient to resist
external impressions of
itself.
quality, not only in the
many
animals in
"development of the hoof.

" During the early
months of
fcEtality,
which it is met with, but in different parts, and even in the same part of the body of the same animal. That which composes the hoof of the horse is a remarkable example of this. How different is the horn of the frog from the horn of the wall and no yet neither of them agree in texture with
;
28
the
is

sole.
The horny substance
of the wall penetrating the superior

its fibres,
surface.
To
the
rel-
resolvable into fibres, bearing a resem- fineness of
combined with the
blance to thick or coarse hairs, wliich in the ative magnitude of the tubular canals, and
entire hoof are so intimately
matted and consequent proportions of horny and gela-
glued together, as to have the appearance tinous substances, may be ascribed the and strength of solidity. By close and ac- comparative softness and elasticity of the
curate inspection these fibres
may
be seen
sole.
descending
in
parallel
lines,
taking the
"
The
frog,
however,
displays
these
obliquity of the wall, from the coronet to qualities in such a remarkable degree as to
the inferior or solar border
they do not run appear, in
fact, to
be composed of quite
;
promiscuously, but are arranged in rows, another kind of horn
though, on examina-
forming sorts of beds or
strata, lying
upon another
a disposition made manifest

A clean-cut transupon
its
one
tion,
we
find
it
to evince the
same
fibrous
structure, the only perceivable differences
in the foot of the fcetus.
being the comparative fineness of the fibres
and their proportionably greater tubularity numerous minute, circular, whitish their direction is oblique, correspondent with spots, which grow larger and more distinct those of the wall. towards the internal part, and through a " PRODUCTION OF THE HOOF. be hollow or tubular. glass appear to
verse section of the wall exhibits
surface
These spots
I take to
be produced by sec-
"
The wall
is
produced by the coronary
tions of the horny tubes, apparently contain- substance, a sensitive
and glandular part we
ing a whitish matter, a sort of pith, or pulp, shall have occasion soon to examine. Its or gelatinous instillation which pervades villi, by some peculiar, mysterious, secretory
them from
coronary
their
then- origin
;
from the
villi
of the process,
convert
the
blood
circulating
circle
the
same as
hairs derive through
unctuous matter from the bulbs producing them, and (as this matter does the horn, descending from the villous point that hair) renders the horny fibre tough and produced it, in the form of a tubular fibre, The fibres are united elastic in fact, imbues it with the peculiar down to the sole. attributes so well known to smiths by the together at their very origin, but their tubes appellation of living- horn ; the epithet or canals diminish, the lower they descend; " living " being here used to denote the ob- which accounts for the porous or honeyvious differences the hoof of a living animal comb-like structure of the interior of the evinces from one that has been long detached coronary border and the comparative solidity The outer layers or from the body, or that is dead. are too of the parts below. apt to believe that the various agents known strata of fibres are found to be more comto act upon the dead hoof or horn must pact and of closer texture than the inner; take similar effect on the living and upon which arises, in part, from the viUi producthis erroneous belief we employ hot and ing them being removed to a greater discold water, etc., etc., in treating disease of tance, and to the comparative smaUness of
them into a soft pulpy gelatinous matter, which by exposure becomes hard
We
the feet, forgetting that
we have opposed to
their canals,
and which, consequently, the
The use of our remedies the resisting or self-preserving sooner become obliterated. properties of living horn. Mr. Clark's coronary frog-band becomes
" in
The
sole,
as well as the wall,

;
is
fibrous
now more
apparent, serving, as
it
evidently
appear to be does, to cover and protect these external of a finer quality, and, in course, are very fibres until they grow sufficiently firm and much shorter they, however, take an ob- soUd of themselves to bear exposure and
its
structure
but
its fibres
lique direction, from behind forwards, fol- resist casualties.

" The sensitive laminas make no addition lowing the same degree of slope as those the wall. They issue from the viUi to the substance or tliickness of the wall
of
THE HORSE.
29
sole they simply produce the horny lamella saturation with moisture, the wall and superincumbent burthen of the arran!?ecl along its interior; as one proof yield to the grows flat (instead of of which, the wall measures as nmch in body, and the latter and even in thickness at the place where it quits the remaining concave or arched), If oily or unctuous coronet as it does at any point lower down. some instances bulges.
Other demonstrations of this fact come applications have any effect in softening the filling the every day before such practitioners as have hoof, they appear to do so by interstices between the fibres and crevices and sandcrack, quittor, canker, treat to
other diseases of the feet.
"
villi
The horny
sole is a production
;
of the sensitive sole
after
on the surface, and in this manner checking from the or suppressing evaporation. Horn takes a Although much the same high and beautiful polish.
is
process as that
by which the horny frog
inferior in transparency to tortoise-shell, it
resemsecreted from the villi of the sensitive frog. may be worked up to bear so near a " In a state of health of the foot, the se- blance to it as to be often, in manufactures, The cretion of horn is unceasingly going on. substituted for it, as in combs, etc.
may hoof admits of an elegant polish and in diminish or altogether suspend the process that altered and improved state has been disease, under certain other forms, appears manufactured into articles no less useful * even the also to have the effect of increasing it but than valuable and ornamental
Disease or injury of the glandular parts
;
; ; :
whether
have any artificial means of hoofs of the living animal may, by being The kept clean, and when dry rubbed with lineffecting this, seems questionable. wall grows from above downwards. If a seed oil, be numbered among the ornamenmark be made in any part of the wall, it tal beauties Nature has bestowed upon
we
will
remain until it grows down and be- quadrupeds. " By chemical analysis horn has been comes cut off below, at the inferior border and by observations made on the gradual found to consist of membranous substance, descent and disappearance of these marks, having the properties of coagulated albumen, The horns of some calculations may be formed of the period and of some gelatine.
of time required for the renewal or restora^
tion of the wall.
"
animals, the deer species, from containing
bone,
become
exceptions
to
this.
Mr.
Hatchett burnt
five hundi-ed grains of ox's
PROPERTIES OF HORN.
horn,
and the residuum proved only one
a tough, flexible, elastic sub and a half grain, not half of which was stance, consisting of tubular fibres, more or phosphate of lime. "Shavings of hoof thrown into nitric less intimately connected together, takin the direction from the surface of the body acid become soft, and speedily melt into a
"
Horn
is
on which
ness or resistance
property of tough- yellow mass, which in about eight hours condisappear in complete solution. " The same thrown into sulphuric acid for if it is dition in regard to moisture exposed to a degree of heat sufficient to turn black, in becoming soft, and require
it
grows.
Its
much depends on its

;
abstract
much of its natural juice or imbibed

it
thrice the time for their solution.
Muriatic
moisture,
and tough- acid also turns horn black, and corrodes On the other it, but has so little effect towards its soluness, and becomes brittle. hand, saturated with moisture, it is contion, that after ten days a piece of hoof verted into a soft and highly flexible sub- soaked in it was found to have become only
loses its flexibility
stance, but at the
same time becomes weak more

This
brittle
or rotten.
Common
vinegar
and unresisting.
known
eflect aids
us will turn horn dark-colored, but does not

* The Eclipse hoof, presented by his Majesty at Ascot Races, as the reward of the best horse on the turf, forms
notable illustration of this.
to account for the flat-footedness of horses
reared in low, fenny, or marshy situations
the hoof being constantly in a state of a
30

its substance occupies the concavity formed Liquor upon the inside of the superior or coronary black, but will border of the wall of the hoof: it is the
it.
appear to have any power in impairing

texture, or, at least, in dissolving
potassae will not only tiu-n
it
corrode the horn of the
hoof.
Ammonia
rotten.
part constituting the basis of the circular
does not change

its texture,
its color, but
slowly destroys prominence
commonly
distinguished in the
animal as the coronet. It is broadest around the toe of the wall, diminishing in breadth towards the quarters and heels, and "INTERNAL PARTS OF FOOT. being somewhat broader around the outer " The internal, sensitive, organic parts of than the inner side. It is thickest in subthe foot, comprise the bones, ligaments, ten- stance around its middle and most promidons, coronary substance, cartilages, sensitive nent parts, gro%ving gradually thinner both above and below. lamina, sensitive sole, and sensitive frog.
it brittle
rendering
and
living
THE
" Connection. " The bones entering into the composition Externally, the coronary of the foot are the coffin and navicular substance is connected with the hoof; and bones : to which may be added (as forming the connection appears to be principally, if part of the coffin-joint, and consequently not entirely, of a vascular nature the sur:
having intimate relation to them), the coro- face of the

net bone.
"
waU
presenting a porous honey-
comb-like texture, and the villi or vessels The tendons immediately connected issuing from the coronary substance enterwith the foot are those of the extensor pedis ing the pores, and thus establishing an intiand the flexor pedis perforans : the former mate and extensive vascular union between being inserted into the coronal process the these organic and inorganic parts. Inter;
latter into the
posterior concavity of the nally, the coronary substance
coffin-bone.
is connected with the coffin-bone, the extensor tendon, and the cartilages, by a fine, dense, copious
"the coronary substance.

"
cellular tissue,
A less
To
inappropriate
name
for the part
a bed
for the
which at the same time forms assemblage and ramification of

Superiorly, its
commonly
"
called the coronary ligament.*
the blood-vessels concerned in the secretion
revert, for
the sake of elucidation of the
here, to former description
hoof union with the skin is so intimate and com-has been detached by a process of macera- plete, that one has been thought to be a
after the
wall of the hoof.
tion or putrefaction, in a
perfectly entire, continuation of the other

its
and, so far as
meets the eye of a common observer, they summit a circular gi-oove, bounded in front might be taken as such but, when we by a soft whitish substance, having a thin come to examine them by anatomical tests, edge, and being of a nature between horn we not only find a line of external demarand cuticle and behind, by an attenuated cation between them, but discover such margin, more horny in its character, whose difference of internal structure as forbids thin edging is denticulated or serrated. Into the adoption of this delusive notion. As it this circular groove or canal is received the descends upon the coffin-bone, the coronary terminating margin of the cutis the cuti- substance not only grows thinner, but in culo-horny layer of the hoof, in front of it, growing attenuated becomes imperceptibly having every appearance of being a continu- gathered or puckered into numerous points, ation of the cuticle. from which issue a like number of plaits or " Situation Dimension. The coronary folds, which afterwards form the sensitive laminae. It is worthy of remark, that the * Averse as I am to changing or altering names, nothpart of the bone upon which this transforing less than a palpable contradiction, in regard both to mation takes place is smaller in circumferstructure and function, would have induced me to do so in ence than the coronet; consequently the the present instance.
uninjured condition,
it
presents around
IV.
NO.
1.
OSSEOUS
,
STRUCTURE.
OFF-HIND ESTREMTTT.
22. 23. 24. 25. 26.
27.
Femur
Patella.
Tibia.
or thigh bone.
Os
calcis.
Astragalus.
One
of the tarsal bones.
28. 29.
30. 31.
32.
e.
magnum. The sessamoids. Os sufeaginis. Os corona. Os pedis. The fibula. The above explanation wUl answer
Metatarsus
for "
Xo.
3," of this plate.
NO.
2.
MUSCULAR
STRUCTURE.
SIDE VIEW OF
j.
THE OFF-HIND EXTREMITY.
Triceps.
n.
o'.
Rectus.
Vastus.
r. s'. V.
u'. x'.
i).
Gastrocnemi, and perforans.
Flexor pedis accessorius.

(At the hock.)
The
insertion of the gastrocnemius into the point of the hock.
Extensor pedis.
Peroneus.
y. y'.
V.
z.
if.
(Beneath the pastern.)
Flexor perforatus and perforans.
Bifiu-cation of the suspensory ligament.
The
hoof.
8.
One tendon
of the suspensory ligaments.
NO.
4.
MUSCULAR STRUCTURE.
ANTERIOR \TEW OF THE OFF HIND EXTREMITY.

n.
o'.
Rectus.
Vastus extemus.
Triceps abductor
tibialis.
J.
y.
x'. x'.
y\ Peroneus. Extensor pedis.
g.
8.

Bifurcation of the suspensory ligament.
5.
S,-.
Saphena
vein.
The
hoof.
THE HOESE.
31
same measure of coronary substance which tilages,' in contradistinction to two others but tensely and smoothly covered the latter, he has named the inferior cartilages.' " Situation. The cartilages form the admitted of being disposed in gathers or folds so soon as it reached the former. Pos- postero-lateral parts of the sensitive foot,
'
teriorly,
the
coronary substance' forms a extending the siurface considerably in both
junction,
indeed becomes
continuous in these directions.

" Attachment.
substance, with the

frog.
heels of the sensitive
The
cartilages are fixed
" Structure.
The
into fossse excavated in the supero-lateral
coronary substance borders of the coffin-bone.

parts in its
Their anterior
com- parts become united, on each side, with position 1. A fibro-cartilaguious circling descending lateral expansions from the exband, forming the substratum and basis of tensor tendon, and are also attached to the Their the entire structure. 2. A cuticular cover- coronet bone by cellular membrane. ing, so called from its resemblance in tex- posterior parts surmount the aim or wings ture to the cutis. 3. A network of blood- of the bone, to which they are firmly fixed, vessels, reposing upon the former, and and from which they project backwards, covered by the latter. The cartilaginous beyond the bone, giving form and substance structure, freed from its vascular connec- to the heel. Supposing one of the cartitions, is found to be \\Tought in the form lages to be divided into two equal parts by of a coarse, open, irregiUar network, and a line drawn horizontally across its middle, appears designed mainly for the purpose of the superior half, which extends as high as aflbrding a bed for the lodgment and rami- the pastern-joint, is covered by skin only; fication of the blood-vessels destined to pror and on that account is quite perceptible to duce the wall. The looseness of its con- the feel, and (in form) to the sight, as the nection, added to its own elasticity, renders animal stands with liis side towards us. this substance peculiarly adapted to accom- The lower half is covered, superiorly, by modate itself to the motions of the coffin- the encfrcling coronary substance; inferiorly, joint, and thus preventing those movements by sensitive laminas consequently, over all from operating prejudicially to the super- by the hoof, which envelopes both the coroimposed glandular sti-uctm'e. nary substance and the laminae. The exdiscloses three different
:
:
" Organization.
The
body
coronary
sub- treme posterior ends of the cartilages inciu*;
stance
cular parts
downward and backward but, being no gland even overreached by the heels of the sensitive possesses, for its magnitude, a greater abun- frog, any abrupt or exposed termination of dance of blood-vessels, or of blood-vessels them is prevented. 'Around these points (taking them generally) of larger size nor also the coronary substance makes its indoes there exist any part in wliich greater flections upon the sensitive frog, thereby care appears to have been taken to arrange giving them additional substance and supits vessels so as to insure an uninterrupted port. " Form. supply of blood. These vessels it is that Considered in the detached produce the wall and there is every reason state, the cartilage in its general figure deto believe that they perform this office scribes an irregular quadrangle, of which without any assistance from the vessels of the supero-anterior and infero-posterior anthe laminas. gles are the most projecting the latter at
be ranked
of the
the most vas- vate
:
may
among
the
"
same time being incurvated inwards.

is
THE CARTILAGES
Externally, the cartilage

;
pretty regularly
"
Are
tvvo broad, scabrous, concavo-con-
vex, cartilaginous plates,

sides
fessor
convex internally, it is unevenly concave, erected upon the the surrounding border turning inwards into
Pro- the substance of the sensitive frog.
and wings of the coffin-bone.
The
Coleman
calls
them the
'
lateral car- posterior part of the cartilage is
somewhat
::
32
thinner than the anterior,
foramina
large size
frog. "
which
through
it
and has
several
little lel
plaits or folds,
which proceed in
paral-
three
or four of
slanting lines
down the wall

it
of the bone
transmit vessels to the a transformation
may
be difficult to ex-
From the in- occupy a much larger surface than the The False Cartilages. ferior and posterior sides of the true carti- coronet at the same time, it is one that lages, proceed in a direction forward has its parallels in the animal constitution, two and a remarkable one in the instance of the towards the heels of the coffin-bone fibro-cartUaginous productions, to which ciUary processes. " Division. According to this mode of IVIr. Coleman has given the name of infeK they are to be consid- derivation, every lamina consists of one rior cartilages.' ered as cartilages at all, I prefer denomi- entire plait or duplication of substance, nating them false ; they being, as well in having its inward sides intimately and instructure as in use, different from the true separably united; its outward sides being They spread inwards the surfaces of attachment for the homy or lateral cartilages. upon the surface of the tendo perforans laminas. It has also tw'o borders : one opbecome united at their inner sides with the posed to the coffin-bone, the other to the superior margin of the sensitive fi-og are hoof and two ends or extremities, one issucovered inferiorly by the sensitive sole and ing out of the coronary substance, the at the same time assist in the support of other vanishing in the sensitive sole.
plain,
since the
lamina;
unfolded would
'
the sensitive frog.

their
figure,
They
are triangular in
in the
and are arched
" Structure. The substance of the lasame minse when held to the light evinces a
manner
" Use. to
fill
as the sole.
Their use appears
degree of transparency
to
although
it
its
nature
Veteri-
me
to be,
left
is
extremely dense, and
possesses extra-
up the triangular vacant spaces
ordinary toughness and tenacity.
bet^veen the tendo perforans and heels of

face of support for the sensitive frog,
nary writers and

it
lecturers
have endowed
the coffin-bone, thereby completing the sur- the laminse with a high degree of elasticity
and but
is
appears to
to
me
that the property
extending that for the expansion of the

sensitive sole.
referable
is
their
connections,
their
and not
sub-
Bone
in these places
must one that
inherent in
own
have proved inconvenient by more or less stance. " Elastic Structure. impeding the impression upon, and conThis is a substrasequent reaction of, the sensitive frog. tum of a fibrous periosteum-fike texture,
attaching the laminse to the coffin-bone, in
"the sensitive lamix^ or lamella.

"
which
it is
that the property of elasticity
So
is
denominated the laminated,
mem-
resides to that remarkable extent usually

:
branous, vascular structure clothing the wall ascribed to the laminae themselves of the coffin-bone.
" Production.
indeed,
can be and recede the same as a appear to be derived from the coronary sub- piece of India rubber. Its fibres take a stance the one, in fact, seems to be a con- direction downward and backward. At tinuation from the other for if, in a foot in a the same time, it affords a commodious bed putrid condition, we attempt to part them for the ramification of blood-vessels issuing by force, we may make an artfficial rent from the substance of the bone, in which somewhere, but can find no natural separa- they are (particularly in the stretched contion between them. The cnticular covering dition of the substance) protected from inof the coronary substance having descended jurious compression and consequent interupon the coffin-bone, the circumference of ruption to their cfrculation. " Number. In round numbers we may which is less than that of the coronet, because thereupon gathered into numerous estimate the laminae at about 500 not in-
The
so elastic is
it
found to be, that
it
sensitive
laminae
made
to stretch
THE HORSE.
eluding those of the bars.
33
They
vary, frog.
its
But
however, in number
have reckoned up- in
its principal attachment consists being firmly rooted into the sole of
;
wards of 600.
^'Dimensions.
In
the coffin-bone
a connection that receives
length they decrease considerable addition from the blood-vessels
from around the toe towards the sides and issuing out of the substance of the bone. " Thickness. The sensitive sole varies heels in a corresponding ratio with the On an those in front, the longest, being in thickness at difterent places. wall rather more than two inches in extent the average, it may be said to measure one-
shortest, those at the heels,
being rather
is
less eighth of
than one inch.

ation
inch.
:
In breadth there
no
vari- cinity of the frog, it is

this.
an inch in thickness. In the visomething less than

it
all
measure
alike, one-tenth
of an
At
the heels,
possesses double that
" Organization.
.-^ganized,
" Organization. This is one of the The laminse are highly though they are not equally so most vascular and sensitive parts in the
thickness.
with either the sensitive sole or sensitive frog; nor are they so red as those parts: and the obvious explanation of this is, that (over and above what is requisite for their own nutrition) all the blood they have
occasion for
cient
for
is
body.
Indepeiadently of
the
much
ad-
mired venous network expanded over the

fibrous substance of the sole, arteries enter
it
issuing from the substance of the bone,

its villi, which, by talung this aU compression and obstruc-
and penetrate
course, elude
:
only that which
is
suffi-
the
secretion
of the horny lation
there are also others

;
the
nutrient
minse.
arteries
but these have an external origin,
"the sensitive
"
it)
sole.
The from the inferior coronary artery. chief assemblage of arteries takes place
The
sensitive sole, or (as Sainbel calls within the

is
the fleshy sole,
the fibro-vascular sub-
those
villi,
upon the
cuticular surface
issuing out of the interior of the
stance
covering the
arched
concave, or bone simply passing through (without ram;
ground
is
surface, of the coffin-bone
in fact, ifying within)

that, if the
the
fibrous
substance
the
so
the part corresponding to the horny sole.

" Structure.
The
substance of the sole

section,
is laid
same land of
elastic
open by transverse
tint
incised
fibrous structiue that sustains the laminse edge, near the surface, exhibits
is
a deep red
found constituting the groundwork of the

;
while the interior, nearer the bone,
sensitive sole
is closer,
only that in the latter case
it
has a pinkish or pale red aspect.
and firmer in its texture. " THE SENSITIVE FEOG. a remarkably beautiful " Under this head is included the cleft, venous network. And the whole is enveloped in an outer cuticular covering, cuneiform body, projecting from the bottom derived from the heels and frog, from which of the foot, together with the substance are sent villous processes, loaded with the continued from it and filling the interval Sainbel calls it points of arteries into the porosities of the between the cartilages. horny sole not, however, perpendicularly the fleshy frog.' " Division. We distinguish, in the downward, but in an oblique direction downward and forward the same in sensitive as in the horny frog, an apex or toe ; two heels, separated by the cleft; and which the horny fibres grow. " Connection. Around the circumfer- a portion intermediate between these, which
denser,
Upon
this is spread
'
ence of the coffin-bone, the sensitive sole

is
is
the bodij.
" Situation
connected with the fibrous substance de-
and Connection.
The
sensi-
scending from the wall, together with the tive frog occupies the posterior and central tapering, vanishing points of the laminae. parts of the bottom of the foot, forming in
In the cenfre,
it is
united %vith the bars and the tread a firm and secure point d'appin.
: ; ;
34
ANATOMY AND PHTSIOLOGT OF THE HORSE.

"
The vascular covering succeeds the immediately underneath it. bone, one might be led to infer that the It consists of a network of blood-vessels, horny frog should take the same line of principally veins, but which are not so The frog, alto- thickly set as upon the sole. bearing with the crust. " The fibro-cartilagiiwus case comes next. gether, is lodged in a capacious irregular space, bounded superiorly by the tendo- We find it spread over those parts most perforans and common skin, laterally by the subjected to pressure, and to be, in many places, one-fourth of an inch in thickness. cartilages, and inferiorly by the horny frog with all which parts it has connections From its interior are sent off numerous besides being continuous with the sensitive processes, pervading the elastic matter of bars and sole, and at the heels with the the frog, forming so many septa intercrosscoronary substance. On its sides are two ing one another, and dividing it without any shallow, ill-defined hollows, corresponding notable regularity into many unequal c^SLi the posterior and bulbous to the commissures of the horny frog, into partments. which are received the horny prominences parts, the septa exist in greater numbers, and are closer arranged than in the middle opposed to them. " Structure. Entering into the com- parts. The fibres of this vaginal substance position of this body we distinguish four run obliquely downward and forward, and parts An exterior or cuticular covering become intermixed around the borders with a congeries or network of blood-vessels a those of the bars and sole. " The elastic interstitial matter, however, and an elastic fibro-cartHaginous texture composes the bulk of the sensitive frog. interstitial matter. " The exterior or cuficnlar covering in- It consists of a pale yellowish soft subvests the prominent bulbous portion of the stance, which has been mistaken for fat or frog, and also gives a lining to the cleft. oil, and hence has been named the fatty
nent with the projecting edge of the
coffin- cuticular, lying
Being in the hoofless foot equally promi-
'
Superiorly,
it
is
continuous with the skin

;
frog.'
When
cut deeply into,
it
exhibits a
in-
descending upon the heels

riorly,
anteriorly,
;
with granulated appearance, and the fibrous

infe- tersecting
the cuticular covering of the coronet
chords become apparent, putting

or
with that of the
sole.
Numerous on
its
the
ramous arrangement of a shrub
villous
processes sprout from
surface, tree.
Altogether, the sensitive frog forms
and enter the
porosities in the interior of
the horny frog, taking a direction
a peculiar, spongy, elastic body, for which down- we lack some more appropriate name."
in
ward and forward, the same as which the fibres of the horn grow.
that
A TABULAR VIEW OF THE BONES OF THE HORSE.

BOXES OF THE CRAXICM.
Komber.
BOXES OF THE ARM.

Humeral,
BOXTiS OF
Frontal
Parietal,
THE FORE-AEM.
ulnar being, in the
Temporal, two
Occipital,
......
pairs,
4
1
Radial and ulnar.

adults, connected
The
mth
the radius, Radial,
we
shall con.
.
Ethmoid,
Sphenoid,
1
1
sider
them
as
one bone.
BOXES OF THE KXEE. BOXES OF TILE FACE.
The
2
.
'
carpal bones are thus

["Scaphoid,
J 1
named
|
Nasal
Superior and anterior maxiUar)',
. .
.
^
i
T Pisiform, J
1
4
2
Lunai',
^
g
Trapezoid,
Malar,
LacrjTnal,
'
.
.
'
2 2
Cuneiform, Trapezium.
Magnum,
Palatine
Eight bones to each knee,
...
Unciibrm.
16
Superior and inferior turbinated,
Vomer, Lower jaw
Incisors,
....... .......
. .
4
1 1
BOXES BELOW THE KXEE.

Metacarpal,
Splents,
4
2
2
Pastern,
TEETH.
Coronet,
12
Sessamoid,
Navicular,
4
2
Canine,
4
' . .
Molars
.24
1
Pedal or foot bones,
BOXE OF THE TOXGUE.
BOXXS OF THE HIXD EXTKEMITT.

Femirr,
Stifle,
Os Hjoideus,
BOXES OF THE
ISIalleus,
2 2
BOX-ES OF
'EAR.
Incus,
2 2 2
Tibia and fibula.
THE LEG. These we shall consider
Stapes,
one to each extremity,
....
as
Orbiculare
BOXES OF THE HOCK.

BOXES OF THE SPIXE.
Cerncal,
Dorsal,
7
Astragalus,
2 2
Os
Calcis,
18
are found),
. .
Cuboid,
Lumbar (sometimes 6
Cuneiform,
......
BOX-ES OF
THE LEG.
BOXES OF THE SACRUM AXD TALL.

Sacral,
1
(tail),
Two
cannons and four splents,
...
Coccygeal
about
.15
Pastern,
BOXES BEX-E.\TH THE CAXXOX.

Coronet,
BOXES OF THE CHEST.

Ribs, on each side 18,
Sternum,
....
.
36
.
.......
....
. .
2
2
Sessamoids,
Na%-icular,
4
2
2
PELVIS.
Pedal or foot bones,

.
Innominata (or bones without a name),

BOX-ES OF
Total number of bones,
238
above
THE SHOIXDEK.
Scapular,
....
The
2
correct
will
technical nomenclature
of the
see.
bones
be found in " Osteolog)-," which

(35)
ANATOMY OF THE SKELETON. -OSTEOLOGY.
OSSEOUS SYSTEM OF THE

HORSE.
In the form of answers to a series of
questions, the
A.
Q. Describe the borders of the os frontis.
student will become acquainted with the name, location, form, use, waving, inchnes backwards and outwards. and general peculiarities of the various The frontal border is straight, anteriorly
They are denticulated and squamous. The posterior is arched, describing segments of two circles. The anterior or nasal is
bones composing the horse's skeleton. Q. "What is understood by the natural skeleton ? A. The term is applied when the whole bones are held together by thennatural attachments ligaments, cartilages, and synovial membranes. Q. Why is the term, artificial, sometimes A. Because the applied to the skeleton ? bones, having been divested, by maceration
broad and triangular.

outer border
is
The ethmoidal
or
and unites with the lachrymal, sphenoid, and ethmoid bones.

irregular,
PARIETAL BONES (OSSA PARIETALa).
Supposing the horse to be an shall consider these bones as one.

Q.
adult,
we
What
bone ?
A.
is
the situation of the parietal
It
occupies the mesio-superior
or otherwise, of their
etc.,
connectmg ligaments, part of the cranium. Q. Describe the same. are united artificially, by wire and
quadrilateral
:
A.
Its
form
is
plates of metal.
vaulted, concave internally,
and convex externally. It has two surand four borders, denticulated and A. squamous. Q. Enumerate the cranial bones. Q. What is observable on the convex surFrontal, two parietal, occipital, foiu tempoBONES OF THE CRANIUM.
faces
ral,
ethmoid, sphenoid
ten.
face?
A.
longitudinal
;
messian
crest,
which indicates the FRONTAL BONE (oS FRONTIS). location of the sutm-es, now obliterated by Q. Describe the situation of the frontal age. Between the bifurcatures arises an bone. A. It occupies the antero-superior eminence above the cranial surface. part of the cranium in the region known as Q. Describe the appearance of the interthe forehead. nal surface ? A. It is indented by, and
bifurcating anteriorly
Q.
What
it
are its peculiarities
A.
are
In receives, the lobular eminences of the cere-
form
is
irregular,
having two
Its
surfaces brum,
flat
and
it
is
also furrowed
by
arterial
and four
externally,
borders.
surfaces
ramifications which supply the dura mater.
concave internally.
Its internal
surface is divided
by a septum into
anterior
TEMPORAL BONES (oSSA TEMPORUm).

Q.
and one
posterior concavities.
is
The
posterior
What
portion of the cranium do the

?
occupied by a portion of the anterior ossa temporum occupy

;
A.
Its sides
and
lobe of the cerebrum
the anterior consti- base.

Q.
tutes the frontal sinuses, they being sepa-
How
rated from each other by the nasal spine. in
man ?
A.
do these bones
In
differ
from those
man
they are divided into

In the horse
(36)
The concavity
is
further divided into shal- three portions,

septa.
squamous, petrous, mastoid
low chambers by imperfect
yet in reality they are united.
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

r
OP- THE .HORSE.
37
they constitute four distinct bones, two on erected neck and a small round head ; the each side. anterior part consists of a slim, brittle,
A. Two ossa tempo- porous, spongy Q. Name them. nun, pars squamosa, pars petrosa four. volume.
:
sti-ucture
of
considerable
Q.
pair is
Describe
their
appearance.
One
;
Q.
What
are
its
connections?
A.
composed of laminae, vaulted form With the sphenoid, frontal, vomer, and ovoid, siumomited by irregular projections superior turbenated bones; and with the the other pair are solid and convex. cartilaginous septum of the nose.
OCCIPITAL BONE (oS OCCIPITEs).
Q.
pites?
BONES OF THE FACE.
What
A.
is
the situation of the os occiis
Under
Ossa
" " "
this
head
. .
It
located in the postero-
nasi,
superior and inferior parts of the cranium.
Q.
What
is
its
externally,
irregular,
form ? A. Convex having an occipital
raaxillaria superiora,
maxillaria anteriora,
malaa-um,
tuberosity
and condyles.
are
" "
lacrj-malia,
palati,
Q.
What
?
bone
A.
the connections of this

superiorly,
"
"
tiirbinati, superior et inferiora,
It unites,
;
parietal bones
inferiorly
laterally,
with the and anteriorly with

the temporal,
vomer,
... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...

. . . . . . . .
. .
we
shall consider the

2
2
2
2 2 2
4
1 1
Os maxillarc
inferus, (lower jaw,)
the sphenoid
\\-itli
and
A.
it
articulates posteriorly
with the
Total,
atlas.
?
IS
Q.
What
is
the foetal state of the bone
We shall now consider these bones in the

NASAL BONES (oSSA
Q.
NASi).
It is easily
separable into four portions. above order.
Q. State
terior
its use.
A.
It
forms the poscranium,
and
inferior parts of the
protects this portion of the braiji,

exit to the spinal cord.
and gives
A.
How many nasal bones are there ?

Where
are
Two.
Q.
they situated?
A.
In
SPHENOID BONE (os SPHENOIDEs).

Q. What sphenoides ?
the superior part of the face.
A. They reQ. Describe their form? of the os passes from one tem- semble the form of a pear are broad posporal region to the other, across the antero- teriorly, pointed anteriorly they are convex
A.
is
the situation
It
inferior part of the brain.
and concave internally. Q. To what bones are they connected ? A. Q. What are its general divisions ? A. To the frontal, superior and anterior It is divided into body, situated in the midmaxiUaria, and laclirymal. dle, alse or wings, on each side, and two
externally
Q. What is their use? .4. To defend bones is it connected? A. the nares, and retain in position the septuni Occipital, ethmoid, squamous-temporal, pal- nasi. ate, and vomer. SUPERIOR MAXILLARY BONES (oSSA MAXILLAKIA superiora). ETHMOID BONE (os ^THMOIDES).
pterygoid processes, considered as legs.

Q.
To what
Q.
What
part of the cranium does the
Anterior to the supero-lateral parts of the face. A. They are Q. Describe their form ? the sphenoid, and is the boundary of the trilateral; from the cranial, and commencement of the nasal, somewhat irregular
OS sethmoides occupy ?
A.
.4.
Q.
Where
are they situated?
A.
In
cavities.
Q. Describe
its
form.
centre (wliich is tliickest) they taper, the
The
posterior anterior part being

its
much
thinner than the
portion bears resemblance to a bird with
posterior.
wings extended, having no
legs,
but a long
Q.
How
are they divided?
A.
Each

38

facial, palatine,
bone has a
face.
It
and nasal
:
sur-
maxillary symphysis, through which runs

of the palatine arteries.
has also nasal, alveolar, and pala- the foramen incisivum, for the transmission
tine borders,
and two extremities

the
posterior,
which
Q.
forms
maxillary
tuberosity
It
anterior, or dental extremity.
A. Q. How is this bone connected? connects with the superior maxillary and
What
are the connections of the ossa nasal bones,
and with
its
feUow.
maxilaria?
poral,
A.
With
the
squamous temmalar,
nasal,
anterior
maxillary,
MALAR BONES (oSSA MALARUm).

Q.
lachrymal, palate, and inferior turbinated

bones.
What
is
the situation of the
ossa
malarum?
A.
They occupy
the antero-
external part of the orbit.
ANTERIOR MAXILLARY BONES (oSSA MAXILLARIA ANTERIORa).
Q. Describe their form. Q.
A.
?
Irregularly
triangular, presenting a broad basis forwârds.
A.
and
Q.
What
is
the situation of these bones?
How
is
the bone divided
A.
Into
They are placed in the supero-anterior
three surfaces, three angles, a basiform
and
antero-lateral parts of the face.
an apiform extremity.
Name the surfaces. A. Facial, Q. What is the general form of tliese Q. bones ? A. Very irregular consisting of maxiUarj-, and orbital. a broad, thick base, turned forwards, from A. The facial Q. Describe the same.
which is sent off a thin flexible plate and surface is divided into two portions by the elongated, tapering portion zygomatic spine a narrow, the upper division is turned backwards. smooth and nearly flat the lower part is A. Into narrow and roughened, for the insertion of Q. How is each bone divided ? three surfaces and tliree borders. the masseter muscle. From this surface,
; ;
Q.
vex,
is
Describe
the
surfaces.
is
A.
The
posteriorly,
is
arises
the
zygomatic process,
off,
superior or nasal
smface
smooth, conwhich
very obliquely sloped
and
and oblong.
it
;
The
it,
inferior or palatine
laminated for
poral
adaptation to the process

it
vaulted,
contributing to the formation of the
same name, meeting
from the temis
of the palate
within
of an oval form,
is
is
bone, the twô together forming the
the interdental space, which
occupied by zygomatic arch.

pro- concave.
The
maxillary surface
two
thin, flexible plates, the palatine
The
orbital surface has
a smooth
with each other. In the side of the bone is a deep hollow, for the reception of that portion of the superior maxillary bone which holds the tusk and tlie remainder of the surface, posteriorly, is articulated with the same. The anterior or labial surface is broad, smooth, and convex, and gives attachment to the depressor labii superioris, and gums.
;
cesses, denticulating along the sides
concavity which forms the infero-external

part of the orbit.
Q.
Describe the angles.
A.
There are
three, superior, inferior,
and
posterior.
The
superior constitutes the external portion of
the
orbital
circumference.
forms the zygomatic spine.

is
The inferior The posterior
not so prominent nor defined, but forms an irregular link with the superior maxillary
Q.
Describe
the
borders.
A.
bone.
Q.
The
What
of the extremities
A.
The
and curved, and is anterior extremity is broad, irregular, and composed of two laminse, formed apart and denticulated, and articulates with the supedivided into septa for the insertion of six rior maxillary and lachrymal bones. The incisors. The posterior border is naiTow posterior or apiform extremity forms the and sloped, and denticulates with the nasal zygomatic process.
anterior border is broad
bone.
The
internal
border
is
broad,
Q.
quadrilateral, curved,
its
and denticulates with rum connect?
fellow,
forming
the temporal, thereby the superior superior, maxillary, and lachrymal bones.
With what bones do A. With
the ossa mala-
THE HORSE.
39
LACHRYMAL BONES (OSSA LACHRYMALIa).

There are two lachmyral bones:
both
red
Q.
alike, as
A.
Q.
Within the nasal cavity the superior

:
we
shall
above, and the inferior below.
describe but one, considering that they are
What
?
indeed are those already

is
refer-
divided
A.
is their
form, and
how
are they
In form they are oblong, thin,
to, in
a plm-al sense.
foliated, convoluted, scroll-like,
and cavern-
What
?
mal bone
Q.
is
They are divided into external and the situation of the lachry- ous. A. It occupies the antero- internal sm-faces superior and inferior ex;
external part of the orbit.
tremities.
How
it
divided
surfaces
and and
five borders.
Q.
Name
Name
the
surfaces.
external,
orbital.
Q.
the
borders.
A. Into A. A. External
three
Internal,
Q. Four.
How many
bones are there?
A.
Q. Describe the bones.

ternal surface is convex,
A.
Their ex-
and presents series of longitudinal grooves which mark the

blood-vessels.
and
Q.
internal facial, nasal,
and external and ramifications of small
The
internal orbital.
internal surface is cellular, being unequally
What
is
cavation of this bone?

fossa.
Their interior observable in the orbital ex- divided by transverse septa. A. The lachrymal is capacious they are open superiorly and
closed anteriorly.
They
are
porous and
exceeds
its
Q.
What occupies this fossa or groove ?

it ?
A. The lachrymal vessels, sac,

Q.
A.
rior
With what bones is With the frontal, nasal,

maxillary bones.
and duct. connected
elastic.
The
superior
bone
in
volume the
inferior,
and makes
convoluthe case
tion from below, its superior border being

;
malar, and supe- attached whereas, the reverse with the inferior one.
'
is
PALATE BONES (oSSA PALATi).

Q.
Q.
What
;
are
their
is
connections
A.
What
?
The turbinated bone

the ethmoid
connected above with
bones
A.
is
the situation of the palate

are placed in the infe-
and
laterally,
with the nasal
They
bone.
rior posterior part
of the face, adjoining the

Q.
VOMER.
base of the cranium.
A.
Q.
outlet.
Q.
What
The
does the palatine surface form ?

palatine
From what
arise ?
arch or roof of the
bone
Q.
A.
does the
name
of this
From
its
resemblance to
the
mouth.
a ploughshare.
What
of the nasal surface
A.
What
are its uses
To divide
It
forms the posterior surface of the nasal

Q.
nasal chambers and permit the expansion

of olfactory nerves.
What
present ?
Ethmoidal and orbital. Q. To what part of the bone is the

palatei attached
?
A.
other surfaces do these bones
Q. What is inserted into its superior groove? A. The septum narium.
Q.
vel-
What
are
its
connections
A.
It
lum
A.
;
To the
unites with the ethmoid, sphenoid, superior
palatine.
Q.
How
are the palate bones united to
and anterior maxiUary, and palate bones.
the superior maxillary?
A.
and
infero lateral borders
By their supero each being den-
LOWER JAW.
(oS
INFERIOR MAXILLARY BONE MAXILLARE INFERIUs).
ticulated.
Q.
What other connections
Q.
What is the situation of tliis bone ?

composes the
inferior
ate bones?
frontal,
ferior
A.
have the palA.

the
It
and
posterior
They
are joined to
parts of the face.
ethmoid, sphenoid, vomer, and in-
turbinated bones.
A.
Q.
What
is
the foetal state of the bone

it is
In the fcetal state
divided, at its
TURBINATED BONES (oSSA TURBINATA SUPE- inferior junction, by a connecting cartilage, RIORA ET INFERIORa). hence the part has been called its symphysis. A. Into Q. Where are the ossa tmrbinata located ? Q. How is the bone divided ?

40
and
body, neck, sides, and branches external internal surfaces, and corresponding
Q.
A. Yes. Q. Are bones vasciilar ? Q. How can you demonstrate their vas-
borders.
What
A.
cularity ? A. By numerous small forado you understand by these minas and by the tinge they receive from the
terms?-
Body
signifies the
anterior coloring matter of the food.

;
part reaching posterior to the tusks

signifies the contracted jjart,
neck Q. Name the investing membrane of immediately bones? A. Periosteum.

Q. Q.
posterior to the body; sides are the parts
What
is
its
organization
A.
is
Fi-
comprehended between the neck and the brous.

branches
dyles.
;
the branches are the parts poste-
Of what use
is
this
periosteum?
nutrition,
rior to the neck,
which terminate
in the con- A. It limits

is
the growth
of bones,
the
As
regards surfaces, the external
medium
cles,
of circulation
and
and
convex, rounded, rough, and porous, and affords attachment for ligaments and musaffords
attachment
for
muscle and gum.
and favors the
free articulation of the
The
internal sxirface is concave, rough,
and
latter.
Q. What does its internal surface semuscles and gum, and as a channel for the crete? A. An oleaginous fluid, depostongue, and attachment for the froenum ited in the cellular structure and cavity of
porous, and answers for the attachment of
lingua;.
bones.
?
A.
A. Holes Q. What are foramina? border exhibits six perforating the substance of bones. alveolar cavities for the molar teeth; the A. Occun-ing Q. What are sinuses?
Q. "What do you understand by borders
Each
superior
septum are composed of osseous lamiiiEe. in bones, they are large cavities with small The inferior border is tliin and irregular. openings. The posterior border is broad and roughened A. SuperfiQ, What are sinuosities?
for the insertion of muscles.
cial
Q.
but broad irregular depressions. A. Long, narWhat are furrows ?
row, and superficial canals. It is now presumed that we understand Q. What are notches ? the location and names of the different bones the margin of bones.
GENERAL INQUIRIES.
and, beDeep Q. What are fossae ? be profitable large cavities on the surface of bones. to make some general inquiries regarding Q. What are glenoid cavities?
composing the cranium and face

fore
A. A.
Cavities in
and
we
proceed further,
structure.
it
may
A.
the
bony
Cavities for articulation.
A. Small emQ. Is not the number of bones greater Q. What are tubercles? A. inences. during colthood than at mature life ? A. Rough Q. What are tuberosities ? Yes, many of the bones separable at that
period Q.
or
become united
in the adult.
How
and
are bones divided
lÂ. They
are divided into long or cylindrical, broad jections

flat,
thick.
Q.
sisis
What
is
of bones?
tilage
finally
do you understand by cpiphyA. The region where carinterposed between bones that
ossified.
become
jecting portions of bones. Q. What is the structure of bones? A. They consist of a cellular, reticular, and (REMARKS ON THE SAMe). THE TRUNK vascular parenchyma, and of osseous matter
is
A. Long proQ. What are heads? A. The round tops of bones. Q. What are necks The narrow porheads.. tion of bones beneath Q. What are processes? A. Short proQ.
elevations.
What
are spines?
upon a bone.
their
deposited in
it
their base, therefore,
We
shall
now
consider the peculiarities
the
same
as that of the soft parts.
of the trunk; which comprehends the verte-
EXPLANATIONS OF FIGUEE
V.
MUSCULAR STRUCTUKE.
LATERAL VIEW OF THE HEAD, NECK, AND SHOULDEK.
a.
THE
HEAD.
THE HORSE.
bral chain, thorax,
ally called
41
and pelvis. It is generQ. What of the seventh l A. It is the the spine, or back bone, and shortest, and in its general conformation reextends from the occipital bone to the sac- sembles the first dorsal. Its body, posrum.
regions,
The
spine
is
divided
cervical,
into
dorsal,
three teriorly, presents
denominated
two semilunar articular and depressions, constituting a part of the socket

for the first rib.
lumbar.
three
The
spine, as
a whole, exhibits
extremities.
surfaces
and two
The
and
loins
infe-
surfaces are
lateral.
named
;
superior, inferior,
is flat
DORSAL VERTEBRJE.
The
superior surface
in the
in the
region of the neck

it offers
back and
A.
Q.
tebras
?
Q.
How many dorsal vertebrce

Eighteen.
are there?
a series of projections.
The
What
rior surface is
is
more uniform, and the lateral
A.
is
peculiar to the dorsal ver-
They have each a bodi/, spinous

transverse process,
very irregular.
process,
and
and are
generally distinguished
by the
length, form,
CERVICAL VERTEBRJ2.
Q.
there
?
and direction of
are
their spines.
How many
A.
cervical
vertebrae
Seven.
is
Q.
Q.
It
What
the
name
of the
first ?
Q. How is the fii-st dorsal vertebrce distinguished from the rest? A. By the A. sharpness of its spinous, and singleness of
It is called atlas.
transverse, processes,
and by the breadth of

for
How does it differ from

is
the rest?
A.
its
articulatory sm-faces.
has no superior spinous process nor body

larger
Q.
How
do the articular depressions
than in the the insertion of the ribs differ in each bone? A. They are less deeply marked, as we others, and its transverse processes are very proceed posteriorly. broad. It has three pairs of foraminas one posteriorly, through which run the verteQ. How are the seventeenth and eighteenth distinguished from the rest? bral arteries and two anteriorly. A.
the vertebral hole
Q.
Q.
What
is
?
\dcal vertebra
A.
the
name
of the second cer-
They have
perfect articulatory depressions

for the insertion of ribs.
It is
named
dentata.
?
on the bodies
A.
the
How
is it
recognized from the rest
LUMBAR VERTEBRJ3. By its anterior projection, which in Q. How many lumbar vertebrEB human subject resembles a tooth. Q. With what does this tooth-like pro- there? A Five.
are
are the bodies of the lumbar Q. cess articulate ? A. It articulates with the infero-posterior part of the ring of the vertebra distinguished from the dorsal? A. They are larger, conti-acted in the centre, atlas.
How
cervical
Q. Describe the third, fourth, and ffth and their edges are vertebra;. A. They possess the
more prominent.
genuine characters of cervical vertebrm, and closely resemble each other; the third, however,
rior
VERTEBRAL CANAL.
is
Q.
What
A.
the form of the vertebral

it is
has
commonly a more
canal?
elevated supe-
In the cervical region

;
ca-
spine than either of the others,
and
pacious and semi-oval

transversely oval
it is
through the dorsal,

In the lum-
is
narrower across the mesio-siiperior part of bar the bodi/ (measuring from the roots of the
articular
and
smaller.
semi-circular, of less diameter than
processes),
which dimension
the cervical
in-
and greater than the

Anteriorly,
dorsal.
creases in the fourth, but is greatest in the

fifth.
Q.
nect
Q. What of the sLxth vertebral A. It has no inferior spine and its transverse pro;
A.
;
With what does the

posteriorly,
spinal canal con-
with the cranial
cavity
with the sacral canal.
PELVIS, SACRUM,
AND TAIL BONES.
cesses
are
trifid,
consisting each
of three
We
shall
now
consider the posterior
eminences.
boundary of the trunk.

42
OS SACRUM. Q.

this
state,
; ;
however, they are denominated
bone
Q.
A.
What
Where
is
the popular
It is
is
unnamed bones. of this ossa innoniinata Q. What is the situation of the called the " rtimp bone." A. At the ischiatic, and pubic portions? it located?
name
iliatic,
They
superior part of the pelvis, between the ossa are in the anterior, superior, and lateral parts of the pelvic region. The ischiatic extends illia.
Q.
bones.
What
ossa illia ?
A.
is
the popular
name
They
are called the
haunch
of the posteriorly and the pubic interiorly. Q. What are the connections
ossa innominata
?
A.
of the
They
are connected,
Q.
How many pieces enter into the comcomposed of

five pieces.
?
anteriorly
position of the sacral bone, in the foal?
posteriorly
and inferiorly, to the os sacrum and inferiorly, to each other,

;
A.
It is
Q. Q.
tills
How
are they uiaited
A.
By fibro-
forming the symphysis pubis with the thigh bones.

Q.
It
laterally,
cartilaginous substance.
What
are the uses of the pelvis?
What
ultimate change takes place in A. A.

It
affords
an arch
It
for supporting the
substance?
becomes
ossified, posterior parts.
contains the urinary or-
and hence the

Q.
apex.
solid bone.
gans, rectum,
etc.,
gives protection to blood-
How is
the sacral bone divided ?
A
and
vessels
and
nerves,
Into three sm-faces,
two
borders, base,
to various muscles
and origin and and ligaments.
insertion
Q. Describe
its surfaces.
named
superior, inferior,
is
They are and lateral. The

on
its
A.
CHEST OR THORAX.
The thorax
or
chest
is
;
formed by the
ribs, laterally
superior
convex, very irregular;
dorsal vertebrae, superiorly
and laterally and sternum, inferiorly. It also affords proare superficial grooves pierced by the four tection to the principal organs of circulaThe inferior surface is tion and respiration. sacral foraminae. Q. State the number of ribs and their smooth and slightly concave. The lateral A. Their number is genersm-face is thick anteriorly, gradually tapering arrangement? posteriorly they are roughened for the really thirty-sbc eighteen on each side, eight of which are termed ti'ue, and the remainder ception of the sacro-iliac ligament.
central line are five eminences,
; ;
A.
two
Q. Describe,
The base
lateral
the base and apex. composed of a central and The apex is oval, and parts.
briefly,
is
false, ribs.
Q.
Why
?
true ribs
A.
are
the
anterior
eight
called
direct
Because they have a
articulates
with the anterior bones of the taU. cartilaginous insertion into the breast bone
or sternum.
BONES OF THE TAIL (oSSA COCCYGIs).

Q. Q.
Q.
rectly
What
?
coccygis
A.
is
the situation of the ossa false
Posterior to the sacrum.

is
posterior ten termed Because they are indiconnected with the sternum.
ribs ?
Why
A.
is
are the
Of how many bones
the taU com-
Q.
What
?
posed?
A.
Fifteen.
of a rib
A.
the general conformation

It is
lengthy, curved
;
con-
vex outwardly or laterally

Q.
terminating in
PELVIS OR HAUNCH BONES (oSSA INNOMINATa). a sharp border posteriorly, which forms a
How
do
anatomists
bones, in the fostal state?
A.
are
divide
these posterior convexity.

it
On
the inner surfaces
Into ilium,
is
concave, and of course the reverse of
ischium, and pubes. Q.

Li the adult horse
?
the external.
there
than two bones
A.
more
Q.
What
are the variations in ribs ?
They
are considered A.
They vary
Q.
in length, degree of curva-
as two, yet in reality they are united at the ture, and obliquity of direction.
pubes so as to constitute but one bone.
In
How
shall
we
divide each rib
A.
THE HORSE.
Into a body, external convexity
;
43
sterno-maxillares and sterno-thyro-hy
internal the
concavity, a superior
tion
;
and
inferior termina- oidei muscles.
and posterior edges. Q. To what part of the sternum is the A. To its indo you understand when the ensiform cartilage inserted ? A. It ferior and posterior part. term, head, is applied to a rib ? superior Having now considered the bones of the protuberance its signifies its portion presenting a smooth convexity for head (with the exception of the teeth), and
anterior
Q.
What
articulation with the bodies of vertabras.

'
hyoides
1
(appendages), spine, thorax, and
the bones Immediately below the head. composing the extremities. These are four Q. What is the difTerence between the in number, disposed in pairs, and known anterior and posterior edges of the ribs ? as the fore and hind extremities. Our A. The anterior edge is circular and the examination will be conducted with reference only to one fore, and one hind, exposterior is sharp. Q. Where is the tubercle of the rib tremity presuming that a description of the situated ? A. Posterior to the head at bones on one side will suffice for those on
Q.
is
Where
the neck of a rib situated
pelvis,
we now commence on
A.
the root of the neck.
the other.
first
Q.
How
and
is
from the
thickest,
rest ?
A.
It
the
rib distinguished
It is
the shortest and
FORE EXTREMITIES.
Q.
is
almost straight.
differ
is
What
?
Q.
How
the first?
A.
does the second rib
from extremities
A.
is
fore
They occupy
the antero-
longer, less
dense,
lateral parts of the trunk,
from which they
and has a greater curvature

its
in the region of proceed inferiorly.
neck.
Q.
How
How
do the
ribs
second to the seventh ?

in breadth.
A.
differ
A. Q. How are the bones divided? from the Into shoulder, arm, knee, leg, pastern, coroincrease net,
They
and
?
foot.
Q.
do they
differ in
length
Up
A.
is
to the ninth.
Q.
How do they differ in curvatinre ? Gradually up to the eighteenth, which

all.
A.
Q.
Name
region
A.
the
bones composing each
Scapijla,
SHOCXDER BONES. Humerus.
the most curved of
AKM
BOXES.
Radius, Ulnar.
BREAST BONE (sTERNUm).
BONES OF THE KNEE.

^ f Scaphoid,
A.
Q.
Q.
What is the
It
situation of the sternum ?
occupies the anterior and inferior
J
I
Lunar, Cuneiform,
I S
["Pisiform,
J
Trapezoid,
1
1
Os Magnum,
Unciform.
portion of the thorax.
i^Trapeziun.
How
?
sternum
horse
is
it
A.
does
it
differ
from the human

subject
it is
In the
human
;
composed of
is
three
pieces
in the adult
It
BONES OF THE LEG. Large Metacarpal.
considered as a single bone.
Two
IN
small Metacarpal (splents).
made up, however, of seven irregularly formed bones.

Q.
THE REGION OF THE FETLOCK.
Two
Sessamoid Bones.
num ?
Q.
A.
What
is
the structure of the
ster-
It is
cellular substance
composed of an osseaus and cartilages.

cartilages ?
PASTERN BON'S. Os Suf&aginis.

COKON'ET BONE.
Name
What
?
the
A.
Ensi-
form and
Q.
cartilage
Os Corona.
FOO^ BON-ES.
Navicular and Coffin-bones.
cariniform.
A.
is
the use of the cariniform

It
affords
attachment to

44
Q.
How many
the fore extremities
bones compose one of Q. How is this membrane protected in? A. Twenty-one. ternally and externally ? A. Internally it is clothed with a synovial membrane exOF THE SHOULDER. ternally by adherent
muscles.
Q.
The
shoulder being composed of the
scapula and humerus,
thorax do they occupy

its
what portion of the A. They occupy
humerus.
Q.
What
antero-lateral region.
humerus ?
A.
is
the
situation
of
the
It is
situated beneath the

viz.,
scapula, occupying a diverse direction,
SCAPULA, (shoulder blade).

Q.
downwards and backwards, and
is
in con-
ula
A.
What
It
is
the position of the scap- tiguity with the lateral parts of the thorax.
antero-lateral
occupies the
parts of the thorax.
Q.
Describe the bone.
A.
A.
It is trian;
Q.
Describe the form of the humerus.

It is
irregular, cylindroid,
having a
superior
convoluted
is
appearance, and
its
gular, broad,
and thin superiorly

;
narrower extremity
much
larger than the inferior.
and
is
thicker inferiorly its external surface A. Q. How is this bone divided? unequally divided into two superficial Into a body, superior and inferior extremiconcavities, named fossae antea et postea ties.
spinata;.
Its internal surface is
smooth, yet
Q.
lar,
Describe the body.
A.
It is
angu-
excavated.
Q.
Describe the borders.
perior has a thin,
margin projects a the insertion of the cartilage of the scap- roughened tuberosity, into which the levaula the anterior is thin in its upper half, tor humeri is inserted. The lateral part of yet below it becomes rounded the posterior the body is hollow or excavated. The inis obtuse and rounded. ner side is somewhat roughened and promisuperior-anterior-lateral
;
;
The roughened summit
A.
with
sides, contracted
superiorly,
and
its
su- flattened
for
and rounded
inferiorly.
From
feriorly ?
A. By a glenoid Q. What are the connections of the scapula A. has a ligamentous concavity.
?
Q.
How
does the scapula terminate
in-
nent.
Q. A.
Describe the superior extremity.
The
superior extremity being
much
It
larger than
the inferior, presents a head

:
vertebras
nection with the spines of some of the dorsal and several tubercles it has a projecting, to the thorax, it is connected by hemispherical surface, designed for extenmuscular faschia; and its inferior connec- sive articulation. It presents a smooth
;
tion
is
the head of the
by means of the glenoid cavity, to surface, yet has an irregular, indented humerus this latter forms groove for the insertion of a capsular liga;
the shoulder joint.

Q.
Is there
ment.
anything remarkable about
the shoulder joint?

able feature
size
is,
A.
Q.
What
is
the use of the tubercles
Its
most remark- A. The

verse.
anterior, three in
number, serve as
the great disproportion in articulations for the flexor brachii to tra-
between the head of the humerus and
The
fourth serves as a protection
the glenoid cavity.

Q.
against dislocation.
disproportion in magni?
How
is this
tude compensated for

sive capsular
A.
It
Q.
Describe the inferior extremity.
A.
is
By
an exten-
It consists
of two heads or condyles, sepafossa, into
membrane, wliich admits of rated by deep ovoid

are the insertions of
which
extensive motion.
received the olecranon of the ulna.
Q.
sular
What
membrane ?
A.
tliis
cap-
Q.
What
?
has a circular humerus
A.
are
the
connections of the
it
Superiorly,
;
connects
insertion
into the rough
glenoid cavity,
the humerus.
margin of the with the scapula inferiorly, it articulates and also around the neck of with the radial and ulnar extremity of the Os Brachii.
THE HORSE.
OS BRACHII (arm BONe).
Q.
brachii.
45
Q.
the
How
are these bones arranged
A.
;
Describe
located beneath the tho- of the number, trapezium, is located in the posterior part of the carpus. rax, in the inferior region of the humerus. Q. Name the bones of the first row ? Q. How does this bone differ from those
It is
A.
the
location
of
os
They
are ranged in
tvo rows,
or tiers
one
A. By being conbone. solidated into a divided A. Into Q. How and ulnar A. consists Q. Descrihe ihe
of the
human subject ?
single
is it
A. Scaphoid, lunar, cuneiforme, trapezium.

Q.
radial
row?
Q.
A.
Name
the bones crossing the second

Pisiform,
trapezoid,
magnum,
portions.
unciform.
radial.
It
What
is
the general form and situa-
of a body, superior and inferior extremi- tion of each of the bones of the first row? A. The OS scaphoides is semi-ovoid in ties. The body is lengthy, compared with
other bones of the fore extremity

orly
it
posteri- form, its

;
superior surface
is
sigmoid and
ante- smooth, the inferior surface is somewhat riorly it projects with a smooth, cylindrical oval, and rests upon the trapezoides and magnum of the second row. Its internal surface. surface comes in contact with the os lunare. Q. Describe the superior extremity.
is
excavated and roughened
an in- The OS lunare is the second bone of the first having a row; it articulates superiorly with the central eminence, with two cavities, which brachii inferiorly, with the ossa magnum correspond to the articulations of the os and unciforme its superior surface is trianinferior, oblong on one side, intergular humerii. nally, it articulates with the scaphoid, on Q. Describe the inferior exti'emity. A. It appears to consist of three articulatory the other with the cuneiforme. The cuneisturfaces, which correspond with those of the forme is known as the external, yet smallest bone of the knee. Its superior surface is bones of the carpus. Q. Describe the ulnar portion of the os concave inferior, smooth ; its internal surbrachii. A. It presents a tapering trian- face articulates with the os lunare, and posgular projection, firmly connected with the teriorly it unites with the trapezium. Q. What is the general form and situaradius; at its junction with the same, it presents a semilunar concavity this, with tion of each of the bones of the second
A.
The
superior extremity presents

articulatory
surface,
terrupted
the articulatory surface of the radius, forms

the humero-brachial articulation.
row ?
A.
The
os trapezoides
is
situated
on the inner side of the knee, resting on the Q. Name the projection of the ulnar, inner splent bone, and articulating with the commonly termed point of the elbow. A. OS magnum its form is that of an iiTegular, curvated, flattened cone its superior surface Olecranon.
Q.
What
?
cranon
Q.
pieces
A.
muscle
is
inserted into the ole-
is
convex, and
is
its
inferior
flat.
The
os
The
?
triceps extensor braehii.
magnum
the middle bone of the second
What
named
is
early colthood
A.
the state
It is
of this bone in row, and composed of two the knee.

wliicli after-
is
known
as the largest bone of
Its
superior surface presents
two
radius
and ulnar,
wards become consolidated. Q. With what bones does the
inferior
one sigmoid and oblong for the OS lunare, and the other ovoid and flat, to correspond with the surface of
articvilatory surfaces,
;
? A. OS scaphoides its interior surface is flat, the scaphoid, lunar, and cuneiform and articulates with large metacarpal bone. The OS unciform is situated on the outer bones. side of the second row, and in form resem-
portion of the os brachii articulate
With
BONES OF THE KNEE (CARPUs).
bles a blunt
its
hook;
its
superior surface is
articulating
The bones
of the knee correspond to the convex;
inferior irregular,
wrist, or carpus, of
man.
with the outer splent and cannon.
The os
46
trapezium
is

situated in the posterior part metacarpi parva ?
A.
Two
external
and
of the carpus, and presents
two smooth
sur- internal.
A. They Q. Describe their situation. forme and brachii. Its external, lateral sur- are attached to the lateral and posterior face is convex; its internal concave; its parts of the metacarpi magnum. A. Into Q. How do you divide them ? superior border gives attachment to the
faces for articulation with the ossa cunei-
flexores metacarpi
and into the
inferior is bases, middles,
and
apices.
inserted a ligament.
A. It is surQ. Describe the base. The ossa pisaforms is mounted by a smooth articulatory surface, sometimes there are two present situated posterior to the trapezoides; its corresponding to the inferior portion of a
for
form
is
orbicular or pea-shape.
part of the knee joint.
METACARPAL BONES.
ber, viz
The metacarpal bones are three in nummetacarpus magnum, 1 metacar:

;
facial:
Q. Describe the middle. the anterior surface
A.
is
;
It is tri-
roughened
for the insertion
of inter-articular tissue,
pus parvum, 2. There seems, great a disproportion between num and ossa parva, that the be considered as the principal
the fore extremities.
Q.
?
however, so
the os
which connects it with the cannon the inner

excavated; the outer surface is rounding, and terminates, posteriorly, acusurface
is
mag-
former
may
minately.
support of
A. Immediately beneath the Q. Describe the form of the metacarpi a long magnum. A.
pus
carpias.
It
is
What
is
the situation of the metacar-
A. It tapers, and Q. Describe the apex. ends in a tubercle, which curvates in an

inferior
Q.
How
cylindrical
bone, presenting on
circular,
its anterior surface a latory surface. smooth appearance; its posterior Q. What bone does the external splent surface is somewhat flattened and depressed. A. The unciform. articulate with ? Into divided ? A. Q. How is the bone Q. What bone does the internal splent a body, and two extremities. trapezoid.
A. The external is generally larger than the internal, and has a broader articudiffer ?
and superior direction. do the ossa metacarpi parva
Q. Describe the
superior presents a
face, tapering
extremities. A.
its
The
articulate with
A.
The
smooth articulatory
its
sur-
Q.
How
towards
outer edges, yet
cannon ?
sue.
A.
are the splents connected to the
By cartilago-ligamentous tisthis cartilaginous

life ?
more depressed on
part
;
inner
in the anterior region is a
and posterior roughened
Q.
What
changes does
tissue undergo, subsequent to adult
prominence, for the insertion of the extensor

metacarpi, and on the lateral side of the bone are eminences which afford insertion
for the lateral ligaments.
A. In a majority of cases it becomes
ossified.
PASTERN BONE (oS SUFFRAGINIs).
Q. Describe the location of this bone. tremity presents a pulley-like surface, with A. It is located beneath the cannon, and two unequal condyloid surfaces, separated takes an oblique direction from the same by a semi-cLrcular eminence, which correit articulates superiorly with the cannon; sponds to a counterpart found on the supeposteriorly with the ossa sesamoidea. rior end of the suffraginis. Q. Describe the form of the os suffraQ. What are the articulations of the ginis. A. It is a flattened cylinder, yet its
The
inferior ex-
A. It articulates sumetacarpi magnum ? superior portion is more bullvy than the inperiorly with the carpus interiorly, with the it is generally considered as being ferior OS suffragmis posteriorly and laterally, with about one-third the length of the cannon, parva. sepamoidea, and metacarpi the ossa and is divided into a body, superior and OSSA METACARPI PARVA (SPLENT BONEs). inferior extremities.
;
Q.
How many
bones compose the ossa
Q. Describe the body of the os suf&a-
THE HORSE.
ginis.
47
The body presents two surfaces, nal surfaces of these bones ? A. The flexor and posterior the anterior is con- tendons. vex, the posterior flattened and uneven it Q. What ligaments are inserted into the bases of these bones ? lessens in bulk in an inferior direction. A. The long, Q. How is the superior extremity of the short, and crucial ligaments. pastern bone recognized from the inferior ? CORONET BONE (oS COEON^). A. The superior is the largest, and preanterior
;
A.
sents
and may eminence of the inferior extremity of the therefore be termed the inferior, pastern; The inferior extremity is it occupies a location between the superior cannon bone. much smaller than the superior; it is bi- pastern and coffin bone. convex, and consists of two articular conQ. Describe the os corona, or inferior A. It presents a square body; its vexities, separated by a transverse shallow pastern.
them
two shallow articular cavities between is a groove, which receives the central
;
The
OS
coronce is
situated beneath, or
rather inferiorly, to the pastern,
depression.
breadth,
however, somewhat
It
exceeds
anterior,
is
its
longitudinal measurement.
SESSAIIOID
has four sur-
BONES (OSSA SESSAM0ID.E).
faces, viz., superior, inferior,
and
the
Q.
ated
Where are the two sessamoids situA. At the posterior part of the
formed
is
posterior
the superior surface the
bi-concave,
corresponding to
superior pastern
;
projections
of
articulation
by the cannon and

?
the inferior surface
is bi-
pastern bones.
Q.
faces,
is
What
the form of these bones
convex, consisting of
inences, separated
two condyloid promby a slight transverse

;
A. Trapezoid: three sides present triangular depression, corresponding to the articulatory whose apices unite in one point, which surface of the coffin-bone the anterior surdirected
upwards
the bases of the
form a fourth side, which is posterior surface is quite smooth, yet excawards and are therefore divided into three vated. sides, base, and apex. Q. What are the conn? ctions of the os Q. Give a general description of the corouEe ? A. It connects with the pastern,
;
same turned down-
face
is
convex, yet rough and irregular
the
faces or surfaces of these bones.

are
A.
and
They
lateral
cofSn,
and navicular bones.
known
;
as anterior, posterior,
faces
the anterior are excavated, smooth,
and
articulatory,
borders
and along which are opposed

off,
BONES OF THE FOOT.

THE COFFIN BONE
(oS PEDIs).
are levelled
inward to each other so that the two form a

their
The
coffin
bone
is
is
considered as the base
groove for
non.
the
reception
of
the
central of the osseous structure of the fore extremity.
eminence of the
inferior portion of the can-
and rougli the lateral surfaces are grooved and roughened; the bases are narrow and uneven.
posterior surfaces are convex
;
The
A.
Q.
What
It
the form of the coffin bone 1

;
presents a semilunar outline
anpos-
teriorly teriorly
and superiorly it is convex and inferiorly it is concave

sole,
it
is
Q.
What
appears to be the object in ex- divided into wall,

anterior
tendinous surface,
cavating
bones?
wall. A. It is a and admit of miniature of the form of the hoof; it exhibits extensive anterior and posterior motion. a porous and furrowed surface, and has inQ. For what purposes are the posterior numerable perforations, varying in size and surfaces roughened ? A. For the insertion form its superior part is surmounted by
A.
the
surfaces
of
these articulatory surface,
and wings.
To
extend
the articulatory
Q.
Describe
the
surface of the pastern joint,
of the suspensory Ligaments.

Q.
the coronal process; the inferior edge of the
What
occupies the
cavity which
waH
is
somewhat
oval,
and
is
notched and
occurs in consequence of uniting the inter- serrated.

48
Q.
; ;
What
and furrows ?
They serve as so many part of each side of the coffin bone the attachments for the fibrous tunic of the protuberance, however, is generally bifid; the lower portion which is the largest, is sensible laminae. Q. What name is generally applied to irregular and asperous, and projects in a
;
A.
are the uses of the porosities consist of a protuberance on the posterior
the largest of the perforations found in the posterior direction the upper portion is tuA. They are termed for- bercular, yet smooth between the divisions coffin bone ?
ammsB.
Q. What occupies these forarainae A. Blood-vessels and nerves.
?
a notch, which, at a certain period in the life of the animal becomes a

of the alae
is
perfect foramen.
A.
Q.
Describe the sole of the coffin bone
Q.
What
is
attached to the irregular suralee ?
The
sole exhibits
a broad, uniform, face of the larger division of the

foot.
it
A.
concave surface, resembling in most cases The cartilage of the

the figure of the inferior part of the hoof;
Q.
What
is affixed
has porosities similar to those formed on portion of the als ? the wall it is bounded anteriorly and later- ments. Q. What vessel ally by the circumferent edge of the wall
;
A.
to the tuberculated
The
coffin liga-
A. The lateral artery. by a sharp, uneven, semi-circular notch ? edge, which divides it from the tendinous Q. What is there remarkable about the
posteriorly,
passes
through
the
A. It has a structure of the coffin bone ? on the tendinous spongy, fragile texture, pervaded in every A. 1st, a rough depression in direction by minute canals for the transsurface? it difits fore and middle part, marking the inser- mission of blood-vessels and nerves tion of the tendo perforans. 2ndly, two fers very essentially from many bones of
surface.
Q.
What
do
we
find
lateral grooves, passing obliquely inwards,
the body, which, in healthy subjects, are
and terminating each in a

the
large foramen. remarkable for compactness
and
sofidity.
3rdly, a porous space intermediate
between
NAVICULAR BONE (oS NAVICULARe).
Q.
two former
divisions, into wliich is fixed
the inferior navicular ligament.
What is the
its
general form and division

?
Q.
What occupies the lateral
grooves?
of the navicular bone

:
A.
of
It is
semi-lu-
A.
The trunks of
Q.
the arteries and nerves nar
lunated border, however, only forms

circle
its
which occupy the
interior of the coffin bone.
about one third the

it is
dimensions
What
are the pecuharities of the ar-
ticulatory surface of the coffin
bone ? A. It has two lateral depressions, which extend posteriorly to the alae a broad eminence runs transversely between them this eminence is terminated in front by the coronal processes, having an incurvation backwards behind it, the surface is bevelled off", to which part is opposed the navicular bone the depressions alluded to are deepened by the prominent edge running around the anterior and lateral parts. Q. What portion of the coffin bone does the articulatory surface occupy? A. The
; ;
divided into two sm-faces,

extremities.
is
tliis
two
borders,
and two
Q.
Where
bone situated?
A.
At
the posterior part of the coffin joint.
faces
Q. Describe the superior and inferior surA. The of the navicular bone.
superior
surface
bears
corresponding
aspect to the articulating surface of the

coffin bone,
depressions,
having two superficial lateral with an eminence betwêen

inferior surface is also articu-
them.
latory
;
The
and
exhibits lateral depressions yet
superior part.
Q.
What
is
the form of this surface
superficial than the superior; it has an eminence across the middle, narrower yet more prominent than the former. Q. Name the tendon which articulates
more
also
A.
It is
half-moon shaped.
alffi,
Q. Describe the
or
wings
They
over the inferior surface.

forans.
A.
Tendo
per-
THE HOESE.
Q. Describe the borders.
49
A. The borQ. Where is the femur situated ? A. and straight the lunated Between the pelvis and thigh bones. A. Into a body is broadest in the centre, and narrows toQ. How is it divided? wards the extremities superiorly it has a and two extremities. smooth narrow strip of surface along the Q. What are the peculiarities of the middle, which is adapted to the bevelled superior extremity? A. It consists of two
ders are lunated
:
portion of the articulatory surface of the parts

coffin
a hemispherical, smooth, articulatory
and head, directed upwards and inwards, and body by a flattened neck, which connects it with the coffin bone. and exhibiting on its inner side a fissure, The straight border is thinner than the into which is fixed the teres or round ligaopposite one superiorly it is rough and ment. The other part is a large irregular porous inferiorly it is smooth and lipped. projection at the base, and posterior to the Q. What is the form and direction of same is a deep oval cavity at the superior A. part is a roughened crest; inwardly it prethe extremities of the navicular bone ? They are obtusely pointed, one directed sents a concave, smooth surface. outward and the other inward. Q. What is the proper name of the probone
;
the part beneath

is
is
fluted
porous, into which
inserted a ligament joined to the
Q.
What
?
extremities
A.
is
ligaments are inserted into the jection? The lateral ligaments. chanter.
Q.
the
A.
The
great
external
tro-
What
HIND EXTREMITIES.
Q.
same ?
A.
is
muscles are inserted into the
The
gluteii.
What
hind
Q.
What
inserted
extremities?
the inferior smooth surface? and posterior parts of the pelvis, and sup- ment.
Q.
A.
They occupy
A.
into the concave

liga-
The capsular
port the posterior parts of the trunk.
Q. What is the form of the body of the are the bones of the hind ex- OS femoris ? A. It is cylindrical. divided ? tremities A. They are thus does it correspond in size and Q. divided Femur, stifle, thigh, hock, leg, pas- weight with other bones of the body ? A.
How
:
How
tern, coronet,
and
the
foot.
It is
the longest and weightiest.
Q.
parts.
A.
Name
bones comprising these
Q.
ity ?
FEMUR.
STIFLE BONE.
Patella.
THIGH BONES.
Tibia and Fibula.
HOCK BONES.
Astragalus,
broad and thick, and has a prominence and two condyles. A. Q. Give a description of the same. The articular or puUy-Uke surface anteriorly consists of a broad, semi-circular groove bounded on either side by a prominence the condyles much resemble each other,
It is
A.
What
is
the form of inferior extrem-
trochleal
Os
calcis.
excepting that the external
is
the thickest,
Cuboid bone,
and
the
internal
most projecting;
they
Three Cuneiform bones.
exhibit prominent, convex, articulatory surfaces on their sides are rough eminences between them is a deep fossa at the base
; ;
BONES OF THE LEG.

Metatarsi
Magnum.
Metatarsi Parvieum, two bones (splents).
of the external condyle
is
pit.
PASTERN JODfT.
Ossa SessamoidiE (two bones),
Os
Suffraginis (pastern).
CORONET.
A. The inserted Q. What nences A. The

surface
?
Q.
What
articulates over the pulley-like
patella or stifle bone.
is
into the rough emi-
lateral ligaments.
?
Os Corona.
BONES OF THE FOOT. Os Pedis and Os Navieulare.
Q.
What
occupies the fossa
A.
The
inter-articular ligament.

50
Q.
Q.
What What
?
is
inserted into the pit
A.
enter into the composition of the haunch,
The tendon
colthood
of the extensor pedis.

is
the tibia and fibula are termed thigh bones,
A.
the state of this bone during although in

Exti-emities are attached to the leg
;
man
they are termed bones of

is
the fibula of the horse, however,
the body of the bone by
means of
cartUage. a very small, slender bone, affixed to
the
Q. What changes do the extremities superior part of the external side of the A. They tibia. undergo just prior to adult life ? become consolidated with the body of the Q. What is the situation of the thigh bone ? A. It is situated between tiie stifle bone.
and hock.
STIFLE BONE (paTELLa).
Q.
What
is
is
the form of this bone

;
A.
A.
Q.
Q.
What
It is
is
the situation of the patella ?
It is long,
straight, prismatic
its
superior
situated on the anterior
and
?
infe-
extremity
Q.
larger than the inferior.

its
rior extremity of the femur.
What
is
its
general
form
A.
What is
direction
A.
Oblique
in a contrary direction to the femur.
A. Into Quadrangular, convex externally, irregularly Q. How is the tibia divided ? concave internally. a body, superior and inferior extremities. A. Into three Q. How is it divided ? Q. What is the general form of the
surfaces
and four
angles.
Q. Describe the surfaces.

in the centre
A.
body ?
A.
It is irregularly triangular,
is
the
The
an- posterior face

is
broadest, the anterior angle
terior surface is convex, yet quite

;
prominent
is
rounded, and the sides are roughened.

Q.
it
has a roughened surface,
What
is
peculiar to the superior ex?
and
is
porous.
The
superior surface
tremity of the bone
A.
;
We
find tnô
angular, uneven, and roughened.

terior surface is articulatory,
The
pos- irregular ovoid articulatory surfaces, correto the eminences
and unequally sponding

it
on the
inferior
divided by an eminence running across

into
extremity of the femur
these are separated
two shallow concavities, which are by an acute elevation, and two fossa, into adapted to the condyles of the inferior ex- which is inserted the lateral ligament. A. tremity of the femur. Q. Describe the inferior extremity. Q. Describe the form of the angles of the It is flattened, and has two deep articular
patella.
A.
They
are obtuse.
grooves running in an anterior and posterior

;
its exterior margin is roughened. A. For the insertion of A. It bone roughened ? Q. What are its connections ? tendinous and Ugamentary attachments. connects with the femur and patella supeQ. What is implanted into the uneven riorly interiorly, with the bones of the hock. and roughened part of the superior border ? fibula. A. The tendons of the rectus and vasti
Q.
Why
is
the anterior surface of the direction
muscles.
Q.
lateral
tella.
What
is
angle?
A.
inserted into the inferior
and
pa-
A.
Q.
^4.
What
At
is
the situation of the fibula?
the posterior part of the tibia.

is it
The Kgamentum
connections of
Q.
How
connected to the tibia
of
Q.
What
bone ?
A.
are the
It is
this
By cartilago-ligamentous substance. Q. What is the form of the two ends
connected to the inferior the bone ?

it
A.
The
superior is bulky,
side,
flat-
portion of the
femur by tendinous and tened from

is
side to
capsular ligaments; to the tibia
con-
The
inferior is
slender
and roughened. and tapering, and

the tibia.
nected by similar ligaments.
extends about half
way down
THIGH BOXES (tIBIA AND FIBULa).

In consequence of a horse having a
large femur,
very-
BOXES OF THE HOCK (taRSUs).
The
tarsus, or liock,
comprises a part of
horse, that
and that bone appearing to the osseous structure of the
<<5
f^%^
EXPLAJSÂTIONS OF FIGURE
VI.
NO.
f.
34. 3q. 36.
1.
POKE
EXTREMn'IES.
The ulnar. Humerus.

Kadius.
Carpus.
37.
Metacarpus.
Sessamoids.
38.
s.
or 39.
40.
41.
Os suf&aginis. Os corona. Os pedis. The above description
also answers for
No.
3,
the bony
structure.
NO.
2.
MUSCULiVR
THE
STRUCTURE.
L.iTEIUL iTEW OF
s".
NE.1R-F0IIE EXTEEMITY.
H'
Humero
cubital.
n".
Levator htunero.
p". Flexor metacarpi estemus.

i". x".
Extensor pedis.
Flexor tendons.
jj". j<". v.
v".
z.
i{.
Flexor tendons.
Suspensory ligament.
The
hoof.
NO.
4.
ANTEEIOR VIEW OF THE NEAX-FOEE EXTEEMITT,

s.
t.
Extensor metacarjri obHquus.

Extensor pedis.
a;".
y".
^.
Extensor
suffiraginis.
The
hoof.
8.
Bifurcation of the suspensory Ugament^
THE HOBBE.
every veterinary student should aim to be gularly flattened articulatory surface, which
well acquainted with
;
it is
a part that seems comes in contact with the large cuneiform

liable to
to be, in this country,

losis
more
anchy- bone.
;
and exostosis than any other region here is the seat of spavin, and no one can
CUBOID BONE (oS CUBOIDES).

Q.
?
possibly understand the nature of such dis-
What
ease unless he be conversant with the ana- bone
A.
is
the situation of the cuboid

the
On
outer part of
the
tomical mechanism of the hock.
The hock
hock.
corresponds to the tarsus or instep of man,
Q.
How
is
the bone divided

viz., external,
A.
Into
and
is
composed of
six bones, viz., os calcis,
four surfaces,
internal, supe-
rior, and inferior. astragalus, os cuboides, ossa cuneiformis which comprise three small bones, viz., exQ. How do you distinguish the external A. The exterternal, internal, and middle cuneiforme. We from the internal surface ? nal siu-face is broad, kregular, curved, and shall first consider the os calcis. Q. What is the situation of the os cal- roughened on the other hand, the internal cis ? A. It forms the posterior projec- is excavated, and has three articulatory the surfaces. tion known as the point of the hock superior and posterior bone of the tarsus. Q. How does the superior surface difler A. The superior surQ. Give a general description of the from the inferior ? bone. A. Its figm-e is irregular presents face has two articulations, with a fossa the inferior surfaces are a body, tuberosity, posterior surface, and between them base the body is most bulky at its inferior smaller, and correspond, one to the articulapart as a whole, it is irregularly convex tory head of the splent bone, and the other concave and expanded at its base, where to the cannon.
it
presents four surfaces for articulation

;
with the astragalus the tuberosity is oblong, flattened on each side, and terminates
in a rough tubercle, into
large cuneiform bone (os cuneiforme magnum).

Q.
which
is
inserted
It is sit-
What
bone
?
the tendons of the gastrocnemii.
form
Q.
A.
is
the situation of the cuneiDirectly beneath
the
uated on the superior part of the hock.
astragalus.
bone ? a triangular form; its Q. What is the situation of the asti-a- acvite termination being in a posterior du-ecgalus ? A. It is situated in the superior tion, it has superior and inferior sm'faces, part of the hock, and is the principal sup- sides, and angles.
THE KNUCKLE BONE (aSTRAGALUs).
A.
Q.
What is the appearance of this

It
presents
port of the tibia.
How
surface
is
the superior surface distininferior

l
Q.
other
How
do
bones ? A. It is readily distinguished by its double pulley-like articulatory surfaces, which consist of two semicircular prominences, having between them a deep groove, well adapted to receive the projection found on the inferior extremity
of the
Q.
tibia.
you
distinguish
it
from guished from the

rior
A.
The supearticulatory
has
a uniform
surface, with the exception of a small, rough grove running to its centre, from the outer side, which terminates in a central
pit.
The
inferior surface is rather convex,

flat
yet presenting a
rior
appearance
its
poste-
an^le has an articulatory surface, cor-
What
is
?
terior surface
A.
the appearance of the pos- responding to that of the cuboid bone.

It
has four articulatory
Q.
surfaces, corresponding to those of the os

calcis.
bone
A.
What
are the
articulations of
tliis
It articulates
with the astra-
galus,
cuboid, middle
and small cunei-
Q.
What
is
the appearance of the base form bones.

?
or inferior extremity
A.
It
has an
irre-
52

fore limbs
?
middle cuneiform bone (os cuneiforme from those of

medium).
Q.
A.
;
The hind
their bodies
splents are longer than the fore
What
is
cuneiform bone
Q.
the situation of the middle are more circular and prominent forward, ? A. It is situated be- and the superior extremities correspond to
neath the large cuneiform.
a part of the cuneiform and cuboid bones
What
?
cuneiformis
astragalus
;
is
the relative size of the ossa while the superior extremities of the forward A. The one beneath the splents correspond to a portion of the in;
is
the largest
the middle
is
the ferior
medium and
the hock
is
that at the posterior part of
We
coffin,
row of the bones of the knee. now come to the bones articulating
the smallest.
(os
beneath the inferior extremity of the hind cannon, viz., pastern, sessamoid, coronet,
small cuneiform bone

parvum).
Q.
cuneiforme
and navicular bones. These, according
to the opinion of Mi-. Percivall, " so closely
What
is
the situation of the small resemble their fellows of the fore extremity "
?
cuneiform bone
Q.
A.
It is
situated at the that
we
shall dispense
with examinations
posterior part of the hock.
regarding them, merely remarldng that the

of this bones of the hind feet are generally broader
in a
lateral
What
?
bone
A.
are the articulations

It
articidates superiorly with
the internal angle of the large cuneiform

anteriorly,
those of the fore
and posterior direction than the pastern and coronet

;
with the same angle of the mid- bones are somewhat longer than their fellows dle cuneiform posteriorly, with the inter- forward. nal splent bone and cannon. BONES OF THE EAR.
;
HIND CANNON (oS METATARSI MAGNUm).

Q.
Q.
What
is
hind cannon ? A. Shank-bone. is Q. mallet. to Q. How does it compare in length with A. It or the cannon of the fore extremities ? A. It Q. is about one-sixth part longer than the fore A. Manubrium. cannon. Q. To what is the manubrium attached? Q. Is there any difference in the supe- A. To the membrana tympani. A. rior surfaces of the fore and hind cannons ? Q. Describe the form of the incus.
the popular
name
of the Malleus, incus, stapes, and orbiculare.
A. What the form of the malleus? resemble a appears Name the long process handle.
Name
the bones
of the
ear.
A.
Yes the superior surface of the fore cannon corresponds to the surfaces of the
;
;
It is
said to resemble a blacksmith's anvil,
inferior
but, probably, approaches nearer to the bones of the carpus the superior figure of a molar tooth it has a depression extremity of the hind cannon closely resem- on its surface, which receives the head of bles the surfaces of the middle and small the malleus. A. It resemcuneiform bones, and also that of the Q. Describe the stapes. cuboid. bles in form a common iron stirrup, yet has
;
Q.
How
do the hind and

?
differ in
conformation
A.
than
fore
The bone
circular
cannons a more triangular appearance. of Q. With what bone does it articulate?
the Iiind extremity
is
more
and
A.
Q.
The
OS orbiculare.
prominent, anteriorly,
one.
the
forward
Describe the OS orbiculare.
A.
It is
the smallest bone of the body, not exceeding

in size a grain of mustard-seed.
METATARSI PARVIUM (hIND SPLENTS.)

Q.
Q.
What is
What is the situation of the metatarsi
parvium?
Q.
A.
the ear?
A.
its
use in the mechanism of forms the
It
medium
of
They
are situated at the
junction and communication between the

incus and stapes,
posterior part of the liind cannon.
and
facilitates the
motions
How
are the hind splents recognized of the latter bones.
THE HORSE.
03 HYOIDES (bone OF THE TONGUe).
Q.
sharp.
53
The converse
permanent
is
the case with regard
Wliat
?
hyoides
A.
is
the
situation
of
the
os to the
teeth.
It is
located at the root of
Q.
What
is
the popular theory regarding
A. the tongue, at the anterior part of the larynx. the periods of cutting the teeth? is the bone divided ? A. Into foal is said, at birth, to be in the act of cutQ.
How
a body and four horns. A. Q. What is the form of the body ? In shape, it resembles a spur, consisting of neck and branches the neck is inserted
ting twelve molars, three on each side of
the
jaw bone
at this time, there is

;
pearance of incisors
no apand when they do
into the root of the tongue,
appear, which period will be about the and the branches second or third week from birth, sometimes are in a posterior direction, embracing the sooner, the front incisors of the upper jaw are the first to show themselves, and besuperior border of the thyroid cartilage. Q. What is the appearance of the horns ? t^veen the fourth and fifth week, they are A. There are two long and two short succeeded by the middle incisors the side
;
horns; the short, or inferior, ascend oblique- or lateral incisors make their appearance The ly from their articulations with the body of between the sixth and tenth month.
the bone, and terminate in oblong, smooth animal

extremities.
is
then said to have a
full
set of
The long
or superior horns temporary teeth.
After the animal has at-
two long, flattened, thin bones, tained hisfu-st year, the fourth molars malie extending backward in a horizontal direc- their appearance. Between the period of tion from the summits of the inferior horns. the first and second years, the fifth molars,
constitute
Q. What are the connections of the os in each side of the jaw, are apparent. Behyoides ? A. It is connected with the tween the second and third years, the front temporal bone, larynx, pharynx, tongue, and permanent incisors displace the temporary, and, at the same time, the first temporary some of the muscles of the neck.
molars are shed, and replaced by the perma-
OF THE TEETH.
Q.
nent.
Between the
third
and fourth
years,
How many
teeth
do we
find in the the middle temporary incisors are succeeded
the mare,
A. Forty. In by the permanent, and about the same time however, the canine teeth are the second temporary molars are shed. generally imperfect or undeveloped. During the interval of the fourth and fifth
Q.
jaws of the adult horse?
How
are
the teeth divided
A.
years, the lateral
Into
tlaree classes, viz.: incisors, or

;
nippers; the sixth and
last,
permanent incisors appear permanent molars are
up, and then the tusks also appear. At this There period the horse is said to have a fuU mouth; are twelve incisors, twenty-four molars, and a complete set of permanent teeth.* four canine. have now arrived at an era (or reQ. Is there anything peculiar about the * On this side the Atlantic we are not in possession of development of horses' teeth ? A. Yes
molars, or grinders
canini, or tusks.
class.
A.
Enumerate each
A.
We
is
the teeth with which the animal
furnished
during colthood are termed temporary, and are generally shed ere the animal arrives at
the age of five
;
any reliable information as regards the periods of cutting and shedding teeth we have to depend entirely on English
;
authority.
Their theory
is,
that the age of a race-horse shall
be reckoned from the month of

birth,
the temporary teeth are
May in the year of his without any inquii-y whatever as to the season,
so that the produce of January months older than by reckoning, or as
;
twenty-four in number, twelve incisors and t^velve molars they differ from what is
;
month, or day of foaling

are actually four
their ages
termed the "permanent set," in being smaller and whiter, and in having necks or con-
appear on the calendar, and these are called early foals whereas those foaled in March are denorai;
nated-/ate.
These data are more arbitrary than
truthful
may
suit the convenience
tractions at the superior part of the fang, pass current among our breeders, and the eminences on their face are quite particular attention to the time of
birth of the colt accordingly.
of English turfmen, but will not
who,
generally,
foaling,
pay and date the

54
"
;
markable period) in the age of the horse the disappearance of the marks is perfect: have briefly considered a series of changes the teeth are all oval, the central enamel which the teeth of a colt undergo, up to upon the face is triangular, and nearer to the period of maturity, and shall now turn the outward than the inward border, and our attention to the changes observed in the cavity of the tooth appears within the the process of wear and tear of the perma- outward border like a yellowish band carried from one side to the other. nent teeth. " At nine years, the front teeth appear round, the middle and the lateral contract THE their oval faces, and the central enamel diA, HORSE'S minishes and approaches the inward border.
REMARKS ON WHICH
UNDERGO.
The
CHANGES TEETH
of
" At ten, the middle teeth become round, and the central enamel has approximated mouthed horse, just having shed all the the inward border and is rounded. " At eleven, the middle teeth are rounded, temporary ones, present a beautiful appeai-ance the contrast bet\veen the lily and the central enamel is almost worn off whiteness of the teeth, and the rose-tinted the posterior incisors. " At twelve, the lateral teeth are rounded, color of the gums and their membranes, are never so much the subject of admiration as the central enamel has quite disappeared at this period. the yellow band has grown wider, occupies Teeth, when first cut, present a sharp the centre of the face of the tooth, and border externally, from which a gradual the central enamel continues in the teeth
nippers or front teeth
fiiU-
depression
commences
;
until
the internal of the upper jaw.

"
border
is
reached
in the
course of about
At
thirteen, all the incisors are rounded,
a year, in consequence of friction on the external, and growth of the internal, the surface presents two elliptical enamelled rims, one of which borders the face of the
tooth, the other encircles the depression or
pit.
the sides of the front teeth spread out, and the central enamel continues in the upper
jaw, but
border.
"
is
rovmd and approaches the inward
At
fourteen, the faces of the front inci-
sors
put on a triangular appearance, the
Within this pit is a black incrustation, middle grow out at their sides, and the central enamel of the upper teeth diminishes, which is denominated " bean " or " mark
;
at a period of
about ttaee years from the but

"
still
exists.
time of cutting the permanent teeth, the pit

or cavity
is
At
fifteen,
the front teeth have
consolidated or fiUed up, and triangular, the

is
middle
central
enter
become upon that
the surface of the tooth

to
worn down so
as figure,
"
and the
enamel of the upper
present
a comparatively smooth one. jaw

expect, however, to find the
;
is still visible.
We
must not
At
sixteen, the
middle are triangular,
face of the teeth uniform
voracious feeders,
and the lateral commence that shape, and the deface the surfaces very enamel of the upper teeth has disappeared.
for cribbers,
much, which gives

ance of age.
Still,
to the teeth the appear-
"
At seventeen
the triangular figures of

;
a good judge,
who takes
Ihe posterior jaw are completed
but their
into consideration not only the appearances triangles are equilateral until the eighteenth
of surfaces, but also the form and direction year.

of the teeth themselves,
is
Then
their sides lengthen in succes-
not apt to be sion from the front to the lateral teeth, in
deceived regarding the age of a full-mouthed such a manner that

horse.
"
At
nineteen, the
front teeth are
flat-
Pessina, from
"
whose work
]\Ir.
Percivall tened from side to side

"
quotes, concludes that
At
the age of eight (in most horses). taken on the
At twenty, the middle incisors have same shape lastly

;
THE HORSE.
"
55
fifth period,
At
h\'enty-one the lateral teetli are also
"
During the
the face of the
flattened."
teeth deviates
by slow degrees from the
round, and passes into the triangular state. In the beginning, its thickness exceeds its computes at thirty years, into six periods, breadth as 5 does 4 in the end, as 6 does that take their rise from and are determined 3. It is the professor's opinion, yet unconby an equal number of changes the teeth firmed by experience, that this period, liltenaturally undergo, in regular succession. wise, on an average, includes a space of six " The first period is that during which years; the front teeth, therefore, complete the animal retains aU or any of his milli it with the twenty-fourth, the middle with teeth it extends from birth to the fifth year. the twenty-fifth, and the lateral with the " The second period includes the sixth twenty-sixth years. year, and continues so long as the marks " The sixth and last period is one, in the
di-
Professor
Passim* "systematically
vides the lifetime of the horse, wliich he
remain
terior
visible
incisors;
upon the which
faces of the
is
pos- course of which an additional angle is generally about projected from the anterior or inferior part
;
of the tooth Pessina distinguishes it by and espe- the epithet biangular he has never met with cially horses that have been kept at a horse that had lost his teeth from age pasture, the faces of the front teeth, and but he has seen their faces elliptrical consometimes those of the middle, are worn off trariwise, looking outwards or forwards.
" In
tliree years.
many among
instances, however,
earlier.
This period
third period is that during
is
milimited.
upper jaw, the marks the pits disappear from the front teeth in the course and marks degenerate, the face of the tooth of the ninth year from the middle in the slowly and gradually undergoes a de\dation tenth; and from the lateral in the elevthe teeth retain the oval form.
"
The
which
" In the anterior, or
As
of figm-e, from that of a pretty regular

sis,
ellip-
enth.
" What progress these upper teeth have proportion of six to three, to an irregular not made in transformation diuring the one, in which these proportions are as five second period, equivalent with the posteto four. This period requires, on an aver- rior, they gain it in the third; notwithage, the space of sis years for its complestanding the depth of pit, their proportions tion the front teeth enter it in the seventh are then the same. They continue three
;
whose long
to its short axis bears the
and conclude
tnêlfth;
it
at the expiration of the years longer in the second,

it
the
middle pass through
year later; and the lateral, cr side teeth, year later

" In
still.
and consequently one are only three in the thfrd period so that, one by the twelfth year, the third period is completed by the front upper teeth, and
;
the fourth period the faces of the so on.

figiu-e,
During the
ioxvcih, fifth,
the perceptible in either jaw. of this period, the breadth " So far, the upper teeth are entitled to of the face to its thickness is as 5 to an equal share of our regard; though, in 4 at the conclusion, it measures in an the generality of cases, they need not be inverse ratio, as 4 to 5 about the middle inspected. In such a remarkable manof it, the diameters are equal. Tliis period ner the lateral teeth of the upper jaw wear also endures six years so that the front away so that they often appear as if teeth, which enter it in the thirteenth year, notched or indented. complete it by the expiration of the " In regard to the tusk or tush, Pessina eighteenth the middle follow one year remarks that he has found the least regulater the lateral, one year later still. larity in its changes of any tooth. The * See Percivall's Lectures. very facts that the tushes are not in all
assume a circular have been denominated

teeth
and hence
periods, the changes are alike,
and last and equally
round.
At
commencement
;
56
horses cut at the
little
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HOESE.
same
age, that they have like an acorn in the ninth year, nor to find
or
no
attrition against
each other, and
it still
pointed in the sixteenth year.

subject,
that they are
worn by
the tongue and food,

less,
"
Pessina concludes his account of the
sometimes more, at others
should lead changes to which the teeth are
us to draw conclusions from them with by observing, that, as they are dependent great caution in fact, as indications of on wear, which is no law of nature, but
;
age, they can only be trusted to
accord with the incisors.

tusk makes
is
its
when they an effect of mechanical and accidental The tush or causes, they cannot, but under certain limfifth,
appearance by the
and
is
itations,
be implicitly reUed on."
completely evolved by the sixth year.

seventh, the
We are
sion of
now
supposed to be in posses-
some of the most important facts worn off. In the eighth, its furrows grow tending to elucidate the changes which the shallow in the ninth they are obliterated. teeth vindergo and, in view of maldng ourThen the apex gradually wears away in selves more conversant with this subject, the twelfth year it becomes round from we shall re-commence our examinations, which time, though it gradually becomes for it is a matter of the highest importance shorter, its shape varies but little. But it that a veterinary surgeon shall understand is not uncommon to see the tush blunted the method of ascertaining a horse's age.
In the
apex of the cone
EXAIMINATIONS ON THE TEETH.

Q.
Does the evolution of the tush always

is five
that the animal
years of age?
tliii-d
A.
indicate
I
Q.
Are there not times when the consumption of the

ii-iction, is
No.
It
has faces of the teeth, by
not in proportion to
?
been seen between the

Q.
and
foiu'th years.
growth, in issue from the socket

Q.
I
Which
teeth do you place the most reliance on
in ascertaining the
age of a horse
A.
What
is
the result ?
in
A.
?
A.
By
Yes.
of the grindis,
The faces
The
;
side or
ers
do not come
contact,
and the food
conse-
lateral of the lower jaw.

last
;
They make
their
appearance quently, imperfectly masticated.

after
their pits are the last to disappear

pits
the
Q.
How
is
this rectified
A.
sawing
off the
age of eight or nine, however, the

deeper, of course remain
of the
in the
;
incisors
nippers to their natural length.

Q. Talcing
'
of the upper jaw are also indicative of age
they, being
it
some time
after all vestiges
the teeth cease to grow,
same have disappeared in the lower jaw. lengthy teeth life is there any continued accretion or shrinks, and is carried upward in the lower and downafter-growth of the teeth ? A. Yes. If it were not ward in the upper jaw, and the gums also shrink; thus
Q. In adult
is a time when how do you account for the observed in aged horses ? A. The fang
for
granted that there
so, the
animal would, in course of time, have to gather we get length of teeth.

;
and grind the same with his gums for, acccordQ. What are the general appearances of age, unconing to the law of icear and tear, destruction of the in- nected with the teeth ? A. The muscles of the head struments -grinders of food must more or less reg- and face condense, and give to the same a lean appearance the canities above the eyes are deep the gums ularly take place. Q. AVhat changes talic place as the horse advances and palate become pale and callous the submaxillary in age, in the incUnation of the incisors? A. They space is capacious, and gray hairs make their appearacquire a horizontal direction. ance in various jjlaces the neck appears small and Q. How is this change of dhection compensated for n-iry, the withers sharp, the back ciu-ves, and the in the grinders ? A. The faces of the latter are worn hmbs appear sinewy. down by friction, and thus the nippers come in contact.
food,
MYOLOGY.
PRELIMINARY REMARKS ON THE MUSCLES.
fibre
retains
throughout
life
its
originsil
naked eye, the muscles appear to embryonic condition; the contents of the be composed of fasciculi, or bundles of tube remaining granular. The non-striated fibres, which are arranged side by side in muscular fibre is the kind of structure proper the direction in wliich the muscle is to act, to the muscular coat of the alimentary
To
the
and which are united by areolar tissue. These fasciculi when separated appear like simple fibres, but when examined under a
microscope are found to be themselves
fas-
canal,
bladder,
uterus, trachea,
bronchial
tubes, etc.
parallel
They seem to be arranged in a manner into bands or fasciculi,
without any very definite points of attachOn the other hand, striated muscular ciculi, composed of minuter fibres, bound ment. together by delicate filaments of areolar tis- fibre has attachments to its extremities of sue. By carefully separating these, we may fibrous tissue, through the medium of which obtain the ultimate muscular fibre. This it exerts its contractile power on the part
fibre
exists
under two forms, the striated
it is
destined to move.
the truncated extremity of the striated
and
non-striated.
The former
is
chiefly
At
by the appearance which it

distinguished
striated
To the ordinary transversely-striated muscles we find tendons. The non- observer, tendons appear to unite abruptly presents.
series
consist
of a
of filaments with muscular fibre
but
this is
not the case,
which do not present transverse markings. for tendinous fibres are distributed over the At an early stage of the development of whole muscle, crossing it diagonally in both muscular fibre, however, there is no differ- directions, so as to form a double-spiraUy
'
ence in the forms of either striated or non- extensible sheath the tendinous fibre finally striated. Both are simple tubes, containing collects at the extremity of a muscle, and
;
a granular matter in which no definite forms the tendon. Each muscle is smrounded by cellular arrangement can be traced, yet presenting enlargements occasioned by the presence of membrane, which dips into its substance,
nuclei.
on
But, whilst the striated fibre goes and, by means of the fat which its cells conin its development, until the cells of the tain, lubricates the parts, and thus guards
are fully produced, the non-striated against friction.
fibrillas
A TABLE OF THE NAMES AND NUMBER OF MUSCLES, DIVIDED INTO REGIONS.

SUBCUTANEOUS REGION (BENEATH THE SKIN)!
1.
8.
Eetrehentes internus.
Panniculus carnosus.
9.
Abduoens
vel
deprimens aurem.
AURICULAE REGION (MUSCLES OF THE EAR).

2.
PALPEBRAL REGION (MUSCLES OF THE EYELIDS).

10.
Attollentes maximus. Attollentes anterior.
Levator palpebra; superioris.

palpebrarum.
3.
11. Orbicularis
4. Attollentes posterior.
5.
Anterior conchje.
12. 13.
OCLXAR REGION (MUSCLES OF THE EYE).

Levator palpebrae superiorus internus.
Levator
oculi.
6. Posterior conchae.
7.
Retrahentes extemus.
(57)
58
14.
15. 16.
17.

Depressor oculi internus.
PALATINE REGION (SIUSCLES OF THE PALATE).

59.
Abductor Adductor
oculi externus.
Tensor
palati.
oculi internus.
60. C'ircumflexus palati.
Olibquus superioris.
18. Obli(|uus inl'erioris. 19. Retractor oculi.
MUSCLES OF THE NECK.

HLTUERO-CERVICAL REGION (MUSCLES SITUATED ON THE
ANTERIOR MAXILLARY REGION (MUSCLES OF THE NOSE
LTPER AND LOWER PARTS OF THE NECK).

61.
AM)
20. Zygomaticus.
FACE).
Khomboideus longus.
62. Levator humeri.

21. Levator labii .superioris aliquae nasi. 22. Dilator naris lateralis. 23. Nasalis longus labii su])erioris. 24. Caninus vel levator anguli oris. 25. Buccinator. 26. Depressor labii inferioris.
LATERAL CERVIC.U, REGION (SIDE OF THE NECK).

63. Splenius. 64.
Complexus major.
65. Trachelo-mastoideus. 66. Spinalis colli.
27. Levator menti.

28. Dilator
suÊRo-CER\^co-occIPÂL region (muscles situated

abo^t;
67.
narium anterior.
the head).
29. Nasalis brevis labii su])erioris.
Complexus minor.
30. De])ressor labii superioris. 31. Orbicularis oris.
68. Rectus capitis posticus, major. 69. Rectus capitis posticus, minor.
70. Obliquus capitis, superior.
TTF4T)
POSTERIOR MAXILLARY REGION (lIUSCLES OF THE
71. Obliquus capitis, inferior.
AND CHEEKS).
32. Temporalis. 33. JIasseter. 34. Stylo-maxillaris. 35. Pterygoideus internus.
72.
INFERIOR CER\1CAL
REGION (MUSCLES SITUATED IN
THE ANTERIOR PART OF THE NECK).

Sterno maxillaris.
73. Sterno-thjTo-hyoideus. 74. Subscapulo-hyoideus.
36. Pterygoideus externus.
75. Scalenus.
HYOIDEAL REGION (MUSCLES BETWEEN THE BRANCHES OF THE LOWER JAW).

37. Digastricus.
76.
Longus
colli.
INFERIOR CER^^CO-OCCIPITAL
REGION (MUSCLES BEATLAS).
38. Mylo-hyoideus.
39. Gcnio-hyoideus. 40. Plyoideus
77. 78.
NEATH THE BASE

Rectus Rectus
capitis anticus,
capitis anticus, major.
magnus.
minor.
41. Hyoideus parvus.

42. Stylo-hyoideus.
79. Obliquus capitis, anticus.
MUSCLES OF THE CHEST.

DORSO SCAPULAR REGION (MUSCLES SITUATED ABOUT
GLOSSAL REGION (MUSCLES OF THE TONGUE).

43. Hyo-glossus longus. 44. Hyo-glossus brevis.
45. Genio-hyo-glossus.
THE SnOUXDER BLADE).

SO. Ti-apezius. 81. Latissimus dorsi. 82.
46.
Lingua lis.
Rhomboideus
breris.
PH\RYNGL\L REGION (MUSCLES ABOUT THE PHiRYNX). PECTORAL REGION (MUSCLES SITUATED IN FRONT OF THE ERE.iST BON'S). 47. Hyo-pharyngeus.
48. Palato-pharyngeus.
49. Stylo-pharyngeus. 83. Pectoralis, transversus.
84. Pectoralis,
magnus.
494. Constrictor phaiTngis, anterior.

50. Constrictor pharyngis, medius. 51. Constrictor pharyngis, posterior.
85. Pectoralis parvus.
COST.\L
REGION (MUSCLES SITUATED EXTERN.iL ANT)

INTERN.AL TO
THE
RIBS).
L.iRYNGEAL REGION (MUSCLES ABOUT THE L-tRYNX).

52. Hyo-th)Toidcus.
.53.
86. Serratus
magnus.
87. Intercostales extcmi. 83. Intercostales interui.
Crico-thjToideus.
54. Crico-ai'jtenoideus posticus. 55. Crico-arytenoideus lateralis.

56. ThjTo-arytenoideus. 57. Aa-j1enoideus.
53.
STER.\AL REGION (MUSCLES OF

89. Lateralis sterni. 90. Sterno-costalis, extemi. 91. Stemo-costalis intemi.
THE BREAST BONE).
Hyo-epiglottideus.
THE HORSE.
DOKSO-COST.VL
59
Ri;GIOX (MUSCLES ON THE SIDES AND ANTERIOR HU-JIEEAL REGION (MUSCLES IN FRONT OF THE OS HUMERI). ITPCR PAKT OF TDE CHEST).
124. 125.
i)2.
Superlicialis costarum.
Coraco-humcralis.
93. TraiisversaKs costarum.

94. Levatores costarum.
Flexor brachii.
126. IlumeraKs externus.
DOUS.VL REGION' (MUSCLES OF TIIE DACK, .VXTErUOR TO
THE LUMBAR
95. Longis.simus dorsi.
96. Spinalis dorsi.
POSTICRIOR
^-ERTEBICE).
127. 128. 129. 130.
UUMER.iL REGION (MUSCLES BEHIND THE OS HUMERI).

.
,.
Ca|)ut
magnum.
97.
Semi
spinalis dorsi.
lis
w"'
DLU>HR.\G5LiTIC REGION.
98.
Caput medium. Caput parvum. Anconeus.
Diaphragm
or midriif.
MUSCLES OF THE ARM AND FORE LEG.

.AXTERIOR BRACHIO CRURAL REGION (MUSCLES IN FRONT
MUSCLES OF THE ABDOMEN.

LLTUBAR REGION (MUSCLES OF THE LOINS).
99.
OF THE ARM).
131.
Semi
spinalis limiborum.
Extensor
metacai-j)i
magnus.
100. Intertransvcrsales 101. Sacro lumbalis. 102. Psoas
lumbonmi.
132. Extensor pedis.
133. Extensor suflraginis.

134. Extensor metacarpi obliquus.
Magnus.
103. Iliacus.
104. Psoas par\Tis.
SUPERFICIAL
ABDOMLN.\L REGION (MUSCLES OF THE ABDOMEN).

105. Obliquus externus abdominis. lOG. Obliquus internus abdominis.
POSTERIOR BR.\CniO CRURAL REGION (MUSCLES ON THE EXTERN.AL SIDE OF THE ARM).
135. Flexor metacarpi externus. 136. Flexor metacarpi medius.
107. Transversalis abdominis.
137. Flexor metacarpi internus. 138. Flexor accessorius sublimis.
108. Rectus abdominis.
AN.\L REGION (MUSCLES OF

109. Retractor aui. 110. Spliincler ani.
THE ANUS).
DEEP POSTERIOR BRACHIO CRITI-AL REGION. (THESE MUSCLES ARE SITUATED BENE.VTU THE FORMER.)
139.
Flexor pedis perforatus.
140. Flexor pedis perforans.
GEXIT.IL REGION (MUSCLES OF

111. Cremaster.
THE
M,\I,E
ORGANS OF
141. Flexor pedis accessorius profundus.

142. Lumbrici, anterior.
GENERATION).
112. Erector penis.
1
1424. Lumbrici, posterior.
13. Triangulai-is penis.
MUSCLES OF THE
IIIXD EXTREMITIES.
P.ART
114. Accelerator urinEe.
The muscles
in the genital
Clitoridis,
GLUTKAL REGION (MUSCLES OF THE SUPERIOR OF THE QU.VRTER). regions of the female are
143. Gluteus externus.
144. Gluteus
T.\IL).
named
Erector
Sphincter Vagina;.
COCCTGEAL REGION (MUSCLES OF THE

115. Erector coccygis. 116. Depressor coccygis. 117. Curvator coccygis.
118.
maximus.
145. Gluteus minimus.
PELM-TROCHANTERLVN REGION (MUSCLES SITUATED AT THE UTPER PART OF THE THIGH BONE).
146. Pj-rilbrmis.
147. Obtm'ator externus.
148. Obtm-ator internus.
MUSCLES OF THE FORE EXTREMITIES.

EXTEKN.VL SCAPU'LAR REGION (MUSCLES ON THE OUTSIDE OF THE SHOULDER BLADE).
119. Antea-spinatus.
120. Porte a-spinatus.
149. 150. Gemini.
ANTERIOR rLIO-FEMOR.U, REGION (MUSCLES SITU.WED AT THE FORE PART OF THE HAUNCH).
151.
INTERNAL SCAPULAR REGION (MUSCLE ON THE LVSIDE

OF SHOULDER BLADE).
121. Subscapularis.
Tensor vaginEe.
152. Rectus. 153. Triceps vasti. 154. Rectus parvus.
POSTERIOR SCAPUXAR REGION (MUSCLES BEHIND THE
SHOULDER
122. Teres major.
123. Teres minor.
BL.\DE).
INTERN.AL ILIO
FEMORAL REGION (MUSCLES SITUATED AT THE INN-ER PART OF THE HAUNCH).
155. Sartorius.
60
156. Gracilis.

future, will not rest satisfied
with the pro-
157. Pectineus.
ductions of his predecessors.
To such an one
progression.
Adductor brevis. Adductor longus. . 3 < 160. file Adductor magnus.

158. 159.
o C
we bow
him
There
with due deference, and encourage
to proceed in the
is
work of
POSTEEIOR ILIO FEMOEAL REGION (MUSCXES ON IHE
a fine
field
for exploration,
and a
laurel
OUTER
162.
ANT3 POSTERIOR
FART OF THE HAUNCH).
discerning public are ready and willing to
161. Biceps abductor.
crown the industrious laborer with the

of merit.
Abductor
tibialis.
MUSCLES OF THE THIGH A^^D LEG.
In the
preceding table, the number of
ANTERIOR AND FEMERO-CRURAE REGION (MUSCLES IN muscles, including those marked 49 1-2 and FRONT OF THE TIBIA). 142 1-2, appears to be 173; among these
163. Extensor pedis. 164. Peroneus.
are ten single ones, wliich are thus expressed:
165. Flexor metatarsi.
Whole mmiber,
Deduct
single ones,
SUPERFICIAL
FEMORO-CKUEAL REGION (MUSCLES IN THE REGION OF THE HOCK).

POSTERIOR
.... ....
173
10
Pairs,
163
166. Gastrocnemius extemus.

167. Gastrocnemius internus.
Multiply by
Single muscles,
168. Plantaris.
Add
DEEP POSTERIOR FEMORO-CRUHAL REGION (MUSCLES n-HICn ARE FOUND BENEATH THE FORMER).
169. Popliteus. 170. Flexor pedis. 171. Flexor pedis accessorius.
muscles of the internal ear, four pairs,
326 8 334
Single muscles, as above added,
10
The muscles of the

Laxator tympani,
internal ear are
named
2 2 2 2
It
appears, therefore, that there are in the

forty-
Mcmbrana
Tensor
Stapedius,
Total,
system of the horse three hundred and

four muscles.
It
"
"
should be borne in mind, that in the

all
preceding classification
muscles.
are considered as
Among them
are found tendons,
RECAPITULATION. which are component parts, or rather ap"We shall now recapitulate, as regards pendages, to the same. Mr. Percivall says what has preceded, in reference to the num- there are, in the horse, 151 pairs, and 10 ber of muscles for there exist various single muscles add the four pairs of the inopinions regarding the same. It may be ternal ear, which he has omitted in the calproper for us to bear in mind, however, that culation, and we get 155 pairs. On page VETERINARY SCIENCE, here, is yet in its in- 72, " Hippapathology," the number of fancy and it is well known to some prac- muscles is
;
;
titioners,
that there
to be
are
several
muscles
312
named by some future compiler of veterinary literature. But for all practical purposes we know enough of the anatomy of the horse. The industrious individual, however, who not only desires to make himself conversant with what is alwhich remain
ready known, but aims to improve in the "
Add
muscles of the ear, omitted,
The
author's estimate,
320 344
24
Diiference,
Probably the above author considers the 24 " as tendons.
^
&
VII.
NO.
35.
g.
1.
OSSEOUS
STRUCTURE.
Radius.
Trapezium.
36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41.
Lower row
of the carpal bones.
Metacarpus magnus.
Sessamoids.
Os suf&aginis. Os corona. Os pedis.
NO.
2.
MUSCULAR
STRUCTURE.
INTERNAL VIEW OF THE NEAK-FOKE LEG.

o".
Pectoralis transversalis.
Flexor metacarpi medius.

"
"
r".
s".
"
"
iiitcrnus.
t"
m". iC. Flexors pedis

v".
perforatus
obliquus.
et perforans.
x".
z. 8.
Extensor pedis.
Bifurcation of the suspensory hgament.
NO.
The
g.
3.
description of No. 1 answers also for No. 3.
The
is
letter /. is intended to
point out the location of the ulnar, into which
inserted the triceps.
Region of the carpus.
NO.
n". Triceps extensor brachii.
o".
o'.
4.
PectoraHs transversahs.
P". Flexor metacarpi externus. Flexor metacarpi medius.
q".
".
a;".
Fleshy beUy of the perforatus et perforans.
Extensor pedis.
Extensor
Hoof.
sufiraginis.
g".
z". u". v".
Flexors tendons.
k.
THE HORSE.
So
32
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62
V
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY' OP

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THE HORSE.
65
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THE HORSE.
69
Eh
QC
Eh
Eh
II lllis
iiii bill's 1^ |ili&i
^^
5:S'rt"^SS 'laojtc^^'^bn, "

o
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EXPLANATION
01^
FIGURE
VIII.
NO.
22.
1.
OSSEOUS
STRUCTURE.
Femur.
Patella.
Fibiila.
23.
24. 25. 26. 27.
Os
calcis.
Astragalus.
Inferior
row of the
tarsal bones.
28.
29.
Metatarsus magnus.
Sessamoids.
30.
31. 32.
Os suffi-aginis. Os corona. Os pedis.' The above explanations

pai'num.
will serve to illustrate
No.
3.
* * are the matatarsi
NO.
2.
INSIDE VIEW OF THE OFF-HIND LEO.

g.
p'.
2*.
Rectus.
Vastus internus.
X. X.
Extensor pedis.
q.
r'.
t.
Flexor metatarsi.
v\ Gastrocnemius externus et internus.
Peroneus.
u.
v'. z'.
if.
The insertion of the gastrocnemi. V. Tendon of the flexor metatarsi.

Suspensory ligaments.
6.
The hoof. 5. The saphena
vein.
K. Abductor
8.
it'.
femoris.
Bifurcation of the suspensory hgament.
(Beneath the
jjostern) Perforatus et perforans.
NO.
K.
r'.
t'.
4.
it
J. Biceps,
showing the manner Gastrocnemius internus.
in wliich
bifurcates.
Peroneus.
v'.
5.
u'. y'.
Flexor pedis accessorius. " " externus.

Insertion of the gastrocnemi.
Peroneus.
u'. v'.
u.
f.
Flexors of the foot.

hoof.
The
THE HORSE.
71
rB
72
WJ
THE HOKSE.
73
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02
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74
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THE HORSE.
75
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CO
ANATOMY AND PHTSIOLOGY OP
THE HORSE.
77
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78
ANATOMY AND PHTSTOLGOT OF THE HORSE.
ON DISSECTION.
No man
practical
can ever expect to become a one that has died suddenly, or been killed anatomist or pathologist, unless in consequence of some accident, is to be
It is the only possi- prefeiTed. For making wet and dry prepahe can familiarize him- rations, lean, emaciated subjects should be self with the healthy structmral organiza- selected. The lymphatic system is best
he practise dissection.
ble
way by which
tion of the horse.
Having made himself shown on animals of a flabby and cedemaacquainted with the healthy aspect of the tous organization. Young animals are the
best subjects for dissection, in view of deto
uses, etc., he next is judge of the various grades of textural change which occur and exist, between the part that has been studied under its healthy aspect, and that which
various parts, their

able
monstrating the circulatory and

systems.
nervous
RULES IN REFERENCE TO DISSECTION OF THE

MUSCLES.
has
now
departed from
its
healthy con-
Thus, in the prosecution of the As there are abundance of subjects to be study of anatomy, the student finally be- had in the United States, and it being incomes a pathologist and, although he may convenient for one individual to dissect a be a beginner, he places himself in a posi- whole subject, he had better divide it into
dition.
;
few removes from the old and six parts, viz. experienced practitioner, and can venture 2nd and 3rd,
tion only a to "
1st,
The head and

anterior
neck.
The
extremities,
measm-e a lance
knights of the healing
with the renoioned wliich include the thorax, its contents, and the diaphragm. 4th and 5th, The posterior extremities, to which belong the pelvic DISSfiCTING INSTRUMENTS. and abdominal viscera. 6th, Those viscera
art.
"
The dissector should supply himself mth which cannot be advantageously divided, a beak-pointed scalpel (which is one of Ger- as the heart, stomach, bladder, organs of man origin), for superficial dissection, and generation, &c. Should the dissector dea myology knife, strong and rounded at its cide to commence on the whole subject, he
point.
For the dissection of blood-vessels first removes the sldn, in order to expose and nerves, a more delicate and pointed the panniculous carnosus this will require
;
scalpel is needed. strong,
The
forceps should be
some
care,
as
some of
the fibres of
this
and armed at the points with teeth subcutaneous muscle are intimately contwo pair of scissors are needed, one nected with the former. There are various pointed and the other blunt; a saw and ways of removing the skin the author preblunt chisel, for opening the cranium. A fers to commence on the back, and dissect blow-pipe, curved needles, and a few extra off towards the feet. Supposing the subscalpels, are all that the student requires. ject to lie on the off-side, we commence an
:
SUBJECTS SUITABLE FOR DISSECTION.
incision at the anterior part of the nasal region, and continue the same upward until
;
For demonstration of the muscular sys- we arrive at the occiput we then intem, a well-proportioned and fully-developed cline the scalpel from the superior part of subject should, if possible, be selected, and the neck, in order to avoid the mane, and
(79)
80
ANATOMY AXD PHYSIOLOGY OF
continue the incision along the lateral part and such, reached; the overlapping portion can then be dissected, and turned over to the
is
when
properly prepared, possess
of +he dorso lumbar spines until the coccyx a real and practical value.
INJECTING INSTRUMENTS.
off-side,
so as to expose the tendinous in-
Pole describes three kinds of instruments
tum
used in maldng injected preparations. The first consists of a brass sjrringe, exposed, it may be divided into three parts, made of various sizes the nozzle is adapted viz.: 1st, The Cervical portion, \\\\ic\i com- to pipes into which the syi-inge is to be inprises the head, neck, shoulders, and fore- serted a short pipe, with stop-cock, also arms. 2nd, The Thoracic portion, 3rd, accompanies the syringe, which is to be The Abdominal portion. applied betu'een the syrmge and either of Having traced the attachments of the the pipes. panniculus, the muscles then engage omThe second is a similar instrument, only
sertions of the panniculus into the ligamen-
nuchas,
etc., etc.
The panniculus being
attention
parallel
they being composed of nearly

the
much
its
smaller
is
its
pipe
is
very minute, and

to
fibres,
manner of displaying
piston
furnished with a ring, so that
them
should
skin
tion
is if
indicated.
The
;
cellular
tissue the
thumb may be used
throw
its
con-
possible
be detached with the tents into a vessel.
and panniculus
the
surface
without this precau-
The
third instrument is generally used
of some of the coarser for injecting the glands and lymphatics wîth
It
and having an which screws on which a muscle is to be dissected should be to the latter. The syringe used by the placed, if possible, in such a situation as to author of this work is one manufactured in produce a forcible extension of that muscle England (and can be found in some of our thus, in tracing the origin and insertion of agricultural stores), for the purpose of syra muscle, the dissector becomes acquainted inging plants it has the most accurate with its use. bore and finely-adjusted piston of any inAfter exposing the external layer of mus- strument now in use, and being of medium cles they may be detached from their in- size it can be used for either large or minute
steel end,
muscles would have a mangled appearance. quicksilver. The knife should always follow the direc- terminating
consists
of a glass tube,
mth a
tion of the muscular fibres,
and the part on extremely
fine steel pipe,
sertion, or divided
in their
centre
if di-
injections.
Some alterations, However, have

in the nozzle
vided,
origin
cles
we
thus preserve the two points of to be
made
and pipes
fitted
and insertion. The deeper seated mus- accordingly. may be demonstrated in the same way.
DIRECTIONS FOR USING THE SYRINGE.
In using the syringe, a certain
In the dissection of muscles the scalpel
amount of and bold, tact or experience is necessary, and the beusing the little finger to steady the move- ginner must not feel disappointed should he ment of the hand. In making autopsies fail in a first or second attempt for some and in examining the viscera, the subject is little oversight might frustrate the whole generally placed on his back. process. Everything should be in readiness,
should be used in a free and prompt manner; the strokes should be long
;
such as ligatures, forceps,
scissors,
sponge,
ANATOMICAL PREPARATIONS.
It
is
hot and cold water,
etc.
highly important that every student

preparations,
The
sels,
pipes should be inserted into the ves-
there by strong ligatures; and of and, before the syringe is inti-oduced, its nozinjecting the blood-vessels; for specimens zle must be turned upwards, and the piston of this land are the best means of familiar- pressed until all the air and froth are ejected
should be acquainted with the methods of
and confined
maldng wet and dry
izing us with the structures of quadrupeds, then introduce the nozzle into the stop-pipe
-<
j4^
IX.
THE HORSE. and press the piston steadily

resistance
is felt.
81
until a sensible
Pale Blue Injection.
Take
the preced-
If
much
force be used, ing ingredients,
and add to them a small
rupture of a vessel
may
take place.
After. portion of indigo.
Black Injection. a prudent force has been applied for some Beeswax, resin, and time, the syringe may be withdrawn, pre- turpentine varnish in the above proportions viously securing the stop-cock. A steady and add lamp-black ad libitum. The same rules are to be observed in preand uniform pressure on the piston will be more likely to secure uniform injection than paring all the injections. force, or sudden jerks. Should the first inFORMULA FOR FINE INJECTIONS. jection fail to fiU the vessels, it must be
immediately followed by a second. When Red. Brown and white spirit varnishes, injecting through a very small pipe, the inof each four ounces turpentine varnish, jector must be patient, and steadily con- one ounce vermilion one ounce. Yelloiv. tinue the pressure on the piston. Brown and white spirit varnishes, When using loarm injections, the syringe of each four ounces turpentine varnish, one must be Icept ivarm by immersing it in hot ounce king's yellow, one ounce and a half. water, and the part to be injected must also To make a white injection, add to the last be kept at the same temperature, by the formula two ounces of flake-white instead same means. of king^s yelloiv.
; ;
DIFFERENT KINDS OF
TIONS.
There
use,
viz.,
Blue.
Brown and white

;
spirit varnishes,
INJEC-
of each four ounces
turpentine varnish, one
are six lands of injections
the cold,
Prussian blue, one ounce and a This may be made black by adding coarse, and fine injection, ivory black instead of Prussian blue.
ounce;
now
in
half.
the minute, the mercKrial, and, finally, the

plaster of
Paris injection.
;
The
five first
is
are
most employed
the plaster of Paris

it is
objectionable because
easily fractured.
FORMULA
Red.
ounces
resin, eight
;
FOR COARSE WARM INJECTIONS.

ounces
Beeswax,
FORMULA FOR MINUTE INJECTIONS. The liquifying principle in minute injections is " size," which is made in the following mamier Take fine transparent glue, one pound,
;
it into pieces put it into an earthen turpentine varnish, sLx pot, and pour on it three pints of cold water vermilion, three ounces. let it stand twenty-four hours, stirring it
;
;
sixteen ounces; white break
and turpen- occasionally with a stick then set it over a an earthen pot, over a slow slow fire until it is perfectly dissolved fire, or in a water bath then add the Ver- skim ofl" aU the scum from the surface, and million, previously reducing it to a fine strain the remainder through flannel it powder, so that the coloring ingredients will then be fit for the coloring ingredients. may be intimately and smoothly blended, Minute Red Injection. Size, one pint then add the same to the above ingredients, vermilion, three ounces and a half. and, when they have accrued due heat, the Yellow. Size, one pint king's yellow, injection is fit for immediate use. two ounces and a half Yellow Injection. Take beeswax, eight White. Size, half a pint flake white, ounces resin, four ounces turpentine var- one ounce and three quarters. nish, three ounces yellow ochre, one ounce Size, half a pint Blue. fine blue smalt, and a quarter. six ounces. White Injection. Clarified beeswax, PLASTER INJECTION. eight ounces resin, four ounces turpentine varnish, in
;
;
First liquify the wax, resin,
tine varnish, three
ounces
flake white,
two
Before mixing the plaster of Paris, the

pipes
ounces and a quarter.

11
must be secured
to the
mouths of
82
the vessels at which the
enter.

injection
(to
is
to
material
vennilion,
however,
resembles
which some more the color of arterial blood. Whatever part we expect to inject with of the preceding dry coloring materials, suitable to the fancy, can be added) must warm injections, must be immersed in water not hot enough, however, to crisp be put in a mortar and rubbed with a very hot,
Plaster of Paris
pestle in order to pulverize
it
completely
the syringe
the vessels.
Attention to this matter
is
water
is
is
then to be added until the mixture higlily important, in view of successful in;
of the consistence of cream

it is
jection.
being in readiness,
to be filled
and imLi the
mediately injected into the vessels.

author's opinion, this injection
is
THE COURSE OF INJECTIONS.

Injections
circulation
;
only suitit it
must follow the course of the

the arteries, however, having
able for injecting first-class vessels, for
coagulates
or
"sete"
so
quickly that
cannot be used as a minute injection. It is said that a small quantity of olive oil, incorporated with the liquid plaster, retards its coagulation yet if too much were
;
tion
added
it
would
should
spoil the preparation.
The moment
syringe
the parts are injected the
be
washed out
in
cold
water, and
when
the injection "sets" in
the veins, the pipes
must be removed and
likewise cleansed.
FORMULA FOR COLD

injections,
INJECTIONS.
Dr. Parsons recommends, for coarse cold
no valves, are easily injected in any dii-ecbut the veins are furnished with numerous valves, which prevent the flow of Sometimes it is injection from the heart. necessary to break these valves by means In the of a small whalebone probang. region of valves are often found coagulations, wliich must be washed out before the and tliis, also, injection can be introduced must be performed in the direction of the Small pipes are to be introcirculation. duced, and warm water must be thrown in, which can be made to escape tlirough an incision made with a lancet in a region ap;
the
following formula
Take proaching
can
it
the right amicle.
The
incision
coloring matter
and grind
it
in boiled lin-
afterwards
be closed by suture, or
seed
oil,
on a
painter's marble, until
acquired the consistence of

lead, as
common
sold at the stores.
has otherwise. Many of the veins of the white horse, however, are destitute of valves, and After being therefore admit of injection in a direction
to a pint, is
finely legivated,
little
lime-water, in pro- contrary to their circulation.
portion of
two table-spoonsful
To
inject
a portion of the animal,
to be incorporated by stuTing.
At
the
mo- knee
or hock, for example,
the
it is
necessary
ment
tion, there
of filling the syringe with the injec- to secure all the branches of the vessels that should be added to it about one- have been divided where it is separated
thud of its measure of Venice turpentine, from the body. The part is then to be inwhich should be stirred in briskly and used jected in the same manner as if we were immediately, as it very soon hardens. injecting the whole body. For a temporary cold coarse injection, white lead ground in oU answers every QUICKSILVER INJECTION AND PREPARATIONS.
purpose
terated
;
it
requires
no addition of limeis
The
fluid specific gravity
and beautiful
it
water, because the lead
generally adul- metallic lustre of quicksilver render

lime,
val-
with
carbonate
or the
of
it
hardens the mixture, and

to
suit the
taste,
Dr. wliich uable for displaying minute vessels. can be colored Parsons remarks that the principal objec-
vessels
can be tion to
its
its
general use
is
the continuance of
dissection, after
colored with a pencil brush, before varnishing.
fluidity,
which renders
fine
injection, almost impracticable.

filling
Yet
there
For
the arteries, to dry and pre- are

is
serve, red lead
specimens of quicksilver the best and cheapest injections of glands and deep-seated lym-
some very
THE HORSE.
phatics,
city, tiiat
in the
WaiTen museum of
'
this
When
tics,
injecting the superficial
lympha;
cannot be surpassed by any other
kind of injection.
silver,
The same
in a
authority re-
cut off a portion of skin, so as to expose the loose cellular texture having
first
it
we
marks, that the specific gravity of quick- found a lymphatic vessel,
must be
seized
when supported
column,
is
such by the forceps and dissected from the sur-
upon a blood- rounding substance. Having hold' of it it, and with the forcep, snip it half across with fine therefore in some cases a syringe is unne- scissors, and into the incision introduce the cessary. It is to be borne in mind that tube containing the mercury. A poker or the force of the injection depends upon the director is often necessary for the purpose perpendicular height of the column, and of creating a vacuum a few drops of mernot on its diameter, and the former may be cury then introduced by the side of the such as to burst the vessel. The injections director wiU open the way for more the
as to exert strong pressvn-e
vessel
or lymphatic that receives
should always be conducted in a shallow director being withdrawn, the mercury flows
dish or tray, so that the quicksilver
may not
into the lymphatics.
be
lymIf the vessel to be injected be a large phatics, it is necessary to be provided with one, it must be secured by ligature around small lancets, straight, cm"ved, and deli- the pipe. The quicksilver is to be pressed cately-pointed fine needles, which must be onward, elevating or depressing the pipe armed with waxed threads. For common so as to regulate the force of the injection.
wasted.
injecting
When
the
blood-vessel
preparations,
glass
tubes of
In
injecting
a gland,
it.
we must
found
fill
en-
the
shape of
straight
blow-pipe
are deavor to find the vessel that has the
most
it,
needed.
INJECTING THE LYMPHATICS
influence in filfing
Havmg
WITH MERCURY
we
secure
the
other vessels
and
,
the
gland through the former channel.
OR QUICKSILVER.*
depends, perhaps, more on the body
bodies slightly anasarcous,
ciated, are
The
vessels
or
glands
injected with
In injecting the lymphatics, our success mercury should be dried as quicldy as pos-
we
sible,
and varnished, or
of terpentine.
else preserved in
choose, than on any other circumstance

if
spirits
they be emathe valvular
the
best.
From
METHOD OF INJECTING THE LACTEALS. Take a small

of the
structure of the lymphatics,

to inject
it is
necessary
portion of the intestine
from the extremities towards the and trunk. one It is almost impossible for one person to near succeed in injecting the lymphatics without tine
assistance
site,
;
mesentery, and
as possible to
;
make an
incision in
lacteals, as
most conspicuous
its
origin in the intes-
then introduce the point of the injec-
there are so many things requi- ting tube, and conduct the operation agreebesides merely holding the tube in the ably to the preceding rules. When the vessel, that an assistant is indispensable. quicksilver flows out of any of the divided It is very necessary, before beginning, to vessels, they be repaired by an assis-
must
as
see that the injector has within his reach tant sharp-pointed scissors, knives, forceps, lan- fiUed
cets,
when
many
of
the lacteals are
as will receive the quicksilver from
pokers for tubes, needles, and
waxed
this orifice, introduce the pipe into another,
threads, so arranged that they can be used

instantly, for
will
and repeat the process as before, and so it will often happen that it on, until as many of them are filled as can impossible either the assistant be for be then inflate the intestine and suspend or the operator to take his eye for a moit in the air to dry, after which it may be ment ofl' the vessel, without losing it. preserved by varnishing both inside and
;
Sir Charles Bell.
out.
84
DIBECTIONS

FOR INJECTING THE
GLAND.
PAROTID
WET
PREPARATIONS.
PREPARATIONS BY -DISTENTION.
This should be injected before removal,
Hollow organs may be distended for on account of the numerous vessels by which it is attached to the adjacent parts. preservation with antiseptic liquids, air, etc. Before commencing the operation, the sldn wool, hair, cotton, plaster, quicksilver, Wet preparations by distention, with over the region of the gland and duct must turpentine, etc. be raised, in view of searching for the duct; spirits of wine, oil of The intention, in distending preparations having found it, an opening must be made spirits, is to give them their natural into it with the point of a lancet, sufH- by more fuUy the parts of ciently large to introduce the point of the figure, to exhibit when introduced, conwhich they are composed, their vascularity, steel injecting pipe occasionally some morbid or preterfine the duct upon it by a ligature with a and
;
suigle knot,
which
tt)
shall
serve
when
the natural appearance.
pipe
is
withdi-awn
secure the quicksilver
in the gland.
The gland having been filled,

and the duct secured,
possible care to dissect
all
the pipe withdrawn,
METHOD OF DISTENDING AND PREPARING THE LUNGS.
we
proceed with
the gland from
its situation.
Any
branches
The lungs taken from a sheep or calf make a very good substitute for those of
bullvy for ordinary of vessels going off to surrounding parts the horse, which are too
must be secured by means of a small use. The pulmonary arteries and veins should curved needle, armed with a single ligature, red-colored injection then after which they may be divided with first be filled with The gland being removed, and all immerse the lungs in oil of turpentine, consafety. extraneous tissue dissected off, it should be tained in a vessel, large enough to admit placed in water to extract the blood, etc. them without compression; then inject into
;
This wiU require about
thirty-six hours
water, however, must be frequently changed
the the trachea such a quantity of the above fluid as shall dilate them without danger of
rupture.
ture.
the gland can then be spread on a piece of
Then
secure the trachea by liga-
In the same manner we proceed with a portion only of an organ the most beautiful preparation, when pre- other parts. served in a glass vessel containing pure or a part of some viscera be required, we first secure the lower orifice by ligature inject spirits of turpentine.
pasteboard and exposed to dry.
It
makes
as above, and then apply a ligature to the
BREAKING DOWN THE VALVES. Many of the glands, the surface of the liver
included, can be injected contrary to the
circulation of the lymph.
upper opening.
in spirits of
It
can then be suspended
wine
or turpentine.
When the
it
quick-
ANTISEPTIC MENSTRUA FOR PRESERVING

SPECIMENS.
silver passes at fu'st freely into the

tics,
lympha-
This is one Alcohol Spirits of Wine. be necessary to force it forward by gentle pressure with of the principal fluids now in use for the the edge of a spatula, in the direction in preservation of specimens. It may be used
and suddenly
stops,
will
which it seems most likely to run by this of various strengths, according means the valves are broken down. The and thickness of the specimen
;
to the size to be pre-
valves of the superficial lymphatics of the served.

All those that are thick and bulky should are easily broken down in this way, but the valves in some of the lymphatics be put into pure rectified spirits smaller are much firmer, consequently not so easily ones may require only one half the quantity of alcohol with water and such as are thin broken down.
liver
;
;
THE HORSE.
85
size of
and membranous, can be preserved

,
in
com- should be bored, about the and a

free exit to
quill,
mon New England

Turpentine.
is an excellent and is highly recommended by Parsons and others, for cartilages, fibro-cartilages, and fibrous membranes.
rum. This also
to give the water access to their cavities
antiseptic,
the water evaporates
medullary substance. As from the vessel, it
should be so far renewed as to keep the bones under its surface, or they wiU acquire
mu- a disagreeable blackness, and dust should and pyroligneous. Dr. Parsons be excluded by keeping the vessel constantly When the white textures are destates that Dr. Hayden, surgeon dentist, in covered. Baltimore, has succeeded in preserving stroyed, the bones must be scraped and anatomical preparations in a superior man- again laid in water for a few days, and It should be well washed and scrubbed with a coarse ner, with pyroligneous acid. Acids, brush then immerse them in lime-water, rectified and diluted ^vith water. however, cannot be used when the prepara- or a solution of pearlash, made with two tion contains bone. ounces to the gaUon of water, and after a
The
acids used are, sulphuric, nitric,
riatic, acetic
.
week they are to be again washed in clean METHOD OF PRESERVING THE BRAIN. water. They are then to be bleached on The following mixture is a very excellent the seashore, where they can be daily washed menstruum for preserving the brain and with sea-water.* nerves Take alcohol, eight parts by weight; M. Bogros approves of the above plan of
:
oxymuriate of mercury, one part. Rub the maceration, but at the conclusion of this he oxymuriate in a mortar, and gradually add directs them to be boUed four hours in a The brain should remain in strong solution of carbonate of potass, or the alcohol. this mixture for twenty or thirty days, when in soap suds, adding hot water as fast as it it may be withdrawn from the liquid, dried, evaporates. They are then to be washed
and varnished.
frequently in cold water, and dried each
time
quickly,
and
then moistened (not

acid.
METHOD OF MAKING A DRY PREPARATION OF steeped) in weak muriatic THE AIR-VESSELS OF THE LUNGS. mon bleaching liquor in a
The com-
diluted state will
Throw
of water
the lungs of a horse into a barrel whiten bones, but they should not be im-
and allow them
to macerate for
mersed in
it
any length of time.
several months, during the
sUmmer season
When
bleached, they
may
be varnished
by repeated washing, cleanse the bron- with the white of an egg.f chia, etc., from the parenchyma, dry, and TO RENDER SOLID BONES FLEXIBLE AND varnish them.
then,
TRANSPARENT.
METHOD OF MACERATING AND CLEANING

BONES.
One-half of the inferior jaw bone, or the

scapula, are the
Remove
etc.,
as
much
of the
flesh,
ligaments, above purpose.
most suitable bones for the Macerate either or both
knife
Then imthen lay them in clean water, and merse in a mixture consisting of water, change the same daily for about a week, or twenty-fiveparts muriatic acid, one part. If
;
as can conveniently be done with the until they are properly cleansed.
as long as
They
tUl
all
are
becomes discolored with blood. the bone is kept well covered during a now to remain without changing, period of about seven months, it will become
it
putrefaction has thoroughly destroyed flexible like cartilage; but as the phosphate
the remaining flesh and ligaments, which of lime in the bone will neutralize
some of
time
will take
months, more or the acid, a minute quantity less, according to the season of the year or to time be added. temperature of the atmosphere. Li the ex-
from
tliree to five
may from
tremities of large cylindrical bones, holes
* Pole ou " Cleansing Bones." t Parsons on "Macei-ated Preparations."
86
When the preparation becomes flexible, muriate of mercury is thrown into the arteimmerse in warm water then give it sev- ries. After the limb has been injected, it is to eral washings in cold water to remove the Every time it is left, and acid dry, and immerse in a glass vessel of be dissected. it will assume a beautiful sometimes during dissection, it is advisable oil of turpentine to cover those parts which have been extransparency, exhibiting the blood-vessels. There are great posed, with a damp cloth. METHOD OF CLEANING AND SEPARATING THE advantages to be derived from previously BONES OF CRANIUM. injecting the limb in oxymuriate of mercury,
; ; ;
young colt, remove for a Limb thus injected undergoes very little wash out the change in many days, and, when the dissecbrain, previously brealcing it down with a tion is recommenced, the parts will be found macerate and cleanse it as in the same state in which they were left, stick or probe before directed then fill the cranial cavity and destitute of any offensive odor. with dry corn from the husk, immerse it in The oxymuriate of mercury is the best water, and the corn as it swells forces open agent for arresting the putrefactive process.
Take
the head of a
the skin and muscles, and
the suturuses, so that they can be readily
After the dissection
is finished,
the limb,
separated by the hand.
bleach the bones,

colorless varnish.
Wash, dry, and or part, must be immersed in a solution and then cover them with oxymuriate of mercury for a fortnight
more.
of
or
The solution of oxymuriate of mercmy A BRIEF EXPOSITION OF MR. SWAN's NEW must be contained in a wooden vessel, as METHOD OF MAKING DRIED ANATOMICAL metaUic vessels do not answer. PREPARATIONS.* The limb, or part, having been in the The new method has been adopted by solution during the above period, it should Usher Parsons, M. D., Professor of Anatbe taken out, di-ied, varnished, and, if necesomy and Physiology, from whose work the sary, painted.
following selections are
made
SOLUTION OF HARDENING THE BRAIN AND
DIRECTIONS FOR MAKING DfilED PREPARATIONS.
OTHER TISSUES. The part of a Kmb, chosen for injection, Take of oxymuriate of mercury, one must be as free from fat as possible. A solu- ounce muriate of ammonia, thirty-five tion of two omices of oxymuriate of mercury pyroligneous acid, one pint. Rub gi'ains
; ;
in half a pint of rectified spirits of wine, to be injected into the arteries

inject as
;
is
the oxymuriate of mercury
and muriate of
the next day
ammonia
together in a mortar, then add

acid.
much white
white
spirit varnish, to
which half a pint pyrloigneous
one-fifth of
spii-it
varnish has been

IS
added, and some vermilion; the limb is OXYMURIATEÔF MERCURY then to be put into hot water, where it is to ANTISEPTIC.
A VALUABLE
remain
until properly heated, when the coarse
injection is to be
thrown into the

;
Dr. Parsons relates, that,

flesh
when
a piece of
arteries
and
veins, if required, bearing in
mind
the
course of the cii-culation

veins can be broken
probe,
if
the valves of the
down by
If the
a whalebone
are to be
necessary.
vems
injected, it is better to
wash
the blood out of
them with water before
the solution of oxyto

In;
had been immersed in a solution of oxymuriate of mercury untU it was completely changed, and afterwards put into a large vessel containing water for some days, though the greater part of the oxymuriate of mercury was thus washed away, it did
not even then appear in the least degree
putrid.
I
* Professor Chaussier claims

coverer of this method.
the origiual
(lis
procured half of the head and

I first
neck of a large horse, which
injected
THE HORSE.
with the solution of oxymuriate of mercury, but as the putrefactive process was not thus
sufficiently stopped,
87
MASTIC VARNISH.
be made by putting four ounces of powdered mastic into one pint the sldn I immersed it in the solution of of spirit of turpentine, to be kept iia a oxymmriate of mercury for several days; stoppered bottle. It should be shaken every and, as no marks of putrefaction remained day untn the greater part of the mastic (the offensive smell being entirely removed), is dissolved.
This
may
without dissecting
off
I then put
it
into a vessel containing
TURPENTINE VARNISH. days more, by which means nearly aU the Turpentine varnish is made by melting I was thus solution was removed from it. Venice turpentine over a slow fii-e, and addable to proceed with the dissection during ing to it as much spirits of turpentine
large quantity of water for t^vo or three
as
the hot weather, without being in the least
will reduce
it
to the consistence of syrup.
incommoded
either
by the smell
in
or soreness
of the hands, and without finding the instru-
WHITE
PAINT.
Three ounces of the best white paint, dered the process at all objectionable. By and one ounce of spirit of turpentine, are putting a wet cloth over it when I left it, I to be put into a bottle and shaken together. was further enabled to make a very minute When it is used with the varnish, a bottle dissection of the nerves, which I could not of each should be mixed together. otherwise have done, without the use of a
large quantity of spirits of wine,
ments acted upon
any degree, that ren-
and then
This
not with half the convenience and pleasure

I
PAINT FOR THE MUSCLES.
have thus experienced.
made by grinding on a slab a small quantity of " lake" with white varis
ON VARNISHES AND
The following
are
PAINTS.
nish, to wliich one-foiu"th
part of turpen-
the recipes for the tine varnish has been added. Dr. Parsons directs that varnish should manufacture of paints and varnishes be laid on with a fine camels'-hair pencil
WHITE VARNISH.
Canada balsam,
each three
spirits
brush, as large as occasion
may
require. var-
of turpentine, of
Hollow preparations should have the

is
ounces;
mastic varnish, two nish poured into them, and, after turning
to be
ounces. Put them into a bottle and shake them about in all directions, it them together mitil they are properly drained out as clear as possible.
mixed.
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM.
OF THE MOUTH.
It
to
mouth, and are united together on either side which points of union are denomi;
may
be observed here (as preparatory nated
their commissures, or the angles or
the description of this part), that, in corners of the month. Exteriorly, the lips quadrupeds in general, the facial angle is are creased down the middle by perpen-
one of very considerable obliquity, in con- dicular lines of division exhibit little sequence of the prolongation of that part papillary eminences upon their stuface of the head which coiTcsponds to the face and present a softer and shorter coating of
;
in the
human
subject;
is
and
this develop- hair
than what
is
ment of
feature
in none
more
strildng out of
which project
found in ordinary places, several long straggling
than in the horse and dog. Consequently, in horse-hairs or whiskers. these animals, the nose and mouth are is altogether smaller, and
cavities of large dimensions.
The
is
;
inferior lip
thinner in sub-
in the stance, than the superior and is distinbeen thus guished by a remarkable prominence about prolonged, not only to enable him to col- its centre, from which grows a tuft of long lect his food with more facility, but also coarse hairs, vulgarly designated as the that he might subject greater parcels of it beard. " Structure. at a time to the action of the gi-inding The lips are both muscuteeth, whereby the processes of mastication lar and glandular in their composition. and deglutition are gi-eatly accelerated. Several small muscles,* arising from the " Conformation. The mouth is con- maxillary bones, are inserted into them, and structed in part of bone, and in part of endow them with great self-mobility one The superior and anterior alone, consisting of circular fibres, is intersoft materials. maxiOary and the palate bones form the woven in their substance without having roof; the inferior maxilla, the lower part; any other connection this is denominated and the the orbicularis oris, or sphincter labiorum, the incisive teeth, the front molar teeth, the sides. The lips, cheeks, from its use, which is that of closing the soft palate, gums, and buccal membrane, mouth. Tins muscle is an antagonist to The tongue occu- all the others they raise or depress the constitute its soft parts. pies its cavity, and the salivary glands are lips, or draw them to one side but this appendages to it. contracts them, and occasionally projects them in such a manner that the horse can "lips. exert with them a prehensile power, which " General Conformation. The lips, two is most remarkably evinced at the time that in number, superior and inferior, are at- he is picking up grain from a plain surface tached to the alveolar projections of the su- indeed, the act of nibbling our hands with perior and inferior maxillfB, by the muscles his lips demonstrates this faculty, and also that move them by the cellular tissue en- the force with which he can employ it. The
horse, the
And
mouth appears
to have
tering into then- composition;
and by the
of
the
lips are lined
by the same membrane that
membrane
that lines them.
Their borders lines other parts of the cavity of the mouth.

orifice
sun-ound and
bound the
* Percivall's Hyppopathology.
(88;
THE HORSE.
Beneath
follicles,
it
are seated
it
numerous mucous stance of which

everywhere into
lit-
are dispersed the ramifica-
that elevate
tions of the palatine vessels

"
tle
papilla,
which are perforated by the
The
soft palate,
and nerves. sometimes called the
mouths of these follicular glands, as may velum palaii, is attached to the superior or be readily seen with the naked eye by evert- crescentic border of the hard palate, the
ing either the superior, or the inferior lip. border formed by the palatine bones from The skin covering the lips is extremely which the velum extends backward and thin, and possesses considerable vascularity downward as far as the larynx, and there
;
and
sensibility.
To
is
the tenuity of
it,
and terminates over the

their position
epiglottis, in close ap-
to the
shortness
and scantiness of
pilous covering,
to be ascribed the su- circular
perior sensitive faculty of these parts.

" CHEEKS. "
a loose semiconsequence of the velum palati being long enough to meet the
part, in
with that
edge.
In
The cheeks
are constituted substantially
of the
masseter and buccinator muscles,
covered by the sldn upon the outside, and

the buccal
membrane
upon the
inside.
is
Their internal or membranous surface
studded with scattered
mucous
follicles,
whose excretory
everting the part.
orifices
may
be seen by
"gums.
"
The gums
consist of dense, compact,
prominent, polished masses, of the nature of

periosteum, adhering
so
closely
cavity of the mouth has no communication with that of the nose these two parts forming a perfect septum between them hence it is that a horse cannot respire and vomit by the mouth like a human being, in whom the velum is so short that there is an open space left between it and the epiglottis, through which air or ahment can pass either upward or downward. The soft palate is composed of extensions of membrane from the nose and mouth, between which is interposed a pale, thin layer of muscular fibres. " The velum performs the office of a
epiglottis, the
and valve
it
tenaciously to the teeth and the sides of

their sockets, that
it
it prevents the food, in the act of swallowing, from passing into the nose, and
:
renders the one insep-
conducts the air from the windpipe into

cavity,
arable from the other, but
by extraordinary that
mechanical
force.
Lilie other parts of the escape into the
without permitting mouth.
any
to
cavity of the mouth, they receive a cover-
ing from the buccal membrane."
"
OF THE TONGUE.
principal
The
tongue, the
" PALATE. "
cerned in taste and deglutition,

;
is
organ conlodged in
under the mouth filling the interspace between the branches of the inferior maxiUa. ^^ The hard palate is constituted of the palaLike the other organs of Duplicifi/. tine processes of the superior and anterior sense, it is double being composed of two maxillary bones and of a firm, dense, parts, whose union is marked by a longitudistinct parts are included
;
Two
this
head
the hard
and the
soft palate.
periosteum-lilce substance, the vaulted, in- dinal crease along its middle, the divisions
ward
part of
which
is
elevated into several having no vascular nor nervous connection
semicircular ridges, vulgai-ly called the bars. nor in fact any intercommunication whatso that an animal has to aU intents and purposes two tongues, and apparently pores of the bone in every part, but are for the same reason that he has two eyes, most numerous and dense along the pala- two ears, and two nostrils. Anatomy, as tine suture the interstices are filled up by far as we can carry our researches, demona dense cellular tissue, through the sub- strates this perhaps we have no better
fibres of tliis
The
substance, which pos- ever
sess
great tenacity, are inserted into the
; ;
90
proof of
it,

however, than what happens in the
is
common
tests of it
is
the external layer

;
hemiplegia, a disease in wliich only one

half of the
laminated,
bloodless, is insensible
is
the
body
is
paralytic
under these internal or substantial part

subject, the vascular,
tough, fibrous,
and sensitive, in fact, is like cutis and the intermediate or connecting material arm, and taste with but one (and that the is delicate, soft, and reticular, and forms a correspondent) side of the tongue. bed for the lodgment of the papillae. The
circumstances, in the
patient can only see with one eye, use one
human
The tongue, in description, substance of the tongue itself consists of commonly divided into root, body, and an inter-union, or rather an incorporation, apex : by the attachments of the two former of its muscles, the fibres of which intersect
" Division.
is
it is
held in
its
situation
the latter
is
loose one another,

tions
;
and unconnected.
" Attachment. At its root, it is deeply adipose tissue, to which is owing the flabby and firmly inserted by several muscles which softness of the organ, and the peculiar arise chiefly from the os hyoides and the aspect it exhibits when cut into. " Use. it is also connected with inferior maxUla Though the tongue is emphathe pharynx, and with the soft palate. tically denominated, from its essential char:
and take a variety of direcbut intermixed with them is a fine
From
layers of the
reflected
the sides of the lower jaw, separate acter, the organ of taste, it is not the only membrane of the mouth are part that possesses this faculty for the palate,
;
body, forming by their the pharynx, and the oesophagus, it is bejunction a sort of bridle, which is thence lieved, participate in it. The tongue, in
its
:
upon
extended to the symphysis
to
this
part,
addition to possessing this faculty, disposes
which serves
motions, the
to restrain the organ in its of the food during manducation, and,
when
name
of frcenum linguce has sufficiently masticated, collects and thrusts

it,
been given.
portion after portion, into the pharynx and furthermore, at the time the animal is face of this organ has a peculiar covering, drinking, it is not only employed as an inwhich, though it appears to be continued strument of suction, but also as a canal from the buccal membrane, is a different along which the fluid ascends into the structure altogether, and serves qiute a pharynx. " Organization. The surface of it is Every part of this ordifferent piu-pose. roughened, possessing a villous texture, gan is plentifuUy supplied with blood. Its everywhere studded with numerous little arteries are the lingual, branches of large The bloodconical eminences, called papilla, which are size from the external carotids. supposed to be formed out of the extremi- vessels of either side are generally found ties of the nerves, and to be the especial free from anastomosis with one another if These papillas either of the arterial trunks is filled with seat of the sense of taste. vary in size and figure, and are more abun- injection, it rarely happens that the opposite dant and larger upon the base and along half of the organ receives any coloring from Interspersed with it. the sides of the organ. Its nerves are the ninth pan, which run them are a number of mucous follicles, to the muscles, and a considerable branch whose apertures may be seen with the naked from the fifth pair, in whose extreme ramieye, through which a mucus is discharged fications, which are distributed to the papillse, upon the papillary surface, keeping it con- the perception of taste is supposed to be tinually moist, and rendering its perception inherent. of taste more acute. " Structure. The tongue is said to pos- "OF THE SALIVARY GLANDS. " Number and Names. sess a covering of common integument The salivary and certainly its strong, compact tunic has glands, properly so called, are six in number, aU the appearances of skin, and presents three upon each side of the head the
" Papillce.
The dorsum or anterior
sur-
X.
OSSEOUS STRUCTURE.
(SEE PEEOEBIKQ PIAIE.)
MUSCULAR STRUCTURE.
LATERAL
a'\
VIE^V.
THE HORSE.
parotid,
lingual.
91
Its struc-
the
submaxillary, and
the sub- backward as far as the trachea.

ture
is
similar to that of the parotid gland.
" The parotid, the largest of these glands, The submaxillary duct issues near the so called from being placed near the ear, centre of the gland, creeps along the under lies within a hollow space at the upper and and inner border of the tongue, close to the
back part of the head, bounded by the lower edge of the sublingual gland, and branch of the lower jaw before, and the terminates by a little mammiform elongation petrous portion of the temporal bone behind of membrane, vulgarly called the barb (barextends as high up as the root of the ear, billon) or pap, upon the frffinum linguae, and as low down as the angle of the jaw, about half an inch above its attachment to by which latter a smaU portion of it is con- the symphysis. Among the other ridiculous cealed. This gland, like the others of the and mischievous practices of farriers is that same class, is enveloped in a case of dense of snipping off these processes. They cellidar membrane, and is constituted, in were seemingly designed as valves, to prestructm-e, of many little lobes or lobuli, con- vent the insinuation of ahmentary matters nected together by processes transmitted into the ducts. The coats of this vessel are into the interior from this cellular covering. extremely thin and translucent. " The sublingual gland is still smaller in Every lobulus is composed of a distinct set of secretory vessels, from which numerous volume than the submaxillary, though, altubuU arise, conjoin, and at length form one together, one much resembles the other in main branch these branches, which corre- figure. It lies along the under part of the spond in number to the lobuli, unite and tongue, covered by the buccal membrane, re-unite until they end in one common ex- where, from the lobular unevenness it gives cretory duct. The duct emerges from the to the surface, its situation is well marked. inferior part of the gland, runs along the Its ducts penetrate the membrane by the inner part of the angle of the jaw, and side of the frsnum lingua. " The use of the salivary glands is to crosses over the posterior edge of the bone
it
;
immediately above or behind the submaxil- secrete a saline limpid fluid, called saliva lary artery and vein in the remainder of which is conveyed and poured by their its course it corresponds to the border of ducts into the mouth during manducation the masseter, and, about opposite to the here it is mLxed with the food, moUifying it, second anterior molar tooth, pierces ob- and rendering it more easy of digestion, and liquely the buccinator, and terminates by a at the same time facilitating the passage of tubercular eminence upon the internal slu:- the alimentary bolus into the stomach.
: :
face of the buccal

"
membrane.*
gland,
The submaxillary
of
smaller
"
OF THE PHARYNX.
" The pharynx is a funnel-shaped sac, volume than the parotid, lies in the space between the angles of the jaw, to which, and lodged in the tliroat for the reception of the
to
the
muscles thereabouts,
also
it, is
:
loosely food.
'"
attached by cellular
of
it
membrane
a portion
Situation.
The pharynx
;
is
contiguous
the
is
generally found proceeding to

or near
its
the guttural pouches, superiorly;
larynx, inferiorly
* To expose
this duct, at
issue
from the
and the anterior portions of the parotid glands and branches of the
jaw, laterally.
Posteriorly, it is continuous with the esophagus anteriorly, presents an opening to the mouth.
;
gland, an incision should be carried along the posterior
border of the branch of the lower jaw

skin
;
first,
dividing the
secondly, the panniculus

the
thirdly, the cellular tissue
in substance
it
immediately covering
tinguished by
its
duct,
which
is
readily dis-
glistening pellucid aspect.
By
extending
" Attachment.
the incision around the angle of the jaw, directing it towards the inner edge of the bone, the duct will be found
In
;
front, to the os
hyoides
making
its
first
turn
here, however,
it
is
lodged in a
and palate bones below, to the larynx behind, it grows narrow and ends in the
esophagus.
hollow, deeply buried in cellular tissue.
92
" Structure.
The
pharynx
it
is
in
part vomiting, can be thrown into the mouth,
muscular, and in part membranous.

the muscles belonging to
tors are those that
Of
in the
same way
that air
is in
the act of
the constric- coughing.

so
"
more immediately enter
into
its
composition.
They
are
dis-
OF THE ESOPHAGUS.
" The esophagus, or gullet, is the tube posed as to give the membrane forming the sac a complete fleshy covering, which through which -the food is conducted from is rendered the more uniform by their the pharynx into the stomach. " Course. It has its beginning from the proximate fibres being indistinguishably blended: thus the muscles form the most pharynx, and is there placed at the upper The and back part of the larynx, taking the substantial part of the pharynx. lining membrane, which is of the mu- first part of its course above and behind the cous class, is soft and thick in substance, trachea, between that tube and the cervical and palely tinged with red in color, and is vertebrEB. Having proceeded a short way papillary and in places rugose upon its sur- down, it incHnes to the left, and soon after being perforated by the ducts of makes its appearance altogether on the left face numerous follicles which discharge a mucus side of the trachea, and continues so placed that preserves glibness and moisture to its during the remainder of its passage down
The membrane itself is (where it the neck this explains why we look for the meets them) continuous both with the buc- bolus dxiring the act of swallowing on the cal membrane and that which lines the left, and not on the right side of the animal. In company with the trachea, the esophagus. " Although the pharynx is designed for esophagus enters the thorax between the the reception of the food, it does not open first tuô ribs, at which place, running above
interior.
:
directly into the
mouth
the
are separated from each other
two cavities by the soft
that tube, superior
it
quits its
mediastinum,
companion for the which cavity it
Except in the act of traverses below and a little to the right of palate and epiglottis. swallowing and coughing, they have no the posterior aorta. Immediately beneath communication in the former case, the the decussation of the crura, the esophagus velum is pressed upward by the food pierces the substance of the diaphragm, against the posterior openings of the nose and enters the stomach, at a right angle, in the latter, the larynx is depressed by a about the centre of its upper and anterior convulsive action of the muscles in the part. " Structure. The esophagus presents, vicinity. Into the cavity above the velum two of the cham- externally, a strong, red, muscular coat inthere are four openings bers of the nose, one of the larynx, and one ternally, one remarkable for its whiteness, The musof the esophagus the eustachian tubes do which in its nature is cuticular. not open into the pharynx they end in cular coat is composed of two orders of a, longitudinal, forming an outtwo large membranous pouches at the fibres upper part of the fauces. The openihg ward layer and a circular, an inward
:
leading into the esophagiis

closed, except
is
constantly layer
the former
it
^vill
shorten the tube, and

;
when
alimentary matters are perhaps dilate

;
for the reception of food
passing to or from the stomach
so that air the latter,
by successive contractions of the

transmit
the
received into the pharynx through the nose canal,
^vill
food
into
the
can pass nowhere else but into the wind- stomach. The second, or internal coat, is pipe; but if food be returned from the called the cuticular, from its analogy to the stomach, it will be regurgitated into the cuticle of the skin. Although it is continnose at least, only that portion of it uous with the membrane of the pharnyx, which enters the pharynx at the moment it is of a totally different composition it is that the larynx is depressed in the act of thinner, but it is much more compact and
; :
THE HORSE.
sti'onger in its texture, and,
I
93
believe, is
It
^'Nostrils.
both insensible and inorganic.

to the muscular covering
adheres each side,
number: two on distinguished by the epithets true

in
Four
by a fine cellular and false. " The true nostrils are the large, ovoid, tissue, the extensibility of which gives full play to the latter and admits, during the and ever-open orffices so conspicuous exempty or collapsed state of the tube, of the ternally. They have for the base of their former being thrown into many longitudinal structure four pieces of fibro-cartUage, pliccE or folds as is demonstrated by mak- which are involved in doublings of the
; ;
such common integument. Each nostril is formed appearances result from the contraction of of two flexible ala or wings a svperior or the one coat, and the want of proportion- internal one, and an inferior or external.
ing a transverse section of the tube
Between the imbedded amongst the connecting cellular tissue, are numerous follicular glands, whose office is to pour forth a mucous secretion upon the internal surface of the lining membrane, to render the passage of food along it glib and free from any
ate elasticity in the other.
tunics,
The former
in
is
supported by a broad circular

;
two
cartilaginous plate
the latter
is
crescentic
shape, and
is
forms a flexm-e outward,

perceptible the orffice of
within which
the lachrymal duct.
They
are attached to,
and supported by, the nasal peak and sep-
tum
"
nasi.
friction.
The
false nostrils are tv\-o little
pouches
" N"ASAL FOSS^.* "
or cavities (ha\Tng the semblance of culsfrwô
which an external opening is or lateral cavities, whose external openings found within the commissive formed by the are the nostrils. Their walls or external union of the two alae. They are formed parietes are almost entirely osseous; and to out of duplicatures of the skin, which is the OSSEOUS SYSTEM (page 45) the reader here thiimer, and finer, and softer in its must turn for a description of the manner textiure and, except at their enti-ance, are in which the fossae are formed, and of the
nostrils, into
;
The
nasal fossae are the
chambers
de-sacs), situated internally,
above the trae
bones entering into their formation.

in their constitution.
"
But,
without hair upon their surfaces.

use
is
Their
in addition to bone, they are cartilaginous
not luiown.
^^Schneiderian membrane.
of the nose
is
The
cavity
The
number:
of which one
nasi
is
cartilages of the nose are five in

(the
septum
nasal
into
fossffi,
not only divided into the tw'o but each fossa is subdivided
nasi)
is situated internally;
the other four (enternosti'ils)
the thi'ee meatus (for a description of
ing into the composition of the

ternally.
which, vide page 45).

cavities
ex-
"
The septum
It is
Every part of these covered by the This Schneiderian or pituitary membrane.
and
jDassages is
the vertical cartiis
laginous partition interposed between the

nasal fossas.
inferior
exhibits four borders.
The
tinguished for
a membrane of the mucous class, disits thickness of substance,
pilla;. It has two sm-faces: an exposed while the superior presents a or secreting one and an unexposed or adlengthened channel between two elevated The secreting surface is herent one. edges, into which is admitted the internal smooth, and is rendered glib and sliiny by crest formed by the union of the nasal the varnish it derives from the mucous bones. Its posterior border is affixed to the secretion emitted by the numerous small ethmoidal plate its anterior serA'es to susrounded pores everyw'here visible in the tain the cartilages forming the nostrils. membrane, but more particularly upon the Both its sides are completely covered by the lower part of the septum, and upon the Schneiderian membrane. This sm-face inferior tin-binated bone.
one
;
for its vasculai-ity,
received into the groove of
and
for its olfactory pa-
the vomer
* Hippopathology.
exhibits a pale pink blush, the effect of the
94
bloodvessels spread over
it,

which are here been already given
:
(at
page
46), to
which
owe their principal de- we must again refer. " Ducts. There are tuô ducts belonging fence to the mucous exudation hence it One is the is that the complexion of the membrane to, or connected with, the nose.
so superficial as to
(varying with the influence of the atmos- ductus ad nasum
tube partly osseous

its
phere and other agents)
is
extremely fugitive and partly membranous in
composition,
The adherent surface of commencing at the inner angle or corner of the membrane contracts a close and firm the eye, within the substance of the lachryadherence to the parts it covers, through mal bone, running within a' canal continued the insinuation of its fibres into them infrom this bone through the superior maxildeed, to the bone it appears to supply the lary bone, and terminating at the inner and place of periosteum to the cartilage, of inferior part of the nasal fossa, underneath
and uncertain.
perichondrium.
The
substance
of
the the
duplicatm-e of the inferior ala,
upon
membrane
exhibits a fibrous structure, in- the surface of the

;
terwoven with cellular tissue and upon that as a substratum is spread a glandular and vascular apparatus, from wMch issues the mucous secretion together with
numerous papiUcB, of small
size,
constituted
of the terminations of those nerves from
which the membrane derives ordinary sensation, as well as those that
about onefourth of an inch fi"ora its junction with the Schneiderian membrane, by an orifice The large enough to admit a crow-quill. other duct is the ductus communis nariiim, which pursues its course along underneath the vomer to the,pharynx after arising from two lateral branches springing from oblong
skin,
;
common
endow
it
with apertures in the floor of the nostrUs."
the
peculiar
sense
of
smelling.
The
Schneiderian membrane, inferiorly, within

the nostrils,
is
INTERNAL PARTS.
continuous with the dupUca;
tures of skin linuig those parts
superiorly COMPREHEXDIXG THE CA^TTIES OF THE CEAXIl'M, DE-
BIT, NOSE, AXD MOUTH. with the membrane lining the pharynx; beI. CAVITY OF THE CRANIUM, sides which, it is continued into the several sinuses of the head, through the openings Constructed for the lodgment of the leading from them into the nose, and like- brain with its appendages, is in form ovoid, wise gives them a complete covering it is flattened inferiorly, broader anteriorly than to be obser\'ed, however, that in the sinuses posteriorly; its antero-posterior or long the membrane is thinner, and assumes a diameter measming about seven inches its
: ;
paler
and more
is
delicate aspect; its natural transverse
secretion is also fomid
more sparing.
The
inches
its
about four vertical or perpendicular diameter

or lateral diameter
abundantly supplied with about three and a half inches. At the same and also time it is to be observed, that, although the blood-vessels, as well as nerves possesses its share of absorbent vessels. general form of the cavity is the same, its diIts arteries, wliich ramify and anastomose mensions may and do vary in dift'erent heads.
membrane
so as to form a spreading network

secreting
surface,
are
derived
inferiorly
superiorly present internally surfaces
upon the The eight bones composing the cranium all more or less con-
facial and palato-maxillary.
from the cave, which, united, form the cavity under consideration hence it is that the interior furnished by the fii-st and fifth pairs. is not regular or uniform, but presents to " Sinuses. These cavities are formed in view diflerent hollows, which are adapted the interior of several of the bones of the to distinct prominences of the cerebral mass. Division of the interior surface into roof cranium and face in fact, with the exception of the membrane lining them, they are and base of the cranium This The roof is formed by the frontal, parietal, entirely osseous in their composition. will account for their description having and occipital bones its superficis is larger from the
lateral nasal;
Its ner\'es are
;
THE HORSE.
than the extent of the base, and
able in the latter.
It
it is
95
with- petrotis portion of the temporal bone exter-
out any apparently defective places, observ- nally and posteriorly

presents
1st.
On
the mesian line from front to back, the sagit-
it is wide and irregunarrow behind, and is distinguished into the spheno-occipital and tempo:
lar
before,
formed and parietal crests, crossed towards the front by the coronal suture, and bounded posteriorly by the parietal protuberance, to which is attached the tentorium, and behind which is the occipital cupula, for
tal groove, for the longitudinal sinus
ro-occipital hiatus.
The
petrous portion of
by
the frontal
the temporal bone,
presenting a naiTow
covering the cerebellum.

side,
2nd.
On
either
along the same
line, the cerebral con-
and upwards, which contributes to the posterior cerebral concavity a broad, smooth, but uneven surface inwards, against which inclines the cerebellum, and upon which we distinguish
triangular surface forwards
;
a,
the orifice of the meatus auditorius in;
cavities
of the frontal bone; the

;
coronal ternus
b,
a transverse prominence, and sev;
suture,
the boundary line between
them
eral cerebral indentations
c,
an irregular
forms
;
and
the parietal concavities
the transverse
;
convexity downwards,
separating
which
the
grooves, for the lateral sinuses
and, sunk boundary wall of the labyrinth

it
d,
2i
fissure
within them, the lambdoidal suture.
from the former.
Lastly, the
formed by the temporal, It sphenoid, ethmoid, and occipital bones. presents 1st. On the middle line, from before backwards, the crista galli, and on its sides the ethmoidal fossa and cribriform
is
The base
sutures, uniting the petrous to the
squamous
portion and to the occipital bone.

occipital
Of
the
bone a part of the internal surface
assisting in the formation of a concavity for
the cerebellum, by the convolutions of which

;
plates,
internal it is indented the surface even and smooth, and there and slightly excavated below this, for the pierced by the internal orbital foramina ; the support of the medulla oblongata stiU concave surface of the body of the ethmoid lower, the condyloid foramina, through which
laterally
the
bounded
by
orbital plates of the frontal bones,
bone; the optic hiatus leading to the optic the ninth pair of nerves pass out.
foramina; a transverse suture between the THE ORBITS, ethmoid and sphenoid bones. Upon the sphenoid bone, the pituitary fossa, bounded Two in number, are formed for the lodglaterally by the two optic fossae ; the latter ment, attachment, and protection of the leading to the foramina lacera orbitalia, eyes and their appendages. over which are the spinal foramina ; a transSymmetrical. Figure. The cavity,
verse elevated line
denotes the place of which is extended horizontally backward junction of the sphenoid with the occipital and inward, has, viewed in front, a pyra-
bone.
the basilar fossce
Belonging to the occipital bone, are midal aspect the base, represented by the and the occipital hole. 2d. front, has four sides, and four angles one
: ;
On either side, in the same direction, the inter-
only of the sides, however,
is
sufficient in
nal surface of the icing of the ethmoid bone, extent to reach the apex, the others being rather more convex than concave, for the all more or less imperfect. line drawn
support of the anterior lobe of the cere- in a horizontal direction through the axis
brum the concavity of the iving of the sphe- of this figure, inclines more outwards than noid bone, for the reception of the middle forwards, more forwards than downwards,
;
lobe
squamous part of intersecting another horizontal line projected forward at an angle of about 70, lobe and the sutures bounding these three and one extended laterally, directly outward, cerebral surfaces. The foramen lacermn (at right angles with the former), at about basis cranii, formed between the wing of 20 the incUnation downward, however,
;
the concavity of the
the temporal bone, for lodging the posterior directly

:
the sphenoid anteriorly, the basilar process will in course vary with the erect position
of the
occipital
bone
internally,
and the of the head.
96
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HOESE.
Structure. The orbit is composed of midway between them, passes the supraunequal portions coming from four of the orbital foramen. The infero-internal angle bones of the cranium, and from three of includes the lachrymal fossa. The supero-
those of the face
viz.,
the frontal, ethmoid, external angles, one anterior, the other posterior, are
sphenoid, and temporal bones; the malar,

lachrymal, and palate bones.
intersected
Division
apex.
Sides.
Into
the frontal
by the suture uniting and zygomatic arches. The
sides, angles, base,
The superior side or roof of the
and infero-external angles, particularly the anterior, are rounded and smooth.
Base.
Of the
circmuferent border, the
cavity
consists only
is
of the frontal arch; superior and internal parts, about two-fifths
which
make room
concave and smooth internally, to of the entire circle, are formed by the os for the lachrymal gland, and frontis the inferior and internal parts, about
;
has anterior and posterior borders, sharp and one-fifth, by the lachrymal bone
slightly curvated.
and the
of the orbit
is
The inferior side or floor remaining two-fifths by the malar and temformed by the orbital surfaces poral bones, in the proportion of three parts
of the lachrymal and malar bones, is broader of the former to one of the latter. The apex or back of the orbit, formed by than the roof, though, like it, is deficient as a whole.
It
comprises the orbital portion the ethmoid, spenoid, and palate bones,
:
is
of
the lachrymal suture
it is
terminated in pierced by
five
foramina: the two round are
front,
behind,
hy a smooth, rounded, curvated border; the internal orbital and optic, which are nearly midway between the base ranged in a row with two oval and larger and apex, by a shorter and straighter border. in size, the supero-posterior and infero-posThe internal or nasal side, the broadest and terior orbital; the one behind is the spinal ordy complete one, is formed principally by foramen.
the internal orbital process of the frontal
which is received the planum: the ethmoid bone further contributes, and also the sphenoid and palate
bone, into the notch of
QS
in.
CAVITIES OF THE NOSE,

fossae or
Comprehending the nasal bers, and the sinuses. These
cavities
chamoccupy
bones, the three constituting that irregular about two-thirds of the internal space of
termination of
represents the
plate
is
the cavity behind which the superior maxilla, the remaining third
apex.
The
frontal
orbital
belonging to the cranium

are partitioned
smooth and slightly concave, and is united below by a continuation of the transverse suture with the lachrymal bone.
Its
is
from which they by the cranial septum of the frontal bone, in union with the cribriform
;
plates
and
crest of the ethmoid.
border in front, though slightly cui-vated,
The
nasal fosste
may be
said to include
very irregular, having several notches and about two-thirds of the entire space de-
one or two small foramina in

presents a
little
it;
it
also voted to the olfactory cavities.
They con;
tubercle, to
which the
lach- stitute the interior of the proboscis
have
rymal caruncle is attached. The external or zygomatic side is formed principally by the zygomatic process of the malar bone, that of the temporal conti-ibuting but little it is concave, and smooth internally, somewhat broader below than upwards is intersected obliquely by the zygomatic suture, and has an interior border, smooth and curvated, a posterior one, sharp and straight. Angles. The supero-internal angles, one before, the other behind, are formed by the beginning of the frontal arch, through which,
:
four boundary walls, one above, one below,
and two laterally are separated from each other by a septum but are open both before and behind. The superior wall presents an irregular concave formed by the internal surfaces of the nasal bones, the cells and grooves of the ethmoid, and small portions of the nasal
;
;
surfaces of the palate bones.
The
inferior wall is horizontal
it
extends
is
forward beyond the superior, but

siderably overreached by that
con-
waU
poste-
THE HORSE.
riorly
:
97
formed by the palatine por- nasal, maxillary, sphenoidal, ethmoidal, and and superior maxillary, palatine. The frontal sinuses, formed within the and by the palate bones. The surface is transversely concave, and presents a slight frontal bones, are situated so that a straight line extended between the supero-internal eminence a little behind its middle.
it
is
tions of the anterior
Each
anterior
lateral
wall or side presents an angles of
the orbits passes
opposite to
then-
irregular concavity,
and
is
formed by the about the angular or deepest parts of

cavities.
and superior maxillary and the
The
sinus (on either side) has a
palate bones.
rior
To
it
are attached the supe- triangular figure.
The superior side or roof
and
inferior turbinated bones,

is
by which
is flat,
and (barring the septa) even upon

;
the fossa
whereas the posterior side is its surface The superior meatus, irregular, being convex inwardly, where it comprised between the nasal and superior is formed by the cranial septum concave turbinated bones, extends from the angle of outwardly, where it is opposed to the part The infethe lateral nasal opening, passing over the composing the temporal fossa. ethmoidal cells, to the cribriform plate, fol- rior side slants from behind forward, and lowing superiorly the declination of the from below upward, is irregular on its surwall. The middle meatus, included between face, and open or deficient outwardly, the turbinated bones, leads superiorly into where the cavity communicates with the Of the angles, one is the ethmoidal grooves and cells, and into maxiUary sinus. the sinuses of the head, and ends below, be- directed upward; another downward, terneath the termination of the superior. This minating in the nasal sinus, with which it passage, lilvc the former one, is narrow but is conjoined, the two forming one continuthe third points backward, and its greatest diameter is, obliquely, in the ous cavity perpendicular direction whereas the other is directly opposite to the imaginary transmeasures most from side to side. It reverse line above alluded to. The cavity is ceives the apertures of the ductus ad traversed and divided into several unequal nasum, maxillary sinus, ethmoidal grooves, open compartments and recesses by septa; and turbinated cells. The inferior meatus the principal of which is one extended beit is is the most capacious as well as the most tween the superior and inferior sides direct one: it extends along the inferior partitioned from the opposite sinus by the
divided into three separate pas-
sages or
meatus.
wall,
from the anterior to the posterior nasal spine. The sinus is but small in the young compared to its proportionate dimenopening of the nose.
The septum
nasi
is
the partition separat- sions in the adult subject
it
continues to
ing one fossa from the other. It is formed, increase afterwards with age, and ultimately posteriorly, by the ethmoidal plate; infe- extends throughout the whole of the frontal
riorly riorly
and and
posteriorly,
anteriorly,
by the vomer
supe- bone.
(and principally) by a
The
nasal sinuses, formed by the nasal
broad perpendicular plate of cartilage. The openings of the nose are the anterior, divided by the nasal peak and septum nasi into two, and formed by the superior borders of the anterior maxillary bones:
:
bones above and the superior turbinated bones behind, are nothing more than the
culs-de-sacs
or
blind terminations
of the
frontal sinuses.
The maxillary
larly formed.
sinuses,
the largest of
same manner by the vomer and septum, and formed by the nasal surfaces and crescentic borders of
the posterior, divided after the
these cavities, are spacious but very irregu-
They
are situated
in front of the frontal.

either side, the posterior
Of
this sinus,
below and on
the palate bones.
The
with,
sinuses
of the head communicate are formed by the

to constitute part
of,
and may be said
the nasal cavities.
They
are the frontal,
and external walls malar and lachrymal bones, whose orbital processes constitute a the tliin partition between it and the orbit
;
98

IV.
inferior parts consist of the excavations in
THE MOUTH.
is
the superior maxillary bone

sinus
is
cavity included beopen, being there continuous with tween the superior and inferior maxillae, the frontal the boundary line between making (in the skeleton) one common vathese cavities is marked by the suture cuity with the inter-maxillary space. Its
;
superiorly, the
The mouth
the
uniting the lachrymal to the frontal and antero-posterior dimensions can be but nasal bones on the outer side, and by the little varied; but its supero-inferior diame-
prominent crest formed by the junction of ter will be increased in the ratio of the disthe superior turbinated with the ethmoid tance to which the inferior maxiUa recedes bone on the inner underneath which pai-t, from the superior; the cavity during the through a curved (and in the recent subject distraction of the jaws assuming the figure
;
sort
of valvular) fissure, the
sinus opens of a misplaced t>

cavity is but
the angle of which
is
into the middle meatus,
between the bases turned baclrward.
superiorly, by The mouth is formed young the palatine and superior and anterior maxsubject, in consequence of the intrusion of illary bones inferior interiorly, by the the yet uncut molar teeth. maxilla laterally, by the molar teeth anThe frontal sinus, then, terminates in the teriorly, by the incisive teeth. Behind,
of the tiurbinated bones.
The
small,
and
still
more
irregular, in the
maxillary
nasal, but both discharge themselves into the through the posterior opening of the nose, the maxillary has also a blind it communicates with the nasal fossae. ; termination, but empties itself into the posterior part of the
middle nasal meatus.

sinus
is
PERITONEUM.*
The sphenoidal
the
situated within of the
palatine
portion of the body

It
The whole of the viscera contained within the abdomen proper, including the
sphenoid bone.
anterior part of the rectum, bladder, and bone being solid throughvasa deferentia, are either entirely or parout but in process of growth a cavernous tially covered by or in contact with peritohollow is formed, which, from the secesneum. This is a serous membrane reflected sion and attenuation of the laminae of the also over the parietes of the abdomen, so
has no existence in the
young
;
subject, the
bone, continues to enlarge.

cates,
It communithat a by two ovoid openings, with the eth-
parietal
and
visceral or reflected por-
tion require notice.
moidal sinuses. The ethmoidal sinuses are two cavities, separated by the perpendicular plate, situated beneath the ethmoidal cells. They have openings in front, communicating with the lowermost and largest grooves of the same bone, and with the palatine sinuses. The palatine sinuses are formed between the superior maxillary and palate bones are situated below and in front of the former are separated from each other by the vomer and open into the maxillary sinuses they are irregidar in form and cavernous interiorly. They are not to be found in the young subject. Some might be inclined to
;
of the same nature,
it
Like other membranes forms a closed sac,

not
the
which, however,
female,
as
its
is
case in the
cavity communicates with
that of the uterus,
owing
to the
open
state
of the Fallopian tubes at their fimbriated

edges.
It is
loosely connected with the abdominal
by subserous cellular tissue, and same obtains with regard to its connection with the viscera. But we find some parts more adherent than others, such as along the linea alba and cordiform portion
parietes
the
of the diaphragm.
is
Also on the organs it but loosely connected with them at their
treat
attached border, where it forms generally a them as parts of the maxillary sinuses triangular space, occupied simply by vessels, they are, however, as perfectly distinct from nerves, and cellular tissue, and allowing of
;
the latter as the frontal are.

* Prize Essav bv Mr. Gamgee.
THE HORSE.
their
99
distention
and
it
alteration
is
in
figure.
as the standard relative capacity between
On
it
the other hand,
extends over the free

it is
more adherent as the two. The stomach surface or margin

in contact with.
is
situated transversely to
left
of the various parts
the long axis of the body, in the
hypo-
The peritoneum being considered
as ex- chondrium, extending into the epigastrium
tending from the .umbilicus over the ab- and during repletion into the right hypocon-
dominal parietes towards the median line driac region. However, its size and situaof the diaphragm and spine, is found there tion vary under different cfrcumstances, as to fold on itself, and proceed from tlie latter to whether it be full or empty, adapting
on to the intestine, forining the mesenters itself generally to its contents. The stomach is fixed on its left side to and from the former on to the liver and These the diaphgram by the oesophagus, having stomach, constituting ligaments.
;
folds of peritoneum are also seen extending the
spleen attached to
it
as well.
The
from organs to other parts of the abdominal duodenum then, by means of the lesser or omentum, suspends the parietes, and these also constitute ligaments. gastro-hepatic Then they may be traced from one organ pyloric end by getting attached to the conto another, giving rise to the several
all
of which
we
shall
omenta cave surface of the liver. more especially allude The shape of the stomach might be
ex-
to as
we
speak of the peritoneal coat of pressed as

itself,
bemg
that of a tube bent on
each separate viscus.
STOMACH.
The stomach
is
the dilated portion of
the alimentary canal, intermediate between
the oesophagus and small intestine
through
the former
for
it
receives the ingested aliment,

acts as a reservoir during the
which
it
and dilated along its convex border, two cul-de-sacB i. e., a right and a left one, whilst it has two borders or curvatures, distinguished as a lesser concave and a greater convex one. The stomach has two smooth surfaces, the anterior one being in contact with the liver and diaphragm, whilst the posterior one corresponds
so as to form
;
process of chymification, the active agent to the convolutions of the small intestines
in
which
In
is
the gastric secretion.

all
the horse, as well as

is
other
pedes, this viscus
exceptional in
and gastric flexture of the colon. It has two orifices, i. e., a left oesophageal, or comnot being monly called cardiac, and a right intestinal
soli;
the most capacious dilatation of the alimen- or pyloric one

tary canal.
in
the latter taking
its
name
M.
Colin, in a paper published from the valve
by which
it is
guarded.
the Recueil
de
Medecine
Veterinaire
circular depression
round the stomach,
Pratique for Tune, 1849, states that the capacity of the horse's stomach is very
variable.
midway between
orifices,
the cardiac and pyloric
most visible when the organ is marks the external division of the horse he found it only nine quarts (accord- stomach into a cardiac and pyloric portion, ing to his evaluation by litre, which may coiTCsponding with the point where the be considered as thirty -four fluid ounces), mucuous membrane varies in character in-
He
says, that
in
a very small
replete,
while in one of colossal dimensions

as
it
was
ternally.
The
sacular projection
at the
much
as 33 3-4 quarts, both having died cardiac portion takes the

(
name
of fundus,
at the college
Alfort) infirmary.
He
gives
owing
to its greater
magnitude as compared
the average as being from 13 7-20 quarts with a smaller cial-de-sac at the pyloric end,
to 14 3-5.
Then, considering the capacity the analogue of which in

is
of the stomach in relation with that of the

intestines,
characterized
human anatomy by the appellation of antrum

briefly described the striking
he found
it
in a very small horse pylori.
as one to thirteen, while in other

it
two cases
Having thus
was
as one to ten.
He
takes the latter peculiarities
of
the
stomach,
proceed
100

on to the transverse Reaching the latter, it
colon and spleen.
is
with more detail to the consideration of its constituent parts, such as its coats, nerves and vessels. The coats of the horse's stomacli having
reflected over its
superior surface at the posterior margin of
the hilus, so as to contribute to the form-
been generally described as

the one which I
four, it
appears ation of the gastro-splenic omentum, and
needless to altertheir nomenclature, although extends round the free posterior margin of
shall allude to as third the viscus on to the inferior surface, passing might quite as justly be described as second, to the right on to the left kidney, and, or merely spoken of as connecting cellular anteriorly reaching the supero-anterior part
it
tissue, without regarding
as a separate coat. of the spleen,
is reflected
from
it
so as to
The
external
peritoneal tunic is found continue as
the outer layer of the loose
proceeding from the diaphragm on to the omentum.

the oesophageal opening, where
Further to the
right,
is trace-
cardiac portion of the stomach, surrounding able on to the inferior surface of the transit is tough, verse colon, and, extending round the posand forms the gastro phrenic ligament. Thus terior part of the latter, is found to ascend we follow it on to the corresponding surface up to the spine, and then turn backward of the viscus, and, firstly, more especially and downward to form the mesentery. on to the lesser curvature, where it is loosely B, or the internal layer of peritoneum, connected with the other coats, and, the passes from the posterior surface of the middle portion being more adherent, gives stomach till it reaches the infero-anterior rise to two folds laterally, which seem to border of the transverse colon, as well as the
stretch from the cardiac to the pyloric orifices, hilus of the spleen.
After covering the an-
two together, necessarily leaving a pit or cul-de-sac between them. At the pyloric end the peritoneum comes off from
to bind the
the concave surface of the liver
ascends up to diaphragm clothing the anterior part of the pancreas, which is thus on to the held between A and B, or layers of the transterior surface of the colon, it
the pillars of the
stomach, constituting the gastro-hepatic or verse meso-colon.

lesser
A little to the left of this,

omentum.
omentum, the
of the
anterior layer of
which
passes on to the anterior margin of the
comes from the

surface
layer
anterior part of the concave hilus of the spleen, forming the inner or posliver,
whilst the posterior terior layer of the gastro-splenic
comes from the posterior part of the same, so that the two enclose the vessels going to and from the porta. Having formed a covering to the corresponding surface of the stomach, the layers of peritoneum meet at the greater curvature. In following them from this point the description will be facilitated by alluding to the two separately, as they meet to form the gastro-splenic and gastro-colic omenta,
as well as the
the latter,
stitute
arrangement it results that the peritoneum, in forming the lesser or gastrothis
From
hepatic, the greater or gastro colic,
and the
omenta, closes in a space termed the omental sac, the interior of which is inaccessible except by an opening
gastro-splenic
at the posterior part of the gastro hepatic
omentum, whose free margin at the right side marks the point where it may be pene;
trated this passage is termed the foramen omental sac. In forming of Winslow. It is bovmded anteriorly by they so blend as merely to con- the lesser omentum, above by the hver, and
a fine reticulated vascular layer, in- posteriorly by the transverse colon.
separable into two, except near the magins
Thus, supposing the inner layer of the
of the viscera.
Distinguishing the anterior omental sac to be separable from the outer,
or external layer as A,
and the
posterior or
internal one as B, their arrangement admits
of exposition in the following terms
and drawn out through the foramen of Winslow, the following parts would be deprived of peritoneum,
i.
e.,
the posterior
passes from the anterior surface of the surface of the stomach, the gastro splenic
stomach, forms the loose omentum, and gets
omentum
of
its
posterior layer
so that the
XI.
MUSCXJLAE STEUCTUEE.
a". Trapezius. 6".
Rhomboideus longus.
Splenius.
S.
c".
e".
Scalenus.
Pectoralis parvus.
f". Antea spinatus.

ff".
Postea
.spinatus.
/*".
Teres major.
Latissimus dorsi.
i".
J".
portion of the serratus magnus.

cubital."
:
k". "
I",
Humero
m". n". Triceps extensor brachii

Flexors.
magnum, medium,
et
parvium.
o". Pectoralis transversus.
p.
q".
r". s".
Flexor metacarpi extemus. " " internus.

Extensor metacarpi magnus. Extensor pedis.
Serratus.
x".
a'.
c'.
Obliquus extemus abdominis. Obliquus internus abdominis.
d'.
g'.
7j'.
Region of the
i.
patella.
Glutei muscles.
m'. Tensor vagina.

n'.
o'.
Rectus.
Vastus extemus.
q'.
r'.
t'.
Flexor metatarsi.
Gastrocnemius externus.

Sterno maxillarius.
Internal part of the levator humeri.
u.
V.
J/'.
Peroueus.
E.xtensor pedis.
x'.
33. Radius.
/'. Triceps.
VUINS.
3.
Jugular vein.
4.
Subcutaneous thoracic
vein.
6.
6.
Saphena vem.
Radial vein.
D. Serratus magnus muscle.
OSSEOUS STRUCTURE.
d.
Dorsal spines.
/.
e. e.
Ubar.
Fibula.
la.
True
False
ribs. ribs.
17.
18. 19.
Sternum.
Ileum.
22.
23. 24.
34.
Femur.
Patella.
Tibia.
Os humeri.
Radius.
35.
THE HOBSE.
vessels going to
101
circular fibres
and from the stomach and blend with the

anterior
on the
of
lesser
spleen would remain uncovered, the anterior curvature.

part of the transverse colon, the
surface of the pancreas,
The middle
layer
consists
annular
and inner or pos- fibres, which, though scanty as they encircle terior layer of the gastro hepatic omentum. the extreme left end of the stomach, increase Next to be described to the serous coat in bulk towards the middle part of the is the muscular one, which is constitfited of organ, and are especially developed at the involuntary plain fibres, whose thickness is lesser curvature. They again decrease over verj- variable in different subjects, as well as the antrum pylori, but are ultimately gready in different parts of the same stomach. developed for the formation of a powerful The cardiac end is more muscular than the sphincter at the pylorus. The internal or oblique fibres of the pyloric, except at the right margin of the latter, where it is verj' powerful and thick, stomach have somewhat the same arrangeThe thinnest ment as the deep layer of fibres of the as it surrounds the pylorus. part of the stomach is unquestionably the oesophagus, although not perfectly identical, as they are arranged like hoops placed one convex border of the lesser cul-de-sac. The muscular coat of the stomach is in- within the other but while in the former tricately arranged, and authorities differ the one set enters the other without intervastly from each other in the description of section, in the latter there is a partial decusthe several layers constituting it. The sation by separate bundles. Thus, in realnumber of layers entering into its compo- ity, the oblique fibres of the stomach are sition is three the outer and inner ones are constituted of two layers, the one proceedmostly continuations of the inner layers of ing fi"om the left end of the stomach on to the oesophagus, while the middle one is pro- the right, which pass internally to the next layer this one proceeds fi'om the right of per to the stomSch. The outer layer is composed of the the cardia on to the fimdus. Ow"ing to the
I j
'
longitudinal fibres of
the oesophagus: as scantiness of circular fibres at the base of
these reach the cardiac end of the stomach, each cul-de-sac, the fibres are here in con-
they form a peculiar turn, whereby the dis- tact with the superficial longitudinal ones.
tribution
on the surfaces as a
flat
layer
is
I
The
oblique fibres are best studied by dis-
facilitated.
Some
to join
of the fibres of this layer secting firom within, and, after removing
,
the deeper ones, while these, the circular fibres come into îew onwards as the longitudinal [with greater ease than by attempting to fibres of the duodenum. As to the fibres expose them firom without. The third coat of the stomach consists which proceed on to the cur\-atiires, they
dip
down
others continue
are not so intricate, as they descend directly merely of the cellular tissue existing befrom the portion of the oesophagus opposite tween the muscular and mucus coats, as the part they supply, so that the only alter- well as connecting the former to the outer ation in direction is that of diverging a lit- serous tunic, in which case it is more abimd-
from each other, and pmrsuing the bent ant and firm nearest the curvatures. There it is situated between the muscular and muture. On the lesser one they soon become cus coats it was named by the ancients, scanty, and are lost in the circular fibres of on account of its white aspect, the Tunica It is loose in some parts and the body of the stomach very few of them Nervosa. are traced on to the pylorous. The fibres firm in others not only serving to connect proceeding on to the greater curvature are parts together, but also to form a medium mingled with other considerable bundles in which vessels ramify for the supply of taking the same direction, but which are not the organ. The internal or mucus coat of the stomtraceable on to the oesophagus, as they seem to pass round each side of the cardia, and ach differs in the cardiac fi"om the pyloric
tle
course of the corresponding gastric curva-
102
end, as in the former
it

is
but a mere con- also thrown into
tinuation of the unmodified
mucus
lining ually
folds, which become gradmore marked towards the pylorus;
of the oesophagus, being characteristic for whereas they are susceptible of obfiteration
its
scantiness in gland and but limited sup-
by
distention, there is
is
ply of blood.
possesses
cular
is
The most marked

of
feature
it
the pylorus which
one circular fold at permanent, and so dis-
that of being covered
layer
by a cuti- posed as to fulfil the office of a valve. extreme thickness, easily The' arteries of the stomach are derived
i.
separable from the basement structure befrom the coeliac axis,
neath after slight maceration or boiling.
e.
gastric, hepatic,
whose three divisions, and splenic, all contri;
mucus bute to supply blood to the viscus but the a dirty first is specially destined to that office. The white, bedewed by more or less mucus, gastric artery, being the smallest of the and thrown into folds which have a radiated three divisions, takes a course downwards, arrangement at the cardiac orifice, whilst at forwards, and rather to the right, across the the fundus they are concentricaUy arranged. pancreas, getting between the layers of the This portion of the membrane is also fur- gastro-hepatic omentum. Being then dinished with papUlae and Sprott Boyd, in rected to the left towards the lesser curvaan Inaugural Essay on the structure of the ture, it divides into an anterior left or smaUer Mucus Membrane of the Stomach, pub- branch, and a posterior right and more
cardiac portion of the gastric
is,
The
lining
in a healthy stomach, of
lished in the Edinbitrgh
Medical and Surgi- capacious as

terior
weU
is
as longer one.
The
an-
marked peculiarity of an interposed layer between the epithelium and papiJlated surface of the
cal Journal for 1836, describes a very
division
destined to supply the
anterior surface of the stomach, especially the

left
and more
anastomosmucus fining. This intermediate layer, he ing with branches (sometimes called vasa says, has a smooth equal surface, perforated breva), coming on to the stomach from the by numerous foramina about the 600th of splenic. This division of the gastic also an inch in diameter, or perhaps a little anastomoses with oesophageal twigs, which smaller, the margins of which are sUghtly are occasionally of considerable size. The
cul-de-sac,
He afterwârds states that he posterior or right division of the gastric has not been able to trace in the epithefium artery, destined for the pyloric end of the
thickened.
of any other animal a structure similar to stomach, anastomoses with

that existing in the horse.
some
splenic
These peculiar- branches, but more especially with the pyities in the left pouch of the stomach cease loric branches of the hepatic artery. abruptly midway the length of the viscus, The veins returning the blood from the where the cuticular lining terminates by a stomach are the gastric and splenic, which serrated edge. anastomose with the duodenal veins. These The mucus fining of the right end of all have a few valves, but they may be easily the stomach is normally of a reddish color, injected from the porta into which they and presents a villous, gfistening aspect, empty, owing to their very free anastomosis. coated thicldy with mucus, and also posThe lymphatics of the stomach are nusessing a high degree of vascularity the merous, and in some parts very apparent,
;
epithefium
tabular.
is
here scanty, but nevertheless entering the lymphatic glands situated along
villous
The
appearance above the greater cruvature and around the cardia,
referred to suggests itself also
face is examined
by the naked eye and by

;
when the sur- where they are numerous and large. The stomach is supplied with
nerves
the aid of a lens
but
it
it
is
deceptive, as from both the cerebro spinal and sympathetic
has been already remarked by Sprott Boyd, or ganlionic system.
The pneumogastric
who
margins or par vagna nerves, arising from the meof the arolae which stud the surface. This duUa oblongata, are the main conductors portion of the gastric mucus membrane is of nervous influence to and from that viscorrectly refers
to the raised
THE HORSE.
cus.
103
Their arrangement
is
simple, as, after
SMALL INTESTINE.
the large intestine. In it inferior the chymified mass is subjected to the modione. The former is principally destined for fying influence of important secretions, the fundus, whilst the latter supplies the whereby its nutritive parts are fitted for pyloric end, and sends branches off to the absorption by the vessels, which, for this purduodenum, with one or two to the solar pose, are arranged in this portion of the in-
they have formed various plexuses within This, the smallest although longest, is the thorax, in which they mutually inter- also the first portion of the intestinal tube, change fibres, they reach the diapluagm, extending from the pylorus to its sudden and here are arranged as two nervous termination into
/. e.,
branches,
a superior and an
plexus.
testinal track.
fibres,
The small intestine has been divided into stomach, are derived from the solar plexus, three parts: this classification is, however, descending on to the viscus, in company purely conventional. Since it does not
with the
vessels.
The sympathetic
destined for the
recognize anatomical differences for its basis,

it
might justly be presumed that
of human anatomists exhibited applied to that portion of traces of imperfection, even when applied the alimentary canal extending between the to the frame of man. Such being the case, pylorus and anus, destined for the temporary it is no matter of surprise that, in referring retention of the chymous mass, so that the distinction to the intestinal canal of its nutrient parts may be absorbed, whilst animals, the incongruities of the system
tinction
INTESTINE.
this dis-
This term
is
its
more
solid, indigestible constituents, are
coUeeted for excretion.
The
intestine in all monogastria, but es-
still more apparent. Extending from the pylorus, the tion is termed the duodenum, from
should be
first
por-
pecially in soUpeda, occupies
by
far
the considered as
twelve fingers'
being breadth in
its
of gut, takes the name of especially to the spine, constituting mesenjejunum, and the thii-d,'or csecal portion, is ters, which I shall especially allude to when distinctively designated ileum.
describing with
length it is, however, extended round to bonds of attachment to the various parts of the left side of the spine, posteriorly to the the latter are contracted by the intestine, anterior mesenteric artery. The middle, or through its peritoneal investment, more floating portion
:
greatest part of the abdominal cavity.
The
more
detail each portion of
this capacious tube.
The duodenum forms a wide curve from the pylorus round to the right, being situated
Not only the attachments, but also the under the concave surface of the liver, passshape of the intestine, vary at different parts ing above the transverse colon, so as to of its course, so that it has been deemed attain the posterior part of the mesentery, necessary to divide it, either arbitrarily or at and, reaching the left side of the spine, natural demarcations. Thus we speak of comes in contact with the colon, where
it is
the small and large intestine, the two being said to end in the jejunum. The duodenum separated naturally by a marked change in is fixed by the gastro-hepatic omentum to direction, size, and confirmation. the concave surface of the liver, the layers It is also obvious that, as the situation, atof which enclose the biliary and pancreatic tachment, and shape of each portion of the ducts, whereby this bond of union is still intestinal canal differ, so must the relations further strengthened. The peritoneum combe equally distinct, and further mention of ing from the right and spigelian lobes of the
them
will therefore
be reserved for fuUer
exposition elsewhere.
as well as from the right kidney, forms a loose attachment for the duodenum by
liver,
104
ANATOMT Am) PHYSIOLOGY OP

it
extending on to the hepatic flexure of the colon, where

colon, after
gut.
it
is
connected with the
left
The
has surrounded the first-named kidney. Alluding next to the general anatomical next portion of intestine is at-
tached to the spine transversely to the long facts as applied to the jejunum, so called axis of the body winding round the mes- on account of its usual vacuity after death,
;
entery to the
left
of the aorta,
it
gets at- the limit between
it
and the ileum
is
de-
tached to the gastric flexure of the colon, fined by imagining the small intestine, with and here it proceeds, under the name of the exception of the duodenum, divided
jejunum, along the

mesentery.
free
borders of
the into five equal portions, of which the
first
two take the name of jejunum, whilst the As to the shape of the duodenum, from last tliree-fifths receive that of Ueum. The jejunum is suspended superiorly the pylorus to the right of the porta, we find its dimensions so very great as to have from the spine by an extensive fold of pertween
suggested to the ancients the similitude be- itoneum, termed mesentery, wliich serves it and the stomach, of which they also as a medium for the passage of the
regarded
as testified
in some degree as an analogue, mesenteric arteries, veins and nerves, as well by the appellation " Ventriculus as for chyliferous vessels, to take their Succenturiatus," given to it by them. Fur- course towards the receptaculum chylo, sitit
ther from the pylorus,
we
find
it
constricts uated to the left of the aorta.
and assumes a certain

maintains
till
caliber,
which
it
The
^vidth of the
it
jejunum
is far
from
being more constricted at some points than at others: its narrowest jejunum. With reference to the relations of the part is that which is contiguous to the duodenum, it may be stated that they ad- ileum. The ileum is the terminating portion of mit of detail on account of the fixedness of that portion of the gut, an attribute with the small intestine, so called from the torit
loses its
name
for that of
being uniform,
which
to the
it
is
endowed
in contradistinction tuous course
it
takes,
emptying
itself into
jejunum and ileum.

of
to
In the
first
the large intestine at the junction of the
portion
lorus
its course, i. e., from the py- cfficum and colon, the posterior part of the right with a valve.
by an
orifice
provided
is
lobe
of
the
liver, is
the
duodenum by
its
The
first
portion of the ileum
simply
;
upper surface
in contact with the con- attached
by mesentery to the spine

this, in
is
but,
its
cave surface of the latter organ, crossing in addition to the vena portse, near which it is pierced by course, the gut
enter
at about five or six inches from the
the last part of
connected with the cseum

is
the billiary and pancreatic ducts, which by a fold of peritoneum, which

it
not large
enough to prevent them deviating more pylorus, forming an acute angle \vith each than an acute angle from each other. The ileum is, on the whole, the narrowother. The inferior surface of the duodenum rests on the transverse colon, and est portion of the small intestine, but the its superior margin is in close contact with thickest in its coats. Having now especially to describe the the anterior part of the head of the pancreas. structru-e of the small intestine, it may be Round to the right, the duodenum is in taken as a whole, merely alluding to local contact with the hepatic flexure of the peculiarities. colon, right and Spigalian lobes of the liver, This portion of the alimentary canal has To reach the four coats, to be described in the same as well as the right kidney. spine it has to cross the direction of the order by those of the stomach, i. e. periright flexure of the colon, getting behind toneal, muscular, cellular, and internal the mesentery and gastric flexure of the mucus.
THE HOHSE.
105
The
first,
or the peritoneal, has nothing

its
We
glands
peculiar,
beyond
all
enclosing a
little trian-
glandulos
have next to treat of the solitary

solitaris
peculiar and
along the upper attached rather scanty bodies, visible at various parts The looseness of the of the small intestine. These are vesicuborder of the gut. peritoneal folds attaching the small intes- lar, and without any opening when in the
gular space
tine is very
marked; and Colin (Soc.
cit.)
perfect
state,
surrounded by villous profollicles.
notes, that the mesentery is proportionately cesses
and Lieberkuehnian
villi
Some
larger in
young than
in adult quadrupeds, of the
also project
from the surface of
so that the gradual shortening of this ex- the

plains the spontaneous reduction of
so-called glands, which are most apexom- parent when distended with secretion.
About the second half of the jejunum, mostly and along the whole of the ileum, we see developed at the commencement of the longitudinal patches, varying from half an duodenum and terminating portion of the inch to even three inches in length, scatphalus or umbilical hernia.
The
second, or muscular coat,
is
ileum.
fibres,
It
consists
of
white involuntary tered
all over,
but more especially situated
arranged so as to form an outer near the superior or attached border of the longitudinal layer, and an inner circular one, small intestine, which is contrary to the both of which completely encircle the gut. faulty description of some recent authors.
The
two
third, or cellular
coat, is similar to
These
patches, distinguished
as
Peyer's
that of the stomach, in being disposed in glands or patches, also as

layers, so as to
Gladdulae agminatas seu aggregate concondensed on the sist of an accumulation of small bodies, each inner surface of the muscular coat, so as to resembling a glandula solitaria in miniature, take the appearance of a fibrous tunic, at- being also destitute of a natural aperture.
together.
It is especially
connect the three coats
Agminated glands
tached to the mucus lining by loose

lular tissue.
'
cel-
Colin (loo. cit.) states that they are first seen at a distance of about six feet and a
half from the pylorus,
The
liarly
fourth, or
mucus, coat
is
thin, havvilli,
ing a velvet appearance, due to
pecu- ber of
and the least numthem he has ever counted has been

of the small in-
small in the intestines of the horse, 102, whilst the utmost has been 158.
but remarkably developed in other animals,

especially carnivora
The mucus membrane

testine
is
and
fishes.
The
villi
may be seen by a pocket lens, on a well- parts, washed piece of intestinal mucus mem- near the pylorus, whilst in other parts they brane, and between them are seen numerare mostly longitudinal these are all temous foramina, which are the openings of porary folds. There is no such arrangetubular glands, known as the crypts of Lie- ment as the valulse conniventes in the small
;
thrown into folds, at different which are transverse, and scalloped
berkuehn.
intestines of the horse, though recent wriIn addition to the tubular glands, by dis- ters of great eminence have described them. secting, from without, the muscular firom About five inches from the pylorus, at
the
mucus
coat, lining the
commencement
the superior border of the

fold,
duodenum,
if
is
a
it
of the duodenum,
salivary
we
find clusters of vesi- semicircular
which,
elevated,
ad-
cles, similar to the vesicular structure
of the mits of the finger being tluust behind
and
pancreatic
glands.
These into the wide

fold,
biliary duct.
The opening
beneath
form distinct
layers, provided
with ducts, of the pancreatic duct

but
it
is also visible
which open on the free surface of the mem- this brane and Dr. Todd states that Brunner's one
;
is
not so capacious as the
last
mentioned.
glands, are
or,
as he calls them, the duodenal,

in the horse than in
more developed
any
LARGE INTESTINE.
other animal he has hitherto examined them

in.
The
nating
large intestine constitutes the termi-
portion
of the
alimentary canal,
106
ANATOMY AND PHTSIOLOGY OP

soli-
being remarkably more developed in
diminished again in
size,
and constituting
pedes than in any other of our domestic the single colon, till we get to the posterior quadrupeds. It occupies the greater part mesentery artery, where, unaltered in other
of the abdomen, and most of
whilst
its
it is
loose, respects, it takes

pelvis,
a straight
coru"se
through
shape and other peculiarities vary the
out at the anus, and hence the
considerably at different points.

It is
called from having only one outlet, being closed at its anterior part, each being defined by special anatomical or caecum caput coli, from its being the blind head of the colon, is vulgarly termed characters. The position of the large intestine being the water-bag, owing to the almost invari-
divided into three parts
colon,
and rectum
the
cEBCum,
name of Rectum. The CEBum, so
precise extent of
necessary, for sake of pre- able fluidity of its contents. It is situated, as I have before said, obspeak of the whole as to the course it takes in forming the three divis- liquely along the floor of the abdomen, exions, extending thus between the small tending backwards from left to right. It is attached to the spine by a mesointestine and anus.
constant,
it is
cision, to
or blind pouch, is the first CBBum, which is a fold of peritoneum, comwhich protrudes in the middle on cut- ing off from the spine on to the superior There is then the fold ting through the abdominal walls at the part of the pouch. linea alba. Its bend or blind extremity is already alluded to, which stretches from the projecting into the left hypochondiiac ileum on to the caecum, and, through the region its body crosses obliquely the floor medium of the mesentery, indirectly conof the abdomen, to reach the right iliac necting the latter with the spine. The caecum is cone-shaped, having an region, where it suddenly bends at an acute The former geneangle, being rather constricted, and forms apex and a broad base. gut,
;
The caecum,
the colon. the
At
this part the latter receives rally protrudes the first,
the ileum, and extends
up the
right side of
longitudinal
incision
is
when a medium made into the
it abdominal walls, although it is situated on above the left portion of the double colon, the ensiforra cartilage turning round the left whilst the liver is directly in contact with side, it attains the left iliac fossa posteriorly, the floor of the abdomen. Like the other where it forms a twist lilie a letter S, from divisions of the large intestine, the caecum which similitude it has been termed the Sig- is sacculated. The bands producing this
abdomen
to the diaphragm,
where
ti-averses the direction of the spine, resting

;
moid Flexure of same

side of the
the
Colon.
having diminished in
size, retiu-ns
The gut, appearance are three in number at the up the apex but between two and three inches
;
abdomen to
the diaphragm, from this, one of
them
bifurcates, so that
where it again crosses the spine. Being four bands result, which are continuous on now on the right side, it continues back to the colon. to a point beyond the anterior mesenteric The colon arising from the csecum, reariery, where it turns upward and for- ceives at first the contents of the ileum, ward, so as to come in front of the artery being situated along and occupying the in question then, from right to left, so as greater part of the floor of the abdomen.
;
to cross the spine for the third time, consti-
The
colon
is
generally distinguished as
tuting the fransverse colon, which
is
it.
more double and
single.
By
double,
its
capacious than the part preceding
The
the flexures of the gxit from

;
two curves which it forms, one on the right ment to its gastiic curve and the other on the left, are respectively single colon, is understood the continuation called the hepatic and gastric flexures of of the same intestine to the part where the the colon. The gut so proceeds backward rectum commences. along the left side of the mesentery, being The double colon is attached by the peri-
is meant commencewhilst by the
THE H0R3E.
it from the cascum, in the right iliac fossa, and continues from the outer flexm-e on to the inner, so as to Iceep the two in perfect apposition. Thus, if the abdominal parietes are cut through, the whole of the double colon may hang
107
toneura coming off on to
anteriorly to the posterior mesenteric artery,
and ends at the anus, where
its
mucus
its
membrane
is
continuous with the

It is
common
;
tegumentary covering.
anterior two-thirds
attached in
posterior third is
by a meso-rectum the an exception to any other
with the exception of the transverse part of the intestinal track, in so far as it The latter is attached to the right is connected to adjacent parts by special portion. kidney, as well as concave surface of the faschite, and at its termination by certain liver, by folds of peritoneum to the spine muscles hereafter to be dwelt upon.
out,
;
by the transverse meso-colon and still more to the left, it is loosely attached by
;
The
size of the
rectum
is
much
the
same
puckered in its the gastrocolic omentum to the stomach anterior part by two longitudinal bands and spleen; besides which it has a peri- and the sacculi, resulting therefrom, detertoneal attachment to the left kidney. Then mine the shape of the faecal matters.
It is
as the single colon.
the single colon commencing,

affixed to the spine
it is
loosely
The rectum
is
superiorly related to the
by an extensive
:
peri- spine, whilst inferiorly it
comes in contact
toneal fold, the meso-colon, similar to the with the bladder, bulbous portions of the mesentery, but smaller and to its left this vasa deferentia, vesiculae seminales, and
fold is continuous posteriorly
with the meso- prostate.
rectum.
The
structure of the large intestine does
from that of the small, important, no less than interesting, inas- as it possesses the four coats, i. e. peritoneal, much as it is in close connection with the muscular, cellular, and internal mucus.
The
relations of the transverse colon are not vary essentially
most important abdominal

right, its
upper surface
is
viscera. On the The peritoneal tunic forms an entire covcontiguous to the ering to the large intestine, with the excep-
and tion of the superior surface of the transwhich is in contact with the its superior surface is connected princi- pancreas and the terminating portion of pally with the pancreas; and to the left, the rectum. The bands by which it unites but stiU superiorly, it approaches the left the intestine to other parts have been akeady kidney and spleen. Anteriorly, the stomach described. In addition to the peritoneum also touches it, especially during repletion. formijig an entire covering to the gut, at The shape of the colon is very variable the attached margin of the flexures of the
right kidney, as well as to the right
Spigelian lobes of the
liver.
In the middle, verse colon
in different parts of its course.

first
Thus, the colon
it
constitutes
folds loaded
with
fat,
portion of the double colon, from the varying in width in difierent parts,
and
clus-
till it forms the signoid tered so as to have deserved the name of capacious and sacculated; the appendices epiploicse. latter being due to the four bands conThe muscular coat of the large intestine tinuous on to it from the caecum. At the is differently developed in various parts.
right iliac fossa

flexure,
is
lost,
signoid flexure the bands are completely Its fibres are of the plain variety, and arso that the gut is smooth but, as we ranged in two orders. The outer longitud;
extend up towards the diapliragm, the an- inal set is scanty in some parts, but in others terior band begins, and then the posterior forms the longitudinal bands above alluded
one becomes apparent; so that the .trans- to. These are shorter than the actual length verse and single portions of the colon of the gut itself, so as effectually to pucker are puckered by two longitudinal bands. it. The number of longitudinal bands The Rectum, so called from its compar- vai'ies from one to four in various parts of
ative straight
cavity, arises
course through the pelvic the gut, and the shape and breadth of the from the single colon, a little latter is not everywhere the same. The
108
ANATOMY AND PHTSIOLOGT OF
longitudinal fibres are abundant in the rec- proved
by the fact, that it is competent in tum, but they only form bands in the ante- the dead body. rior two-thirds, as posteriorly to this they The anus is the outlet of the intestine, uniformly surround the gut. The inner which is perfectly closed, except during the layer of fibres encircles the whole of the evacuation of fecident matters, and is made gut, being thickest tow-ards the apex of the perceptible externally by the elevation of the Cfficum, as well as in the single colon and tail, being situated in a space bounded surectum at the end of the latter the inter- periorly by the sacrum and coccyx, laterally nal sphincter-ani is formed by an accumu- by the ischial tuberosities, and interiorly by
;
lation of the circular fibres.

fibres of the colon are
The
circular the urethra in the
male and vulva
in the
engaged in forming female.

It
is
the ileo-colic valve, hereafter to be described.
lined within
The
cellular coat of the large intestine
brane of the rectum, which

is
by the mucus memis loose and of

Its external
resembles that of the smaU, only not so a marked red color.
covering
hairs.
abundant, except at the terminating portion

of the rectum, where
veloped.
it is
of
common integument, destitute of
much more
de-
The mucus
is
lining of the large intestine
Lying between the skin and mucus membrane are two circular muscles, whose office is to keep the anus closed and prevent con-
continuous anteriorly with that of the stant evacuation of fceces, whilst there are ileum, posteriorly with the common integu- other muscular appendages situated exterIt is thin, more or less coated with nally to these, destined either to elevate or mucus, scantier in glands than the one of retract the anus, being evidently antagonis-
ment.
but the orifices of the tic to the sphincters. Lieberkuehnian crypts are more apparent, The internal sphincter-ani is in contact owing to the surface here being destitute of with the attached sm-face of the intestinal villi. Saccular recesses, more or less capa- mucus membrane, and separated from the
the small intestine
;
cious,
exist
in the
large intestine.
membrane The difference
lining the integument
by the external one.

its free
It is
con-
in degree stituted of the pale circular fibres of the gut,
of vascularity gives rise to difference in the but towards

color of the
edge certain colored

it.
mucus coat
in various portions fibres are apparent
on
caecum is The external sphincter is situated outside generally more deeply colored than that of the internal one, and within the anal integuthe colon, whilst the rectal mucus mem- ment: it is circular, and composed of red brane is more vascular, and hence redder fibres, attached superiorly under the first than the colic or caecal one. coccygeal bone, and interiorly its fibres At the termination of the ileum is the blend in the male subject in the accelerator ileo-colic or ileo-CEecal valve, w-hich is con- urinffi and triangularis penis, and in the stituted of two folds of mucus membrane, female with the constrictor vaginse. almost parallel to each other, and horizontal, The levatores-ani are two pale muscles, leaving between them an eliptical orifice attached on each side of the first coccygeal when partially drawn asunder. The folds bones, and, spreading downward and forconsist of the circular fibres of the intes- ward on to the rectum, form an attachment tine, lined on the iimer or ileac side by the for the internal spliincter, and blending with villous membrane of the small, wlulst on the longitudinal fibres, so as to increase the the csBcal and colic side they are covered by thickness of the muscular coat of the recthe mucus membrane proper to the large tum. The action of these muscles must intestine. It is worthy of notice, that be that of elevating the anus, and shortenthough muscular fibres partly enter into the ing the rectum from before backward. construction of the valve, its efficiency is The retractors proper to the anus are one
of the gut
:
thus, that lining the
explicable on purely mechanical grounds, as
on each side attached
to the inner surface of
THE HORSE.
the articular extremity of the ischium.
109
flexure,
is
Ex- Thus we see the
formed by the
inferior
tending from before bacl^ward, and rather CEecum and colon,
supplied by collateral
upward,
spliincter.
they
blend
witli
is
the
external branches,
from the superior and
obviously that caecal mesenteric divisions, both these anastomosing on the corresponding surfaces with of reti'acting the anal opening.
the colic arterial trunks.
Their action
VESSELS, NERVES, AND LYMPHATICS OF THE
The two branches going
to the colon ex-
downwards and forwards and to the left, the one arterial blood from the anterior and poste- gaining the caecal end of the colon, whilst rior mesenteric arteries, hepatic branch of the other proceeds on to the hepatic flexure. the coeliac axis, with branches from the in- Then these may be traced, the one backternal pudic. The arteries of the small inward and the other forward, relatively to testine are derived from the anterior mesen- the course of the gut, along its superior teric, whose divisions, varying from twenty- border, so as to reach the sigmoid flexiure, four to twenty-eight, proceed to the small where they mutually inosculate. From the intestine, with the exception of four, which mesenteric division going to the transverse miuister to the nutrition and functions of colon, is a branch proceeding on to the the large intestine. The branches extend- single portion, which anastomoses posteing from the main trunk, at acute angles, riorly with the posterior mesenteric. Tills proceed between the layers of the mesen- vessel divides first into two branches, i. e. tery, to \\'ithin one and a halt" or two inches an interior colic and a posterior rectal one. from the gut, where they anastomose, form- The anterior colic branch is dkected foring vascular arches, from which the second- ward and downward between the layers ary branches arise, and, proceeding on to the of the meso-colon, and divides into four or intestine, ramify on the several coats, espe- five branches, which bifurcate and form
tend, about parallel to each other,
INTESTINE.
The
intestinal canal, as a whole, receives
cially the
mucus one.
The anterior division
arches, like the arteries of the small intes-
of the anterior mesenteric artery, proceeding tine, for the supply of the contiguous gut.
to the
duodenum, anastomoses with the duo- The
arteries of the
rectum are sometimes
denal branch of the hepatic artery.

last iliac division inosculates
The spoken
terior.
of as hsemorrhoidals,
and these
are
with the cscal distinguished as anterior, middle, and pos-
and
cplic
branches of the same trunk.

receive
arterial
The
anterior
liEEmorrhoidals
are
The caecum and colon
formed by the liindermost branch of the
blood solely from the branches derived from posterior mesenteric artery, which, passing
the anterior mesenteric, with a slight contri- into the folds of the meso-rectum, supplies
bution from the posterior mesenteric
arteries.
consecutive branches to the gut,
till,
poste-
The branches
colon.
of the former originate oppo- riorly to the peritoneum, where the arteries
cEecum and pierce the muscular coat, and, forming a in num- network of vessels, anastomose with the ber, proceed downward and forward till middle haemorrhoidals, which are the ramifithey reach the gut. The posterior one cations of the internal pudic* These inospasses round the posterior part of the bor- culate with the posterior heemorrhoidals der of the cfEcum, to get on the under sur- derived from the same source. The anus face of the latter, extending to the apex, in is then supplied with blood from the last somewhat a sti-aight course, and ramifying named branches, as well as from perineal collaterally at its termination it forms a twigs of the external pudic. vascular network, by anastomosis with the The veins of the intestine accompany the
site the flexure
made by
"the
The
csecal clivisions,
two
superior csecal artery.
The
latter one, reach-
ing the gut, extends directly forward towards

the apex,
and comports itself
like the former.
of
* This artery sometimes, erroneously, goes by the name its lerminatiug branch the artery of the bulb.
XII.
MUSCULAK STRUCTURE.
FORWAKD
.
PARTS.
THE HORSE.
Ill
but bonds of connection between it and the spleen, but also supplies the stomach, other parts, such as the gastro-splenic omen- largely inosculating with the gastric artery, tum, and the attachment to the Iddney and so that the two might mutually perform This each other's office, if the main trunk of transverse colon heretofore described.
coat is smooth externally, rather closely either were obstructed. The splenic vein is similarly distributed attached to the fibrous coat internally, but of considerable elasticity, so as to allow the to the artery, and it empties its blood into
spleen sufficient freedom for distention.
the vena portee, just anteriorly to the posterior
The second
or fibrous coat, also
termed
mesenteric vein.
of the spleen are derived from
the albugineous or elastic coat, is that closely

It consists of
The nerves
applied to the parenchyma of the organ. the solar plexus, and with the splenic artery
yellow and white
fibres,
and enter the
spleen.
in
some
parts,
such as in the trabeculse,
The lymphatics
rather to
of the spleen are said
by
Koelliker has found plain muscular fibres, Koelliker to be scanty; but Dr. Sharpey
which he says do not
exist in the external tends
the belief that they are

are arranged superficially
portion of the fibrous tunic in the horse. abundant.
They
The
covering not only envelopes the outer and deep, both sets
anastomising freely
surface of the organ, but sends sheaths
and with each
other, and, reaching the hilum,
processes into
are
The sheaths they enter various scattered lymphatic its substance. purposed for covering vessels, whilst glands in the peritoneal folds, and then
the processes, termed also trabeculas, divide empty into the receptaculum chyli.
the substance of the spleen into areolae or
LIVER. which contain a red matter, washed and pressed out, known as The liver is the largest gland in the body, The trabeculae also arise and proportionately largest during certain the splenic pulp.
interspaces,
easily
as processes from the vascular sheaths, as periods of foetal
life.
It is
of a dark reddish
for the office of
well as from the external tunic.
When
the
brown
color,
and destined
pulp has been thoroughly washed, the outer biliary secretion. coat, with the trabeculas and sheaths, have It is situated across the long axis of the
the appearance of a framework or skeleton. body, in the right hypochondriac, epigastiic,
and partly in the left hypochondriac regions. and blood vessels It is attached to various parts by five and if the organ be cut clean in any direc- ligaments, four of which are peritoneal tion, we see, besides the cut ends of vessels folds, and one is the remnant cord resulting and trabeculEB, certain pearlish looking from the obliteration of the unbilical vein bodies, named, from their discoverer, Malpig- within the abdomen. These attachments hian Corpuscles. If divided, fluid escapes will be more fully described with the perifrom the cavity which exists in their in- toneal tunic.
being composed of
cells
The
splenic pulp has a medullary aspect,
The external aspect of the liver is smooth, an being convex superiorly and concave inferiorinch in diameter and, with a pocket glass, ly, broad posteriorly, and sharp anteriorly. "they may be seen attached to the small ar- It has a granular appearance, and a very terial trunks, if the pulp has been previously superficial inspection clearly shoAvs that it is carefully washed. composed of lobules, about the size of a
terior.
They
are perfectly visible to the

one-thirtieth of
naked eye, being about

;
The
spleen derives
its
arterial
is
blood pin's head.
main The hepatic substance is irregularly Winding be- divided into numerous segments by fissures, tween the folds of the gastro-splenic omen- which either extend through the gland from tum, it not only sends numerous branches side to side, or are mere grooves of more through the hUum, and on to the surface of or less depth. The different segments of
through the splenic artery, which
division of the coeliac axis.
the
112
the gland or lobes are three principal ones portion of the diaphragm.
The
right as
right,
middle, and
left
to
which smaller well as the Spigelian
lobes, are in relation
ones are appended.
posteriorly with the right kidney
The
right lobe is the largest of the three, supra-renal capsule, interiorly
and right with the head
situated in the right hypochondrium, being of the pancreas,

thickest
posteriorly
duodenum, and transverse

lobe
is
and sharp
anteriorly.
colon>
The middle
related interiorly
The
is
supero-posterior part of the right lobe to the pancreas, but partially separated from
for the adaptait
marked by a depression,
tion of the anterior part of the right kidney.
by the vena porta. It also suspends the duodenum, and its left edge is loose and in
At the
superior part of the right lobe is an close proximity to the flexures of the colon.
excavation for the vena cava, which extends
The
left
lobe
is
related posteriorly to the
from behind forward, and marks off the oesophagus, and inferiorly to the left end of The pancreas also stretches division between the right and middle lobe. the stomach. The vena cava is here more or less imbed- across its posterior part, partially separating
ded in the substance of the right

generally speaking,
horse,
it
lobe, but,
is
superficial in the
is
and only an imperfect channel

for
it.
formed
from the transverse colon. The liver receives an incomplete covering The latter, reflected from of peritoneum. the diaphragm on to the concave sm-face of
it
Projecting from the inferior surface and the middle lobe of the
posterior part of the right lobe, is the lobulus
spigelii,
liver,
forms a double
membranous
its
layer,
known, in accordance
which
is
of considerable
size,
being with
its
shape, as the falsiform ligament,
in its free and concave margin and left border, so that it projects the round ligament, the representative of a anteriorly and narrows its apex gradually fcetal structure, the umbilical vein. Furtapers, and has been capriciously designated, thermore, the liver is provided with a coroby the lovers of a quintuple hepatic arrange- nary ligament, that surrounds the foramen ment, lobulus caudatus. dextrum of the diaphragm, through which The middle lobe of the liver is the smal- the vena cava passes. The lateral ligaments it is crossed on its inferior are distinguished as right and left lest of the three they surface by the transverse fissure or porta of connect each lateral lobe to the diapliragm. the liver, at which the vessels and ducts The only connections of the liver that enter into and issue from the gland. The remain to be mentioned are the stomach, middle lobe in the horse is divided at its duodenum, transverse colon, and pancreas anterior part into five or six portions, and to its inferior sruface, and the right kid-
broad
posteriorly,
and
;
attached
by
and holding
superior
Mr. Percivall, in his

at page
scissatus.
Anatomy of the
it
Horse, ney to the posterior part of the right lobe.

Dissecting off the serous tunic,
it is
259, has termed
the lobulus
found
cel-
It is traversed antero-posteriorly
connected with the biliary surface by

lular tissue, continuous at the porta
by a channel for the remnant of the umbilical vein, which eventually joins the vena
porta.
with the
latter
so-called
capsule of Glisson.
The
extends into the liver as a
common
sheath
The left lobe is the thinnest of the three, to blood vessels, nerves, lymphatics, and but occupies an intermediate position in biliary ducts. length and breadth. It is very thin at its To proceed with further description of left margin, and gradually thickens pos- the liver would be useless, unless first exteriorly.
At
its
posterior
and
left side is
amining the blood vessels and ducts
in that
a depression, in which the CEsophagus
rests.
part of their course Avhich is external to the
Sometimes the
at
its
left
;
lobe
is
divided into two organ.

it is
The
hepatic artery
is
quite subor-
anterior part
at others
single.
is
dinate in size, considering the magnitude
The
and
superior surface of the liver
convex, of the organ and

It is
amount of
its
secretion.
in contact with the pillars
and expanded
a branch of the
coeliac axis, at first in
THE HORSE.
113
contact with the pancreas, and then be- section, and a common pocket lens, they tween the folds of the gastro-hepatic omen- may be ti'aced to the lobules, which they tum, and it reaches the porta on the left enter; and the blood of the hepatic artery After giving off and portal vein is emptied into a common side of the portal vein. pancreatic and duodenal branches, it di- set of vessels, the hepatic vein. The relaThe tion of these vessels in the lobules may be vides into two, a right and a left one. right, the largest and somewhat the longest, seen on the surface in a good injected specipenetrates into the right lobe, giving ofi" men of Uver, where the hepatic veins have collateral branches, first to the middle and been injected one color, and the other ves-
then to the right lobe

smallest division, and
itself.
is
it
The
left is
the sels differently.
By
this
means the
veins,
centre
distributed to the of the lobule.is colored with the injection
lobe corresponding to to the middle one.
in position,
and also thrown into the hepatic
and the
cir-
cumference with that of the portal vein.
The
sides
vein,
liver is exceptional for having, be-
an
artery, another afferent vessel
The
hepatic veins issuing from the lo-
bules cross the structm'e of the liver in sep-
known
as the portal vein, formed by arate grooves, formed
by
the coalescence of
is
the splenic, which also receives the gastric the hepatic particles, so that their base
in
and mesenteries, meeting each other at the contact with the veins, and hence the name same spot near the posterior part of the of the latter is that of the sub-lobular hepancreas. From its origin, the portal vein patic veins. These empty into the posterior takes an oblique course from left to right cava by several orifices, as well as by two through the pancreas, and being surrounded larger ones, guarded by semi-lunar valves, by nerves, it reaches the porta of the liver, situated just at the foramen dextrum of the and here divides into three principal diapluragm. branches, one for each lobe. In addition to the blood-vessels and ducts
At the porta we also see the biliary duct of the liver, it is supplied with nerves from coming out, formed by the union of several the solar plexus, which ramify with the vesbranches, corresponding in number to the sels.
ramification
of the
blood-vessels.
This
The lymphatics
perficial
of the liver are abundant,
duct
passes
through
the
gastro-hepatic and aiTanged, like in other organs, as a su-
omentum, meeting the pancreatic duct at almost a right angle, and with it opening
into the
and deep
set,
which inosculate
freely in the
substance of the organ, and,

passing through
to the
duodenum about
far
five or six inches
uniting to form several branches, they issue
from the pylorus.
from the porta of the

further the inter- fissure,
liver,
Having thus
vessels,
considered the main some lymphatic glands situated round the

liver.
we may examine
nal structure of the

associated together,
lular tissue,
the branches of the vessels
and from this they advance At the porta receptaculura chyli. and ducts are
PANCREAS.
and surrounded by celwhich sheaths grooves or canals,

These are the portal
The pancreas
is
compound
vesicular or
cut in various directions in the substance of

the organ.
racemose gland, being
much
of the
same
canals, nature as the salivary glands.
and the
cellular tissue in question is Glis-
The pancreas occupies
the interval be-
son's capsule.
tween the layers of the transverse mesoThe vessels and ducts ramifying on the colon, along the upper surface of the trans-
sheath acquire the
name
of vaginal branches, verse colon.

Its
and, as they are traced between the lobules,
attachments are merely
cellular,
with
they are termed interlobular.
Here the un- the exception of the pancreatic duct, which assisted eye ceases to take cognizance of attaches it pretty closely to the duodenum. their further relation but, with careful disThe pancreas is spoken of as having a
;
114
body, a head, and a
tail.
ANATOMY ANB PHYSIOLOGY OF
The body
of the minal portion of the alimentary canal,
and
pancreas
is
that part stretched across the its accessories, I proceed to the considera-
middle lobe, whUe the head is longitudinally tion of that portion of the genito-urinary extended, being almost parallel to the vena apparatus as contained within the abdomen, portEe, and situated below and to the right in the widest acceptation of the latter
riorly
By this I mean the kidneys, and is broad ante- term. nan'ow posteriorly, and with them, for anatomical convenience, I continuous from below upward, and from classify the siapra-renal capsules, then the right to left, then from behind forward, ureters, bladder, membranous portion of to gain attachment to the body, so as to the urethra, vasa deferentia, vesiculse semiform a ring for the passage of the vena nales, prostate and Cowper's glands, with portsB. The part to the left of this vein is which I shall conclude. termed the tail of the pancreas. The pancreas is related by its superior The kidneys are a pair of glands, whose surface to the right, left, and Spigelian They are lobes of the liver, also to the vena cava and function it is to secrete urine. aorta, which separate it from the phrenic distinguished as right and left, being both The posterior part of the head of situated in the lumbar region but, so far crura. the pancreas is in relation with the right as. concerns their topographical anatomy,
of that vessel.
The head
and
rather
supra-renal body.
is sti-etched
The
tail
of the pancreas notvvithstanding their similarity in position,
transversely to the branches of
they need separate notice.
The right kidney is more anteriorly situkidney by loose cellular tissue. The inated than the left, coming in contact with ferior surface is in contact with the trans- the posterior part of the right lobe of the
the cceiac axis, and attached to the left
verse colon.
examining carefvilly the sti'ucture of the gland, it is found to consist of clusters of cells, from which ducts arise, and these unite to form a main trunk, that is traceable back to the tail of the pancreas, increasing in size tUl
it
On
which it is attached. It is also abdominal parietes by peritoneum, and to the spine by blood-vessels.
liver,
to
fixed
to the
Its
shape
is
that of a bent ovoid, being
reaches the anterior

it
more symmetrical than the left. It has two surfaces and two borders. Though differing in these marked general
extremity of the head, where
pierces the characters, the Iddneys resemble each other
duodenum
the
together with the hepatic duct. in several equally obvious points of their
cells
Besides these clusters of
and
ducts, general
gland
contains
connecting
cellular peritoneal
Both kidneys have a anatomy. and an albugineous coat, both
tissue.
have an excretory duct, vessels and nerves,

is
The pancreas
supplied with arterial with a structure also equal in the two, con-
Exterblood by branches from the three divisions stituting the bulk of the organ. of the cceUc axis, as well as from the an- nally to the peritoneal tunic is a more or
terior mesenteric.
less
thick stratum of
fat,
The The
plexus,
pancreatic veins empty themselves abundant in old than in
which is more young animals,
into the splenic.
nerves are derived from the solar
when in a state of The peritoneal
obesity.
covering of the kidneys
and the lymphatics of the pancreas, is incomplete, especially that of the right on issuing from the glandular substance, one, whose inferior surface and convex may be traced to the common reservoir of border are the only parts coated by it. The left kidney is also covered on its superior chyle and lymph. surface to a considerable extent, sometimes GENITO URIXARY APPARATUS. more and sometimes less. The attachments
Having already described the intra-abdo- which each organ contracts through the
THE HORSE.
115
is
medium
of this serous investment have
al-
but convex from above do%\mward, and
pierced by foramina, into which the hning ready been described. The albugineous tunic is fibrous, and membrane of the pelvis extends, so as to On dissecting It forms a distinct cap- form the uriniferous tubes. partly sub-serous.
sule,
attached to the substance of the organ carefully
away
the
mucus membranes
of
which are in some the pelvis, we reach to the fibrous tunic, parts aiTanged in pits and depressions, so which is not continuous on the medullary as to mark out divisions on the surface of ridge, but merely attached to its sides, so
by
fibrous prolongations,
the kidney.
In addition to
this,
the albu- as to increase the length of the boundaries
gineous coat
of the organ.
surrounds
the vessels and of the cavity.
ureter at the hilus,
and
enters the substance
The
ureter arising from this dilatation
is
continuous outward toward the spine, and

related
superiorly,
On
cutting the kidney horizontally from then backward, being

it
;
the convex to the concave border, there are as

Firstly, a be taken into consideration. dark conteur, of about half an inch or more in thickness, being generally less at the extreme ends of the kidney than at its middle,
issues from the
liillus,
with the renal

posterior part
three different parts brought into view, to vein
and then crossing the
of the kidney at
its inferior siu-face, it
gets
between the peritoneum and psoas muscles, and is then traceable back to the bladder, into which it opens. The renal arteries, one for each kidney, which completely encircles the central part of the gland, and is termed the cortical arise at almost right angles fi-om the aorta, structure, fi'om its being most external. after the latter has given off the anterior This part of the kidney has somewhat a mesenteric. The right one is more antegranular aspect, and, when the vessels are riorly situated, and is longer than the left full of blood or injection, they appear more one. After each renal artery has given ofT or less arborescent, and clustered at innu- a branch or more to the supra-renal capmerable minute but visible spots, to form sule of the same side, it divides, on reachthe Malpighian tufts. Next to this is a ing the hilus, into a variable number of lighter colored material, rather ash-colored, branches, usually eight or ten, which pierce but having a reddish hue, termed the me- the Iddney at different parts of the hilus, This term is not given whilst a few branches proceed along the dullary substance. to it from the fact that it is medullary in surface, supplying the capsule, and then The arterial consistence, but used in the metaphorical also piercing the organ. sense of being internally or centrally situ- branches entering the kidney have a deated. finite arrangement, forming a kind of arch Approaching still nearer to the concave superiorly to the pelvis, from which secondborder of the kidney, is a funnel-shaped ary divisions emanate and pierce the organ cavity, with its apex towards the hilus, and in aU du'ections, so as to reach the cortical the base bounded by the medullary sub- substance, abruptly dividing into numerstance, which is the pelvis. The apex is ous branches, which eventually subdivide tubular, and continuous with the ureter, to form capillaries. By this it is evident of which the cavity is but an expansion. that the cortical substance is more vasThe walls of the cavity are lined by a cular than the medullary indeed the latter mucus membrane, which is loosely applied is very scantily supplied with arterial to the medullary substance, and thrown blood. into folds, taking a radiated direction from From the arterial terminations the venous the mouth of the ureter. Opposite the origins occur, and these unite to form apex of the pelvis, the membrane is adher- branches, having a similar arrangement as ent to a prominent border of the mediillary the arteries only as they reach the pelvis, substance, concave from before backward. almost opposite the apex, they meet to
;
116
form a wide, capacious trunk, the renal ous coat, which forms a distinct covering vein. This is supplied \vith valves, not all externally, and becomes continuous as of which are perfect. At the opening of sheaths to vessels internally. On cutting horizontally across a supraeach renal vein into the cava is a semirenal capsule, it is found to consist of an lunar flap, overlapping the posterior part. The nerves of Iddneys are numerous, outer cortical and an internal medullary The cortical substance is a and derived from the renal plexuses of the substance. sympathetic they accompany the vessels brownish yellow, due to fat contained in with which they penetrate their respective vesicles, which, according to Professor Heinrich Frey, are smaller toward the surface organs. Lymphatics may be seen issuing from than more internally. The medullary subthe hiUus of the kidney they enter some stance has a greyish aspect, and vessels are lymphatic glands there situate, and then apparent in it, as also a yellow tinge, due, convey the lymph into the receptaculum according to the above-named author, to
; ;
chyli.
similar vesicles, as in the cortical substance,
only
SUPRA RENAL CAPSULES.

renales, seu atrabilarias, are
ber,
much scantier in The arteries of the

as well
as
fat.
supra-renal capsules
These bodies, also called capsulse supra- are
offsets of the renals
and anterior mesen-
two
in
num-
teric,
of the aorta, but very
and belong to the class vascular variable in number and origin. They are, whose office is very indefinitely however, always abundant, and enter the organ principally at its concave border. known. The veins are larger than the arteries, and They are situated one on each side of the spine, across the direction of the renal pour their contents on the left into the renal Their attachments are effected by vein, and into the vena cava on the right. vessels. The nerves of the supra-renal capsules vessels, as well as by the peritoneum, on their inferior surface, connecting them to are very abundant, and derived from the Professor Frey states, that the corresponding kidney and around to the renal plexvis.
glands,
spine.
in the horse, gangloin corpuscles constitute
The shape
of the supra-renal bodies

either side,
ellipsis.
is
one of the structural elements of the nervous
much
of a
the
same on
bent
slightly
bemg They
that tissue in this situation.
vary
from three to four inches in length, and from one and a half to two inches in
breadth.
The
duits
ureters, one to each kidney, are conbetween the kidneys and the bladder,
Their concave border corresponds to the

renal vessels,
for the
passage of vuine.
Their cafiber
is
as well as to the
anterior various, being about one-third of an inch

is
mesenteric
Iddney.
right one
arteries.
The convex border

extremity of
broad, but getting narrower posteriorly.
in contact with the inner
margin of the
As
the ureters issue
from the Iddneys,

till
The
is
anterior
the they converge towards the spine; then pro-
in connection
its
mth
the right ceed suddenly backward,
they reach the
hepatic lobe, whilst

the colon.
inferior surface is
brim of the
diverged
of the
pierce.
;
in connection with the
commencement
and
of
is
having thus greatly here they converge again, passing

pelvis,
The
left
supra-renal capsule
downward and backward
to reach the sides
related anteriorly to the pancreas,

riorly to the transverse colon.
infe-
body of the bladder, which they
The
surface.
peritoneal coat of the supra-renal

is
In their course, the ureters are attached to
capsules
merely confined to their inferior the Iddney and psoas parvus by loose celluThe proper substance of the lar tissue, and by the peritoneum, which
organ
is
enclosed in a fibrous or albugine- suspends them, by being stretched across
THE HORSE.
their inferior surface.
117
arteries,
After the ureters have bilical

iliac vessels,
and the remains of the

precise limits,
crossed the spermatic and
they urachus.
The body has no

portions
is
are received witliin a fold of peritoneum, but
may
be considered as that portion on

of the vasaIt
constituting
bladder.
the
false
ligaments of
the which
the bulbous
deferentia rest.
pierce the muscular coat of the bladder be
circular,
it
They
much
distended,
but if the bends some-
bladder at a distance of about three inches what backward and upward.
The
cervix
from each other, if the viscus be distended. vesicae is the most consti-icted part of the They pass between the muscular and mucus organ, and marks the limit between the coats for about an inch, being somewhat bladder and urethra. The bladder is related by its fundus to diminished in caliber, when they suddenly
open into the cavity by an

so that
if
elliptical orifice,
the iliac flexures of the colon, interiorly to
the bladder be distended, the sides the pudic
and
ischial bones, superiorly to
of the orifice are stretched, and thus closed. the ureters, vasa deferentia, vesiculse semi-
The
lar
ureters are externally covered
by a
nales,
and middle part of the rectum.

three coats.
is
ceUulo-muscular coat, consistmg of a cellutissue,
The bladder has

toneal investment
as
it
The
peri-
with muscular
fibres arranged,
merely a partial one,

It
partly longitudinally
and partly
circularly,
is
reflected
from the body on to the

covers the superior
the latter being most internally situated. sides of the pelvis.
by mucus sm-face almost completely, but its extent membrane, continuous anteriorly with the gradually declines laterally and inferiorly. renal pelvis, and posteriorly with the vesical The attachments contracted by the peritolining. neum are termed false ones. Thus we The membrane is loosely attached to the have the two umbilical arteries, one on each outer coat, and thrown into longitudinal side, enclosed by peritoneum, forming the
The
ureters are internaUy lined
eflaceable folds.
two
BLADDER.
lateral false Tigaments.
Then
the ves-
tige of the
urachus
is
similarly enveloped
The bladder
is
dilatable
musculo-mem-
by peritoneum, and constitutes the anterior The peritoneum coming false ligament.
branous viscus, destined

retention of urine.
for the
It is
temporary oft" from the rectum on to the superior sursituated during face of the bladder, gives rise to a pouch,
vacuity entirely within the pelvis, but

distended, even moderately,
its
when termed
sac,
the recto-vesical pouch, or cul-delaterally to
fundus en-
and
the triangular folds

as the
croaches on the proper abdominal space.
limiting the latter,

false ligaments.
known
superior
re-
The bladder
is
held in situation by the

off fi-om the
Behind the peritoneal
peritoneum coming
sides of the pelvis,
rectum and flection the bladder is attached to the recso as to form a serous tum and pelvic parietes, by a continuation
Besides
fold, whicli also encloses the
and
vesiculaj seminales.
is
vasa deferentia of the pelvic fascia, which, leaving the this, the inferior surface of the pelvis at the symphisis
bladder
supplied wîth true ligaments, as
pubis,
comes on
to the bladder,
forming
;
well as bounded posteriorly through the in- the inferior true ligaments of the latter the tervention of the urethra. fascia is then continuous on to the rectum,
The shape
empty
It
of the bladder
is
pyriform, blending wdth the cellular coat.
The
pelvic
approaching, however, to a sphere

or partially distended.
when
fascia is also traced
on to the prostate and sides of the bladder, from the posterior part
presents for consideration a projecting of the obturator foramen, constituting the anterior portion or fundus, a middle part, or lateral true ligaments.
body, and a posterior one, or neck.
The
Beneath
is
this fibro-serous coat are
muscu-
fundus
at
its
is
globular and regular, having fixed lar fibres, arranged in a peculiar manner.
anterior part the
two
obliterated
um- There
an outer longitudinal
set,
traceable
118
from the cervix forward toward the body, communicating anteriorly with the receptawhere the fibres diverge and become oblique, culum chyli. and some even circular this layer is prin URETHRA. cipaUy developed posteriorly. The inner or This canal in the male subject is not only circular layer is not arranged in concentric rings but its fibres, beginning at the fund- purposed for the passage of urine, but also us, appear to arise from various centres on transmits the products of the generative orIt extends from the posterior part of the surface, and to be taldng a direction gans. more or less curved in different parts, so as the bladder to the glans penis but we shall to get transversely to the long axis of the only occupy ourselves with a description of viscus, and thus from the inner side have a the intra-abdominal or pelvic portion, which circular appearance. These fibres are more terminates at the bulb of the penis or ischial
;
decidedly cu-cular at the neck, and act some- arch.

It is continuous anteriorly with the bladSome of the deeper neck of the bladder extend for- der, attached to the rectum and sides of the ward to each orifice of the ureter, marking pelvis by fascia and loose cellular tissue the limit of the vesical trigon, whose office and muscles.
lilve
what
a sphincter.
fibres at the
must be that of approaching

elliptical apertitrcs.
the Ups of the
The
length,
urethra
is cylindrical,
of considerable
thickness.
is
and
its
coats of no
mean
The mucus
ally
coat of the bladder
is
gener-
The
ally
pelvic portion of the urethra
gener-
about three or four inches long, taking epithelium, which guard the structure from a direction backward and somewhat upthe corroding effects of the secretion it has to ward. come in contact with. It is thrown into It is related superiorly to the vesiculae numerous folds, taking various directions, seminales, middle lobe of the prostate, and but principally concenti-ical toward the posteriorly it comes in contact with the recor less coated with
more
mucus and
fundus, and longitudinal at the cervix, aU tum, but separated from of which are eifaceable by distention of the Cowper's glands.
bladder,
it
laterally
by
and
are
most prominent when the
The
cellular
first
or prostatic portion of the ure-
latter is collapsed.
At the upper
part of thra is purely
the urethral orifice of the bladder the

lining is
mucus
tissue
membranous, strengthened by and a continuation of the
smooth and free from folds, mark- fibres of the bladder, the circular ones in ing out a triangidar space, bounded ante- particular, which are abundant anteriorly. riorly by a line drawn between the orifices The posterior two-thirds of the pelvic porof the ureters, and laterally by two lines tion of the m-ethra are covered by a thick meeting at a spot at the superior part of red muscular layer, which completely encirthe vesical orifice. This is termed the cles it, with the exception of that part vesical trigon. At its apex is a projecting coming in contact with Cowper's glands. fold of mucus membrane or uvula vesicEe, This muscle is continuous behind with the which seems to moderate the flow of urine muscular fibres of the penis, which constiinto the uretlu-a. tute the accelerator m-inae. These fibres The bladder is supplied with blood from are externally mixed with longitudinal ones, the internal pudic, and its veins empty into a portion of which are merely the inner or
the internal pudic vein.
inferior bundles of the retractor ani, whilst nerves of the bladder are derived others are derived from the triangularis from the sympathetic, and partly from the penis both of these muscles tend to fix the
The
which supply the neck. urethra. Postero-superiorly the fibres enThe lymphatics go to glands surrounding circling the urethra are blended with the the origin of the iliac arteries, termed pelvic external anal sphincter. The retractor penis, lymphatic glands, from which vessels arise, which gets attached to the sacral bone, is a
last sacral pau-s
two
THE HORSE.
white muscle
also,
119
it
affording fixity to the the ureters,

it
pelvic portion of the m-ethra.
is
dilated,
gets on to the bladder, where and forms the biilbous por-
we
Beneath the muscular tunic of the urethra find a loose cellular tissue, and pos-
tion.
Its
attachments are serous and cellular to

its
teriorly also
some
erectile structure continu-
the various parts mentioned, whilst

terior part is
pos-
ous on to the penis.
connected ^vith the urethra.
On
we
slitting
urethra, to find
open the pelvic portion of the The vas deferens is related, in its course examine its mucus membrane, from the inguinal canal, to the bladder that it is smooth, glistening, and after it leaves the constituents of the cord,
with the parietes of the abdomen crossing the mider surface of the iliac vessels, and
;
thrown into longitudinal folds. It is anterosuperiorly raised by the sub-mucus tissue into a permanent ridge, termed the crest of This has a the uretlu-a or verumontanum. depression about its middle, and on each
tory ducts, surrounded
reacMng the bladder on the inner

the ureter
;
side of
also
lying
internally
to
the
seminal vesicles, and the terminating portion
side are the elliptical orifices of the ejacula- being covered
by the
prostate.
the prostatic ducts.
by the openings of Posteriorly and later-
The
lar
structure of the vas deferens is simi-
throughout, with the exception of the
ally are little papillated projections, pierced greater thickness of its coats at the
bulbous
by ducts emanating from Cowper's glands. These tubular processes are arranged in two
parallel lines longitudinally to the course of
portion, being thinnest
where
it
contributes
to form the ejaculatory duct.
This tube, of very various length,

stituted of
is
con-
the uretlu'a.
an outer
cellular investment, not

;
The
pelvic portion of the urethra
is
sup- requiring peculiar notice
of an intermediate
as its
plied with blood from the internal
pudic, contractile
and
elastic tunic; and,
and the veins empty into the vessel of the name implies, is composed of muscular same name. Its nerves are derived from fibres and elastic tissue, arranged in two the two last sacral and accompanying sym- layers, i. e., an outer longitudinal and an inpathetic filaments. ner circular one, which are easily perceived. The lymphatics of the pelvic urethra are The internal or mucus lining is thrown similarly disposed to those of the bladder. into longitudinal folds, in the narrow part
of the duct
;
but in the bulbous part
it
forms
GENERATIVE ORGANS OF THE MALE.
permanent rugs, taking various
directions,
The
last division of
our subject
is
that so as to enclose irregular interspaces.
is supplied with blood from the artery of the cord, aling in the vasa deferentia, vesiculae semin- though the epigastric furnishes a twig to it ales, prostate and Cowper's glands. as well. The bulbous portion is supplied also by vessels of no small calibre from the VASA DEFERENTIA. iliacs.
of the abdominal generative organs, only a
The vas
deferens
part of the generative system,
and
consist- principally
There are two vasa deferentia, one from Its nerves are from the sympathetic, as testicle, for the passage of semen to well as from the second and third lumbar. seminal reservoirs. VESICUL^ SEMINALES. The vas deferens arises from the posterior
each
of the epididymis or globus minor, The seminal vesicles are one on each side passing through the inguinal canals, and of the bladder, and act as receptacles for reaching the abdomen it is situated in the the semen.
part
;
Each seminal vesicle extends from behind backward, and inward, to reach the brim forward, upward, and outward, being exof the pelvis then, crossing the course of ternal to the bulbous portion of the vas
;
sub-serous tissue, taldng a course upward,
120
deferens.

It is attached by peritoneum from the sides of the pelvis and
PROSTATE GLAND.
coming
off
The
prostate
belongs to
the" class
of
rectum on to the bladder. The posterior secreting glands. It is situated on the part is fixed by cellular tissue to the pros- commencement of the m-ethra and termitate and neclv of the bladder. nation of the vesiculas-seminales, being suThe seminal vesicle is pyriform, being periorly related to the rectum. Its attachabout three inches long and about an inch ments to these parts are merely cellular, broad at its fundus, but more constricted at although it has some connection with the its neck. It is connected with the corres- sides of the pelvis, rectum and bladder, ponding surface of the bladder and rectum, thi'ough the intervention of the pelvic but partially separated from the latter by fascia.
the prostate.
It is symmetrical in figure, and very varian incomplete able in size, being quite rudimentary in investment of peritoneum, covering only aged geldings. It is of a gray color, the anterior part, wlulst the prostatic portion knotty to the feel, although spongy in texis covered by an outer cellular coat. Be- ture. neath this is an intermediate tunic, partly The prostate consists of a middle porelastic and partly contractile. Lavocat tion or body and two lateral lobes. The describes this muscular coat as easily studied former is in contact with the cervix of the
The seminal
vesicle has
it
nitric acid, when bladder and urethra, the latter with the be found to consist of an outer ejaculatory ducts and seminal vesicles. longitudinal and inner circular layer, most This gland has a posterior convex and developed at the fundus, but very thin at an anterior concave margin, whilst it is
after
maceration in dilute
may
the neck.
flattened from above

is
downward, although
it
The mucus membrane
plicated, the
from
side.
its
connection with other parts
is
folds enclosing similar interspaces to those rendered
more
or less convex from side to
seen in the bulbous portion of the vas

deferens.
The
vessels are supplied
by the
The prostate is composed of an exterinternal nal fibrous or cellular coat, which forms a
pudic, whilst the nerves are from the lesser complete covering to it. splanchnic and two last sacral pairs. gland in any direction, it
On
is
cutting the
observed by
the naked eye to have an areolar appear-
EJACULATORY DUCTS.
ance, being a net-work of variously disposed
Two
outlet
and
the larger ones of which are found vas-deferens to be tubular. seminal vesicle, so that their contents The prostate opens into the urethra
fibres,
in number, each being the
common
to
its
corresponding
may
elliptical around the orifices of the ejaculatory ducts each side of the depression on the by numerous apertures. verumontanum. It is supplied with blood from the pudic The relations of these ducts are simply vessels, and its nerves are derived from the
pass into the urethra by an
orifice
to
the prostate
latter,
and
urethra.
When
they lesser splanchnic and two
last sacral pairs.
reach the
cular
tance, so
they pass between the musfor
and mucus coat

that
at
first
some
little dis-
cowper's glands.
sight they appear

really are.
shorter than
what they
These also belong to the class of secreting glands, and have sometimes been called the
The
consists
structure of the ejaculatory ducts lesser prostates.

in
They
are situated ante-
mucus
thin.
an outer cellular and inner riorly to the bulb of the penis on each lining, both of which are very side of the membranous portion of the
urethra.
EXPLANATION OP FIGURE
XIII.
THE SUPERFICLVL LAYER OF 5IUSCLES TAKEN FROM THE BODY OF THE HORSE, SO AS TO EXPOSE THOSE MUSCLES WHICH ARE MORE DEEPLY SEATED.
THE HEAD AXD KECE.
a.
6.
c.
Buccinator.
Caninus.
Retractor
labii inferioris.
1, 1.
Orbicularis oris.
2, 2, 2. 3, 3.
Complexus major.
Trachelo mastoideus.
4, 4. 5,
6, 6.
Subscapulo hyoideus.
Stcrno maxillaris.
Stemo
thjTo-hyoideus.
7,
8,
Jugular vein.
Carotid artery, with the eighth
paii-,
and sjinpathetic nerves.
9, 10.
Trachea.
Scalenus.
THE FORE LIMBS.

1.
HAUNCH AND
C.
Ilium.
XIII.
CONTINUED.
mXD
EXTREMITT.
B. Ischium. E. Tibia.
1.
Sacro
sciatic
ligament.
2.
Sjihincter ani.
3. 4.
5. 5.
Depressor coccygis.
Muscles of the
tail.
Triceps abductor
tibialis.
6.
7.
Vastus externus.
Rectus.
8.
9.
Gastrocnemius muscles.
Plantarius.
10.
11.
Extensor pedis.
Peroneus.
12.
13.
Flexor pedis perforans.

Insertion of the gracilis.
14. 15.
Gastroenemii muscles.
16. 17.
Course of the perforans tendon, inside the cs cCch of the hock

Popliteus muscles.
joint,
Insertion qj the gastrocnemius externus into the point of tie Ix&ck.
18. 18.
19.
Extensor pedis.
THE HORSE.
121
Cowper's glands are covered by the tri- ten or t\velve in number for each gland each side they are and linearly disposed on each side of the pelvic urethra. about the size of a filbert. Cowper's glands are supplied with vesTheir structure, as apparent to the naked
angularis penis of
:
eye, is similar to that of the
prostate in sels
and nerves from the same source as the
every respect, only the excretory ducts are prostate.

11
ORGANS or GENERATION.
TESTICLES AND SCROTUM.
vaginalis;
is
The
preparation of the seminal fluid
reflexa.
and lastly, the tunica vaginalis Within the cavity formed by the
;
the office of two oval glandular bodies, called
the testes or testicles

in a portion of the
common
vaginal tunic, it is that the intestine protrudes inguinal and scrotal hernia the hernial they are suspended in coverings, consequently, exclusive of the sac, integument,
termed the scrotum, by means of the sper- will be the faschia and cremaster muscle. 2ndly. The constituent parts of the cord matic cord and cremaster muscle. a. The arteries, which are two The scrotum is composed of the common itself, are in number the artery of the cord, a small integument, sub-cellular tissue, and elastis branch of the external iliac, which ramifies muscle, (the fibres of the latter run in a lonand expands itself upon the cord and the gitudinal direction, from the cellular subspermatic artery, which, as soon as it stance of the sheath, to the base of the
:
penis),
and
is
lastly
the
tunica
vaginalis,
reaches the internal ring, enters the inguinal

canal, runs
which
a prolongation of the peritoneum.
down
the posterior part of the
cord, growing tertuous as it descends, serhas a peritoneal covering, termed tunica vaginalis testes, and also pentines along the superior border of the the epididymis, winds another distinct tunic termed tunica albu- testes, between it and
The
testicle
ginea. The substance of the testicle is ex- round the anterior end of the gland, and lastly reaches the convex border, where it tremely vascular, and the vdtimate branches becomes extremely convoluted, and whereto of its spermatic arteries are collected into its branches are principally distributed. In small bundles of fine convaluted vessels,
separated from one another by septula9, or
its
descent
it
detaches small unimportant

;
membranous
ducts, take
partitions.
From
these the
twigs to the adjacent parts
and, as
it
ap-
origin, and gradually unite a smaller number of canals of The veuis accompany their corresponding arteries, and they indeed may be said to larger diameter, but exceedingly tortuous in
becomes surrounded vasa seminifera, or beginnings of excretory proaches the testicle, by an assemblage of venous vessels, b. their
to form
their course.
The
testicle is also
supplied
make up
the principal built of the cord,
not only numerous, but large and flexuous, and, as they approach the testicle, form a sort of plexus, which has got SPERMATIC CORD.* the name of corpus pampiniforme : they The spermatic cord, the substance by return their blood into the posterior vena means of which the testicle is connected with cava. c. The nerves, Avhich are derived the abdomen, and by means of which it is from the hypogastric plexus, also accomsuspended within its scrotal cavity, is company the spermatic artery they are smaD, Though the posed in the following manner 1st. It has but sufficiently numerous. four coverings there is immediately under- testicle does not possess any very great senneath the skin the faschia superficialis next, sibility in health, we may vouch for its
with nerves and absorbents, secretory and

excretory vessels.
for they are
the cremaster muscle
thirdly, the tunica
being acutely sensitive in a state of disease.

d.
Absorbents
exist,
both large and numerare readily
ous, in the cord.
They
found
nam
ANATOMY ANJ PHYSIOLYGY OF THE HOESE.

alongside of the venous trunks; and not in
infrequently
its
123
nature,
and here and there incloses a
may
be
filled
by introducing reticulated
structure.
The
different consti-
mercury into the spermatic artery, e. The VAS DEFERENS, though a constituent of the cord, takes at first a solitary course, remote The duct issues from the blood vessels. from the summit of the head of the epididymis, beginning in a series of convolutions gradually unvi'inding as
it it
tuent parts of the cord are connected altogether by cellular substance, destitute of
any
ring,
fat
parts in general being
and from the circumstance of the more bullvy below the the cord increases in breadth and
;
thickness as
it
approaches the
testicle.
proceeds;
takes an oblique course nearly as high as

it
THE EPIDIDYMIS.
the external ring, where

vessels,
joins the blood
The epididymis
and
to
is
extended along the su-
and continues
ring
it
to
accompany them
:
perior border of the testicle,
upon which
it
posteriorly through
the inguinal canal
at rests,
which
it
is
connected by the
Its
:
the
internal
leaves
them, turns tunica vaginalis reflexa.

pelvis,
ends are buDiy
comparison to its middle that receiving we find it creeping along the side of the the vasa eft'erentia, the smaller one, is the bladder infolded in peritoneum to get to the caput or globus minor; the other, giving cervix, crossing under its course first the rise to the vas deferens, is the globus major,
inward and ascends into the
where
in
umbilical
length
orifice
it
artery
and then the ureter;
at the part farriers call the nut.
The
interior
terminates by rather a contracted of this appendage to the testicle exhibits a
within the
mouth
of the duct of the structure entirely vascular.

little
The vasa
ef-
vjîcula seminalis, just behind a
duct, of whose numberless and nence in the urethra tlie capat galinaginis, a single about an inch posteriorly to the cervix of very remarkable convolutions the globus Within the inguinal passage major is entirely constituted these tortuthe bladder. the duct is accompanied by the artery of osities (which, when squeezed, freely emit
:
emi- ferentia unite and re-unite until they form
the vas deferens,^, long slender branch of the

epigastric.
Its
semen)
will
cang-l,
flexuous
until
the considerable
its
admit of being unwound for a extent, so as to have the
duct has joined the cord, but straight in
length of the duct calculated with very
subsequent course, out in caliber

is large,
;
is
not uniform through- tolerable exactness from beginning to end,

its
the area of
it
tortuous part which has been found to

it
amount
its
to several
but as
becomes straight
grows yards.
it
It is
small at
its
formation, but grows
contracted:
having entered the
pelvis,
imperceptibly larger in
making
manifold
it
gradually enlarges again, and acquires un- windings and turnings, until at length
usual volume in running along the side of the assumes the size of the vas deferens, in
and the canal of the enlarged porwhich gives its exterior an irregular, tuberculated appearance the most contracted part is that in union with the duct of the vesicula seminalis, which is a comparatively small
bladder
;
which
it
ends.
Its
various convolutions are
tion presents a riticulated structure,
connected together by cellular membrane, and are interspersed with a sparing supply
of blood vessels.
The course of
the
semen
it
is
this:
It
is
secreted by the capillary coils of the sper-
cylindrical
conduit.
The
parietes of the matic artery, from
which
is
received by
it it
duct are so remarkably thick and firm to the tubili seminiferi: these tubes carry
the
feel,
that
we
distinguish
it
at once
by into the
rete,
and the
rete discharges
from the other parts of the through the vasa efFerentia into the epididycord they consist of two tunics the ex- mis, from which it is conducted by the ternal one (in which its main thickness con- vas deferens into the urethra. sists) is white, fibrous, and approaches in It is a singuFormation and Descent. appearance to cartilage the internal one is lar fact, that the organs whose structures
the fingers
:
thin
and
fine in texture,
muco-membranous we have been
investigating, are originally
124
formed in a situation remote from that in rives on the internal ring, which, at this which they are destined to carry on their time (like every other part of the parietes) this temporary functions; "the colt has no testicles," is is closed by peritoneum the common observation of the unim- obstruction it overcomes by drawing the and we know membrane down along with it through the formed on these matters ourselves that the purse is without them, ring, and carrying the pouch made thereby the gubernaculum bu-t we know, in addition, that they exist down into the scrotum ready-formed within the abdomen, and that at the time undergoing a complete in; ; ;
they will descend at a certain period of age version. This accounts for the production into the proper receptacle, the scrotum. of the tunica vaginalis, and explains how
During the foetal state we find the testicles that membrane comes to be doubled or remore or less developed, tinged with a blush flected; the testicle, receiving originally (as of red, lodged beneath the psoas muscles, an abdominal viscus) one close adherent in contact with the inferior borders of the peritoneal tunic, and acquiring another kidneys, covered and retained in their situ- which forms a loose covering as it passes ations by peritoneum, and concealed by the through the ring, must necessarily have Here they receive two ; and since both are derived from one intestines around them. and the same membrane, it follows that their arteries from the contiguous trunk the vasa deferentia one must be a continuation of the other. the posterior aorta run forward to them, and the cremosters These elongations of membrane, though everywhere in contact, are prevented from liltewise turn forward instead of backward there being at this time no such tiring as a adhering together by a continual exhaifispermatic cord. Thus placed, the testicle tion of the natural serous secretion. Any may be regarded as one of the glands of interval that might stibsist between them, the abdomen indeed it has considerable in course, communicates with the cavity of receiving its ves- the abdomen, through the ring, a part that similarity to the kidney this, however, sels from the same contiguous source, and remains open through life in his body the sending a long duct backward into the is not the case with man cavity of the pelvis nor does there appear communication is cut off, after the testicles any conclusive reason why it should not have descended, by a natural contraction perform the same office in that situation and obliteration both of the ring and the In many instances, one, that it does in the scrotum, and particu- inguinal passage.
larly since it is
ticles
known
that in birds the tes- in
soxue
few, both
of
the
testicles,
are
remain within the abdomen during life. From the part where the blood vessels enter, we find growing a whitish substance, extending backward, diminishing in breadth as it recedes, passing through
known
the
to have
life.
through
remained within the belly As we are unacquainted with
immediate cause of their descent, so we are unable to give any rational explanaI have undertion of this phenomenon.
the ring where the fUus of the cremoster stood, that in
many
:
of these
cases the
may
be traced upon
prolonged into
and whence the scrotum, growing

it,
;
it is
glands have been found to be but impernar- fectly developed this, however, is not with-
rower and narrower until it vanishes this out exception. Most animals have Period of Descent. substance, regarded by some simply as a ligament, was considered by Mr. Hunter their testicles within the scrotum at the
as the gubernaculum or pilot, by means of which the testicle is directed in its passage from the abdomen into the scrotum. Quitting the spot where it has been formed and
period of birth.
In the
human
fcetus they
begin to move about the seventh month about the eighth they reach the groins and before birth they arrive in the scrotum.
;
matured, the
testicle
guided by the gubernaculum, until
gradually retrocedes, In the horse, they pass through the ring it ar- about the sixth or seventh month before
THE HORSE.
birth,
125
in the unerected state
and are found within the scrotum at averaging in length,

In
its
;
the period of parturition.
some
cases, forty -eight inches

rior part
it
extends from the anteis
one
for
testicle will
not
make
is
appearance
of the glans penis to the neck of

;
some time
after the other
and as the the bladder
its
use
to afford a passage
fluid.
operation for castration

layed, this will
seldom long de-
for the urine
and seminal
account for the rigs (as
FEMALE ORGANS OF GENERATION. horses having but one testicle are called) The vulva or pudendum comprises the with wliich we meet every now and then. Again, instances are not wanting in which prominence and fissure, commencing immeone testicle has descended to the ring and diately beneath the anus, and extending
there remained through
life.*
downwards some
fissiu'e is
four or five inches.
The
longest and most conspicuous in
The
penis is composed of the two corpora anus and vulva

:
cavermosa
head, or glans penis
The space between the termed perineum. The corpus prominences on each side of the vulva are
breeding mares.
is
They owe their musculosum urethra, and the plexus veno- called labia frudinde. The corporo cavermosa make up the bulk principally to muscular and fatty subsus. bulk of the organ, they extend from the stance, and cellular tissue. The commissures are the parts uniting the at the ischial arch The superior or they are invested with fibres of the erectors labia above and below. penis, and are strengthened and confined to upper commissure is extended to a sharp
pelvis to the glans penis
;
the pubes
is
by the suspensory ligaments. It angle, and joins the perineum; the lower supplied with blood from a branch of portion is rounded off, and is bounded by a the obturaler arter, by means of the inter- hollow, at the bottom of which is lodged
nal pvidic
artery.
Its
nerves are termed the
pudic, so also are the veins.
The
tissue,
g-lans is
This is brought into view imClitoris. composed of a soft spongy mediately after staling: it bears a close highly elastic and distensible, and comparison to the head of the male penis,
latter, is
remarkable as the seat of the plexus venosus and, like the penis the latter structure presents itself in enjoyment.
:
susceptible of sensual
the form of a venous conglomeration, and of muscles in the erect state of the organ constitutes take their origin from the perineum.
its
To the clitoris belong named erector clitoris.

and
a pair
They
Their
it
chief bulk.
ofHce
is
to erect that body,
proti-ude
into the vagina in the act of coition.
URETHRA.
T/ie internal parts are the vagina, uterus,
The m-ethra
is
muco-membranous canal FaUopian

vagina
witli
tubes, fimbriae,
and
ovaria.
The
is
* In a communication I have been favored
a musculo-membranous canal, of
from
vol-
Mr. Brettargh (whicli I have inserted in the second
large dimensions, extending from the vulva

to the uterus or
It is
ume
of
The Veterinarian),
:
is
contained the following

their
womb.
it,
information on this subject

testicles in the
" Colts arc foaled with
situated within the pelvis, having
scrotum, which remain there (in ordinary
cases ) until the fifth or sixth month,
when they
are taken
rings,
the bladder below and the rectum above

to both of
up between
month,
the internal
and external abdominal
which
it
has cellular attach-
and there remain until the eleventh, twelfth or thirteenth ments, in addition to the reciprocal connecall depeuding upon the degree of keep, as in some To the rectum tion with the peritoneum. that are well fed the testicles can at all times be found in the scrotum. Were the testicles drawn up into the abdo- it is closely and firmly attached by cellular men, they would be too large to pass through the inter- membrane. nal abdominal ring at the time they are wanted to prepare The figure of the vagina, when it is disfor secretion which is occasionally the case, and at once tended, is that of an oblong cylinder but accounts for our meeting with horses that are said to have but one stone. I have seen one instance where both were in the collapsed state, its sides are in conwanting in the scrotum at four years old." tact, and it will vary its form according to
; ;
126
the
full

or
empty condition of
it
the bladder.
is
it
is
terminated internally by the os-uteri,

the
The
rior
;
largest part of the canal
the poste- or
mouth of
womb
it
gives origin, in
This part lies wholly within the pelvis, between the bladder and bladder. The length of the canal is about eighteen rectum, and is entirely covered by periinches. Its course is horizontal, and rather toneum.
there
exceeds the dimensions of the front, to the horns.
shows an
rectum.
inclination to the curve of the
The
cornua, or horns, rise from the body

length and size will be
of the uterus, and diverge towards the loins.

its
The
vagina, at
is
;
commencement from Their

its
it is
much
greater
the vulva,
much
thicker in
walls than in breeding mares than in others.
In figure
elsewhere
cular
in composition
partly
mus- they are

ities,
and partly membranous.

band,
;
The
orifice
their course,
of
it is
clothed in that strong, red, circular,
they bend upward in and terminate in round extremto which are loosely appended the
cylindrical
;
fleshy
which
forms the sphincter ovaries, or
testicles,
through the
medium
of
and the adjoining part of the canal the Fallopian tubes. The cervLx, or neck, of the uterus is the is also encircled by some considerable fleshy covering, and thickly coated with muscular rugose portion, protruded backward into the Farther forward than this the vagina cavity of the vagina, which has a flowerfibres. like appearance, and can only be seen in a is composed of membrane. The part virgin uterus in the undistended state durThe Membrane of the Vagina. of which it is constituted is one of the ing gestation it undergoes a remarkable mucus class, and one that possesses consid- change. Independently of its union with the erable density, extensibility, and resistance.
vagina
Its exterior siu-face is

is
rough.
Its
interior vagina, the uterus is confined in its place
smooth, and has a pale pinkish cast; by two
unless the
mare be under the venereal

its
oes-
broad portions of peritoneum, which attach it to the sides of the pelvis,
trum, and then
redness
is
heightened,
named
the lateral ligaments of the uterus.
and
ary
its
secretion augmented.
In the ordin- During the period of gestation, the uterus

tlirown into experiences considerable
extension.
state, this
membrane
is
The
folds, larger in
breeding mares than in others, Fallopian tubes are two trumpet-shaped

canals,
clitoris is
technically called rugas.
Considerably in advance of the
course
having a remarkable serpentine running within the folds of the

lata,
an opening leading from the lower part of ligaraenta
from the extremities of the

aperture in
the canal, large enough to admit with ease horns to the ovaries.
any one of the

der
:
fingers
this is the orifice of
The tube commences by an

gin,
the meatus vuinarius, or outlet of the blad- the cornu, having an elevated whitish mar-
vaginal membrane, which hangs over
guarded by a doubling of the it, and Serves the purpose of a valve. The large and conspicuous protuberance at the bottom of the vagina, is the mouth
it
is
which
is
scarcely large
:
enough to admit
this
it
a small silver probe

forward, folded
ovary, to which
in
from
proceeds
ex-
peritoneum, and
it
tremely convoluted, until

it
reaches the
;
becomes attached
its
it
of the uterus.
then
begins to
enlarge in
diameter,
The uterus, or womb, is a hollow mus- grows less convoluted, and serpentines along culo-membranous organ, united to the ante- the lower side of the ovary it afterwards rior part of the vagina, and is destined for ends in a fringed doubling of membrane.
;
the reception of the foetus.
We distinguish
The
The
internal
membrane of
the tubes
is
the uterus
mouth.
by the body, horns, neck, and The body is the oblong or cylin-
similar to that of the uterus.

ovari,
or female testicles, are
two
drical part,
growing out of the anterior por- egg-shaped bodies, situated farther forward
tion of the vagina, in the centre of whicli than the Fallopian tubes, within the cavity
THE HORSE.
of the
erini^s,
127
the latter part of gestation, this
abdomen
and are
they receive close covloosely
Toward
attached to the part swells, and becomes distinctly visible.

size of wal;
spuie.
These bodies are about the

nuts.
Within a few days of grows tiu-gid with milli
foaling, the
;
udder
it
does not, how-
They are not regular oviform they ever, acquire its full distention until the have deep fissures on their sides they foal has di-awn it for a few days, from bear a resemblance, at first view, to the which time it maintains its volume, with testicles and their ducts in the male. little variation, dinging the period of suck;
Internally, the ovaries are
composed of a
vesicles, con-
ling.
Soon
is
after the foal begins to forsake
whitish spongy substance, in which are, in the teat, the secretion of milk diminishes,
some
instances, found
little
and
followed by a contraction of the
taining a yellowish glairy fluid, in others bag, which goes
on
gi'adually,
untU
it
has
flat-
one or more dark yeUow or brownish sub- resumed nearly, or

stances,
quite,
its
former
named
corpora lutea
the vesicles ness.
are the ova, which, from impregnation, re-
The
interior of the
mammae
is
has a light
ceive
further
development;
the
corpora yellowish aspect, and evidently possesses a

held together
lutea denote the parts from which vesicles lobulated structure, which
have burst, and consequently only exist in by a fine cellular tissue, interspersed with the ovaries of those mares whose organs granules of fat. It is constituted of glanhave been engaged in the generative pro- dular masses, irregular in magnitude and cess. Prior to the age of sexual intercourse, form, and loosely connected one with these bodies are small and white but, as another, each of which masses is composed
;
soon as the season of copulation

they grow
present
large,*
many
at hand, of a number of lobules, closely compacted redden externally, and and united together. These insulated lobyellow spots or streaks ulous portions receive small arteries, from
is
through their substance.
which the milk
is
secreted.
The
former,
Mammre, though unconnected with

tion concurring to the
the by repeatedly conjoining one with another,
uterus, anomatically speaking, are in func-
become
at
length
several
demonstrable
same important
end. canals, radiating from every part, and dilat-
The mammffi, vulgarly called udder, are ing to hold the millc. two flattened oval-shaped bodies, dependWhen the udder becomes charged with ing, between the thighs, from the posterior millv, it flows into the teat and distends it. and inferior part of the belly. In quadru- Suction is apparently an operation purely peds, with but few exceptions, this is the mechanical. The teat is seized and closely situation of the mammae. compressed by the lips of the foal and the In virgin mares the- udder is so small imbibing effort which follows has a tenthat there hardly appears to be any. In dency to produce a vacuum, or raise the mares who have had foals, the udder re- valve at the upper part of the teat, and the mains prominent or pendulous, and has a millc passes from the reservoirs into the
;
flabby
feel.
mouth.
PHYSIOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS.
now be said to have changes which living beings un- any claim whatever to be received as even dergo during the period of their existence, a possible hypothesis all the facts on which and the termination of that existence by it claimed to rest having either been themthe separation of their elements at a period selves disproved, or having been found satisarray of facts, cannot
" If the
;
ON THE REPRODUCTION OP ORGANIZED BEINGS* ^
able
show
of argument, based on a specious
more or less remote from their first combina- factory explicable on the general principle be regarded as distinguishing them in omne vivum ex ovo. Thus, the appearance a striking and evident manner from the of Animalcules in infusions of decaying masses of inert matter which surround them, organic matter, the springing-up of Fungi still more is thek difference manifested in in spots to which it would not have been
tion,
the series of processes wliich constitute the supposed that their germs could have been function of Reproduction. very unneces- conveyed, the occurrence of Entozoa in the
sary degree of mystery has been spread bodies of various animals into which it around the exercise of this function, not seemed almost beyond possibility that their
physiologists.
only by general inquirers, but by scientific eggs could have been introduced, with It has been regarded as a other facts of a like nature, may now be
process never to be comprehended
by man, accounted
alilve
of which the nature and the laws are

inscrutable.
ever,
A fair comparison of it, with other functions, will show that it pagated. Thus, it is now well ascertained is not in reality less comprehensible or more that the germs of Fungi and of many kinds recondite than any one of them; that our of Animalcules are diffused tlnrough the acquaintance with each depends upon the atmosphere, and are conveyed by its move-
without any violation of by our increased knowledge of how- the mode in which these organisms are profor,
probability,
be siibmitted to ments in every direction and that, if to deif properly in- composing substances of a kind that would quired into by an extensive survey of the otherwise have been most abundantly peoanimated world, the real character of the pled by these organisms, such air only be process, its conditions, and its mode of oper- allowed to have access as has been deprived
facility
with which
it
investigation;
and
may
that,
ation, may be understood as completely as of its organic germs by filtration (so to speak) through a red-hot tube or strong those of any other vital phenomenon. " It may be considered as a fundamental sulphuric acid, no living organisms will
truth of Physiological Science, that every

living organism has
existing organism.
taneous generation,'
their appearance in them whilst in few hours after the exposure of the very The doctrine of spon- same substances to ordinary atmospheric or the supposed origina- air, it has been found to be crowded with
;
make
had
its
origin in a pre- a
'
tion of organized structures de novo out of
life.* And when it is borne in mind, in the assemblages of inorganic particles, although case of the Entozoa, that the members of at different times sustained with a consider-
* Sec the experiments of Schulze, in the "Edinb.
New
* Carpenter's Physiology.
I
Phil. Journal," 1837, p. 165.
(128)

this class are
129
number
of eggs which most of
remarkable for the immense tinction amongst them, which would enable them pro- it to be determined whether a particular
is the germ of a Conferva or of an Oak, of a Zoophyte or of a Man. But varieties of form under which there is reason let each be placed in the conditions it reand a gradual evolution of the to suspect that the same germs may de- quires velop themselves, it becomes obvious that germ into a complex fabric will take place,
duce, for the metamorphoses which
many
molecule
of them are
known
to undergo,
and
for the
no adequate proof has yet been afforded the more general characters of the new orany particular case, ganism preceding the more special, as These conditions are otherwise than the products of a pre-existing already explained. This, again, is the con- not different in Idnd from those which are living organism.
that they have been, in
clusion to which
all
trines of Physiology necessarily
the most general doc- essential to the process of nutrition in the conduct us. adult for they consist, on the one hand, in
;
For
it
is
most
certain that
we know
;
noth- a due supply of aliment in the condition
ing of Vital Force, save as manifested in which it can be appropriated; and, on through organized structures whilst, on the the other hand, in the operation of certain other hand, the combination of inorganic external agencies, especially heat, which matter into organized structures is one of seems to supply the force requisite for the Now, although we the most characteristic operations of vital developmental process.
force
;
hence
it is
scarcely conceivable that

forces
may
sible
any operation of physical

ism.
upon
inor-
not be able to discern any such ostendifferences in the germs of different
ganic matter should evolve a Living organ- orders of living beings as can enable us to Nor is such a conception more feasi- discriminate them from each other, yet, seeble, if it
be admitted that vital force stands ing so marked a diversity in their operations
regard the former as a mani-
in such a relation to the physical forces, under circumstances essentially the same,
that
we may
we cannot do
otherwise than attiibute to

;
acting tlirough them distinct properties and it will be conorganized structures since no vital force venient to adopt the phrase germinal capacan be manifested (according to this view), city as a comprehensive expression of that
festation of the latter,
;
when
and no organization can take place, except peculiar endowment, in virtue of which each gem. ievelopes itself into a structure through a pre-existing organism. " It may be further considered as an es- of its own specific type, when the requisite tablished physiological truth, that, when forces are brought to bear upon it, and the
its
under circumstances favorable to requisite materials are supplied to it.* complete evolution, every germ wiU de- Thus, then, every act of development velop itself into the lOieness of its parent; may be considered as due to the force supdrawing into itself, and appropriating by plied by heat or some other physical agency, its own assimilative and formative opera- which, operating through the organic germ,
placed
exerts itself as formative power whilst the and repeating the entire series of phases mode in which it takes effect is dependent through which its parent may have passed, * This term is prefeiTed to that of " germ-power " sughowever multiform these may be.* Now gested by Mr. Paget, because the latter seems to imply that the force of development exists in the germ itself. the germs of all tribes of plants and Now, if this were true, not only must the whole formative animals whatever bear an extremely close power of the adult have been possessed by its first celltions, the nutrient materials supplied to it
;
I
relation to each other in their earliest con- germ, but
dition
so that there
is
no appreciable
the whole formative power of all the beings dis- simultaneously belonging to any one race, must have been
first cell-germ of their original progeThis seems a reductio ad absurdum of any such doctrine and we are driven back on the assumption
concentrated in the
* The apparent exceptions

Generations," will
to this rule,
which have been
nitor.
brought together under the collective term, " Alternation of

be presently considered, and will be
(which
all
observation confirms), that the _/brc of develop-
shown
to
be only exceptional when misiutei"preted.
ment
is
derived from eocternal agencies.
130
ANATOMY AXD PHYSIOLOGY OP

properties or
upon the
the
endowments of the
it
ditions,
which
in the
lower tribes would
them germ on the one hand, the alimentan^ unproductive of any corresponding change. materials on the other, just as an electric For, if such modification be considerable,
substances through which
acts,
namely, considerably
afl'ect
the result, being in
through the different the organism is unable to adapt itself to it, ner\-es of sense, produces the sensory im- and consequently either perishes or is imperpressions which are characteristic of each fectly developed whilst, if it be less potent, Thus, a derespectively or, as the same cvtrrent transit produces no obvious effect.
current, transmitted
;
;
mitted
through one form of inorganic ficiency of food in the growing state of the matter produces light and heat, through higher animal will necessarily prevent the another, chemical change, or through an- attainment of the full size but it will not
;
magnetism. " In the development of any li\iing being, therefore, from its primordial germ, we have three sets of conditions to study namely, first, the physical forces which are in operation; second, the properties of the germ, which these forces call into activity; and third, the properties of the alimentary materials which are incorporated in the organism diulng its development. There is evidence that each of these may have a considerable influence on the result but in the higher organisms it would seem that the second is more dominant than it is in the lower. For among many of the lower tribes, both of
other,
exert that influence
on the
relative developit
ment of
different
parts that
does
among
which it favors the production of flowers and fruit in place of leaves, or that it seems to exercise in several parallel cases
plants, in
among
heat
animals.
So, again, a deficiency of
the development of egg be allowed to remain long without the requisite warmth, the embryo dies, instead of passing into a the chick
;
may slightly retard

but, if the
state of inactivity, like that of reptiles or

insects.
The
extent, indeed, to
which these
external conditions
may
affect the develop-
ment of
in the
the inferior organisms,
least
must not be judged of by that to which
is reason to berange of departure from the characters of its parent, which the organism may present, is considerably greater than
plants
and animals, there
their operation is restricted in the higher
lieve that the
and
it is
probable that
subject.
we have
At
yet
much
it
to
learn
on the
present,
may
that of the higher
and that
this is chiefly
be stated as a problem for determination, whether, from a being of superior organiza-
under wliich zation, lower forms of living structure, of a capable of maintaining an independent number of species of the lower Fungi, for existence, and of propagating their kind, example, appear to be in a great part de- can ever originate, by an imperfect action pendent on the nature of their aliment so of its formative powers. Various morbid
due
it
to the external conditions
has been developed.
The forms
Entozoa, there seems strong growths, such as cancer ceUs, to which the reason to believe that those of the Cystic higher organisms are liable, have been order are only Cestoidea, that are prevented looked upon in this light these have certhe
;
among
by the circumstances under which they exist tainly a powerful Aitality of their owti, from attaining their full development and which enables them to increase and multithe production of a fertile 'queen' or of an ply at the expense of the organism which imperfect 'worker,' among the hive-bees, they infest and they have also an enargetic appears to be entirely determined by the reproductive power, by which they can profood with which the lar\-a is supplied. No pagate their kind, so as to transmit the such variations have been observed among disease to other organisms, or to remote but such in which it would seem parts of the same organism the higher classes as if the form attained by each germ is growths are not independent they cannot more rigidly determined by its own endow- maintain their own existence, when dements a modification in the other con- tached from the organism in which they are
; ;
; ;
THE HORSE.
developed; and they have not, therefore,
the
attribute
"
131
The development power which each germ
of a separate individuality. possesses, under the conditions just
now
Various phenomena hereafter to be detailed, detailed, is manifested, not merely in the gemmiparous first evolution of the germ into its comhowever, respecting the production of living beings, when taken in plete specific type, but also in the mainconnection with that just cited, seem to ren- tenance of its perfect form, and, within
'
by no means impossible that the inmay be more complete in other cases, so that independent beings of a lower type may possibly originate in a perder
it
certain limits,
by the reproduction of
parts
dividualization
that have been desti'oyed by injury or disease.
This reproduction, as Mr. Paget has

differs
pointed out,*
injuries
from the ordinary pro-
verted condition of the formative operations cess of nutrition in this,

in the higher.
that
'
in grave
But no
satisfactory evidence
and
diseases, the parts that
might
has ever been atibrded by experience, that serve as models for the
new
materials to be
such 'equivocal generation' has actually assimilated

taken place;
to, or
as tissue-germs to develop
;
and
its
possibility
is
here
it is
new
structures, are lost or spoiled
and yet
form
are
alluded to only as a contingency wliich

right to keep in view.
the effects
of injury and disease are reright specific
That no higher type covered from, and the

composition
'
has ever originated through an advance in and
are
retained
'
and,
developmental
power,
may
be safely as- again,
that
the
reproduced
parts
serted ; for, although various instances have
formed, not according to any present model,
been brought forward to

tion that such
is
justify the asser-
but according to the appropriate specific

form,
possible, yet these instances

is
and often with a more
strildngly evi-
entirely fail to establish the
analogy that sought to be drawn from them.*

*
Tlius, the
dent design towards that form, as an end

or purpose, than
we
can discern in the natIn the releg
ural construction of the body.'

author of the " Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation " refers to the various modifications
wliich have
taken place in our cultivated Plants and

in
Domesticated Animals,
possible
;
proof that such elevation
is
quite overlooldng the fact that these external in-
fluences merely modify the development, without elevating

it,
and that these
races, if left to themselves, speedily revert

specific
t^-pe.
to their
common
And
he adduces the
phenomena of metamorphosis the transformation of the worm-like larva into an insect, and of a fish-like tadpole into a frog as giving some analogical sanction totally overlooking the fact, that to the same doctrine
a full-grown Salamander after amputation, which was observed to take place by Spallanzani, it is clear that, whilst the process was from the fu-st of a nature essentially similar to that by which its original development took place, it tended to produce, not the leg of a larva, but that of an advUt animal. Hence it is obvious that, through the whole of life,
production
of
the
of
these transformations are only part of the ordinary develop-
the formative processes are so directed as to
mental process, by which the complete fonn of tlie species is evolved, instead of being transitions from the perfected
type of one class to the perfected type of one above
it.
So, again, he quotes the transformation of the worker-
grub of the hive-bee into tlie fertile queen, as an example of a similar advance \vithout regarding the circumstance that the worker is physicallij higher (according to human ideas, at least) than the queen, whose instincts appear
;
maintain the perfection of the organism, by keeping it up, so far as possible, to the model or archetype that is "proper to the epoch of its life wliich it has attained.
The amount
of this regenerating power,
however, varies greatly in different classes

of organized beings, and at different stages
of the existence of the
limited to the performance of her sexual functions

that the utmost which the fact
that the
is
and
is,
capable of proving,
into
its
same being; and, as

it
same germ may be developed

in
two
dift'ereut
forms, according to the circumstances of

It
early growth.
Mr. Paget has pointed out,f
seems to
must always be borne
mind
that the character of a
species, to be complete, should include all its forms, perfect
In no instance has this variation tended to confuse the

limits of well-ascertained species
;
and imperfect, modified and unmodified

is
since in this
it
has merely increased
mode
alone can that " capacity for variation " be deterso remarkable a feature in
our acquaintance with the number of diversified forms into
mined, wliich
many
cases,
and is that which specially distinguishes the races of plants and animals that have been subjected to human influence.
which the same germ may develope itself. * " Lectures on Reproduction and Eepair."
t
Loe
cit.
132

is
bear an inverse ratio to the degree of devel- fission or gemmation,
only another form
opment which has previously taken place of the same process. In the higher forms in each case. Thus, in the Hydra and of both these sub-kingdoms, as we no other Zoophytes, it would appear (as in longer meet with multiplication by gemmaPlants) to be almost unlimited for the de- tion, so do we find that the reparative power velopment process in them is checked at is much more limited the only manifesta;
;
such an early period, that both the form of tion of

the organism and the structure of
retain the
its
it
among
the fully-formed Arrach-
tissues nida
and by the subdivision of one individual, no fewer than fifty were produced by Trembly. Li this, as probably in aU the cases in which new individuals have been obtained by artificial subdivision, there is some natural tendency to their production by the vegetative process of gemmation but this does not always manifest itself. It is a ciuious
most simple type
and Crustacea being the reproduction power of effecting even this being usuaDy deficient in perfect Insects. The inquiries of Mr. Newport, however, upon the reproductive powers of Myriapods and Insects, m different stages
of limbs, and the
of their development,* confirm the general

principle already stated; for he has ascer-
tained that in their larval condition. Insects
can usually reproduce limbs orantennEe; and attempt at regeneration, that Myriapods, whose highest development in some of these cases, is not always com- scarcely carries them beyond the larvae of plete but that successive efforts are made, perfect Insects, can regenerate limbs or anfact, that the first
;
each of which
approximates
J.
more and
tennae,
up
to the time of their last moult,
normal development being comG. DalyeU's ex- pleted, their regenerative power seems enfor he observed that, having tirely expended. The Phas7nidce and some periments cloven the stem of a Tubularia (a Hydroid other insects of the order Orthoptera retain a Zoophyte), after the natural fall of its head, similar degree of this power in their perfect an imperfect head was at first produced, state but these are remarkable for the similarwhich soon fell off and was succeeded by ity of their larval and imago states, the latter another more fuUy formed this in its turn being attained, as in Arachnida, by a direct was succeeded by another and so on, until course of development, without anjrthing Litthe fifth head was produced, which was as that can be called a metamorphosis.' complete as the original. tle is known of the regenerative power in " As a general statement of the amount the higher MoUusca; but it has been of this regenerating power, which exists in affirmed that the head of the Snail may most of the different classes of animals, be reproduced after being cut off, provided has been already given, it is unnecessary the cephalic ganglion be not injured, and here to do more than allude to some of an adequate amount of heat be suppUed. those facts which most strongly bear out In Vertebrata, again, it is observable that Next to the greatest reparative power is found the doctrine just laid down. Zoophytes, there are no animals in which among Batrachian Reptiles, whose develthe regenerative power is known to be so opment is altogether lower, and whose life strong as it is in the lower Articulata (as is altogether more vegetative, than that of the Cestoid Entozoa, and the inferior An- probably any other group in this sub-kingIn Fishes, it has been found that nelida), and in the Planaria, which may dom. perhaps be regarded as rather approximat- portions of the fins which have been lost
more
closely to the perfect type.
This was when,
their
well seen in one of Sir

;
'
ing to the Molluscous type and here, again, by disease or accident are the only parts we see that a low grade of general devel- that are reproduced. But in the Salaopment is favorable to its exercise, and that mander, entire new legs, with perfect bones,
;
the spontaneous multiplication which occa- nerves, muscles,

sionally takes
etc.,
are reproduced after
place in these animals by
" Fhilodephical Trasaaetioiis," 1814.
THE HOBSE.
loss or severe injury of the original
133
mem-
process, than in the reproduction of
bers
and
in the Triton a perfect eye has
organs
in
the
simpler animals
whole though
It
removed.
fect
been formed to replace one which had been its effects do not appear so strildng. In the true Lizards, an imper- would seem that in some individuals
reproduction of the
a part of
it
this
tail
takes place, regenerating

off;
when
has been broken
but degree than
it is
power is retained to a greater by the class at large * and

;
the newly-developed portion contains no here again

perfect vertebrae, its centre being occupied of
we
find, that in the early
period
by a cartilaginous column, like that of the In the warm-blooded Vertebrata generally, as in Man, the power of true reproduction after loss or injury seems limited, as Mr. Paget has pointed out,* to three classes of parts, namely Those (1.) which are formed entkely by nutritive repetition, like the blood and epethelia, their germs being continually generated de novo in the ordinary condition of the body (2.) Those which are of lowest organization, and (which seems of more importance) of
lowest Fishes.
: ' ;
development the power is more strongly exerted than in the adult condition. The most remarkable proof of its persistence even in Man, has been collected by Prof. Simpson; who has brought together numerous cases in which, after spontaneous amputation of the limbs of a foetus in utero,' occurring at an early period of gestation, there has obviously been an imperfect effort at the re-formation of the amputated part from the stump.f By the knowledge of these facts and principles, we seem justi'
fied in
the surmise, that

or
the
occtu-rence
lowest chemical character, as the gelatinous of supernumerary

tissues, the areolar
multiple
parts
is
and tendinous, and the not always due (as usually supposed) to bones; (3.) Those which are inserted in the fusion of two germs, but that it other tissues, not as essential to their struc- may result from the subdivision of one;
'
'
ture,
incorporating
but as accessories, as connecting or them with the other struclife,
tures of vegetative or animal

nerve-fibres
such as
these
and
blood-vessels.
With
more what
is
* One of the most curious and well-authenticated inis related by Mr. Wliite, in his work on the " Regeneration of Animal and Vegetable Substances of this kind
stances," 1785, p. 16.
"Some
years ago, I delivered a
exceptions, injuries or losses are capable of
lady of rank of a fine boy,

or rather, a
who had two thumbs upon one

the
first joint,
no more than
sense
;
repair, in
its
limited hand,
is
thumb double from
the
i. e.,
in the place of
other one less than the other, each part ha\'ing a perfect
lost,
nail.
When
some lowly
organized tissue
formed,
to take oif
he was about three years old, I was desired the lesser one, which I did but to my great
;
which fills up the breach, and suffices for astonishment it grew again, and along with it the nail. The family afterwards went to reside in Loudon, where the maintenance of a less perfect life.' his father showed it to that excellent operator, William Yet, restricted as this power is, its opera- Bromfield, Esq., surgeon to the Queen's household who tions are frequently most remarkable and said, he supposed Mr. White, being afraid of damaging are in no instance, perhaps, more strUcingly the joint, had not taken it wholly out, but he would dis; ;
sect
it
displayed, than
out entirely, and then
it
would not
return.
in the
re-formation of a
He
ac-
cordingly executed the plan he had described, with great
whole bone, when the original one has been destroyed by disease. The new bony matter is thrown out, sometimes within, and sometimes around, the dead shaft; and when the latter has been removed, the new structure gradually assumes the regular form, and aU the attachments of muscles, ligaments, etc., become as complete as before. A much greater variety and complexity
and turned^ the ball fairly out of the socket; notwithstanding this, it grew again, and a fresh nail was formed, and the thumb remained in this state." The Author has been himself assured by a most intelligent Surgeon, that he was cognizant of a case in which the whole of one ramus of the lower jaw had been lost by disease in a young girl, yet the jaw had been completely regenerated, and teeth were developed and occupied their normal situations in it. t These cases were brought by Prof. Simpson before
dexterity,
the Physiological Section of the British
Association, at
of
actions
are
involved
in this
its meeting in Edinburgh, August, 18.50. The Author, having had the opportunity of examining Prof. Simpson's
preparations, as well as two*Uving examples,
is
perfectly
* " Lectures on Reproduction and Repair."
satisfied as to the fact.
134
for,
if
it

be supposed that
this subdivi- tion
of
cases,
on
the
other
hand, the
sion
has taken place
when
the
develop-
'gemma' does not

detachment, but
pacity
for
is
possess the complete
mental process has advanced no further than in a Hydra or a Planaria, it seems by no means impossible that each part might, as in those creatures, advance in its development up to the attainment of its complete form.
structure of the parent, at the time of its
endowed with
the ca-
whatever may be deficient. Thus, the bud of a Phanerogamic Plant possesses no roots, and its capacity for independent existence depends
developing
" There are many tribes, both of Plants upon its power of evolving those organs. and Animals, in which multiplication is On the other hand, the 'zoospore' of an effected not only artificially but sponta- Ulva or a Conferva is nothing else than a neously, by the separation of parts, which, young cell, from which the entire organism though developed from the same germ in is to be evolved after it has been set free; perfect continuity with each other, are capa- and, even in the bulbels of the Marble of maintaining an independent exist- chantia, the advance is very little greater. ence, and which, when thus separated, take The 'bulbels' of certain Phanerogamic rank as distinct individuals. This process, plants, however, bear more resemblance to which is obviously to be regarded, no less ordinary buds. 4. In the preceding cases, than the preceding, as a peculiar manifes- the organism which is developed by this tation of the ordinary operations of Nu- process resembles that from which it has trition, may take place in either of four been put forth but there are many cases different modes 1. ti the lowest Cellular in which the offset differs in a marked dePlants, and the simplest Protozoa, every gree from the stock, and evolves itself into component cell of the aggregate mass that such a different form that the two would springs from a single germ, being capable not be supposed to have any mutual relaof existing independently of the rest, may tion, if their affinity were not proved by a be regarded as a distinct individual and knowledge of their history. Sometimes thus every act of growth which consists in we find that the new individual thus budthe multiplication of cells, makes a corre- ded off is in every respect as complete as sponding augmentation in the number of that from which it proceeded, though deindividuals. 2. Li many organisms of a veloped upon a different type but in other somewhat higher type, in which the fabric instances it is made up of little else than of each complete individual is made up of a generative apparatus, provided with locoseveral component parts, we find the new motive instruments to carry it to a distance,
'
'
gro\\i:hs to be complete repetitions of that its nutritive apparatus being very imperfect. from which they are put forth and thus Of the first, we have an example in the the composite organism presents the sem- development of Medusas from the Hydroid blance of a collection of individuals united Polypes and of the second in the peculiar together, so that nothing ig needed but the subdivision of certain Annelida, hereafter
; ;
severance of the connection, to resolve

into a
it
to be described.
Now
it is
obvious that, in
number of separate individuals, each this process, no agency is brought into perfect in itself The most characteristic play that differs in any essential mode from example of this is presented by the Hydra, that which is concerned in the ordinary nuwhich is continually multiplying itself after tritive operation. The multiplication of
which
for the buds or geramEe individitals is performed exactly after the throws off are not merely struc- same fashion as the extension of the parent turally but functionally complete (being organism and the very same parts may capable of seizing and digesting their own be regarded as organs belonging to it, or as
this
fashion
it
'
prey), previously to thfeir
detachment from new individuals, according to
their stage of
the parent.
3.
In by far the larger propor- development, and the relation
of depen-
THE HORSE.
dence which they
of
cells
still
135
hold to
is
it.
The
es-
"
Thus, then, in the entire process in
sence of this operation

"
the multiplication
We
by continual subdivision. have now, on ihe other hand, to in-
which a new being originates, possessing lUie structure and endowments with its parent, two distinct classes of actions partici])ate,
quire into (he nature of the true Generative

process, by
namely,
the act of Generation,

is
which the
its
original
germ
is
en-
by which the
Germ
produced
dowed with
and
For,
this
developmental capacity
of
act of Development, by
and the which that germ is

;
we
shall find to be of
a character evolved into the complete organism.

is
The
precisely
the
opposite
the preceding. former
vmder
whatever ch-cumstances
is
an operation altogether sui generis ; the the latter is only a peculiar modification of
Nutritive
generative process
performed,
it
appears the
function;
yet
it
may
give
essentially to consist in the re-union of the origin, as
we
have seen, to
new
individuals,
which
'
which the germ, by the separation (natural or artificial) of of a the parts which are capable of existing as new generation,' is the result. This pro- such. Now, between these two operations cess is performed under the three following there would seem to be a kind of antagoWhilst every act of Development conditions: 1. AJl the cells of the entire nism.
contents of
is
ti'JO
cells* of
the
real
commencement
aggregate, produced by the previous subdi- tends to diminish the

vision,
'
germinal capacity,'
;
be capable of thus uniting with the act of Generation renews it and thus each other indiscriminately there being no the tree, which has continued to extend indication of any sexual distinction. This itself by budding until its vital energy
;
may
is
what we
2.
see
in
the
simplest Cellular
cells
is
well-nigh
spent,
may
develop
flowers
plants.
of each and mature seeds from which a vigorous organism may, in like manner, pair with progeny shall spring up. But the multipliother cells, to produce fertile germs but cation of individuals does not directly deAll the
component
which pend upon the act of generation alone it they respectively take in the process, which may be accomplished by the detachment indicate that their endowments are not pre- of gemvice, whose production is a simple and the individuals cisely similar, and that a sexual distinction act of development exists between them, notwithstanding that thus produced are sometimes similar, somethis is not indicated by any obvious struc- times dissimilar, to the beings firom which
there are differences
in the shares
; ;
tural character.
This condition
its allies.
is
seen in they sprang.
When
they
are
is
dissimilar,
the Zygneraa and

erative
3.
The gen- however,
the original type
always repro-
power is restrictad to certain cells, duced by an intervening act of generation which are set apart from the rest of the and the immediate products of the true generative act always resemble one another. fabric, and destined to this purpose alone and the endowments of the two sets are so Hence the plu-ase, alternation of generafar different, that the one furnishes the tions,' can only be legitimately employed
'
ing influence
when the term generation is used to desighave nate a succession of individuals, by whatbeen appropriately designated germ-cells ever process they have originated an apand the other sperm-cells.' Such is the plication of it which cannot but lead to a case in all the higher Plants among which complete obliteration of the essential disgerm, whilst the other supplies the
;
fertiliz-
whence the one

'
set
'
a true generative apparatus has been distinction which the attempt has been here covered and also throughout the Animal made to draw between the generative act
;
kingdom.
* In
vci-y rare instances,
ilie
it
and the act of gemmation.

said
is
For when
itself,
c,
it is
that
'
generation a produces generais
the re-union of the

cell, Avhich
parts of
contents of the
same
two had pre-
tion B,
which
dissimilar to
whilst
viously tended to separate from each other, as if in the
generation b produces generation

is
which
process of subdivision.
dissimilar to
itself,
but which returns to
136
the form of generation

a,' it is
entirely left in
a generative
act,
whether that product
out of consideration that generation a pro- consist of a single individual, or of a suc-
duces
(the
so-called)
generation b by a cession, wLU be found
much more
appropri-
process of gemmation ; whilst the process ate, and more conducive to the end in view,
by which generation b produces generation So generation c is one of true generation. c developes d by gemmation, which resemand d, by a true generative act, bles B produces e, which resembles a and c. This
;
than the indiscriminate application of
it
to
each succession, whether produced by gem-
mation
of
or
by sexual
re-union.
It is
of
great importance to the due comprehension

certain
phenomena
of
Reproduction,
which will come under consideration in the appear merely verbal, will yet be found of Animal kingdom, that the relations of the fundamental importance in the appreciation products of these two processes should be of the true relations of these processes, and rightly appreciated; and this appreciation
distinction, although
it
may
at first sight
of their resulting products.
So, in the of
them wiU,
it is
believed, be Lest gained
Author's opinion, the application of the by a careful inquiry into the phenomena
term generation to the entire product of of Reproduction in the Vegetable kingthe development of any germ originating dom."
' '
EXAMINATIONS RESUMED.
GLANDULAR APPARATUS.
Q. Describe the structure of a glandular body.
It consists
brane?"
A.
is
In consequence of the serous or wateiy

its
A.
fluid
with which
surface
is
constantly moistened.
of a collection of tubes,
more or
less convo-
Q.
What
the structure of serous
membranes?
luted, united by cellular substance into masses of a A. The same as that of the areolar tissue, haring a rounded form, constituting a lobule each lobule has very smooth and glistening inner sm-face, which is a separate investment of membrane and the whole covered with a layer of cells constituting a distinct
; ;
aggregate of lobules
is
furnished with a general
mem-
tissue,
termed epithelium.
This
is
in contact with the

it
branous envelope or capsule.
Each gland presents a primary membrane, thus
isolating
fi-om the tissues
complex arrangement of nimierous arteries, veins, beneath. Sub-adj acent to this is a layer of condensed nerves, and Ij-mphatics, and most of them are provided areolai' tissue, wliich constitutes the chief tliickness of the serous membrane, and confers upon it its strength witli an excretoiy duct, which conducts the secretion
prepared in the gland.
Q. ^^^lat glands are supposed to
and be destitute of a
elasticity; this
gradually passes into that baser
variety,
it
secretory duct?
A.
The
pineal gland, thjioid, thy-
by which the membrane is attached to the part lines, and which is commonly known as the sub-
mus, and renal capsides. Q. What function do most of the glands perform
serous tissue.
?
A fibrous tissue
membrane
itself,
sition of the
A. Their function is tvvo-fold, namely, the separation lace in a beautiful of some material fi-om the eii-cidating fluid, wliich equal elasticit)- in every direction. Q. What is the purpose of this membrane ? would otherwise prove mjurious to the system, and the
elaboration of a product destined to renovate the
sues.
tis-
enters into the compoand its filaments internetwork, which confers upon it
A. movements of the contained organs, by forming smooth surfaces which shall fi-eely ghde
To
facihtate the
over each other.
OF THE ABDOMEN.
Q. How is the cavity of the abdomen bounded ? Q. What efiect does the gastric fluid have upon the A. Anteriorly, by the diaphragm; posteriorly, by the A. It is supposed to have the propertj' of dispelris superiorly, by a portion of the vertebra inte- food? sohing the albuminous and gelatinous constituents of riorly and laterally, by abdominal muscles. Q. Into how many regions is the abdomen divided ? the food.
; ;
A.
driac
Into nine, as follows

;
right
;
right
and
left
lumbar
right
and and
left
hj^pochon;
Q.
What
is
the real solvent of the gastric fliud

acetic, or lactic acid.
left iliac
epi-
A. Either hydrochleric,
gastric, umbihcal,
and
hipogastric.
Q. Is not the solvent action of the gastric fluid aided
Q.
Why
is
A. Yes. By the moveby some mechanical means ? ments of the walls of the stomach, which are produced " and relaxations of their serous memthe successive contractions by the peritoneum called
PERITONEUM.
THE HORSE.
muscular
kept
in
fibres,
137
the contents of the stomach are thus

is
globules, of smaller diameter than those of the blood,
and appearance to those of it is removed from Q. Docs absorption of nutritious matter take place the thoracic duct, it coagulates into a stifl" jelly, which A. Yes. A portion of the nutri- in the com-se of twenty-fom- hours separates into two in the stomach? tious matter dissolved by the gastric fluid is at once parts, pro\iding a fii'm and contracted coagulum, surabsorbed into the blood-vessels of the stomach, and roimded by a transparent colorless fluid.
a state of constant agitation, which
considered
and corresponding
in size
favorable to their chemical solution.
miUv.
Li about ten minutes after
never passes into the intestinal tube, nor into the special
lacteal
Q.
What
;
ai'e
the principal ingredients of chyle?
system of vessels.
is
A.
to the food after
?
large proportion of albumen, a smaller one of
Q.
What term
Gas
is
appHed
tion, in the
stomach, to a pulpy mass

frequently evolved in
digestion
:
Q.
chyle the appearance of milk and several salts, such Chyme. the stomach and as carbonate of potassa, mmiate of potassa, and pro;
A.
its
reduc-
fibrin
a fatty substance or emulsion, which gives to
intestines dm-ing
this ?
A.
how do you
account for
phospate of iron.
Q.
It is
owing to a disturbed or morbid condi-
What change
does the chyle undergo in

?
tion of that process,
and by no means a necessary
at-
sage along the various vessels
A.
its
pas-
Its
resemblance
tendant upon healthy digestion.

Q.
to blood increases in each of the successive stages of its
Does
violent exercise immediately after a
tend to
retai-d the formation of
chyme ?
A.
feed progress towards the heart and

Q.
lungs.
It does.
How
are the chemical changes,
and the contents

tlie
The circumstances most

Q.
favorable to perfect digestion
of the intestines propelled through the tract of the
are, a short period of rest, followed
by gentle
exercise.
alimentary canal
A.
By
the peristaltic action of
Does any portion of the food ever pass unchanged muscular coat of the same. Q. What becomes of the chyle after it has been preA. Yes. through the pylorus along with the chyme ? A. It Whole oats are frequently found in the horse's excre- pared in the duodenum and fii'st intestines ? received by absorption into the lacteals, and by them is ment.
conveyed to the thoracic duct, which transmits

INTESTIXES.
Q.
it
to
large veins in the vicinity of the heart.

into
(See distribu-
The aliment now being converted
chyme, tion of Ipnphatics.)

it ?
understand by the " absorbent sysA. The absorbent system of vessels consists Q. Having entered the duodenum, with what does of two principal divisions, wliich may be compared to the chyme mingle? A. The biliary and pancreatic two sets of roots proceeding fi'om a common trunk
Q.
and having passed the pylorus, what becomes of A. It enters the duodenum.
What do you
tem?"
secretions.
one of these commences upon the walls of the

?
intes-
Q. "V^Tiat effect do they have
and the ch)-me

tions are
A.
on the
gastric secretion
tmes,
and
is
termed
its
the " lacteal " system
whilst
The
biharj-
and pancreatic
alliali
secre;
the other takes
origin in various parts of the sublai-ge,
supposed to contain an excess of
tliis
stance of the organism at
especially in the skin
and subcutaneous textures, and is known as the " lymno further solution of albuminous compounds, but the phatic " system. conversion of starch into sugar, which was interrujjted Q. Where do the lacteals most numerously abound ? in the stomach, now recommences. ^. In the small intestines, below the point at which
neutralizes the acid of the gastric juice, so that there
is
Q.
What
are the uses of the bile
A.
The
chief,
the Uver and pancreas discharge their secretions.

Q.
uses of the bile appear to be those of a chemical agent
Where do
the lacteals
villi
commence
?
promoting the decomposition of the chyme, and also

etimulatmg the secretion of mucus, and the
action of the intestines.
peristaltic
the free extremities of the

Q. In
of the intestines.
what way do they commence
A. A.
?
Near
was
It
formerly supposed that they commenced by orifices
the elements of digestion
upon the internal smrface of the intestine but Carpenter, and other physiologists, contend that the lacteal with oil and fat. vessels form loops by anastomosis with each other, so Q. The ch)-me, having been acted on by the preced- that they have no free extremity. A. ing secretions, what name is then given to it ? Q. AVhat are the fimctions of the large intestines ?
Q.
eflect
?
What
has the pancreatic juice on chyme or
A.
It
forms an emulsion
Chyle.
Q. Describe the properties of chyle?
sion of feculent matter, and there are certain changes be taken from the thoracic duct of an animal a few which take place in their contents, in aid of the object homrs after it has taken food, it has very much the of nutrition, the exact nature of which has never been appearance of cream, being a thick fluid of an opaque clearly determined. According to the best authority, it
A.
A.
They
are
engaged
in the conveyance
and expul-
If chyle
white color, without smell, and having a sKghtly acid

taste,
appears that some important changes are effected in accompanied by a perceptible sweetness. It that enlarged portion of the canal, termed coecum, and restores the blue color of Htmus, previously reddened which has, by some, been regarded as a kind of supby acetic acid, and appears, therefore, to contain a pre- plementary stomach, in which fresh chvine is formed, ponderance of alkali. When subjected to microscopic and fi-esh nutriment extracted from the materials that
examination, chyle is found to contain a midtitude of 18
have passed through the small intestines.
The
large
138

Q. Into what substance is the greater part of the from their contents, A. BUine. matter in- excrementitious matter converted ?
intestines also extract nutriment
which
is
proved by the
fact that nutritious
jected into
them has been known
to support
life
for a
certain time.
KIDNEYS.
Q.
What
is
the embryotic condition of the kidneys
A. The kidneys are preceded in the embryo by a subA. It stance first noticed by Wolff, and called after him the Q. What is the function of the spleen ? serves as a kind of diverticulum, to relieve the vessels Wolffian bodies, or false kidneys, which originally exof the digestive vescera when they are compressed by tend along the spine fi'om the heart to the end of the undue accummulation of the contents of then' canities, intestines but they afterwards become shorter, and or when they are congested by obstruction to the flow after a time diminish by absorption, and wholly disof blood, through the hver or heart. It may also be appear.
SPLEEN.
considered as a lymphatic gland, for, in some instances A. Their Q. TVTiat is the function of the kidneys ? in which animals have been allowed to survive longest principal ftmction is to separate from the blood certain after removal of the spleen, the lymphatic glands of matters which would be injm-ious to it if retained.
the vicinity have been found greatly enlarged and clus-
Q. What does the secretory surface of the kidneys tered together, so as neai-Iy to equal the original spleen consist of? A. It is composed of epithehal cells in volume hence, in such case we infer that its func- which line the tubuh lu-inifera, which draw the pecuhar tion must be similar to that of the enlarged Ijmphatic elements of the urinary excretion from the vascular
plexus wliich surrounds the exterior of the tubes, carrying

ofl"
the same to their terminations in the ureter. other arrangement

is
Ln-EK.
Q.
What
provided within the

fluid of
A.
Q.
What
It is
comprises the principal bulk of the hver

of a vast
kidneys for the elimination of the superfluous
number of minute lobules the blood ? A. K process of transudation takes place of irregular form, but about the average size of a mil- by the ftmction of malpighian bodies, whose thin- walled elements of and each of them contains the let seed capillaries allow the transudation of water to take
made up
which the entire organ
is
composed,
viz.,
a plexus of
place,
under a certain pressure, into the tubuli
urinifera.
biliary ducts connected with their

;
main trunks, and a mass of biliary cells each of which are connected in like manner with the three blood-vessels which unite
to the circulation of this organ. Q.
SUPRA-RENAL CAPSULES.
Q.
What
What
are the
vessels
of the hver?
A.
sules ?
A.
is
the function of the supra-renal cap-
Their function has liitherto been involved
The
in obscurity,
and was supposed
to
be identical with
;
hepatic artery, vena portse, and hepatic veins, to which other glands destitute of ducts or outlets
but, lately,
may
Q.
be added the excretory ducts and absorbents.
Of what Of what
use
is
the hepatic artery ?
A.
M. Brown Seguard has demonstrated

horse.
that they play
It is the
a very important part in the nervous system of the
nutrient artery of the Hver.

Q.
use
is
the vena portoe

:
A.
It acts
both
T.VSA DEFEEENTIA.
as a vein
firom
fies
and arteiy as a vein, it receives the blood most of abdominal viscera ; as an artery, it ramithrough the hver for the secretion of bQe.
Q.
What
is
the ftmction of the vas deferens
It is the excretory duct of the testicle,
? A. and conveys the
Q.
What
What
is
the use of the hepatic veins? ---.4.
return blood to the vena cava.

Q.
is
an the reproductive organs, has thought it best to substiorgan of excretion, designed to remove from the circu- tute the opinions of that eminent ph}-isologist. Dr. lating fluid that portion of the products of disintegra- Carpenter; and therefore the reader's attention is now
the limction of the hver ?
It is
A.
They semen The
to the vesiculse seminales.
author, instead of introducing examinations on
tion, of
is
the largest.
which the principal component of the urinary directed to " Physiological considerations on the production of organized beings."
re-
REMARKS AND EXAMINATIONS ON THE

The
parts which
EYE.
compose the eye
are the puncta lachrymalia terminate in a small
divided into external and internal.

external parts are
:
The
sac,
from which the lachrymal duct proceeds
not the case in the horse. Li the be inner corner of the horse's eye is placed a reckoned more than one, there being very body commonly termed the haw, no resemfew hairs in the under eyelid. Secondly, blance to which is to be found in the huThe horse has the power, by the eyelids, or palpebrse, upper and under man eye. where they join outwardly, it is termed the means of the muscles of the eye, to biing it external canthus, and inwardly toward the the haw completely over its siu-face nose, the internal canthus they cover and serves, therefore, as a second eyelid, and
First, the eyelashes, or this is
cUia, which, in the horse,
can
scai-cely
defend the eyes.

lashes proceed, is
tarsus
The
cartilaginous margin effectually wipes off

tlie
any
dust, hay, or seeds,
or rim of the eyelid, from wliich
eye- or other matter which
may have fallen upon

or
named
tarsus.
In the the eye.
The
conjunctive membrane,
and
internal
surface of the
eyelid tunica conjunctiva, lines the inner surface
there are small glands,
which
secrete
a
its
fluid,
lids,
of the eyelids, and covers the white part of

the globe of the eye.
to prevent friction of the eye
and
This membrane has
and facUitate motion. Tliirdly, the lachiymal gland, which is placed on the upper part of the eyelid toward the external canthus from this gland the tears are secreted, and
numerous
ous
blood-vessels,
it is
which are conspicu-
when
inflamed.
The bulb
or globe
of the eye
is
composed of
several coats
and
humors.
The
transparent cornea, which,
conveyed to the inner surface of the vipper in the horse, forms the front part of the eye, eyelid by several minute ducts, or canals, comprehends a larger part of the globe named lacluymal ducts. There is another than in the human subject on removing small body, having a glandular appearance, this cornea, a fluid, which is named the in the inner corner of the eye on each side aqueous humor, escapes, and the iris apThe iris is a. muscular curtain, of which there are small orifices which are pears. called puncta lachrymaha: these are the having a hole in the centre, which is termed
; ;
mouths or openings of two small canals, the pupU. This divides the fore part of the which, joining together, form a membranous eye into two parts, named chambers, wliich tube and this, passing through a smaU open- are occupied by the aqueous humor. The
;
ing in the bone, extends to the lower part pupU is of a dark bluish cast of the nostril, where its termination may be or rather of an oblong, form.
distinctly seen in the horse.
is
of an oval,
iris
The
regu-
As
the lachry- lates the quantity of light that
is
required
mal gland is constantly forming tears, it to pass through the pupil. For this purpose, must be obvious that some contrivance is it is composed of two sets of muscular necessary to convey them off, and prevent fibres by means of one the pupil is enthem flowing over the cheek this purpose larged, and by the other it is diminished. is answered by the canal just described. Thus, if the pupil is first examined in the When any irritating matter is applied to stable, where there is a moderate light, and
:
:
the eye, the tears are formed too abundantly immediately after in the sunshine,
to be carried off in this
it
will be
way
they then found quite altered; being so small, in a

eye, strong light, as to be nearly closed.
flow over the cheek.
In the
human
On
re-
140

iris,
moving the
situation
the second humor, or crys- cumstances

:
may
occur to render vision im-
talline lens, appeEirs
this is retained
in its perfect, or to destroy it altogether.
the
by a transparent membrane, named transparent cornea, for example, became its capsule, between which and the lens is a white, light could not pass through it, and minute quantity of fluid. The third humor the aiaimal woidd be blind, however perfect of the eye is the A^treous. This humor is not the other parts of the eye might be. The contained in one general sac, but in numer- cornea may be either too convex or too flat; ous minute and perfectly transparent cells, in the former case, causing the animal to be tliis humor near-sighted and resembles pure water in the latter, producing an in: ;
serves to produce a small degree of refrac- distinctness of vision with respect to objects
The iris may, in consequence become fixed, or lose its power of the eye. The next coat to the conjmictive of motion in which case, the pupU would is the sclerotica, or white of the eye, a be always of the same size, and the animal strong, thick membrane, which extends would not have the power of adapting it
tion
iji
the rays of light, and occupies and that are near.

all
distends
the posterior part of the globe of disease,
from the transparent cornea to the optic to the various distances or objects; or, as nerve. The next coat to the sclerotic is the sometimes happens, the pupil may become choroid. This is a delicate and very vascu- quite closed, by which light would be perlar membrane. In the human eye it appears fectly excluded from the retina. Supposing of a black color, and it is this which causes the cornea and iris to be healthy, the crysthe pupU of the human eye to appear black talline lens, or its capstile, may become but the choroid coat of the horse's eye is opaque, and thereby cause total blindness. variegated in color in some parts black, in But in this part, as in the cornea, we meet others blue, and in others green. The next with different degrees of opacity somecoat is the retina this is a delicate expan- times it is very slight, the pupil appearing sion of the optic nerve over the choroid of a lighter color, and unusually large in coat, which it accompanies to the margin this state, the pupU is said to look duU or of the crystalline lens, and there terminates. muddy, which causes the horse to start
;
:
The use
of the retina
is
to receive certain but

reflected
when
the opacity
is
complete,
it
consti-
impressions
made by the light
from tutes the disease termed cataract.

is
There
serena,
objects, so as to
produce in the mind an
another disease, to which the reader's atis
idea of their figure and color; the optic tention

nerve being the
called
it
is
named gutta
This disease is known by between the retina and brain. From the the pupU being unusually large or open, above explanation of the mechanism of the and by its continuing so when the eye is
of communication or amaurosis.
eye,
it
medium
wiU
readily appear that
many
cir-
exposed to a sfrong
light.
EXAMINATIONS OF THE ORGANS OF SIGHT AND THEIR APPENDAGES.

Q.
Where
are
the eyes located?
A. Within the
EYELIDS.
Q. "What parts do the eyeUds occupy
orbits.
Q.
By what foraminse
is
each orbit perforated?
A.
cumference of the orbits and front of the eyeball.

Q.
By
the optic foramen.
A. What are the eyehds composed of? ^.

?
;
The cirIn com-
From whence is the lining membrane of the orbit position they are cuticular, muscular, cartilaginous, and A. From the dura mater and periostemn. membranous also glandular, vascular, and nervous. derived ? A. The Q. Enumerate the appendages of the eye. Q. What muscle enters into the composition of the
Q.
eyeHds, eyelashes, muscles of the eyelids, tarsal cartilages,
eye?
Q.
A.
The
orbicularis palpebrarum.
meibomian glands, timica conjunctiva, membrana

laclnymal gland, puncta laclir}TnaHa,
lachrj'-
How are the Uds

What
is,
nictitans,
fissure,
separated ? A. By a transverse bounded by the angles or canthi of the eye.

attached to the superior or temporal
tarsal ligament.
mal
balL
sac,
ductus ad nasum, and the muscles of the eye-
Q.
angle ?
A.
The
EXPLANATION OF FIGURE XIV.
HINT) EXTEEMITIES.
to'.
Tensor vagina.
Rectus.
k'.
o'.
Vastus externus.
q'.
)'.
Flexor metatarsi.
r.
Gastrocnemius internus.
"
s'.
t'.
externus.

Insertion of the gastrocnemius.
'.
'.
Flexor metatarsi.
x'.
Extensor pedis.
^.
u. V.
y\ Extensors. Tendo perforans et perforatus. K'. K'. Abductors tibialis.

J'. J'. Triceps.
v.
Sf.
I'.
Adductors.
Hoof.
5, 5.
Saphena
vein.
8.
1)'.

(Off-hind leg.)
Peroneus.
z.
FORE EXTREMITIES.
J". Pectoralis magnus.
m".
o".
n". Triceps extensor brachii.
Pectoralis transversah.'!.
"
"
p". p". Flexor metacai'pi externus.

gr".
mcdius.
internus.
r".
s".
"
"
u". (At the
upper
pai-t
of the figure.)
Levator humeri.
u". u". u". u". V. (Beneath the olecranon

foratus.
and carpus.)
Flexors perforans and per-
x".
Extensor pedis.
y". y. Extensor suffraginis.

z".
i,:
The
hoof.
4.
6. 8.
Subcutaneous thoracic vein.

Radial vein.
THE HORSE.
Q. AVhat
is
141
between the eyeball and side of
fixed to the inferior angle?
A.
The the
Q.
inferior canthus,
tendon of the orbicularis.

Q.
the orbit.
From whence
is
the loose portion of sldn, enter-
A. ing into the composition of the upper lid, derived ? It is a prolongation of the skin covering the forehead.
Q. From whence is that of the lower A. From the mtegimients of the face.
lid
What
is its
figm-e ?
A.
It
approaches that of an
derived?
extended triangle, of wliich the short side is turned forwards, and the lengthened angle backwards.
Q. Describe the anterior part ?
elastic,
A. It is thin and and bounded by a crescentic edge, tei'minating

salient angles
;
A.
Q.
Q.
How
are the internal sm-faces of the lids shaped
in
two
it
increases in substance, but
Into concavities which adapt
them
to the convex-
grows naiTow
conical point,
posteriorly,
and there ends
in
an obtuse
ity of the globe of the eye.
which appears in the adipose

of
its
tissue at the
By
w^hat
membrane
ai-o
the Kds lined?
A.
the conjunetirial.
T.UIS.U. C.UlTIL.iGES.
By bottom of the orbit. Q. What is the form

concave
;
smfaces
A.
Inwardly
outwardly convex.
is
Q. "What are the tarsal cartilages
A.
Q.
What
They enter clothed with

brane.
Q.
A.
the body of the nictitating
membrane
By
a portion of conjimctirial mem-
into the substance of the borders of the Kds, imparting
to
them both
is
fii-mness
and
elasticity.
?
Q. Describe the tai-sal cartilages

cartilage
A. The superior P.
Q.
What
To
is
the function of the
membrana
nictitans?
protect the eyeball, in the removal of foreign

its
broader and more convex than the inferior

in
bodies from
surface.
they correspond
lids
;
shape and
size to their respective
they are convex outwardly and concave inwardly,

into the rims of the orbits.
L.iCimYMjil. APPARATUS.
and are inserted

Q.
What
parts
compose the lachmyTal apparatus?

sac,
What
is
is
the texture of the tarsus?
A.
Their
A. The lachi-ymal gland, caruncula lachrymalis,
lachi-y-
texture
tibro-cartilaginous.
mal puncta and conduits, lachr)-mal nasum.
and ductus ad
MEIBOMIAN GLANDS.
Q. Describe the meibomian glands
?
A. They have
Q. Q.
LACHETJIAL CLASV.
Where
is
the lachrj-mal gland situated?

coverings, and with
is
.4.
In
in
the appearance
of white follicular bodies, vertically

;
ranged
Q.
parallel lines
they vary both in caUbre and
a depression, beneath the process of the orbital arch.
length, and are
the upper rather than the lower hd.

?
What
?
What
is
the function of the meibomian glands
contact
A.
is
are
its
what
it
It is
;
covered by the
it is
common aponeurotic
cellular
is
lining of the orbit

pebrae,
in contact with the levator pal-
A. To secrete a fluid which guai'ds against between the eye and its appendages. TUNICA CONJUNCTIVA.
friction
and
enveloped
its
Q.
What
is
form?
A.
fat
and
It
membrane.
irregular, slightly
convex superiorly; inclining to the concave iuferiorUy.

It is a
conglomerate gland, constituted of
many
lobules.
?
A.
Q.
What
It is
is
the situation of the tunica conjunctiva
Q.
Have
the lobules any further organization
A,
the lining
membrane
of the eyehds,
mem-
Yes, they are composed of minute granules.

Q.
brana
nictitans, caruncula lachrymalis,

is
puncta
lachr)'-
What
vessels
maKa, and
rent one
is is
reflected to the globe of the eye.

?
Q. Describe the conjunetirial surface
A. The adhe-
springs from
them
A.
do the granules receive and what
ramifications of the supplying arteries,
They receive the terminating and from them

in,
rough,
lax,
and
flocculent
the outer surface
spring the radicles of the excretory ducts.

Q.
smooth, glossy, and humid with secretion.

Q.
What
do the radicles terminate
What
are the peculiarities in the organization of

?
the conjunctiva
A.
their outlet?
A.
its
and where
is
The
h'd
radicles unite nith one another
It is
a continuous membrane, yet

:
into a set of tubes,
which open upon the conjunetirial
varies in textm-e, as follows
1st.
That portion which Kning of the upper

palpebralis
is
is
the som-ce of seven risible

is
gives
a covering to
2d.
the
conjunctiva
orifices
near
superior angle; this
their outlet.
higlily organized with blood-vessels,
and
often tinged
is
Q.
What
is
the function of the lachrjTnal gland ?

tears.
a deep red color.
The conjunctiva
sclerotica
not
A. To secrete the
Q.
60 highly organized, yet has a few straggling vessels of
What becomes
;
of the superfluous
teai's ?
A.
larger caHbre than those of the former, and

is
its
textm-e
is
They
either fall over the lower Hds, or pass into the
more
dense.
3d.
The conjunctiva
cornea?
thin
lachrvTnal sac
lets -Nrithin
from thence, by the ductus, to their outtheii- inferior parts.
and transparent, more of a

ajjpearance of vascularity.
homy
textui'e,
and has no
the nostrils, at
CUIUNCULA LACHEYM.U,IS.
MEMBRANA
Q. TlHiat
is
NICTIT.UCS.
for the
Q.
What
is
the caruncula lachrjinalis
A.
It is
brane
Q.
Q.
A.
the
common name
?
above
mem-
small eminence, lodged within the inferior canthus, be-
The haw.
structure
situation ?
What What
is its is its
A. A.
tween the eyeball and Hds.

Cartilaginous.
It is
Q.
What
is its
use
A.
It secretes
a light yellow
its
located behind
unctuous matter, with which the fine hairs on
surface
142
being coated
it

detains any small foreign bodies that
;
THE EYEBALL AND

Q.
ITS COATS.
?
may
float in the laehrj-mal secretion
it
also
directs
What
is
the form of the globe of the eye

figure.
A.
the latter fluid into the puncta.
Nearly of a spherical
LACHRYMAL PUNCTA AND CONDUITS.

orifices situated
A. Two small on the inward margins of the two near the radix of the superior and What do the puncta terminate in? A. The A. Within the subAVhat stance of the How are conduits formed A. A minute
Q.
What are the puncta lachrymalia ?

inferior
A. Q. Of what is the globe of the eye composed? Of membranes, or coats, fiUed with humors or fluids,
which preserve
Q.
its
form.
?
lids
How many
coats has the eye
A.
Five
the
caruncle.
sclerotic, choroid, retuia, cornea,
and
iris.
Q.
Q.
Does not the
tunica conjunctivia enter into the
lacha-jTnal conduits.
composition of the membranes of the eye?

it
Q.
is
theu' situation
eyelids.
may be considered as common to both. Q. Where does it adhere most closely ?
A. A.
Yes:
Over
Q.
carti-
the cornea.
laginous circle surrounds them, and they are lined by
conjunctiml membrane.
Q.
What do
sac.
the conduits terminate in?
A.
SCLEROTIC COAT.
The
Q.
What is
the use of the sclerotica ?
A.
?
It
bounds
lachrymal
the form of the eye, protects and supports the parts
LACHRYMAL
Q.
SAC.
?
within.
Q.
Where
What
What
are
its
perceivable boundaries
is
the lachrj-mal sac situated
A. AVith-
tends from the optic nerve to the cornea.

Q.
is
in the depression which leads into the channel of the
mserted mto
inserted into
it
posteriorly?
A. A.
?
It ex-
The
lachr)-mal bone, behind
and below the small eminence
fleshy part of the retractor muscle.
upon the
orbital ridge of that bone.
Q. Describe the sac and its connections ?
A.
It is
Q.
It is
What
is
its
anterior margins
A.
an oblong membranous bag;

fibres of the orbicularis
;
The tendons of the
foiu: recti.
its
front
is
crossed by
COKNE.V.
Q.
it
has also a connection with
the tendon of that muscle.
The
posterior part of the
What
is
the cornea
sac adheres fii-mly to the lachrjinal bone.
com-
rior part of the globe of the eye.
posed of a dense,
wliite, fibrous
membrane, furnished
Q.
How does its

What
covers
A. The transparent, ante form compare with the

?
sclerotica ?
with a lining from the conjuncti^'ia. Q. By what is this sac perforated?

lachi-ymal conduits.
Q. AVhat does
it
A. A.
P.
It is
more convex.
its
By
the
Q.
convex surface
A. The con-
open into
A.
junctiria.
Into the ductus ad
Q.
What
is its
sti-ucture ?
A.
.
Laminated.
nasum.
Q.
What
is
the function of this sac?
It
is
a
Q. 'WTiat
is
reservoir into wliich the tears flow from the lachrymal
the
iris ?
It is
a circular membrane,
conduits,
and from thence pass
into the ductus
ad with an irregular central

of the eye.
Q.
cavity, in the anterior
chamber
nasum.
DUCTUS AD NASUM.
Q. AVhat
is
the ductus ad nasum
A.
What
is its
It is
a long
pupQ.
Q.
membranous
canal,
commencing
at the contracted por-
How is
A. The the periphery of the pupU bounded A.

central perforation called
? ?
tion of the lachrjinal sac, and running ^îth the groove
By
several dark, colored, glandular bodies,
termed corcontracting
thi'ough the lachrjTnal bone
then along a canal in the

it
pora nigra.
Q.
it
superior maxillary bone, between

tiu'binated
and the anterior
What
is
the use of the
iris ?
A.
By
bone
terminating at the inner and inferior
excludes
all
superfluous rays of light, and by expand-
part of the nostril.

Q.
What
is
the organization of the ductus ?
A.
ing admits thr-ough the

It
pupU
all
that pass thi-ough the
cornea.
Q.
appears to be a continuation of the
membrane com-
What
is
the structm-e of the iris?
A.
It is
posing the lachrymal

fibrous sheath
;
its
it
strengthened by a fibrous membrane, dirisable into internal surface is probably mucous, with blood-vessels and nerves.
sac, wliich is
tivo layers,
pro\ided
which protects
from the action of the
tears, or
lachrymal secretion.
Q. Describe the course of the tears, or lachi-j-mal Q.
CHOROID COAT.
What
is
the choroid coat?
-4.
It is
a dark-
secretion?
A.
They
;
are
secreted by the lachrjinal

its
colored
membrane
of deUcate texture, located immedi-
gland, and are poured by

surface of the eyeball
excretorj' ducts over the
ately beneath the sclerotica.
them
they are then conveyed by the lachrj-mal ducts

;
to the lachi'jTnal sac
A. It extends from Q. AVhat are its boundaries? around the termination of the optic nerve as far forand through the ductus ad nasum ward as the edge of the cornea, and ends in the ciliary
the puncta lachrj-malia absorb
circle.
pass into the nostril.
THE HOESE.
143
parts of the
Q.
How
sclerotica?
A.
is
is
the choroid coat connected with the
Q.
What
eye do they occupy?
A.
By
cellular
Q.
What
remarkable at
throMTi into folds, called

Q.
membrane. its outer edge? A. It ciliary ch'cle and processes.
They occupy
is
in succession the
spaces termed anterior,
middle, and posterior chambers of the eye.
What is the color

whole surface
is
of the choroides
A. ExternQ.
AQUEOUS HUMOR.
ally, its
black f internally, the anterior

is
What
is
the use of the aqueous hiunor?
A.
It
parts are black,
and the posterior half

?
of a brilliant
transmits the rays of light,
and
?
aids the
fi-ee
motions of
the interval
variegated green.
Q.
the
iiis.
What is
the black part termed
A. Pigmentum
?
Q.
What
are
its
boundaries
nigrum.
Q.
What name
lucidiun.
is
given to the variegated part
A.
between the cornea and

Q. Describe the
A. aqueous humor. A.
It
fills
crystalline lens.
It is
a bright
Tapetum
Q.
limpid
fluid,
and
is
in properties bears
some resemblance
What
difference
the choroid siu-faces
? A. The inner layer is thicker and more consistent than that found on the outer
do we observe in the pigment of
to the vitreous.
A.
<^.
Q.
What
They
the composition of both these
are
surface.
miuriate of soda, held in solution
humors ? composed of albumen, gelatine, and by an aqueous men-
RETINA.
Q.
struum.
It is
yVhat
is
the retina
A.
the third or inner-
How is this fluid secreted ? A. By secretion from

its
most
tunic of the eye.

it
It cannot,
however, be con- the transparent walls of
capsule.
sidered as a tunic, for
pervades the interior of the
globular expansion without contracting any adhesions

until
it
CRYST.U.LINE LENS.
Q.
has reached the corpus ciHare.

is
Q.
How
the retina formed
A.
What
is
the use of the crystalline lens?
A.
It
The
optic nerve,
concentrates the rays of Ught, so as to
make
?
a distinct
hanng reached
in
its
the inner and inferior part of the globe
image
Q.
in the posterior
is
chamber.
of the eye, enters the sclerotic and choroid coats, and
Where
the crj-staUine lens situated
passage thi'ough them
its
diameter contracts
tween the aqueous and vitreous humors.

Q.
having arrived at the inner part of the globe, the neiTe forms an eminence, from the circumference ofwliich
issues radiating fibres
By what
is
the crystalline lens
A. Beenclosed A.
?
By
a tunic, called tunica crj'staDina.
which form the
retina.
Q.
lar
How
it
is
the retina sustained in this state of globu-
VITREOUS HUJIOR.
Q. ^^Tiat
is
expansion?
A.
By
the
humors of the
on the
eye,
which
the vitreous humor, and where
is it situ-
keep
Q.
in contact
nith the choroides.
ated?
interior of the
ciharc.
A.
What
The
retina having radiated

is it
globe,
where
inserted
A. Into the corpus

EYE.
a jelly-like
most bulky himior of the eye; of consistence, yet quite transpai-ent, and occuIt is the
pies that portion of the eyeball posterior to the crystalline lens.
HUMORS OF THE
Q.
Q.
is
the use of the vitreous himior?
A.
It
what are
Of how many humors does the eye consist, and supports the form of the eye, and maintains their names ? A. Of three they are called humrs in their proper positions.
the other
aqueous, ciystalline, and v-itreous humors.
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM.
PHYSIOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS.
between the lobes of the lungs. Respiration and Structure of the Lungs. The organs of respiration are the larynx,
the upper opening of which
is
duplicature of
its
folds,
forms a separation
named
glottis,
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM.
the trachea or windpipe, bronchia, and the

lungs.
The
function of respiration
is
the conver-
sion of venous into arterial blood.

air is displaced
This
a pro-
The
and,
out of the lungs by arterialization of the venous blood

all
is
the action
of the muscles of respiration

these relax, the lungs expand to
cess highly essential to the well-being of
it than the a horse may may be exemplified by means of a sponge, live several days without food, yet cannot which may be compressed into a small bulk exist many minutes unless his blood be by the hand, but, upon opening the same, arterialized. the sponge returns to its natural size, and In considering the function of respiration, all its cavities become filled with air. The our attention is first turned to the mechanipurification of the blood in the lungs is of cal means by which the air is alternately vital importance, and indispensably neces- admitted and discharged from the lungs. sary to the due performance of aU the func- The mechanical act of respiration is divisitions. When the lungs, and muscles con- ble into two periods, that of inspiration, nected with them, are in a physiological during which air is drawn into the lungs so as to increase its volume and distend its state, the horse is said to be in good wind a very desirable state for an animal to be parenchema and expiration, diuring which in, whose usefulness depends on his being process the air which had been so received capable of a long continuance of quick is expelled. motion. The trachea, or windpipe, after Inspiration is accompanied by enlarge;
when
animals
more important
;
is
certain calibre
by
their
elasticity.
Tliis assimulation of aliment
for
dividing into bronchia, again subdivides into ment of the capacity of the thorax in its innumerable other branches, the extremities various dimensions. This is effected by the of which compose an infinite quantity of action of different sets of muscles, operated small cells, which, with the ramifications of on by the nervous system. The principal the veins, arteries, nerves, lymphatics, and muscle of inspnation is the diaphragm. the connecting cellular membrane, make up Among the secondary muscles employed the whole mass or substance of the lungs. in inspiration are those which articulate the The internal surface of the windpipe, bron- ribs, viz., the intercostales. Each rib is chia, and air-cell, is lined with a membrane, capable of a small degree of motion on the which secretes a mucous fluid when, in con- extremity by which it is articulated with sequence of an obstructed surface, this fluid the vertebrae. This motion is chiefly forbecomes abundant, it is expelled by the ward and backward the intercostal muscles The whole is invested with a favor this motion, as they are disposed in nostrils. thin, transparent membrane, named pleura two layers, each passing obhquely, but with the same membrane lines the internal sur- opposite inclinations, from one to the adjaface of the ribs and diapliragm, and, by a cent rib. There are two ways in which the
: ;
(144 J
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OP THE HORSE.
145
chest may be dilated: first, by the dia- anu this absorption constitutes, no doubt, phragm and secondly, by the intercostales, an essential part of its arterialization. It has been much disputed whether the which elevate the ribs. In natural respira;
through the combination which seems to be effected beShould the respira- tween the oxygen of the air and the carbon tion become quickened, the intercostales are furnished by the blood, occurs during the employed, and, when the respiration is labo- act of respiration, and takes place in the rious, the axillary muscles of the abdomen, air-cells of the lungs, or whether it takes place in the course of circulation. On the back, and sides, are brought into use. The glottis is opened during inspiration first hypothesis, the chemical process would be very analogous to the simple combustion by the muscles of the larynx. The expulsion of the air from the lungs of charcoal, which may be conceived to be This takes place contained in the venous blood in a free constitutes expiration. as soon as the air which has been ex- state, exceedingly divided, and ready to pired has parted with its oxygen, and re- combine with the oxygen of the air, and ceived in return a certain quantity of car- imparting to that venous blood its characbonic acid gas and vapor. In regard to the teristic dark color while arterial blood, from elasticity of the lungs, it is now demon- which the carbon had been eliminated, strated that they possess no inherent power would exhibit the red color natural to blood. of elasticity other than that common with On the second hypothesis, we must suppose Hence, if an that the whole of the oxygen, which disapall membranous textures. opening be made in the sides of the chest, pears from the air respired, is absorbed by the lobes on this side collapse inconsequence the blood in the pulmonary capillaries, and of the pressure of air from without. passes on with it into the systemic circuWe have next to inquire what changes lation. The blood becoming venous in the have, in the meanwhile, been effected in the course of the circulation, by the different blood by the action of the air to which it processes to which it is subjected for suphas been subjected in the lungs. A visible plying the organs with the materials realteration, in the first place, is produced in quired in the exercise of their respective its color, which, from being of a dark pm'- functions, the proportion of carbon which it ple, nearly approaching to black, when it contains is increased, both by the abstracarrives at the air-cells by the pulmonary tion of the other elements, and by the addition, the horse breathes cliiefly
aid of the diaplrragm.
arteries,
has acquired the bright, intensely tion of nutritive materials prepared by the
arterial blood, when brought organs of digestion. The oxygen, which back to the heart by the pulmonary veins. had been absorbed by the blood in the lungs, In other respects, however, its sensible now combines with the redundant carbon, qualities do not appear to have undergone and forms with it either oxide of carbon, any material change. Judging from the or carbonic acid, which is exhaled during a changes produced on the air which has subsequent exposure to the air in the lungs. been in contact with it, we are warranted in Many facts tend strongly to confirm our
scarlet
hue of
the inference that

water, and that
it
has parted with a belief in the latter of these hypotheses.
certain quantity of carbonic acid

it
and of
OF THE LARYNX.*
it
has in return acquired a

Since
certain proportion of oxygen.
is the organ producing the been found that the quantity of oxygen voice of the animal. absorbed is greater than that which enters Situation. It is joined to the top of the into the composition of the carbonic acid trachea (or windpipe), and is placed in the evolved, it is obvious that at least the excess throat, between the posterior and broadest of oxygen is dh-ectly absorbed by the blood * Percivall's Hippopathology.
has
The
larynx
146
parts

dicates, incloses
of the branches of the lower jaw; having the pharynx and uppermost part of the esophagus situated above it the superior portions of the sterno-hyoidei and thyroidei below it the tongue, with its muscles,
;
;
and
shields
from external
injury
all
the others.
The
cricoid or ring-like cartilage is placed

thyroid.
below the
In front
it
appears like
part of the trachea;
but
it
broadens so
and the os hyoides,

Attachment.
its
in front of
it
trachea issuing from below and behind
The
and the much behind, that it overlaps the first ring it. of the wîndpipe, somewhat after the form
larynx
is
retained in of a helmet.
Upon
its
broad or posterior
:
adapted to the inferior cornua of the thyroid plete a fleshy covering, that it is not until cartilage they are all furnished with capit is divested of its muscles (which have sular ligaments and synovial membranes. been heretofore described) that it is dis- Furthermore, it is attached by hgaraentous covered to be composed of five pieces of expansions to those parts, and likewise to
:
by its connection with the os hyoides and pharynx by its muscles and by its coalition with the trachea. The larynx has so comConformation.
place
; ;
part are four surfaces
of articulation
the
are
two upper
receive the hinder extremities of
the arytenoid cartilages, the
two lower
be moveand open both superiorly and inferiorly, to admit of the passage These of air into and out of the trachea. cartilages have received the names of thyroid, cricoid (two), arytenoid, and epiglottis. The thyroid or shield-like cartilage, by
cartilage, so joined together as to
the
first
ring of the trachea.

arytenoid, or eiver-shaped cartheir figure, lie
able on one another,
The two
tilages, triangular in
over
the upper and back part
of the
trachea,
leaving an aperture between them leading

into that canal, denominated, from
its
prox-
imity to the
tongue, the glottis.
Their
tri-
much
larynx.
the largest of the
five,
forms the inward parts are everted, and form a

of the angular prominent border, over which
lateral
superior, anterior,
and
lateral parts
is
It consists
of
two broad
spread the membrane of the glottis

in
their
and prominent at the upper and anterior part of the neck, the promiirence corresponding to which in human anatomy has received the name of Below this pomt of union pomurti Adami. the divisions recede from each other, leaving a triangular space between them, which is occupied by a ligament denominated the
portions, continuous
outward surfaces are marked by concavities which are lodged the arytenoid muscles.
upon the cricoid and are connected with them by capsular articulations in front, they have a
Posteriorly, they repose
cartilage,
:
membranous connection with

next to be noticed.
the cartilage
The
epiglottis,
so
named from being

is
Ugamentum
of
the
crico-thyroideum.
The
four raised
over the glottis, and occasionedly

it
projecting corners from the posterior parts covering
like
its
the lid of a pot,

heart-like
well
thyroid
cartilage
are
named
its
adapted, from
shape, to the
is
cornua: the two superior are joined by cap- rima glottidis; whose margin
sular articulations to
completed
the
hyoides
the
two
inferior
body of the os by two narrow slips of cartilage proceeding are connected by from the base of the lid to the arytenoid.
very short capsular ligaments to the cricoid

cartilages
;
By
some, these
so
slips
of cartilage have been
the union of
all
wliich parts re- separately considered: but in

;
my
opinion
reality,
ceives additional strength firom expansions improperly
for
they
are, in
of membrane.
At the
roots of the superior nothing
more than prolongations

epiglottis.
or appen-
cornua are two forainina, that give passage dices of the

to nerves, of considerable
The
surface of this
importance, to cartilage presented
to the interior of the
the interior of the larynx.
This cartilage larynx is smooth and concave, and covered not only constitutes by far the most exten- by an extension of membrane from the
sive part of the larynx, but, as its
name
in-
glottis
that part opposed to the tongue is
THE HORSE.
unevenly convex, and
of
is
147
tied to that organ, opposite to the

I
body and
;
transverse proces-
as well as to the os hyoides, by a doubling ses of the atlas
takes
its coui-se
along the
some muscular anterior and inferior part of the neck, inclinfibres: to this musculo-membranous ligature, ing to the near side, between the sternowhich assists in retaining the cartilage in myloidei muscles (which by their approx-
membrane
infolding
its
elevated position, the
epiglottidis is properly given.
name oi frcenum imation conceal the lower portion of it), The fraenum and enters the chest between the two first
of the
it
receives co-operation in this fmiction from ribs; wherein, under the curvature
strong elastic Ligaments connecting the base posterior aorta,

of the epiglottis to the thyroid and arytenoid bronchial tubes.
cartilages.
If
divides into
two
parts the
Structure.
it
From
fifty
to sixty annular
we
detach the epiglottis, or raise
pieces
of
cartilage
enter into
;
the com-
forcibly in order to obtain a
more complete position of the windpipe

inequality or asperity of
altogether con-
view of the rima glottidis, the latter will be found to be stretched into an oblong quadfigure, whose width gradually rilateral diminishes from the middle towajrds either extremity, and bears a ratio of about one The to six when compared to its length. are formed by the sides turned forward
arytenoid cartilages
;
stituting a stnicture so remarkable, for the

its
exterior, that
the ancients, in order to at once distinguish

it
from aU other
vessels, called
it
the aspera
arteria.
No
entire
or
undivided tubular
substance could have partaken of the various
motions of the head and neck, without
those directed back- having suffered more or less distortion, and

folds of
ward by two prominent

cles),
(which envelop the thyro-arytenoid
commonly described
as
membrane consequent deformity and diminution of mus- cafiber, of some part of its canal, which the vocalliga- would have been attended with frequent inair,
ments, from their being concerned in the terruptions to the free passage of the
and intonation of the voice. dangerous, and even fatal, to the respiratory Immediately over them are slit-like aper- functions; w^hereas, constructed as it is, tures, opening into membranous sacs, each with the aid of its muscular power, no atlarge enough to contain a walnut these titude into which the animal may naturally are the ventricles of the larynx, whose use put himself will impede the freedom of pasis also connected with the production and sage tlnough it. The cartilages, or, as they
formation
;
modulation of the voice. The membrane lining the cavity of the larynx is one of great susceptibility; on which account it is kept continually moist by a mucus, oozing from numerous lacuna
are
commonly
:
described, the
rings of the
windpipe, have all a close resemblance to one another if there be any disparity be-
tween them worthy of
notice,
it
consists in
those that form the superior part of the pipe
the
little
excretory orifices of small subjacent being
somewhat
larger
and broader than
follicles
whose
situation is denoted
its
by the those nearest

surface. ring is not
to the bronchial tubes.*
uniform in its breadth, in conseThis is the common seat of that species quence of having waving or scolloped borof catarrh wliich is accompanied by cough. ders the advantage of which is, that a sort
;
round eminences upon
of dove-tailed connection
is
effected
which
Its
OF THE TRACHEA.
materially contributes to the compactness
The
trachea, or windpipe, is a cartilagin-
and strength of the
entire structm-e.
ous tube extending along the neck, from front and sides measure, in the broadest the larynx to the lungs, for the passage of places, half an inch in breadth, and nearly a
air.
In horses of ordinary
size, it is
from
* Now and then we find, at the upper part of the tube, two or three or more of these rings accreted together it gives rise to some prominence thereabouts generally, and
;
twenty-five to thirty inches in length.

Course.
The
trachea
commences from
the inferior border of the cricoid cartilage, may
often be detected
by
taction in the living animal.
148
quarter of an inch in thickness
evidently
lead one to imagine
for,
in consequence of
made
so substantial to resist external in- the passage being natmally elliptical,

its
and
unexposed the muscle being extended across its long parts grow suddenly thin and yielding, and diameter, the contraction of its sides wiU taper to the extremities which, instead of give the tube a circular figure, by increasing meeting and uniting, pass one over the the curvature of the ring anteriorly, and other, and thus form a shield of defence thereby, in effect, will expand and not conjury; whereas
posterior or
;
I would say, behind, while they admit of a certain dila- tract the cafiber of the canal. tation and conti-action of the internal then, that the trachea was made muscular
dimensions of the tube. These attenuated in order that it might have the power of inends are joined together by a ligamentous creasing its capacity for the passage of air, expansion, mingled with a quantity of cel- whenever the lungs were called into extraThe rings are likewise ordinary action in addition to which, I lular membrane.
:
attached to one another by narrow ligamen- think that this band may, in some degree, tary bands, sti'ong and elastic which, after counteract any tendency certain positions of
;
they have been drawn apart in certain posi- the head and neck have to alter its shape This circumference. its tions of the head and neck, have the power and diminish to approximate them when the pipe is re- opinion is corroborated by the circumstance,
;
moved from
the body, and suspended by that the muscle grows slender and pale as
approach the lower end of the pipe, where the canal itself is nearly circular, and rate the rings, and still maintain them in where it is placed in the least moveable The lowermost ten or twelve part of the neck.* apposition. The trachea is lined by a pieces of cartilage appear on examination Membrane. but ill to deserve the name of rings indeed, soft, pale red membrane, which anteriorly they are little more than semi-annular, the has a close adhesion to the rings themthe uppermost ring, these ligaments counteract the tendency its weight has to sepa-
we
in them behind being made selves, and presents a smooth, polished ingood by intermediate moveable pieces of ternal surface but which, posteriorly, is These pieces, whose breadth in- loosely attached to the muscular band, and cartilage.
deficiences
creases
as
we
descend,
are let into
the puckered into fourteen or fifteen longitu-
vacuities in such
manner
as to overlap the dinal plica; or folds, that extend with regu-
terminations of the segments, and they are larity from one end of the tube to the confined and concealed by the same sort of other. These folds were evidently made to
ligamentary and cellular investment as

before noticed.
was allow
this
of the contraction
;
and elongation of
muscular band for I cannot myself Muscle. 'Where the outward extremity assign any reason why they should exist in of the ring suddenly turns inward, and de- its relaxed state, unless this fulness of generates into a thin flexible flap on either membrane be given to admit of enlargeside, a band of muscular fibres is fixed and ment of the caliber of the tube during the stretched across the canal, dividing it into contractions of that muscle if this be two unequal semi-eUiptical passages. The plausible, I may adduce the corrugation of anterior one is the proper air channel the the membrane as another proof that the posterior or smaller one is filled with a fine caliber of the trachea is susceptible of augreticular membrane, connecting the band to mentation. This membrane is continuous the posterior part of the ring, and preventing with that which clothes the rima glottidis i in action, from encroaching upon the main * In this opinion, says Mr. Percirall, I find I am at conduit. This self-acting band appears to variance with Girard. The French professor ascribes to me to have been added to the tube to enable it the power of contracting the caliber of the trachea. " Cetto
it
to enlarge
its
caliber
not
to diminish
couche, bien evidemment musculeuse, pent retrecir

it,
ibre
le cal-
de la trachee, en rapportant les extremites des segAnat. Vet.,-p.liG et 147, torn.

ii.
as a superficial view of these parts might mens."
THE HOBSB.
but
it is
149
paler than
arterial
it,
and not near so

glottis,
tive.
Its
ramifications,
also
abundant than upon the

vapor from
which,
it is
upon the continuation of the lining membrane, which in these intimate parts exhale a compose the entire parietes of the tube.
sensi- traced
less
its
surface
independently of
In the
larger
is
branches
this
membrane
kept continually lubricated by (which

sition
continuous throughout the bron-
to defend
mucus, furnished from its numerous lacuna, it from anything acriminous that
chial system)
apparently,
assumes a plicated disposito admit the more
may
be contained in the breath.
Bronchial Tubes.
bronchial tubes.
The
readily of expansion.
trachea having
entered the thorax, bifurcates into the twô
THYROID GLANDS.
Of them,
the right
is
the
Two
egg-shaped, apparently glandular
more capacious canal, on account of having communication with the larger division of
the lungs
;
bodies, attached just
the sides of the trachea,
below the larynx to and united in front
the left the longer one, in conse- of that tube by an intervening portion of quence of having to cross under the pos- the same substance, which, by way of dis-
by some called the isthmus. and attached in their main pipe has a spear-like or angular pro- situation by cellular membrane are larger jection extending down between the bron- and more vascular in the young than in chial tubes, filling up that space which the old subject and exhibit a spongy texwould otherwise be left open from the di- ture, when cut into, which I am at present vergent manner in which they branch off: ignorant of the precise nature of. They it is quite loosely attached, in order that are well -supplied with blood-vessels, and the branches may accommodate themselves have many small nerves going to them.
terior aorta, in its course to the left division tinction,
is
of the lungs.
The
last cartilage
of the
They
are enveloped
to the motions of the neighboring parts.
Their physiology
still
remains obscure.
The
bronchial tubes vary in structure from

:
the trunk that gives origin to them instead

of their rings being formed of entire pieces
separate pieces, making up so
OF THE LUNGS AND PLEURA.
The lungs are the essential organs of

:
res-
of cartilage, they are constituted of several piration
the pleura is
but the membrane
many segments by which
they are invested.

PLEURA.
of the
circle,
overlapping one another, and
united together and invested by an elastic

cellular substance
:
a fine, semi-transparent ing no muscular band, another fact connected membrane, lining the cavity of the chest,
differ in
they also
hav-
The
pleiua
is
with the physiology of that part. The bron- and giving a covering to the lungs. By cliial tubes, in penetrating the substance of that portion of it which is called the medithe lungs, subdivide
the
right into three astinum, the cavity
is
divided into the right
from and left sides of the thorax. which spring innumerable others, that grow General Conformation. If the lungs be smaller and smaller, untU the ramifications exposed, by breaking off one or two of the become so reduced that they are no longer ribs, we shall perceive that their surface, as traceable by the naked eye. In the larger well as that of the cavity itself, is everybranches, we may dissect out five and even where smooth, poKshed, and humid. This
principal branches, the left into
;
two
six
segments of cartilage, held together by is owing to the extensive investment of the a thin but dense and elastic ceUular sub- pleura, the surface of which is now prestance in the smaller divisions, only two sented so that, in reality, without breakare found, and they are diminished in size ing the surface, nothing but pleura can be and, in the smallest visible ramifications of touched although, from its extreme tenuity all, cartilage is altogether wanting, though, and pellucidity, the viscera appear, on a in many places, marks of the rings may be superficial view, to present their own bare
; ; ;
150
exterior.
Its

other side, on the contrary,
is
condensed
is
cellular substance,
whose texture
in water,
cel-
rough, having numerous cellular flocculent
penetrated by blood-vessels, absorbents,

:
appendages, by which
parts
it
it
is
united to the. and nerves
by long maceration
In most parts
invests
and so
is
close
and firm are indeed,

it,
it
may
be entirely resolved into

it
these adhesions, that to cleanly detach

in the recent subject,
lular substance.
thin,
is
;
ex-
and by no means tough but it is not so in all, for that portion which tedious dissection. The pleura is a reflected membrane by faces the diaphragm is much denser and which is meant, one that not only lines the stronger than the pulmonary or costal dicavity in which the viscera lie enclosed, but vision of it. Organization. The arteries of the by dupLicature, or what in anatomical language is called reflection,, gives a partial or pleura, which come from the adjacent parts,
a very
difficult
and tremely
complete covering to the contained organs are in the natural state exceeding small, adIt is evident, therefore, that mitting only the colorless parts of the blood such a membrane admits of division into a circumstance that accounts for its pela lining or parietal, and a lucidity under inflammation, however, two portions and these, with regard to they contain red blood, and such is the exreflected portion the pleiua, have, for the sake of more de- planation of that arborescent vascularity
themselves.
finite
description, received the
names of upon
the sides of the thorax in horses that

;
pleura costalis and pleura pulmonalis. They die of pnuemonia

are precisely similar in structure
tion, and, in fact, are stUl
than which state noth-
are both, however, continuous at aU points, ing can better demonstrate the comparative
and func- number and

sels.
distribution of these blood-ves-
but one and the
The majority
orifices,
of
them terminate
in
from which is continually Mediastinum. There is yet a third por- poured, upon the contiguous surfaces of the tion of this membrane to which a distinct smooth interior of the membrane, a serous appellation has been given, and that is the fluid, in the form of steam or vapor, which
pleura.
same
exhalent
at any time be rendered visible by opening the chest of an animal recently it differs from both the others in being com- dead. The absorbents of this membrane posed of two layers, which are derived from are very numerous and, thoiigh their exthe two pleursB of the opposite sides. treme exility prevents us from demonstratIf we conceive the pleurae of the two sides ing them in a state of health, yet may they of the thorax to be perfect sacs or bags, often be seen in considerable numbers in
mediastinum, the membranous partition becavities or sides of the thorax
may
tween the
with flattened sides tmrned inwardly, and closely applied and united together, in such a manner that the double membrane formed by then- union extends through the middle of the chest, from the dorsal vertebra to
the sternum,
horses that die of dropsy of the chest we have also abundant proofs of their exist;
ence from various phenomena that occur

in the diseases of the part.
We know, for
take up the
;
instance,
that these
vessels
once have a toler- serous fluid effused in hydrothorax, for they ably correct idea of the formation as well have been found fuU of it after death and it
shall at
we
as situation of the mediastinum.

Structure.
its
blood, extravasated into the chest, is absorbed one of those included by the mouths of these minute vessels. in the list of serous membranes to which it The nerves of the pleura are too small has been demonstrated also to be similar in to be traced by dissection but, though it its intimate organization. Like them, it is not possessed of much sensibility in a presents a shining secreting surface, of a healthy state, we know, at least we presume
The pleura, from the nature
is
a fact that no longer admits of doubt, that
of
secretion, is
whitish
rency,
aspect,
is
and
and considerable transpa- from analogy, that it is highly sensitive in composed of httle else than the diseased; for few diseases are more
>'^
EXPLANATION OF FIGURE XV.

FORE EXTREMITIES.
NO. 1.
LATERAL VIEW OF THE OFF-FOEE LIMB.

h.
11.
Humero
cubital.
Flexor
brachii.
Tricep.s externus.
0.
P". Flexor metaearpi externus.

s".
t'.
Extensor metacai'pi magnus.

Extensor metaearpi obliquus. Levator humeri.
'.
X. X. y. y.
^.
Extensor pedis.
Extensor
hoof.
suf&'aginis.
The
NO.
2.
(VnrW AS ABOVE.)
k".
m".
Humero cubital, or flexor brachii.n". Two of the triceps extensor brachii.

Extensor
"
p". Flexor metaearpi externus.

*.
t.
" "
magnus.
obliquus.
M.
f'.
Levator humeri.
w.
Flexor tendons.
x".
Extensor pedis.
Extensor sufiragims.
Perforatus et perforans.
y". y.
8.
4.
NO.
3.
EXPLANATION OF FIGURE XV.
THE HORSE.
acutely painful in the
pleurisy,
151
human
subject than tinue to liU

is
up every vacuity
a perforation
in
no sooner,
into the
and we have every reason to be- however,
made
lieve that horses sutTer
much from
the
same
thoracic cavity than they shrink in volume,
malady.
Secretion.
is
and become
It
has been observed that spaces they occupy.

life
appearance too small for the This arises from their
the exhalents of the pleura secrete a serous being during

fluid,
or rather during the
which
emitted, in the form of an
unopened
state of the thorax
in a con-
exhalation or vapor, into the cavity of the stant state of inflation with atmospheric
and that it may be rendered visible air, which preserves them expanded and any time, if an animal, recently dead, they suffer coUapse of substance the instant be opened while yet warm or if an open- air is admitted, in consequence of the presing be made into the chest of a live animal. sure of the atmosphere upon them, from In either case, a whitish steam will be per- which they were protected before by the ceived to issue from the interior of the parietes of the thorax. cavity. This vapor, shortly after death, beDivision. The lungs are two in numcomes condensed and converted into a ber, the right and the left lung ; partiliquid which accounts for the contiguous tioned from each other by the mediastisurfaces of the pleura being moist, and for num. A further division of these organs a collection of more or less fluid, resem- has been made into lobes. That on the bling water, existing in the most depending right side, the larger of the two, consists of parts of the cavity. Li consequence of three lobes the left, only of two. These every part of the membrane being bedewed lobes, which are nothing more than partial in this manner, the lung itself may be said divisions of the lung by fissiores of variable to be in an insulated state for the pleura extent through its substance, serve to adapt costalis does not, philosophically speaking, them more accurately to the thoracic cavitouch the pleura pulmonalis, nor is the lat- ties, and, at the same time, render them ter in actual contact with the mediastinum fitter for the purposes of expansion and
thorax
at
;
;
all friction, therefore, in
the motions of these contraction.
parts, is
by
this interfluent secretion effec-
Volume.
The
lungs of the horse,

;
when
right
tually
prevented.
In
this,
then,
viz.,
consists inflated, are of great bulk *

is
and the
the chief use of the pleura,
to furnish
the larger of the
two
in consequence of
left side, less
a secretion for the purposes of lubrication the heart being inclined to the
and
It is
facility of
its
promotes by
motion, which it further space is given for the left lung. extreme glibness of surface. Attachment. The lungs are attached,
said also to answer the purpose of
superiorly, to the spine (which

is
attachment
ligaments to the contained organs, thereby

confining and sti-engthening them.
sometimes called
their roots)
The use
vessels, the divisions of the trachea,
by bloodand the
:
of the mediastinum
into
is
to divide the chest mediastinal portions of the pleura
every-
two compartments.
where else, in a healthy free and unconnected.

Figure.
subject, they are
In form, the lungs of the horse

human
subject;
The lungs (by butchers called the lights) are very are two spongy bodies formed for the pur- and the
pose of respiration.
Situation and Relation. They are contained in the lateral regions or sides of the thoracic cavity separated from each other
;
like those of the

latter
by the mediastinum and heart, which occupy the middle region. Prior to any opening
being
have been compared to the foot of an ox, to which the injected lung of the foetus bears indeed much resemblance for, though the two lungs are not symmetrical, yet, both together, they put on this shape, which is the counterpart of that of
made
* I consider, in comparison with the body, that they into the thorax, the lungs con- exceed in magnitude those of the human subject.
; :
152
the cavity they occupy.
their general figure,
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGT OP
With
regard to
membranous
lining to
it
however, the lungs may the mucous kind, which,

:
was described of it was observed,
be said to be conical being broad and con- thence passed into the bronchial vessels cave posteriorly, where they are opposed to now, it is of the continuation of this memthe convex surface of the diaphragm nar- brane in an attenuated state that the minute
;
row and somewhat pointed anteriorly, where

the pleura, in the space between the
first ribs.
air-tubes appear entirely to consist at the they are received into the blind pouches of extremity of every one of which the mem;
two brane
is
prolonged into a kind of blind bag,
Color.
In
or cul-de-sac, to
color, these
which the name of
air-cell
organs vary some- has been given.
what, depending upon the age of the aniFrom the arborescent ramification and mal, and upon the quantity and distribution pecuhar mode of termination of the bronIn the young chical tubes, some anatomists have comand more uni- pared them, and the cells at their extremities, form shade than in the adult. In perfect to a bunch of grapes supposing the stalks health they assume a pink hue which, as to represent the ramifications of the former, age advances, becomes mottled with purple and the grapes connected with them the and grayish patches. Sometimes, in the air-cells; others have described them as dead subject, they are found of the color of having resemblance to a honeycomb and the darkest venous blood, which arises fi-om so far as the knife, with the aid of glasses, an inordinate congestion of that fluid wthin can develope their intimate structure, the the pulmonary veins. first is an apt comparison, insomuch as it Structure. The lungs are composed of relates to the disposition of their cells the branches of arteries and veins, and of the last, insomuch as it conveys an the ramifications of the trachea all which idea of their ready inter-communication. vessels are connected together by an abun- For, though they do not communicate
of the blood they contain.
subject, they are of a lighter
dant intervening ceUulai substance,
known
but tlurough the ramifications of the' bronthis is
by the name of parenchyma.

cm-ve
Beneath the chial tubes,
medium
and
of interfree,
made within
the chest by the poste- course at once
so general
that
rior aorta, the
trachea divides into the two numbers of them are inflated at the
is
same
bronchial tubes, of which the right

larger,
the time by impelling air into any one of the
but the shorter
the left the longer, larger branches.
With
the parenchymatous
in consequence of having to pass under the substance, however, they have
no commucom-
aorta in order to reach the
left
lung.
entered the substance of the lung,
Having nication whatever.* The blood-vessels the right
that enter into the
tube divides into four others

into three
;
the left only position of the lungs are denominated the
from the pulmonary. The pulmonary artery, having an additional lobe. taken its origin from the right ventricle of the These branches may be traced for a consid- heart, winds upward to the root of the left erable extent within the parenchyma, giv- lung, and there divides into the right and ing off in their passage numerous other left pulmonary arteries, which divisions
which
difference arises
right lung possessing
smaller tubes of similar structure
but, as
we
prosecute our dissection of them,
we
If the substance of
tlie
lungs be lacerated or rent
asunder, the sui'face will be found to present a tabulated
shall find that, in growing smaller, they par- aspect. take less and less of the nature of cartilage, and all
flated
Introduce a blow-pipe into one of these lobuli, the other lobules the entire lung may be infrom this one showing the free communication exand that the extreme ramifications are not isting between them. The same may be effected by inonly entirely membranous in their composi- jecting quicksilver. You may do the same with the intertion, but of so fine a texture as to be per- stitial substance but in this case you do not fill the lobules. In fine, the lungs with tlTeir cells resemble a sponge only fectly transparent. It wiU be remembered that the connecting tissue has no communication with the here, that, in speaking of the trachea, a; sponge.
THE HORSE.
enter their correspondent lungs.
fications of these vessels
153
The rami- minate in, the left auricle of the heart. The (which differ from ramifications of these veins, unliive the other arteries in having no anastomotic generality of others, are not more numerous communications one with another) accom- than those of their coiTespondent arteries
and the reason for this is obvious for, here, one set of vessels are not more subject to
;
pany those of the bronchial tubes, and, them, divide and subdivide, grow smaller and augment in number, as they approach the air-cells upon the internal * surfaces of which they become capillary, and assume a texture of correspondent thinness and pellucidity with the cells themselves. Through these minute vessels every
like
;
compression than the other, nor does the heart (which is so proximate to them) require
any such aid as an additional number

veins have only to convey
it
of veins affords to carry on the circulation.
The pulmonary
received
its
the blood back to the heart, after
has
particle of blood is impelled every

is
time
it
due change within the

air-ceUs.
capil-
circulated over the system, as
was
stated laries
upon the
when on
Organization. Besides the pulmonary a remarkable change of color is thereby effected in it, and we blood-vessels, there are two others, named have now an opportunity of seeing in what bronchial arteries. They come off, by one manner this fluid is exposed to the influence trunk, from the posterior aorta, and each
the blood
:
of atmospheric air for the purpose.
It is
of
them
enters a division of the lungs, in

it
evident that no immediate contact can hap- the substance of which
branches forth,
and takes the course of the bronchial tubes. thin, transparent side of the vessel, if not These tubes they supply, as weU as the coats that of the air-cell likewise, must ever be of the pulmonary vessels, and the pareninterposed so that, whatever this influence chyma of the lungs, with blood: in fact, be, it must take effect through one or other they may be regarded as the nuti-ient vesor both of these membranes. We might sels of these organs. It has been, ho^vever, conceive, indeed, that such minute vessels and stiU remains, a subject of dispute, could not transmit through them such a whether these vessels do exclusively nourish body of fluid as the blood but, when we the substance of the lungs or not some look at the volume of the lungs, and con- say that they do whUe others assert that sider the incalculable number of air-ceUs they are assisted in this function by the ptdthey must contain, the globular surface of monary artery, with some of the branches every one of which is furnished with an exof which they anastomose. The latter pansion of pulmonary vessels, we shall feel opinion certainly does not appear to be supmore surprise and admiration at the extreme ported by facts of much weight; on the division and diffusion of this fluid in order contrary, the blood which the pulmonary to receive the necessary change, than that arteries contain is dark-colored, and unfit such a prodigious number of capillaries for the nutriment of any organ and as for should be equal, in their united caliber, to anastomosis, we have no demonstrative the- pulmonary artery itself. proof of its existence. The bronchial veins From the extremities of the arteries, upon end in one trunk, which returns the blood the surface of the air-cells, arise the pul- into the vena azygos. monary veins. These, by repeated union The nerves of the lungs are derived prinwith one another, form themselves, first, into cipaUy from a large plexus within the chest, visible branches, which subsequently become constituted of the par vagum and sympabranches of larger size, until at length they thetic. They enter the pulmonary structure end in eight pulmonary venous trunks, in company with the bronchial tubes and which proceed to, and by four openings ter- blood-vessels, and continue their course with them, to be dispersed upon the bron* Some say, "upon the external surfaces." chial membrane and parietes of the air-cells.
air for the
; ; ;
; ;
pen between the
and the blood,
154

of the lungs are large and
:
The absorbents
air,
it.
in the other they are wholly free from
numerous, particularly the deep-seated and of the superficial, we may often succeed in injecting considerable numbers, by introducing a quicksilver-pipe under the pleura They aU pass through the pulmonalis.
absorbent glands situated around the roots
of the broncliial tubes.
They
are not to be regarded as respiIt is
ratory organs in the foetus.

therefore, that the lungs
evident,
owe
their property
;
of lightness to the air they contain
and, as
Parenchyma.
organs,
or,
The connecting
little
by any means absorbed or pressed from them, and their bulk diminished by collapse of the
a further proof of
it,
if
that air be
medium
air-cells, like
other viscera, they will prove
of the various constituent parts as

it is
of these heavier than an equal volume of water:
it is that the lungs of a horse that than cellular has died of hydrothorax, even though they tissue, without any intermLxture of adipose be sound, are of a greater specific gravity matter it admits of the free diffusion of than those of one in health. It occasionally
termed, their parenchyma, hence

else
appears to consist of
of
any
fluid that
air that
may be extravasated into it may have escaped from the

;
happens, however, that these viscera evince,

in this particular, the
properties of airless
air-cells, or
of serous fluid poured out
the lungs
become anasarcous but, is no intercommuni- present cation between it and the cells or vessels, as
observed before, there
of structure.
Specific
when lung, while their natural volume and general as was appearance remain the same there must be
:
interstitial deposition.
long as the organs preserve their integrity

Gravity.
BRONCHIAL GLANDS.
Small,
oval-shaped,
The
glandular-looldng
lungs,
when
bodies, situated about the roots of the lungs,
healthy, are exceeding light in comparison adhering
to their volume
so that, if they be
more particularly to the bottom immersed of the trachea and the bronchial tubes.
in water, unlike
float
upon the
surface,
most other a
parts, they will
They
exhibit a dii'ty French gray hue, inter-
fact familiar to spersed with dark blueish spots,
and are
every one
to be
who
:
has seen the liver and lights about the volume (though this varies much)
For a long time the nature washed indeed, the name of lights of these bodies remained obscure of late, itself seem to have been given to them from sldlful injections have clearly shown them They possess their If the festal lungs, how- to be absorbent glands. this very property.
of an animal thrown into a pail of water of a tick-bean.
:
ever,
be so treated, they will instantly sink capsules, and,

:
when
cut open, exhibit a cel-
to the bottom of the vessel

jjrrimental result at
ol
and this ex- lular structure. They contain a dark fluid, once shows why those which will soil anything it touches whose
;
an animal that has once breathed should principal ingredient chemists have found to swim for, in the one instance they contain be carbon.
;
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM.
PRELIMINARY
REMARKS
ETC.).
(oN*"
THE
BLOOD, heart
is
invested with a
membranous
sac,
The
most
appearance of blood
It
is
which adheres to the familiar to tendinous centre of the diaphragm, and to
called pericardium,
contains the elements for the great vessels at the base of the heart. building up and nourishing the whole ani- The heart is lubricated by a serous fluid mal structure. On examining blood with a within the pericardium, which guards
persons.
microscope,
bules,
it is
found
full
of
little
red glo- against friction.
In dropsical affections,
which vary in their size and shape in the quantity of this fluid is considerably indifferent animals, and are more numerous creased, and constitutes a disease called hyin warm than in cold-blooded animals; drothorax. The heart is divided into four probably this arises from the fact that the cavities, viz., t\vo auricles, named from latter absorb less oxygen. If the blood of their resemblance to an ear, and two ventri-
one animal be transfused into another, it cles, forming the body. The left ventricle is smaller than the right will frequently cause death. but its sides are When blood stands for a time after being much thicker and sti-onger it is from this di'awn, it separates into two parts. One is part that the grand trunk of the arteries called serum, and resembles the white of an proceeds, called the great aorta. The right egg the other is the clot or crassamentum, cavity, or ventricle, is the receptacle for the and forms the red coagulum, or jelly-like blood that is brought back by the veins substance this is accompanied by whitish, after going the rounds of the cu-culation tough threads, called fibrine. When blood which, like an inverted tree, become larger has been drawn from a horse, and it as- and less numerous as they approach the sumes a cupped or hollow form, if serum, heart, where they terminate in the right or buffy coat, remain on its surface, it de- auricle. The auricle on the left side of notes an impoverished state but if the the heart receives the blood that has been whole, when coagulated, be of one uniform disti-ibuted through the lungs for purificamass, it indicates a healthy state of this cation. Where the veins terminate in aurifluid. The blood of a young horse gen- cles, there are valves placed. The coronary erally coagulates into a firm mass, while vein, which enters the right auricle, has its that of an old or debilitated one is gen- mouth protected by a valve called semierally less dense, and more easily divided or lunar, or half-moon shape, which opens only broken down. The power that propels the toward the heart, and prevents the blood blood into the different ramifications of the taking a reti-ograde course. The different animal, is a mechanico-vital power, and is tubes coming from and entering into the accomplished through the medium of the heart are also provided with valves to preheart and lungs the latter is a powerful vent the blood from returning. For exammuscular organ contained in the chest. ple, the blood proceeds out of the heart,
; : ;
From
pally
certain parts of
it
arteries arise
;
in along the aorta ; the valve opens forward or
others the veins terminate
and
it is
princi-
upward, the blood also moves lapward, and

the
;
by
its
alternate contractions
and
ex- pushes
valve
asunder,
and
above
(155)
passes
effec-
pansions, aided as already stated, that the through

circulation of the blood
is
the
pressure from
carried on.
The
tually closes the passage.
The
valves of

156
the heart are
composed of elastic cartilage, numerous ramifications bring it in conwhich enables them to work with ease. In tact with the air-ceUs of the lungs. It some diseases, however, they become ossi- then assumes a crimson color, and is then The heart adapted to build up and supply the waste. This, of course, is fatal. fied. and its appendages are also subject to other Having passed through the vessels of the diseases, called dilatation, softening, hard- lungs, it continues on, and passes into Now, the blood, having been the left auricle: tliis also contracts, and ening, etc. brought from all parts of the system by the forces the blood through a valve into the This ventricle then conveins, enters into the vena cava ascending left ventricle. and descending portion, which empty them- tracts in its turn, and the blood passes and this, through another valve into the great aorta, selves into the right auricle when distended with blood, contracts, and from which it is distributed into the whole
;
forces its contents into the right ventricle, arterial structure
after
going the rounds of
wliich, contracting in its turn, propels the the circulation, it is again returned to the
blood into the pulmonary
arteries,
whose heart by the
veins.
EXAMINATIOXS OX THE NATUEE AND PROPERTIES OF BLOOD.

Q.
What
it
are the properties of
blood?
fluid,
A.
In centre, but they
differ
in
size
and shape
in various
health,
is
a smooth homogenous
of unctuous animals.
specific gravity
Q. By what means is the blood colored? A. By somewhat exceeding that of water. It means of n-on and oxygen. exhales a vapor which has a peculiar odor this, howQ. Describe the properties of the serum ? A. It is the yeUow fluid pait that is left after the separation of ever, differs in various animals. Q, Does the blood always preserve the same den- the crassamentum it is of a saline taste, and homogeA. No. Its density is hable to great variations, nous, adhesive consistence. sity P * under the states of rest, labor, disease, and health. Q. What effect has a temperature of 160 on it? " A. The whole is converted into a firm white mass, perQ. What do you understand by the " crassamentum
adhesive consistence, of a slightly saline taste, and of a
of the blood?
of fibrin.
A.
It is
supposed to consist
chiefly
fectly
analagous to the white of an egg wliich has been
to
in
what
A. It owes its peculiar color is it colored ? Q. Can any liquor be extracted fi'om the serum afler termed the red globules, which are entangled ha'\ing been coagulated by heat? A. Yes. If the it during its coagulation. coagulum be cut into slices, and subjected to gentle A. By long pressure, an opaque liquor drains from it, which is called Q. How can this be demonstrated ?
Q.
is
How
hardened by boihng.
continued ablution in water, the red particles are hber- the serosity. ated and we have remaining a white, soKd, and elas;
tic
substance, which has all the properties of fibrine,

is
PEEICAEDIUSI.
Q.
and
almost exactly similar to the basis of muscle.
Q.
By what name was
fibrine formerly
known
A.
By what
is
the heart surroimded?
A.
a
coats
;
The
pericardium.
Q.
Coagulable Ij-mph.
Q.
What
is
the structure of this?
A.
It is
fibro-
What
is
the form of the red globules of the

la Torre,
serous
fibrous,
tissue.
membranous bag, composed of two

the other serous
;
one
blood?
A. The Abbe de
who examined
j)Ower, states
these are united by cellular
them under microscopes of considerable
that they obtained the appearance of flattened annular

bodies, with a depression, sometimes perforation, in the
Q.
What
are
its
connections?
A.
It is attached to
the sternum, pleura, diaphragm, and to the roots of

the large blood-vessels at the base of the heart.
*Dr. B. Babington
is
of opinion that the blood, whilst circulating
two parts only a fluid which he calls liquor sang^Hi'nys, and red globules; and he is induced to believe, from his experiments, that fibrin and serum do not exist as such in the circulating fluid, but that the hquor sanguinis, when removed from the vessels, and no longer subjected to the laws of life, has then, and not before, the property of separating into fibrin and serum, hhd. Chirvrg. Transact, vol. xvi. pt. 2. Lond. 1S31, and art. DIood (morbid conditions of the), in Cyclop, of Anat and Physiol. Lond. 1836.
in the vessels, consists of
Q.
AVhat
is
the function of the serous sm-face of the
pericardium?
Q.
What
its
protect
friction.
A. To secrete the liquor pericai-dii. ? A. It serves to own sm-face, and that of the heart, from
is
the use of this liquor
Q.
What
office
does the pericai-dium perform?
A.
It sustains the heart in its
proper situation.
;;
157
THE HOESE.
Q.
What
is
the form of the heart?
Q. How are the auricles dirided ? A. By the sepsomewhat flattened on the anterior surface tum am-icularum. and rounded on the other. Describe the internal Q. mechanism of the right Q. Where is the heart situated? A. Within the A. It has within it numerous fleshy pilthorax, in the region of the fourth, fifth, and sLxth ventricle?
A.
Its
form
the anterior cava, just as the latter pierces the walls of the auricles.
is
conoid, yet
dorsal vertebra;;
bounded on
;
tlie
sides
and walls of the thorax posteriorly, phragm; Inferiorly and anteriorly, by the sternum. How is the body of heart di\ided ? Q. A. Into base and apes.
lars, longitudinally distributed; also, three fleshy by the lungs by the dia- prominences, termed carnea columnse, from which sev-
eral
a
tendinous
cords
proceed to the edges of those

;
membranous and
fibrous productions
these close the

alto-
auriculo-ventricular
opening;
the
apparatus
Q. Wliat
are
the
divisions
:
internally?
auricles,
A.
di\ided into
cavities
;
foiu' cavities, \t2
two
Other cords, similar to the cordis tending, pass between the outer wall and or anterior
It is
gether forms vahida tricupsis.

the septum.
two
ventricles, or posterior eanties.
Q.
Wliat commimications
?
of the heart
A.
exist
between the
cavities
Q.
Where
is
Between the two
auricles there is
tery
A.
its
It
the origin of the right pulmonary aremerges from the upper and back part
no commxuiication, nor between the two ventricles but the right aiu-icle opens into the right ventricle, and
a similar opening exists between the
ventricle.
left auricle
of the ventricle. Q.
How is
the
mouth of
this artery protected ?
A.
and
By
three semilimar valves, wliich present Uttle pouches

cavity
;
within
these valves consist of doublings of

the -parts.
ventricle?
its
Q.
How
do veterinarians describe the relative

?
situa-
the Hning
membrane of
left
tion of the cavities of the heart
A, The amides are

left is
Q. Describe the
A.
Its cavity is
is
described as anterior and posterior, because the right

auricle
smaller than that of the right, and

Its
wall
tliicker.
forms the upper and fore part, and the

;
muscuU
pectinati appear mostly
upon the septum,

;
in a posterior dii-ection
the ventricles
being located
within the apex
and mider the valves

;
it
has two, in-
under then- respective auricles ; thus we have the anteand project more into the carity than those of the rior and posterior ventricles.
Q. tected
Q.
stead of thi-ee, carna; columnse
they are more bulky,
By a dupHcature of the pericardium. What the function of the am-icles? A.

? is is
How
is
the exterior sm'face of the heart pro-
right.
Q.
From whence
does the aorta arise ?
A.
From
To
the upper and fore part of the

Q.
left ventricle.
receive the blood from the various vessels

it
and transmit
What
is
aorta ?
to the ventricles.
A.
remarkable about the mouth of the

has three semilunar valves, similar to
are the ventricles cUrided
It
Q.
What
the function of the
ventricles? A.
those at the origm of the pulmonary artery.

Q.
By what
A.
They
One
the
propels the blood to the lungs, for pm-ification
are divided by a fleshy partition called septum ventriculoi-um.
other distributes
it
through the
arterial ramifi-
Q. How is the circidation of the blood cfiected ? the venous vessels which terminate in the A. By the alternate contraction of the auricles and right auricle. A. Three venous vessels terminate in ventricles, called the dyastole and systole of the heart.
cations.
Q.
Name
:
it,
riz
the vena cava, anterior and posterior, and the
Q.
coronary vein; the vena azygos forms a junction with blood
By what vessels is the heart itself ? A. By the coronary arteries.
supplied with
ARTERIAL SYSTEM.
DISTRIBUTION OF ARTERIES.
7.
Axillary.
Each
of these arteries ramify
The
blood
is
propelled
through the great aorta, the base of the left ventricle, in the space
by the heart and anastomose with others, and are diswhich rises out of tributed to muscular and adipose substance.
From
the axillary artery spring
all
the ar-
between the
artery.
and the pulmonary teries of the fore extremity. This vessel The branches furnished by the can only be seen by detaching the shoulder
left auricle
main trunk
are the coronary arteries.
The from
the body.
arteria
It arises
within the chest,

;
between the pulmonary and right auricle, winds round the fissure separating that cavity from the right ventricle, and turns down under the termination of the vena cava; and distributes ramifications in its course, which
penetrate the substance
right coronary artery emerges from
innominata gains exit by making a sudden turn around the first rib, rather below its middle, crossing the lower
from the
border of the scalenus in the turn;

first
it is
directed outward in this flexure,
and
then backward, and at length reaches the
and end
in spiral branches.
of the parietes, inner part of the head of the humerus, The left coro- where it makes another turn backward, and
nary artery, in passing out between the afterwards takes the name of the brachial 1. The external pulmonary artery and left auricle, sends artery. Its branches are
the thoracic. 2. The internal thoracic, which other auricle it then takes its course down- runs to the point of the shoulder, and gives its branches to the levator humeri and ward, and ends in spiral ramifications.
off
a large branch, which

;
encircles
shoulder joint.
3.
The
dorsalis
scapulae
ANTERIOR AORTA.
This
trunk.
is
ascends,
in
flexuous manner, to
the
a shorter division of the main shoulder

course of this vessel
;
joint, crossing the insertion

It
of the
The
is
under subscapularis.
the large
artery,
runs for a short distance

4.
the windpipe
arteries
it
gives origin to those large along the ribs.

are
distributed
The
subscapularis,
arises
which
over
which also
a from the
breast, head, neck, brain,

tremities.
It divides, at
and
anterior ex- upper part of the trunk, but near to its ter-
It passes along the ribs, screened from the heart, into the right and left ar- from view by the edges of the subscaputeria innominata the right is considerably laris and teres major, to both of which longer than the left, and measures nearly as muscles it detaches several small branches, much again in circumference it forms the and ends near the lower angle of the bone ti-unk from which the two carotid arteries it also gives off several branches to the spring; the left terminates in the following triceps and panniculus. 5. The humeral. vessels * The humeral artery descends from the 1. The dorsal artery. 2. Posterior cervi- inner and back part of the head of the os cal. 3. Vertebral. 4. Internal pectoral. humeri, in an obUque direction on the body 5. External pectoral. 6. Inferior cervical. of the bone, where it divides into the ulnar, spiral, and radial arteries. On its inner * The vertebral artery, forming the basilar, gives off side, it has the spiral and ulnar ner^'es in tlie posterior cerebellal, anterior cerebellal, posterior cere;
; :
a short distance mination.
bral,
and the circular
arteriosus.
front,
the radial nerve;
and behind, the

(158)
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOL YGY OF THE HORSE,
159
humeral veins; and it is covered inter- knee, and then transmits its divisions down by the large pectoral muscle, to which the front of the suspensary ligament beBut its prin- tween it and the canon bone, it sends off" it sends some small branches.
nally
;
cipal branches are
1.
One near
its origin,
branches over the front of the knee, the
which crosses the bone to get to the flexor canon, and suspensaiy ligament. The large metacarpal artery, a continuabrachii, and sends twigs to the shoulderjoint.
tle
2. A posterior branch, arising a lit- tion of the radial trunk, continues its course lower down, which enters the muscle down the leg, by the side of the tendo per3. Near its termination, foratus, passing under the posterior annular called triceps. another branch to the flexor brachii. Where ligament, approaches the fetlock just above
it is covered by the hu- the joint, and then splits into three vessels meral plexus of veins, and by the absorbent from the middle division three recuiTcnt arteries are given out the side divisions beglands of the arm.
the artery divides,
The ulnar artery consists of a common root, from which spring three or four vessels of considerable size, running in waving lines upon the inner side of the lower end The upper one is directed of the humerus.
to the ulnar, splitting before
it
come
the plantar arteries.

off"
From
the arch
below come
ries,
twô other branches,

joint.
which
descend into the

external
The
plantar arte-
and
the
internal, in the fore ex-
tremity, result from the fork of the meta-.

;
reaches the carpal
in
hind,
from that of the

is
upward upon the elbow, and another downward to the

bone, and sending one branch
metatarsal.
(Their general distribution

fetlock
the same, both in the hind
heads of the flexors

tributed.
to
tliis
which muscles They descend the

vessel are dis- the sessamoids, in
and fore feet.) upon the sides of

the veins
the other branches of
company with
which run in front of them, and with The spiral artery, the outermost division, the plantar nerves which proceed behind the artery then passes down to, turns round the os humeri, passing under them the flexor brachii, and sending a recurrent and into, the substance of what is caUed
;
branch to
radius,
it,
; to arrive at the front of the the " fatty frog "
it
next passes the inner
where it splits into several branches, 1. Some run into the elbow of which 2. Others, larger and more numerjoint. ous, penetrate the heads of the extensors.
and upper extremity of the coffin bone, and afterwards to the foramen of the posterior
concavity of the bone.
the plantar artery are
The branches
of
many and
important.
3.
Two
long, slender ones descend
upon the After detaching some small ramifications
and give branches, in their course, inwardly to the fetlock, posteriorly to the to the extensor muscles as low as the knee, ffexor tendons, and anteriorly to the ex1. The and there end in ramifications about and tensor tendon, it then sends off"
radius,
into the joint, joining with others
from the radial. The radial artery, the principal division

humeral, continues
radius,
its
;
2. The transverse coming perpendicular artery. 4. The artery. 3. The artery of the firog.
lateral
laminal artery.
5.
The
circulus ar-
descent along the teriosus.

cipal
sets
From
of
the latter arise
about the middle of the arm the nerve accompanies it first on its outer side, and subsequently behind it. A short way above the knee, it splits into the metacarpal
vessels
2.
two
prin-
1.
The
anterior
laminated
arteries.
The
inferior
com-
municating arteries, "thirteen, and sometimes fourteen, in number." 3. The circumflex artery. Then, again, from this vessel arteries. The small metacarpal artery descends, spring the solar arteries, which may be so within a cellular sheath, along the inner and named from their radiated arrangement. back part of the knee. It continues its These latter are destined for the supply of descent along the metacarpal vein (which the sole, upon which they run in radii at runs to its inner side), tUl it gets below the equal distances, whose common centre is the
160
toe of the frog, where they end in
commu-
the under part of the tongue, and transmits
nications with the arteries of that body.
branches to the interior, and continues of

large size even
to the tip of the
organ,
THE CAROTID ARTERY.
wherever
its
The
right arteria innominata, having depended.
extreme ramifications are exThe sublingual artery winds along
tached seven important

vary but
little
branches, which the under and outer border of the tongue,
in their
mode
of origin, preserving a more superficial course than

former.
It
general course, and distribution, from the the
supplies the
sublingual
which the left division resolves itself, become the common carotid a large vessel emerging through the upper opening of the chest it divides, as it
several arteries into
gland,
and
distributes branches
over the
membrane
of the tongue.
The submental
artery leaves the submaxillary, follows the
course of the branch of the jaw, and de;
quits the chest, into
two branches,
These
called taches twigs to muscles
it
then transmits
internally.
the right and
left carotids.
arteries its ramifications into the
gums
ascend, and having reached the top of the

into three divisions
The
anterior masseter branches pass
on the
larynx, the carotid of either side branches external side of the jaw.
the external and

it
inter-.
The inferior
labial artery courses the side
ramus anastomoticus of the jaw, invested in the cellular and here, though the trunk itself becomes deeply fleshy substance belonging to the buccinator.
nal carotids, and the
lodged in
contact.
soft parts, its situation is well inis
It
gives off slender ramifications to the in-
dicated by the larynx, with which
substance, also the buc1. Several cinator arteries the buccal twdgs bifurcate, This vessel detaches unimportant muscular branches in its pro- sending their divisions respectively to the 2. The thyi-oideal upper and under Ups these form the supegress up the neck. artery, which furnishes the laryngeal, a rior and inferior coronary arteries of the lips. small artery that perforates the ligament The facial artery ascends upon the side
in vesting cellular
;
uniting the cartilages of the throat. of the face, crosses the buccinator, then, Tlie external carotid artery is the large having run as high as the bony ridge from
division,
which
may be
tinuation of the carotid
regarded as the con- whence the masseter arises, it detaches a This artery large branch, and then expands upon the itself.
is imbedded in glandular substance, surrounded by venous and nervous trunks, and protected by bony prominences and muscles. The first branch of the external carotid is the submaxillary artery it comes off behind the horn of the ox hyoides, just as the carotid makes its second curve, and ranks
;
upper and fore part of the face;
its
termi-
nating ramifications are in the cellular substance and skin covering the fore part of
the face.
The posterior auricular gives branches to
the parotid gland, and to the different muscles of the ears.
next in size to the trunk

ing the lower
here
itself.
After reach-
jaw (about
one-thu-d of its
The teviporal artery, i\ie anterior auricular, and the internal maxillary, may be con-
it arrives upon the face; sidered as the terminating branches of the The internal maxillary becomes subcutaneous, ending in an external carotid. equal division, called the facial and inferior gives off deep temporal branches, long
length downwards),
it
labial arteries.
Its
branches
:
are,
the ascend- slender twigs, to the soft palate, to the ear,
ing laryngeal, pharyngeal
smaller branches and to the articulation of the jaw; the facial
go
to
parotid gland, and a large branch, artery also gives off the inferior maxillary,
called the lingiial.
The
latter
detaches a the
;
supra-orbitar,
the
ocular,
the
infra-
few twigs into the submaxillary space it orbitar, and the palate maxiUary. The then branches into two arteries, the ranine second and smallest division of the carotid and the sublingual. The ranine, apparently is the a continuation of the lingual, passes along
XYI.
XO.
FROXT AND SIDE
</.
1.
MEW
OF THE NEAR-HIND LEG.
Ligaments of the
patella.
J". Triceps. ni\ Tensor Tagina.

n'.
o'.
Rectus.
Vastus externus.
q". y'.
X. X.
7.
8.
if.
Extensor
suffraginis.
Extensor pedis.
Slieath
and
penis.
The
hoof.
NO.
22.
2.
OSSEOUS
STRUCTURE.
Fenuu-.
Patella.
Tibia.
23.
24.
e.
Fibula.
25. 26.
27. 28.
*.
Os
calcis.
Astragalus.
Inferior tarsus.
Metacarpus magnum.
"
par\'us.
29.
Sessamoids.
30.
31.
32.
Os Os Os
suf&aginis.
corona.
uedis.
NO.
3.
OUTSIDE VIEW OF THE NEAR-HI>D LEG.
K. Abductors.
J". Triceps.
m\
o'.
)'.
Tensor vagina.
Vastus externus.
Gastrocnemius externus.
Peroneus.
m'. Rectus.
V. s'.
u\ Gastrocnemius externus. '. u'. Flexor pedis.

X.
Extensor pedis.
y. y. Extensors.
. V. Flexor tendons.
-.
The
hoof.
8.
Bifurcation of suspensory ligament.
No. 4
z.
is
nearly the same as No.
3,
and therefore ueeds no further
description.
EXPLANATION OP FIGUKE XVI. CONTINUED.

NO.
f.
q.
r.
t'.
5.
Abductor
tibialis.
Glans penis.
Gastrocnemius extemus. Flexor pedis accessorius.
Lisertion of the gastrocnemius.
'.
x'. X. q.
Extensor pedis.
8.
^-.
Bifurcation of the suspensory ligament The hoof.
9.
Flexor metatarsi.
5.
z.
The saphena
vein.
THE HOKSE.
RAMUS ANASTOMOTICUS.
It leaves
"
161
sel,
to supply
aU those
intercostal spaces
These arteries the trunk of the carotid, joins posteriorly to the last. the vertebral, and from it arises the occipital along the lower borders of the ribs, and end artery, which gives off twigs to be dispersed about the inferior parts of the chest and
ma
upon
the dm-a mater, temporal muscle,
and abdomen.
canal.
They
furnish, near their origin,
muscles of the occiput.
small branches, which enter the vertebral
Having detached these small

its
ves-
INTERNAL CAROTID.
This vessel, whose calibre
than
half
is
sels,
the posterior aorta continues
pasits
not more sage into the abdomen.

carotid,
exit
In maldng
that of
the external
:
from the
chest,
it
gives off the phrenic
ascends to the base of the skuU

trance into the skull, a vessel
at
its
en- or diaplnragmatic arteries.
named
the
arteria
comes off after communicans

:
Witliin the abdomen, the aorta continues

to be firmly fixed to the spine,
by its
several
having given off
tliis
vessel, the internal cellular attachments, as far as the

its
lumbar
carotid pierces the
dura mater, takes
vertebra,
under the body of which it branches

Prior to this
course up near the optic nerve, and branches into four large arterial trunks.
into four divisions, wliich supply the cere- division, the
abdominal aorta gives off the brum with blood. cceliac artery, which is nothing more than The remaining vessels of the brain are the common root of the splenic, gastric, and derived from the vertebral artery, which hepatic arteries that in some instances gives off posterior arteries to the dura mater, have separate origins. and ramifications to the medulla oblongata. The splenic artery, after passing between The basilar artery sends off branches to the stomach and spleen, ends in the left
the cerebellum.
gastric artery.
In
its
course
it
gives off
several branches to the pancreas, caUed pan-
THE POSTERIOR AORTA.

Considerably longer and larger than the
is
creatic arteries.
The gastric artery, the smallest of the which are cceliac divisions, ruiis forward to the small derived the artery of the abdomen, pelvis, curvature of the stomach, between the layers and posterior extremities, in addition to the of the omentum, branching, before it reaches posterior intercostals, and some few of the this organ, into two vessels, called inferior thoracic arteries. It commences opposite and superior gastric, which finally ramify the fourth dorsal vertebrae from its origin upon the upper and under surface of the it courses first upward, and then backward, stomach. having the pulmonary artery on its left, the The hepatic artery, the largest of the termination of the windpipe on its right, cceliac division, proceeds before the pancreas then takes a course along the spine, inclin- to the right side of the cavity, and passes ing to the left side. From the inferior part over the pyloric end of the stomach, and of the curvatme of the aorta arise the right gives off smaU -branches to the pancreas. and left bronchial arteries: these vessels Near the pylorus, it sends a branch to the penetrate the lungs in company with the duodenum, which, as soon as it reaches the bronchia, to the branches of which they intestine, divides one division the duocKng in the course of their ramifications denal retrogrades along the gut, and ends within the substance of the lungs. in anastomosis, with branches coming from The esophageal also spring from the con- the anterior mesenteric the other the cavity of the arch near to the former, and right gastric crosses the gut, proceeds to proceed backward to the esophagus, where the great curvature of the stomach, where it divides into an inferior and superior artery. it inosculates with the left gastric. The The intercostal, the remainuig branches, hepatic artery itself is continued forward to come off in pairs from the sides of the ves- the porta of the fiver, where it divides
anterior
the
main
trunk, from

162
into the right

and
left
hepatic
the larger and shorter one,
the right,
The obturator artery
is
the lowest of the

Its
after giving off
divisions of the internal iUac.
branches
a considerable branch to the portio media, are the arteria innominati, and ramifications Its turns back to reach the right lobe the left, to the obturator muscles and ligaments.
;
a branch or two to the mid- divisions are the ischiatic, which distributes its branches to the triceps next, the pubic dle portion, penetrates the left lobe. The anterior, or great mesenteric, is the the internal pubic artery gives twô sets of
after giving off
;
next vessel to the cceliac, and arises from branches, which pass to the penis. From The gluteal artery is destined principally the under part of the posterior aorta.
its origin,
it
passes
downward within
;
the to supply the gluteal muscles.

Tlie lateral sacral artery,
layers
of the
mesentery, detaching some

it
having reached
It
small twigs to the pancreas

rates into larger vessels
then sepa- the coccyx, divides into two branches.
eight to twelve in
(commonly from furnishes the sacro-spinal branches, five number), from which are or six in number, and the perineal artery.
It
derived a branch that runs to the duode-
soon divides into several ramifications,

into the gluteal
num
several other branches encircle
and of which many run

;
mus-
cles others descend on the back of the ramify on and around the intestines. The renal or emulgent arteries leave the thigh, and others are distributed to the anal
aorta at right angles just below the preced- muscles, and to the skin
and ceUular sub-
ing vessel
they each pass into the respect- stance of the perineum.
The
lateral sacral
ive kidneys,
and therein divide into branches

arteries,
also
furnishes the lateral coccygeal,
and
that penetrate the glandular substance.
the inferior coccygeal.

left,
and left, from a branch of the posterior aorta, they pass out of the abdomen, at the ab- which takes place under the body of the dominal ring, to the testicles. In the female, last of the lumbar vertebrae, and passes they pass to the ovaries, fallopian tubes, into muscles, forming the inside of the
right
TJie external iliac artery, right
The spermatic
and
originate from the under part of the aorta
results
and horns of the
uterus.
thighs.
The
vessel gives off the circumflex
The
lumbar
arterial
posterior aorta
also
gives
off the
artery of the ileum, the artery of the cord,

:
small mesenteric, and five or six pairs of and the arteria jDrofunda
arteries.
the latter, having

it
Under the
last
lumbar reached the posterior quarters,
sends
its
vertebrsE, the aorta gives off
two pairs of ramifications into the biceps. Before this trunks, called the external and inter- vessel dips into the substance of the thigh,
it
nal
iliacs.
gives rise to a large branch called the
The
internal
iliacs
give
off
a branch epigastic artery.
called the artery of the bulb,
and afterwards
branches into three divisions

tor, gluteal,
the
The epigastric
artery, in passing the
mar-
obtura- gin of the internal ring, forms
a branch
;
and lateral sacral arteries. which divides into several small arteries of The artery of the bulb passes to the bulb these a twig runs to the groin, and ramifies In the among the adipose membrane and absorbent of the penis, where it terminates.
artery sends
its
female, this
terminating glands
then, next, a slender branch to the
branches to the vagina.

fcetal
vis,
It
gives off the cremaster,
and subcutaneous twig

lastly, the external
to the
umbilical artery.
In leaving the pel- thigh, and,
twigs to the vesiculEB seminales, also
Regarding the proThe fenwral artery. funda femoris as a limb of the external butes its ultimate ramifications to the pros- iliac, we descend to the femoral artery, the tate gland. It also gives off divers branches, subsequent continuation of the same trunk. anal and perineal, to the posterior portion This artery proceeds in an oblique direction
distri-
the prostatic artery, which detaches
pudic artery.
of the rectum, anus, and parts comprising
down
of
its
the haunch, preserving nearly the line
the perineum.
middle
opposite to the head of the
THE HORSE.
tibirf, it
163
Its
branches into the anterior and pos-' ends in bifurcation.

;
branches
;
are,
one
terior tibial arteries

ofl'
the anterior tibial gives that runs into the flexor pedis
tlnree
another to the
;
the inguinal artery, also

thft
or four upper
and back part of the
branches to
side
sartorius,
and one
Its
to the twigs to both the flexgrs.
tibia and small There are several
and
front of the
stifle.
posterior terminating branches,
some ramifying sub-
branches are a large artery to the gracUis cutaneously, others continuing

(wliich detaches twigs to the long
down
the leg
and
short internally
over the tendon of the flexor
heads of the
At
the back of the
liteal
one to the biceps. pedis, and ending at the lower part of the off the pop- canon in divers small ramifications. branches, four or five in number, The anterior tibial artery, after leaving
triceps), also
stifle
come
taking opposite directions, which are des- the trunk, passes

tined for the supply of the joint
;
down
the fore part of the
one runs thigh to the hock and metatarsal bone, down upon the posterior tibial muscles; where it becomes the me+atarsal artery. climbs another the recurrent branches The metatarsal artery pursues its course the back of the os femoris, and anastomoses downwards to about two-tliirds the length with the descending ramifications of the of the leg it then gains the posterior part profunda femoris. of the latter a Httle above the fetlock, it The tibial arteries are a continuation of divides into three vessels one forms an arc, the femoral trunk, which branch off into (as in the fore extremity), from which come tibial arteries at the head of tibia. they anastomose off" the recurrents, and The posterior tibial artery, the smaller of with the posterior tibial artery the lateral the two, passes along the posterior deep divisions become the plantar arteries. region of the thigh, to the hock, where it
164
REMARKS ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF ARTERIES.

The
preceding
is
a brief sketch of the
arterial structure,
and the professional man

;
will perceive that
have not named the whole of the arteries therejpre, in order to supply this deficiency', the author here introduces a table of the arteries, constructed by
Mr.*Percivall.
we
TABLE OF THE ARTERIES.
Aorta
Anterior Aorta
Anterior Aorta. Posterior Aorta. Right Arteria Lmominata. Left Arteria Innominata.
('Posterior Cerebellal.
J
]
l^^
''Dorsal.
Posterior Cervical. Vertebral, forming the Basilar. Left Arteria Internal Pectoral. Innominata External Pectoral. Inferior Cervical. _ Axillary. ('External Thoracic. Internal Thoracic. Axillary < Dorsalis Scapulse.
Anterior Cerebellal. Posterior Cerebral, Circular Arteriosvis.
Subscapular.
1^
Humeral,
Humeral
f Ulnar. Spiral Radial.
Small Metacarpal.
Larare
ditto.
Internal Perpendicular. Transverse. Plantar < Artery of the Frog. Lateral Laminal.
| )
Large Metacarpal
f
External Plantar.
ditto.
Ant. Laminal.
Inf.
(^Circular Arteriosus.
Communicatuig.
.
.
Circumflex.
^ Solar.
left
The Right
Arteria Innominata sends
off'
branches correspondent to those on the External Carotid. Ramus Anastomoticus.

Internal Carotid.
side ; and, in addition, the
Common
Carotid
Right Carotid
Left
ditto.
'
J
>
Ascending Pharyngeal.
Pterygoid. Lingual.
\
.
.
Ranine.
Sublingual. Buccinator.
I
(
Submaxillary.
Inferior Labial.
Angular Oral. ^ Masseter.

Buccal. Sup. Labial. False Nasal.
Facial.
J
I
External Carotid
<
Parotideal. Int. Pterygoid. Post. Masseter. Post. Auricular.
'Deep Temporal.
Palatine. Inf. Maxillary.
Temporal.
Ant. Auricular. Int. Maxillary.
Supra-Orbitar. Ocular.
Infra- Orbitar.
^Palato Maxillary.
THE HOESE.
165
Dm-a Matral.
Ramus Anastomoticus
Occipital.
Temporal. Nuchal.
{Ai-teria Communicans. Anterior Dura Matral. Anterior Cerebral. <( Ophthalmic

.
.
IVIiddle Cerebral.
Lateral Cerebral.
PosTERiou Aorta
Thoracic Division.
Abdominal
ditto.
Bronchial
Right Broncliial.
Left ditto. Superior Esophageal.
Inferior
ditto.
Thoracic Division
<
Esophageal.
Intercostals.
Phrenic.
r
Splenic
CffiUe
<^
Gastric
Pancreatic Branches. Splenic Branches. S Left Gastric, Gastric. j Superior

I
'
Inferior
ditto:
Pancreatic Branches.
Hepatic
Abdominal
Division
Duodenal. Right Gastric. Right and Left Hepatic. Duodenal Branches.

Mesenteric. Coecal Branches.' Anterior Colic Branches. Right Renal. ) External Branches.
ditto.
\
Anterior Mesentric
SmaU
Renal
Left Spermatic <( Right and Left,

,
Capsular Renal;
Posterior
.
i Mesenteric
n/r
Posterior Colic.
-p
,
Lumbars
five or six pairs.
Bifurcation of the Posterior Aorta into External and Internal Iliac Arteries.
(Umbilical. Vesical Branches.

Prostatic.
Internal
Iliac.
Anal and Perineal Branches. Arteria Innominata.

Foraminal Branches.
Obdurator
Ischiatic.
Pubic Int. Pubic
Branches to the Crus Penis. Ditto Corpus Cavernosuni.

Ditto Dorsum Penis. Ditto Glans Penisi Cutaneous Branches.
The Middle
.
Sacral issues at the Bifurcation of the Trunk.

f
r^ T1External Hiac
,
-^
Circumflex of the Heum. Artery of the Cord. ArWa Pmfnndn Arteria Profunda. J Epigastric. Femoral.
-{
Branch to the Groin. Branch to the Ring.

External Pudic"
166
Inguinal.

Muscular Branches.
Stifle
Branches.
-j
Muscular Branches.
Popliteal,
Recurrent.
'
Femoral
Anterior Tibial
Posterior Tibia
Recurrent Articular. Muscular Branches. Cutaneous Branches. Metatarsal Branclies. Metatarsal Ai-tery. Muscular Branches. Medullary.
.
Recurrent. External Plantar.

Internal Plantar.
Tarsal. Internal Metatarsal.
-{
RecuiTcnt.
DISTRIBUTION OF VEINS IN THE HORSE.

The two main venous
trunlvs,
occipital artery. occipital
It
brings blood from the
the vence
veins from the posterior lobes of the cerebrum and cere-
sinuses, receives
cava, anterior and posterior, correspond to the anterior and posterior aortas.
bellum
also from the dura mater. The submaxillary vein is a large branch of
;
re- labial, and varicose veins. It joins the turning the blood from the head, neck, chest, trunk by the side of the trachea, just below and fore extremities. It is principaDy formed the parotid gland. In its course it receives by the concurrent union of the jugular and a number of veins the principal are the axillary veins, and is situated at its formasubmental, sublingual, lingual, pharyngeal, tion in the space between the two first ribs, and superior laryngeal veins. The facial about midway between the sternum and vein results from an expansion of small
;
THE ANTERIOR VENA CAVA Forms the main trunk of the veins,
the jugular.
It is formed upon the side of the face by the concurrence of the facial,
vertebras
it
also receives the pectoral, ver- veins
tebral, dorso-cervical,
and
inferior cervical
which
veins,
and the vena azygos. THE JUGULAR VEIN.
The
side of the face, one of the varicose from the masseter. labial vein is formed by the union of
is
upon the
a plexus of venous branches, coming principally from the angle of the mouth, joined It passes behind the condyle of the lower by others both from the upper and lower jaw, under the parotid gland, and joins the Ups. The varicose vein is buried in the external carotid artery, and continues
its
course
down
the neck with the latter.
masseter.
It
now
and
is
receives the auricular veins, anterior

posterior,
and supra orbitar, ocular, muscular, and tracheal veins. Near its inferior maxillary, and deep temporal the fourth branch, received by the jugular vein, termination it receives a branch of the superficial brachial, and plait or plat vein. is the parotideal, and the last branches from The vertebral vein runs the same course the masseter muscles.
;
The next terminates in the anterior vena cava, withiu the temporal, the third is the internal the space between the two first ribs. Near maxillary the latter in its course receives the junction of the submaxillary the juguthe blood of many small veins, the palatolar receives the small thyroideal, cutaneous, maxillary, infra
also internal.
;
and
submaxillary, proceeds
The jugular trunk having received the down the neck, and
THE OCCIPITAL VEIN

Descends from the head, along with the
as the artery, through the foramina, in the transverse processes of the cervical vertebrse,
with the exception of the
last.
This
THE HORSE.
167
vein has communications with the occipital der, and then passes inward to the jugular
sinus
and
posterior cerebral veins, medulla vein.
In
its
com'se to the
latter, it receives
numerous cutaneous and muscular branches, ceives vessels from the deep-seated mus- communicates with the humeral vein, and cles in the vicinity, and ends in the an- anastomoses with other veins of the arm. terior vena cava, just behind the first rib. The radial veins, two in number, arise The axillary vein returns the blood dis- from the junction of the metacarpal veins tributed by the axillary artery to the va- above the loiee they take the course of rious parts of the fore extremity there is a the radial artery, and receive anastomosing superficial and deep-seated set; the former vessels as they ascend from the ulnar and
oblongata, and spinal
;
marrow
it
also re-
run under the

muscles.
skin, the latter
among
the superficial veins.
The
plantar veins are an
cate network of small veins,
The ulnar veins (witii one exception) and cover the end in the common trunk of the humeral
intri-
foot with a venous netting.
The
veins vein.
of the sole pour their blood into the veins of the lamina
;
the latter increase in size tery
The humeral vein accompanies the arit receives small veins from the mus;
towards the coronet, and gradually unravel cles. themselves, so as to collect in a great many Tlie axillarij vein is the continuation of branches these run upward, through the the humeral, augmented by the accession substance of the coronary ligament, and of the triceps vein. Its branches are, the form the superficial coronary vein from subscapular vein, and dorsalis scapular; them other branches proceed and join the the latter terminates about midway be;
;
deep coronary, and
afterwards unite
in
a single vein opposite the pastern joint. The veins of the frog, oiiex ramifying in the form of networlc over that body, ascend into the heel, growing larger as they leave the foot they make a single branch at the pastern joint, then unite wdth the vein coming from the laminae, thereby forming the
;
tween the chest and shoulder. The remaining branches of this vein are the humeral thoracic, and the external thoracic it also receives other small veins, which contribute more or less to its volume. The pectoral vein runs the course of the
pectoral artery.
It
originates in branches
parietes, continues to
from the abdominal
plantar vein.
unites with
The
other
plantar vein ascends, receive accessory vessels in

vessels,
and
in
its course, and becomes ascends along the inner and lower border
metacarpal.
of the
first rib.
The dorso-cervical vein consists of two result from the union of the plantar these divisions, ramifying mth the dorsal and veins pursue their course up the leg, one on posterior cervical arteries it receives the either side, to the back of the knee, where anterior intercostal vein. they end in anastomosis. The internal The inferior cervical vein rmis down the metacarpal vein preserves the line of the lower part of the neck in company with the splint bone. These vessels receive in thefr artery the principal branches are muscular, course cutaneous veins from the front of though some come from the skin and abthe canon, and one or two descending sorbent glands in the vicinity. veins from the back of the leg; it afterTlie vena a-ygos ends just as the trunk wards forms the deep-seated veins of the opens into the auricle it returns the arm. blood from the lower intercostal veins. The superficial brachial vein ascends THE POSTERIOR VENA CAVA. along the inner side of the radius to the
vietacarpal veins,
;
The
two
number,
elbow-joint
here
it
crosses over to the front

its
This
is
the corresponding venous trunk
of the biceps and pursues
ascent upon to the posterior aorta, retiu-ning the blood
that muscle toward the point of the shoul- from the parietes of the
abdomen and
pel-
168
vis,

the urinary
and
genital organs,
It
and the poiu
their blood.
We
commence
the de-
posterior extremities.
takes
its
course scription, as in the fore extremities, at the
imder the bodies of the lumbar vertebrae, leg. The large metatarsal vein ascends the runs along the great fissure of the liver, perforates the cordiform tendon, and pur- canon by the side of the flexor tendons, sues its way directly across the cavity of and passes over the front and inner part of the chest to the lower part of the right auri- the hock it sends out branches, from which cle in its passage it is joined by the lum- result the Ajiterior tibial veins, which run between bar spermatic, renal, hepatic, and diaplnagmthe tibia and fibula to the back and lower atic veins. The common iliac veins are formed under part of the os femoris, and then are joined the sacro-iliac, symphysis, by the union of by the posterior tibial vein, and all three they re- tmite to form the femoral. the external and internal iliacs 2%e posterior tibial vein is a continuaceive a vein from the psoas and Uiacus, circumflex vein of the ileum, middle sacral, tion of the smedl metatarsal vein, and cor; : ;
and azygos. The ischiatic

external iliac
ternal
it..
responds in size to the small metacarpal.

vein, situated
of the pelvic cavity,
upon the side midway between the

;
It
runs in
artery,
company with
receiving
the posterior tib-
ial
various
muscular
and
lateral sacral veins
ex- branches in its course, also the medullary
and
internal branches unite to
results from the t\\'o from the bladder, anus, perineum, and, in last-named vessels runs behind the femoral the male, from the bulb and prostate: in artery, and ends in the external iliac vein. the female, fr'om the vulva and body of the It receives muscular veins, as well as veins vagina. The external come principally from the stifle joint, and the medullary vein of the OS femoris also, about two-thirds of from the gluteal and obturator muscles. The lateral sacral vein comes from the its length upwards, it is joined by the saphit runs ena vein. tail, formed by coccygeal veins The vena saphena major results from the forward to the sacrum, and receives in permeal and sacro-spinal large metatarsal vein at the hock it anasits course the tomoses with the anterior tibial vein; it branches. The external iliac vein takes the same also receives cutaneous and muscular course as the artery as it departs from the branches in its course. The vena saphena minor springs from the belly, this vessel receives The inguinal vein (coming fi-ora the small metatarsal vein it runs up the back groin), also a superficial or cutaneous of the hock, over the root of the os calcis, abdominal vein, known as the milk vein in and ultimately reaches the femoral vein. The vena porta circulates the blood cattle. The femoral vein is the continuation of through the liver, and is principally formed the iliac trunk below the brim of the pelvis by the union of the splenic and mesenteric and is the main channel into which the veins.
The
internal
comprise veins coming
form vein of the tibia. The femoral vein

;
deep-seated veins of the hind extremity
THE HOUSE.
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170
AÂTOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF
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EXPLANATION OP PIGURE
XVII.
OSSEOUS STRUCTUKE.
1.
Frontal bones.
Occipital.
3. 4.
8.
Temporal.
Inferior
10.
11.
Superior maxillaris. "
Cervical vertebrse.
14. 16. 18. 19.
20.
The sacrum. The false ribs. The sternum. The ileimi. The ischium.
Pubis.
21.
22.
Femur.
Patella.
Tibia.
23.
24.
c.
Fibula.
25. 26. 27. 28.

29.
Os
calcis.
Tarsal bones.
The mferior tarsal bones. Metatarsus magnum.

Sessamoides.
30. 31. 32. 33.
Os suf&aginis. Os corona. Os pedis.

Scapula.
34.
35.
Os humeri.
Radius.
f.
36. 37.
Os uhiaris. The carpal bones. Metacarpus magnum.

Scssamoida.
38.
39.
40. 41.
Os corona. Os sufh-aginis. Os pedis.

Dorsal spines.
d.
MUSCULAR STRUCTURE.
a.
c.
e.
Orbicularis palpebrarum,
Dilator naris lateralis.

Orbicularis oris.
f.
li.
Nasalis longus.
Buccmator.
Depressor
Masseter.
labii.
j. k.
10.
o.
Region of the parotid gland. Adducens Tel deprimens aurem.
EXPLANATION OF FIGUKE
THE NECK.
6".
c".
s. r. t.
XVII.
CONTINUED.
Cen-ical ligament.
Ligamentum
colli,
Trachelo subscapularis, scalenus.

Splenius.
Tendon of the
splenius
and
scalenus.
u.
Levator humeri.
6UPERI0E PART OF THE SHOCLDEK AND BACK.

i".
Latissimus dorsi.
m". Trapezius.
SHOULDER AND FORE EXTREMITIES.

g.
Ji".
Spinatus muscles.
Triceps extensor brachii.
I", in', n'.
s". x".
Extensors metacarpi.
p". q". Flexors externus et Intemus.

It.
u. u. u. Flexors perforans et perforatus.
8.
S,-.
The
&{.
pastern.
Hoofs.
ABDOMINAL REGION.
c".
Abdominis transversalis externus.

4.
POSTERIOR E-KTREMITIES.
'.
Erector coccygis.
g".
i'.
Glutei.
J'.
h'.
Triceps.
Biceps abductor.
v.
r'.
t!.
Abductor
r.
s'.
tibialis
intemus.
Gastrocnemi.
Peroncus.
g'.
Extensor metatar-si internus.

Insertion of the gastrocnemius.
w.
V.
a;,
Flexor perforans et perforatus.

y.
Fleshy belly of the extensors.

pastern.
8.
if.
The
,'.
Hoofs.
THE HORSE.
171
with two processes, called the
THE BRAIN AND

The
ITS APPEN-
we meet
falx, or
DAGES.
cerebrum, cerebellum, and medulla
the dura mater, pia
longitudinal process,
and the ten-
torium, or transverse process.
The former
its
oblongata, and medulla spinalis are invested
resembles the blade of a scythe, hence
with three membranes

the exterior
mater, and tunica arachnoides.
which, is the dura mater lobes of the cerebrum. It takes its rise though called a membrane, is of a dense, from the crista galii, and terminates on the firmly is so inelastic texture. It tough, and OS occipitis. adherent, by means of numerous little The tentorium is extended from the inner
;
These processes are formed from duplicatures of the dura mater; the first Of these descends for a short distance between the
name.
prominences, to the sutures of the cranium,

it
that
is
diSicult to separate
is
them
plate of
;
this
the os occipitis along the sides

its
membrane
to the internal
is
cranium what
of the cranium to
base,
whence
it
may
the pericraninm
externally.
is
The
inner
surface of the dura mater
lubricated
by
be traced to the sphenoid bone, and is lost in the common covering of the dura
mater.
is
fluid
furnished
by
its
own
blood-ves-
It is
composed of two laminae one

: :
continuous with the falx
the other forms
sels.
The
closely
pia mater
is
that
the
membrane which
substance of the
that portion of the
the cerebellum.
membrane which covers The tentorium is equally

two
lateral por-
envelopes
brain,
and dips down between its convolutions, and adheres to its surface by numberless minute blood-vessels. It differs in its appearance and texture from the dura mater; presenting a smooth surface exteriorly, but a rough and villous one next to the brain, and being composed of a beautiful network of blood-vessels united together by a delicate cellular tissue.
divided by the fabc into

tions.
T/ie sinuses.
The
its
superior, or longitu-
dinal sinus, riins within the duplication of
the faLx, along
superior border.
The
tivo lateral sinuses are
formed within
the duplicature of that part of the tento-
rium which is attached to the temporal and occipital bones one extending to the right, and the other to the left. They receive The third membrane has been compared veins both from the cerebrum and cerebelto a spider's web, in allusion to which the lum. name of mcmbrana arachnoides has been The cavernous sinuses, so named from the
;
given to
it.
cavernous
appearance
of
their
interior
which supply the brain with they receive some important nervous trunks blood are the two vertebrals, besides two in their passage from the brain, and for
arteries
The
other branches called the internal carotids. lodging the terminations

Its
of
the internal
blood
is
returned from the sinuses of carotid arteries.
They commonly commusizius

;
the dura mater

veins.
It is
by the
vertebral
and jugular nicate with the sub-occipital

are also of
these
membranous
formation, and are
on the supply of the vertebral
ar-
teries,
however, that the brain mainly de-
found upon the cuneiform process of the os occipitis, running longitudinally to the fora-
its supply, for, if ligatures are men magnum. They receive veins from placed on these arteries, the animal dies; the cerebellum and posterior parts of the whereas, both the carotids may be tied cerebrum.
pends for
without occasioning any apparent

If
ill
effects.
Cerebrum.
The
largest portion of the
our
memory
city,
serves us. Dr.
J.
C. Warren, cerebral mass,
of
this
has
performed
the
latter
operation on the
cess.
human
subject with suc-
In raising the
bony covering of the
brain,
and that which presents itself to our view in raising the skidl, is the cerebrum. It is equally divided by a longitudinal fissure along its middle, into which the fabc cerebri descends and its divisions,
;
172
which are symmeti'ical, both internally and take their origin in pairs, and these pairs are numbered, and so distinguished from externally, are denominated hemispheres.
Cerebellum.
The cerebellum
:
is
at once one
another,
according
to
the order in
distinguished
from the cerebrum

it
by
its
which they
of nerves
;
arise.
being only one-sixth the size of the

Its figure is irregular
latter.
ten,
There are forty-six pairs coming from the brain, are

;
has two oval ends, distinguished as the cerebral nerves

its longisix,
thirty-
and
its lateral
dimensions exceed
lateral.
from the spinal marrow, denominated
tudinal.
lobes
a middle and two
It
is
divided into three oblong the spinal nerves.
Medulla oblongata, the smallest division of the cerebral mass. It rests on the cuneiform process of the occipital bone, and is continued upward and backward to the foramen magnum. The upper surface of the medulla oblongata forms, with
floor of the fourth ventricle.
CEREBRAL NERVES.
First pair, or olfactory nerves, arise from the corpora strata, along the posterior borders of
which bodies the medullary bands them may be traced as high up as the middle lobes of the cerebrum. These
or roots of
the tuber annulare, the are the largest of the cerebral nerves, are
Pituatary gland, a red body, of an egg exhibit,

form, seated
bulbous at their origin, pulpy in texture, and when cut into, comparatively to
upon the
sella tursica,
It
within their
a fold of the dura mater.

hesions,
place.
has a
mem-
branous capsule, surrounded by cellular
size, large cavities, which are walled by a layer of medullary matter, enclosed ad- wthin a thinner one of cortical substance.
in
by which
it is
firmly retained in
its
Second pair, or
optic nerves, arise
from
Medulla
is
spinalis.
The
the thalamia nervorum.

spinal
They
leave the
marrow cranium through

interior of
retina.
the optic foramen,
and
that extended portion of brain-like sub- pass to enter the globe of the eye, within
is
stance which
rior part of the
continued from the poste- the medulla oblongata through the

It is
the entire length of the spinal canal.

inclosed in the
which it expands, and forms its whole course, it is enclosed within a sheath prolonged from the
In
same membranes
;
that en- dura mater.
velop the brain
but, in addition to them,
the superior ligament of the spine serves as their origin
Third pair, or mofores ocidorum, take by several filaments, from the

parts
a covering and defence to

this,
it
below.
To inward
of
the crura cerebri.

first
The
and
its
to
the
periosteum
lining the trunk of the nerve
runs obliquely out-
canal,
proper theca
by
Its
cellular, adipose,
dura mater
is
is loosely attached ward, across the back of the crus, then and gelatinous matter. turns downward and enters the cavernous derived from that which sinus, on through the foramen lacerum-or-
covers the brain: in being continued through bitale.
In entering the cavity, the

into
nerve
the
foramen magnum, the membrane is contracted into a cylindrical sheath which loosely encases the marrow, and is generally described under the denomination of theca vertebralis. The arachnoid membrane and pia mater have the same relation to the marrow that the same membranes have to the brain, of which they may be considered
prolongations.
The smaller two branches. is generally received by the levater oculi. The larger branch subdivides into several
divides
others
;
the longest of these runs round the
eyeball,
and penetrates the oblique muscle.
Two
or three others run to the abductor
and depressor muscles.
These take a Fourth pair of pathetic. filamentous origin, and pass the border of
the tentorium, entering the cavernous sinus, ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE NERVES. from thence to the orbit. Its destination The nerves, being symmetrical in number is the superior oblique muscle of the eye.
and
distribution
on
either side of the body.
Fifth pair, or par trigemini.
These are
THE HOESE.
173
They take latter descends by the side of the tongue, the largest nerves of the brain. thek origin by filaments from the crura cere- penetrates that organ about its middle, and Each vanishes in its tip. It also sends ramificabelli, and pierce the dura mater. nerve appears to form a ganglion; from tions to the roots of the incisive teeth, and this ganglion we say that three nerves de- to the under lip.
part.
One
is
called the
ophthalmic; the
;
Sixth pair, or ahducentes, arise

this nerve gives
by means
second, the anterior maxillary
the third
is
of filaments from the medulla oblongata

ofl^
the posterior maxillary nerve.
The oph-
two
;
or three filaments
its
thalmic nerve
divisions
;
is
it
the smallest of the three to the retractor oculi
but
principal des-
as
divides
into
emerges from the orbit, it tination is to the abductor, along the fascithree branches, caUed the cula of which, its ramifications are equally
Seventh pair, or auditory nerves.
lachrymal, the super-orbitar, and the lateral distributed.

nasal branch.
Tlie
This
second division, or anterior maxillary pair includes two separate nerves on either
;
nerve, leaves the cranium thi'ough the hole side

called
one, from its remarkable softness, is foramen rotundum, of the sphenoid denominated the portio moUis; the other, bone, and takes its passage through the in conti-adistinction, the portio dura. The
inferior
orbital canal,
whence
labii
splits
it
it
emerges, portio mollis enters the organs of hearing,
covered
by the
face
:
levator
superioris,
and
is
distributed to the labyrinth.

portio dura arises from the medulla
upon the
large
nerves.
it
here
into several
The
branches,
denominated
the
facial
oblongata, and passes to the internal part
But
prior to its entering this canal of the ear, the
tympanum, and eustachian

the temples,
detaches several important branches to tube.
It is also distributed to
and neck. At its long filaments, which descend on the tubeEighth pair, or par vagum. rosity of the anterior maxiUa, penetrate the commencement it consists of two separate bone, and furnish twigs to the antrum, and portions the first called the glosso-pharynThe largest geal nerve, and the second the true par vathe two superior molar teeth. branch is the spheno-palatine, or lateral gum. They arise from the corpora olivaria, nasal nerve, to which the foramen spheno- and make their exit through the base of the
the eyelid,
lachrymal duct
;.
also
several eyelids, nose, lips, cheek,
palatine gives passage into the nose, cranium. The glosso-pharyngeus gives off wherein it divides into two sets of fila- branches, which join the portio dura, to the ments. One of these is spread over the constrictors of the pharynx, and form lateral parietes of the nasal cavity; the branches which ramify in the base of the other ramifies over the sinuses, and sends tongue. a filament to the lower border of the sepThe proper par vagum, having disunited
A branch also goes to the velum from the glosso-pharyngeal nerve, proceeds and another branch accompanies the downwards to join the carotid artery, and palatine blood-vessels, and ranaifies over the takes its com'se along the neck to the chest.
tum.
palati,
soft palate.
Its filaments are
1.
To
the cervical gan-
The
facial
branches of this division
ter-
glion.
2.
The pharyngeal
branch,
whose
minate on the front and sides of the

the
anterior
facial
face,
filaments pass to the esophagus and larynx.
3. Two slender branches to the carotid arbranch of the portio tery, which form a plexus. 4. The laryngeal dura, and with them form a plexus. branch. The third division, the posterior maxillary At the back part of the neck the painerve, gives off" a branch which runs up in vagum inclines upwards, and is found it then passes front of the parotid gland, and joins the above the carotid artery
and receive communicating filaments from
portio dura
also branches called the buc-
cal nerve, pterygoideus,
and gustatory.
between the two first ribs into the chest. The Having entered the thoracic cavity, it runs
174
witliiii
ANATOMY AND PHTSIOLOGT OF

;
Beneath the atlas, the the superior mediastinum the right the par vagum. nerve adheres to the trachea, crosses above accessory nerve divides the front division the root of the right lung, alongside of the runs downward, and penetrates the beUy,
;
esophagus, and
that tube before
left side
gains the under

it
side of
transmitting side twags in

posterior division turns
its
course.
The
leaves the chest.
On the
round the transverse
the nerve accompanies the anterior process of the atlas to the scapula, near and crosses the root of the posterior which it is lost in muscular substance. Its The branches of the accessory pass to the aorta, and also reaches the esophagus. branches mthin the chest are fUaments to par vagum, anterior cervical ganglion, and the tracheal and cardiac plexuses also, a communicate with the sub-occipital nerve.
aorta,
;
branch called the recurrent nerve

to
branches
Ninth pair, or linguales, arise behind the

;
the pulmonary plexus, and
also t^vo eighth pair, from the corpora olivaria
it is
cords that branch out and penetrate the found in
walls of the
of the
left
company with the par vagum, near The nerve passes amides. The recmTent nerve the coronoid process. side originates from the par down the lower jaw, between the muscles
vagum, by the side of the anterior aorta, forming the root of the tongue, and ends in and coils round the root of the posterior the tip of the latter. It sends branches to the lingual muscles and to the hyo-glossus aorta. The recun-ent nerve, so denomuiated from longus. They Tenth pair, or sub-occipital nerves. its retrogi'ade course, passes upwardly and outwardly, and is fomid between the caro- arise from the meduUa oblongata, and betid artery and the trachea having reached ginning of the spinal maiTOw; they pass
the top of the
latter, it
spreads into fine
ter-
out through a hole in the fore part of the

It
mmating
branches, several of which run to body of the atlas.
then branches into a
The superior the muscles of the laiyixs and thyroid carti- superior and inferior division. lage, and end in ramifications upon the is distributed to the extensor muscles of the
The inferior branch goes Its branches are head and neck. of the glottis. filaments to the pulmonary plexus, cardiac to the trachea, lymphatic glands, and musmembrane
plexus,
posterior
cervical
ganglion,
ti-achea.
and
cles
of the neck.
branches to the esophagus and
These consist of seven pairs, originating and others along the small cm'vature, which from the cervical portion of the spinal marcommunicates with the ramifications of the row. Each nerve, as soon as it issues from the other crosses to* the left the spinal canal, forms two nervous filaright nerve side, and joins the great semilunar ganglion. ments, one superior, the other inferior. The first cervical nerve makes its exit beThe right nerve, as soon as it reaches the into numerous branches, tween the first and second cervical vertebree. heart, divides which join the left, and spread their ramifi- It sends branches to diiferent muscles, and communicates with the cations upon the under part of the heart Second cervical nerve, which makes its some run to the pylorus, and others join the appearance between the second and third hepatic plexus. filament sends superior Its These vertebrae. Accessory nerves to the eighth. nerves are considered as accessory to the branches to the muscles of the neck, and eighth, in consequence of their being found levator humeri, communicates with the acin close connection in issuing from the cessory ner\'e, and
;
The par vagum runs to the stomach. The left nerve sends filaments to the heart,
CERVICAL NERVES.
cranium;
it
originates in the vertebral canal,

several fUaments.
Third cervical.
This also sends branches
by the union of
and twigs to the different muscles of the course into the cranium it receives many neck, and communicates with the fourth. The fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh pairs other fine threads, and in that cavity joins
In
its
THE HORSE.
pass from the spine, between their respecvertebrEB,
175
Tlie fourth nerve sends a branch to the and send branches to the sympathetic, conti-ibutes to the production phrenic nerve, and ramifications to the musof the crural and also sends a branch to cles, sympathetic nerve, and unite with the the obtm-ator. dorsal. The fifth nerve communicates with the sympathetic, craral, and sciatic plexus. THE DIAPHRAGMATIC OR PHRENIC NERVE.
tive
This
is
formed by branches from several

It
SACRAL NERVES,
Consist of
five pairs;
of the cervical nerves.
takes
its
course
a superior and
ir-
along the inferior border of the scale- ferior fascicula. The superior make thej nus muscle. It terminates by numerous exit through holes upon the upper part o ramifications on the tendinous parts of the the sacrum, and are there bmied rmder a diaphragm. thick mass of muscle, and become cutaneous upon the outer part of the haunch. DORSAL NERVES. The inferior fascicida. The first nerve These consist of eighteen pairs. They largely contributes to the origin of the pass from the vertebral canal in the same sciatic plexus, and sends a branch to the manner as the cervical, having superior and gluteal ner\'e also to the sympathetic and inferior branches. The inferior branches second lumbar nerves. The second nerve foUow the course of the intercostal blood-
down
vessels,
and are called
intercostal nerves.
The
superior branches
are
distributed to
the back and loins.
communicates Avith the tliird and sympaand sends branches to the surrounding muscles and sciatic plexus. The third and fourth have similar connections. The
thetic,
fifth
LUMBAR NERVES,
Consist of five pairs (corresponding to
the
passes into the coccygeal muscles.
COCCYGEAL NERVES. number of the lumbar vertebras). These issue from the spine, in the same The first nerve ends in ramifications near They comthe stifle, and gives off" branches to the last manner as the last described. dorsEd nerve, to the sympathetic, and to the municate with one another, ai-e distributed to muscles in the vicinity, and end in filasecond lumbar nerve.
The second nerve has communication mentous ramifications at the end of the with the first nerve, and sympathetic also NERVES OF THE FORE EXTREMITY. the crural. It sends one division to the fore
;
tail.
part of the haunch, where
it
becomes substifle.
cutaneous, and ramifies over the
The fore extremity receives its nerves The from the axillary or humeral plexus, and
other division crosses the ilio-lumbar artery, this plexus is formed by the union of porjust below its origin, and takes nearly a tions of the sixth and seventh cervical
inward part of the nerves, and a division of the haunch, and then ramifies upon the skin; in ner\'e.
similar course to the
its
first
dorsal
The external thoracic nerves, sLx or seven number, arise from the humeral plexus, through the abdominal ring, and sends and are distributed to the pectoral, triceps, twigs, in the male, to the scrotum and tes- and other muscles they finally ramify into ticle in the female, filaments go fi-om it to the skin. Tlie scapular nerves are called anterior, the uterus, udder, and external labia. The third nerve contributes to form the posterior, and sub-scapular. The former crural and obturator. It sends small sends its ultimate filaments to the triceps.
way
it
detaches a considerable branch,
called the spermaticus externus, which passes in
branches to the
obturator nerves.
sympathetic, psoas, and
Tlie
posterior
scapular
nerve
sends
branches to the sub-scapularis, triceps, teres
176
ANATOMY AND PHrSIOLOGV OP
insertion of the levator humeri.
minor, and shoulder joint, and ends in the the second, third, fourth, and fifth lumbar nerves. It makes its appearance under the
The subscapular nerves run upward be- transverse process of the loins, and proceeds tween the shoulder and chest, and enter the in a line with the external iliac artery. It gives off filaments to the psoas magnus, subscapularis. The spiral or external ciBaneous nerve is niacus, rectus, and vastus internus muscles. furnished by the axillary plexus arises be- It also gives off cutaneous filaments one hind the humeral artery, and passes between runs to the stifle, and ends in ramifications The other the OS hiimeri and the head of the triceps, upon the fore part of the thigh. througji the extensors, to the external flexors continues down the leg, and can be traced It gives off several branches as low as the fetlock. of the canon. The obturator nerve, contiibuted to by to the triceps, ramifies on the fore and outward part of the knee, and sends branches thnd and fourth lumbar nerves, sweeps round the brim of the pelvis, and detaches to the heads of the extensor muscles. The radial nerve descends with the tsvigs to the obturator muscles. Its ultimate humeral artery to the inward side of the filaments are expended on the triceps and elbow joint, and runs along the back part gi'acilis. The gluteal nerve, after leaving the cavity of the radius to the knee; passing under the annular ligament, it descends to the leg, of the pelvis, accompanies the gluteal artery, and takes the name of the internal metacar- and passes into the substance of the gluteal It gives off numerous twigs to muscles. pal nerve. The sciatic nerve derives its origin from the muscles, and finally becomes subcutanethe sacral and last of the lumbar nerves ous. The ulnar nerve origmates from the after leaving the cavity of the pelvis, passes humeral plexus. It passes down the radius, between the hip joint and the tuberosity of under the annular ligament, to the tendo the ischium, and plunges into the substance perforans, and there becomes the external of the haunch. Here it divides into branches At the hock its metacarpal nerve. It gives off internal called the popliteal nerves. cutaneous and subcutaneous branches, rami- principal branch separates into the external the former fies into cellular substance, penetrates the and internal metatarsal nerves heads of the flexors, and finally disperses runs over the flexor pedis to the os calcis. Their subsequent course and ultimate disits ramifications in front of the leg. The metacarpal nerves continue down tribution are the same as those of the planthe leg, over the fetlock joint, where they tar nerves of the fore extremity. The second become the plantar nerves these pursue popliteal nerve passes between the bellies their course behind their corresponding of the gastrocnemii, above the first, detachblood-vessels to the back part of the foot, ing twigs to them in its passage, and then which they penetrate to the inner side of spreads into many branches, which penethe lateral cartilages. trate the heads of the flexor muscles of the The plantar nerve detaches a branch from foot, and send filaments into the stifle joint.
; ; ;
;
the fetlock to the lateral cartilage

passes to the fatty frog.
enters a hole in the
another
SYMPATHETIC NERVE. branch back and lower part of Tills nerve derives its name from the unithe coffin bone, in company with the plan- versal influence which it has on the nervous tar artery, and there divides and distributes system. It communicates with the head, its ultimate branches around the edges of neck, chest, pelvis, and abdomen, by its frethe sole. quent intercourse and connection with their respective nerves. It is supposed by some NERVES OF THE HIND EXTREMITY. writers to be a nervous system of itself The crural nerve is derived partly from It has, at different distances, a great number
The
final

THE HORSE.
177
of gangliform tubercles, from which ramifi- spleen, the hepatic plexus, mesenteric, aortic,
cations proceed forward, as well as filaments hypogastric, and renal plexuses.
The sym-
backward, to the ganglia of the nerves of pathetic nerve in the abdomen travels over the medulla spinalis. It is considered gen- the sides of the bodies of the lumbar verteerally as beginning from a branch of the brae, below the articulations of the ribs, and fifth and sixth pair, given off at the base of pursues its course into the pelvis. Here, the cranium. The ganglionic structures also, it forms ganglia, which correspond in
named from number to those of the lumbar nerves and and distribution hence from every ganglion come off two filaments: we have the cervical ganglion, semilunar, one which runs to the corresponding lumbar
and the
different plexuses are
:
their form, location,
From the semilunar ganglion nerve the other crosses the aorta, and, by nervous filaments shoot in various direc- joining the aortic plexus, communicates tions, which, from their being compared to with nerves coming from the sympathetic
sacral, etc.
;
the rays of the sun, are denominated the of the other side.
solar plexus.
From
the divergent filaments
From
the loins, the sympathetic descends
of the
latter,
the several smaller plexuses into the pelvis,
and takes
its
course along
five
of the abdomen
may
be said to derive the side of the sacrum, and forms
gan;
their formation, taking
names according
hence
to glia, corresponding to the sacral nerves
it
the viscera they are particularly designed to finally terminates by forming a union with
furnish with
nerves
we
have the
its
fellow.
splenic plexus, that sends filaments to the
EXAJnNATIONS ON NEUROLOGY.
Examinations on Neurology, which
will
include the
Q.
It is
DUIl.4
MATER.
names
of
parts
not alluded to in the preceding
summary
of the nervous system.

yiERTES.
What
is
the situation of the dura mater?
A.
the external covering of the brain.
Q.
How
Q.
What
are nerves
A.
Long,
firm,
and
wliite
brain?
chords, which ramify- after the
manner of blood-vessels, and are distributed to all parts of the horse's body. A. From the brain, Q. Where do they arise? medulla oblongata, and medulla spinalis.
is
more dense, tough, and inelastic. Q. How is it retained mthin the cranium ? A. It fu-mly adherent to the interior of the cranium, more
It is
A.
does
it
differ
from the other coverings of the
particularly to the depressions

cranial sutures.
between the teeth of the

differ
Q.
What
communications have the different nerves

other?
Q.
How
?
with each
A.
They anastomose:
arise.
forming surface
ganglion,
A.
does the internal

It has a
from the external
smooth, pohshed, and lubricated
sometimes a plexus;
Q.
at others, a knot or
surface.
from wliich other branches
Q. Is the dura mater supphed with nerves?
A.
What
is
the
structure
of nerves?
A.
They Being composed of tendinous

destitute of nerves.
fibre, it is
supposed to be dura
consist of fascicuh, or bundles, of distinct longitudinal

fibres, closely
connected together by cellular substance.

?
Q.
How
?
Q.
What
are the coverings of nerves
A. Contin- formed
Q.
A.
are
the
processes
of
the
mater
By
duphcatures.
uations
of those which envelop the brain and spinal
What
are the use of the processes?
A.
They
marrow, termed nemilcma.

Q. are
steady and protect the various dinsions of the brain.
Q. By what names are the processes known ? A. What is the structure of ganglions ? A. They The longitudinal process is called falx cerebri, and the formed by a close intermLxtiu-e of filaments.
transverse ditto
the brain situated? A. Q. Where occupies How the brain divided? Into Q. cerebrum, cerebellum, and medulla oblongata. By what membranes the brain enveloped
is
is
called tentorium.
?
BRAIN AND ITS MEMBRANES.
Q.
It
What
is
the situation of the falx cerebri
A.
It
forms a partition under the anterior and superior
tlie
cranial canity.
is
parts of the cranial cavity extending from the crista
,-1.
galU to the occiput, and ends in contmuity with the

tentorium.
Q.
is
A. By three membranes, or meninges

mater
;
1st,
The dura
A.
Q.
What
is
the situation of the tentorium cerebelU
It is extended, after the
manner of an
arch,
from
2d, Pia mater
3d, tunica arachnoides.
the cerebral plate of the occipitis along the sides of

178
the craniiun to
its

base
;
whence, greatly diminished in
oval
mass of medullary substance, called the centrum
breadth
it
continues onward to the os sphenoides.
ovale.
LATERAL \'ENTRICLES.
SDTDSES OF
Q.
THE DUKA MATER.
Q.
What
are the lateral ventricles
A.
Two
ca^-i-
What
are the
the dura mater?

sinus;
names of the principal sinuses of ties situated beneath the corpus callosum and medullary A. The superior or longitudinal arches of the cerebrum.
sinuses.
two lateral, cavernous, and sub-occipital

PIA MATER.
Q.
What
?
other
A.
diîdes the lateral ventricles from each
The septum lucidum.
Q.
What
is
the situation of the pia mater
A.
A.
It
surrounds and closely invests the convolutions of the brain, and passes into the ventricles, furnishing them
with an internal membrane.
Q.
the parts which are generally considered as A. They are the contents of the lateral ventricles. the corpora striata, the hippocampi, plexus choroides,
Q.
Name
fornix,
What
is
the structure of the pia mater?

;
It
it
and the thalami nervorum opticorum. is the situation and form of the corpora A. They are found on the lower and back striata?
Q.
What
presents a smooth exterior surface

is
next the brain
parts of the ventricles, projecting into the centre of
rough and
villous,
and
is
composed of
a network of
blood-vessels, which are united together

cellular tissue.
by a
is
delicate
the cavities, where they expand as they approach the septum ; grow narrower and recede from each other
Being highly vasciJar,
it
supposed
it
above
below, they extend to the anterior cornua.
that the blood-vessels of the brain ramiiy- in
before
entering the latter.

AR.\CirXOID
Q.
It
is
HIPPOCAMPI.
MEMBRANE.
?
Q.
What
is
the situation of the hippocampi?
.4.
Where
is
the tunica arachnoidea situated
A.
They occupy the superior spaces of the

contact with the septum.
Q.
ventricles in
a delicate and transparent membrane, spread
From whence do
is
they originate
A.
They
From
consist
the
uniformly over the surface of the brain.
centres of the hemispheres.

Q. AVhat
their structure?
A.
and
of
CEREBRUM.
Q.
Where
is
the cerebrum situated?

form, and
A.
?
alternate lamina; of medullary

It occu-
cortical matter.
pies the superior part of the cranium.
Q.
is
What
is its
how
is it
dinded
A.
PLEXUS CHOROIDES.
It
convex above and concave below, and is divided A. They are situated in the chaunel by a longitudinal fissure along its middle, into which corpus striatum and hippocampus.
oval,
Q.
What
is
the situation of the plexus choroides
between the
the falx cerebri descends.

inated hemispheres.
Q.
Its divisions
are
denom-
A. It is Q. Describe the appearance of the same? a soft vascular substance, consisting of a plexus of
minute blood-vessels; it makes its appearance from behind the fornix, and ends abruptly in a round bulbous
mass.
What
cerebrum?
Q.
A.
is
the appearance of the sm-face of the

It is
covered with eminences called
convolutions.
Of what
?
consist
A.
is
the substance of the brain supposed to

of matter
;
Of two kinds
the external
is
FORNIX.
is
called cortical or cineritious,
and the internal
termed
Q. Describe the fornix audits situation?
A.
The
medullary.
Q.
fornix
is
is
that part wliich receives the posterior border
What What
the color of the cortical?
dish-ash.
Q.
is
the color
It is extended after the Red- of the septum lucidum. manner of an arch, between the corpora stratia below and the heads of the liippocampi above, where it forms of the medullary portion?
A.
A. Of a milk-wliite hue.
a junction with the corpus callosum. Q. Describe the processes or crura of the formx
CORPUS CALLO.SUM.
Q.
A. The two
inl'erior
crura spring from the
corpus
albicantium, at the base of the brain, and finally unite is the situation of the corpus callosum ? they appear inthin the ventricles and conan oblong wliite body, located at the bottom of thus united, The superior crm-a stitute the body of the fornix. the fissure which divides the two hemispheres of the proceed from the upper end of the fornix, and descend brain. into the superior cornua of the lateral ventricles, and Q. What does the corpus callosum join on each pointed extremities. A. Its edges blend mth the medullary sub- end in sharp,
What
A.
It is
'
side?
stance of the two hemispheres of the cerebrum. Q. What name is given to the medullary substance of both hemispheres, together with the corpus callosum,
TH.U..IIA.
when
the usual anatomical section

of
is
made?
is
A.
Q.
What
By opticorum ?
is
the situation of the thalamia nervorum A. They form the upper and back parts
cutting off the hemispheres
tlie
cerebrum nearly of the

seen a large
lateral ventricles.
even with the corpus callosum, there
Q. Describe the thalamia.
A.
They have a
wliite
THE HORSE.
appearance, conoid in form, narrow and approximated
inferiorly
;
179
NATES AND TESTES.
broad superiorly
they finally contract into
Q.
Where
are the nates and testes situated

ventricle,
A.
medullary bands, the tractus optici, which turn

the crura cerebri to the base of the brain.
Q.
round Above the third

the
tricles.
behind the pineal gland, and
immediately over and within the third and fourth venQ.
How
are the
?
corpora striata
in composition.
A.
thalami distinguished from
They are more dense and firmer

T-HNU.
How
do the nates
differ
from the testes?
A.
The former
the situation of the taenia?
are larger than the latter, and are separated

testes,
Q.
"Whut
is
A.
by a groove from the
and by a deep perpendicular
They
fissure
from each other.

is is
are located in the groove between the thalamus and
Q. Q.
corpus striatimi, partly covered by the plexus choroides.
What What
their
form
A.
Semi-oval.
their composition?
A.
They are com-
posed of cineritous and meduUai-y matter.
COMMISUEES.
Q.
Name
the commisures of the brain.

;
A. A.
1st,
CEKEBELLtni.
Q.
commissm-a mollis 2d, commisura 3d, commism-a superior cerebri.

Q.
inferior
cerebri
What
is
the situation of the cerebellum
.4.
In
the inferior and posterior parts of the cranium.
How
is
the commisura mollis formed?
By
Q.
How
does the cerebellum compare in size vvith
contiguous parts of the thalami, which are united by

cortical matter.
the cerebrum?
sixth the
A. The former volume of the latter.

is
is
only about one-
By
brain.
Q.
How
is
the commisiu-a inferior cerebri formed
Q. Describe the appearance of the cerebellum

Its
A.
is
a connection between the hemispheres of the
surface
lobular
and convoluted
its
form
Q.
Where
is
the superior commissure located

mollis
;
A.
irregular, ha\ing
two oval ends placed transversely,

its
united in the centre by a broad vermiform belt;

lateral dimensions
Above the commissura
it
has the appearance of
exceed
its
longitudinal.
a short medullar)- chord.
Q.
How How
is
the cerebellum di\ided?
A. Into three
FORAMEN.
Q.
lobes, a central
and two
lateral.
What
Q.
is
does the composition of the cerebellum

?
the foramen?
A.
It is
a triangular
difier
from that of the cerebrum

exceeds
A.
In the former
depression under the arch of the fornix, into which the

lateral ventricles open.
the cortical substance
the medullar)-, and,

is
instead of forming the bulk of the outer parts, as
lEemai'ls. Having put the usual question regarding
VEXTEICLES.
the case in the cerebrum,
it
pervades the inner.
FOURTH \-ENTRICLE. may be numbered 1 and Q. What is the situation of the fom-th ventricle ? we now come to the tliird ventricle, which is not so A. It is situated between the cerebellum, tuber annuwell marked as in the human subject.]
the lateral ventricles, which
2,
lare,
and medulla oblongata.
TnlRD \-EXTRICLE.
Q.
How
is
the third ventricle formed
A.
Q.
Where
?
is
By
a situated
of the
A. A.
the choroid plexus of the cerebellmn
Within and across the posterior part
mere
fissure existing
[Remarks.
The
between the thalami.

fourth ventricle, being located in
fourth ventricle, between the cerebellum
and
medulla oblongata.
Q.
the cerebellum, will be considered under this head.]

INTTINDIBtJLUM.
Q.
How is
?
the choroid plexus of the cerebellum disIt is
tributed
?
ilistributed into three divisions

;
Where
is
the infundibulum located
A.
At the
one
lies
in the
middle of the calamus
the two latter
inferior part of the third ventricle.
are found within fissui'es in the cerebellum, occupjing
the spaces between
it
and the tuber annulare.
PDTEAL GLANT).
Q. Where is the pineal gland located? A. Between the summits of the thalami, over the third Q. How is the base or posterior part of the cerebrum ventricle, and above and before the superior com- di\ided? A. It is divided into six lobes.
BASE OF THE BRAIN.
missure.
Q. Describe the pineal
gland.
A. A.
Q. Describe
It is
their
divisions.
A.
There are two
a small anterior or inferior, resting upon

;
conoid body, of grajish color, marked by a slight ethmoid bone

depression along
Q.
its
the wings of the two middle, upon those of the sphenoid j

in the fossa of the
centre.
and two superior or posterior, lodged

It is
What
are
its
attachments
attached squamous portions of the temporal bones.

Q.
by means of the
Q.
pia
mater to the thalami and tuberstructure

cortical
What name
is
given to two broad, smooth promi-
cula quadragemina.
nences which appear over the middle lobes at the base

of the pineal of the brain
of
What
?
gland
A.
is
the internal
It
consists
and
granular
Q.
? A. These are the corpora striata. "What nen-es originate from this vicinity?
A.
matter.
The
olfactorv nenes.
180
Q.

What
bone?
Q.
ferior
A. The crura
lobes rest
on the wings of the sphenoid

cerebri.
Q.
What
is
the situation of the crura cerebelli ?

in
A.
They are located higher up and
a more outward
A. From the in- direction than the crura cerebri. they arise ? A. They are two Q. Describe the crura cerebelU. and middle lobes of the cerebrum, and are continueSKnto an ovoid protuberance above them, named cylindroid, medullary chords, which join the lateral
From whence do
tuber annulare.
lobes of the cerebellum to the tuber annulare.
A.
Q.
Q.
What
is
observable between the crura cerebri
Q.
What
does"" the tuber annulare rest
upon
A.
A.
small
hemispherical
medullary eminence,
On
the
cuneiform process of the posterior occipital

are the foruminss caeca situated
called corpus albicantium.
Where
are the tractus optioi situated
A.
bone.
They
Q.
Where
Above and below the tuber. wind obliquely downward around the crura. A. They are A. From the Q. What is their appearance? Q. Where do they proceed from ? described as little, round depressions, or blind holes. terminations of the thalami.
EXPLANATION OF FIGURE XYJU.

[from BI^rNE's * OCTLIXES.'*]
A. The skull, face, and upper jaw, in one piece. B. Lower jaw.
a.
6. c.
Incisor teeth.
d.
e.
Tushes. Molares, or grinders. Peak formed by the extremities of the nasal bones. Zygomatic spine, to the bottom of which the masseter takes
Ca\-itv
its
origin.
/. Orbit.
g. A.
i.
above the orbital arch.
Pole.'
Zygomatic arch.
Joint formed by the upper and lower jaws. Meatus auditorius, or opening to the internal ear.
j,j. Styloid processes for the attachment of the muscles.

it.
I.
C. C.
Marks the extent of the
cervical vertebrse.
D. Dentata. m. Atlas. n. AVing of the atlas. Large superior spine of the dentata. 0,
p.
q.
s,
r,
of the dentata. Liferior spine of the dentata. s, s, s, s. Superior spines of the five remaining cer\-ical vertebrse. r, r, r, r. Oblique processes of the five last cervical vertebrte.
ti, II,
Body
u,
u, u.
Transverse processes of the same bones.
t, t, t, f, t.
Inferior spines of the five last cervical vetebrae.
THE THORAX.
Cariniform process of the sternum. w, w, 10, w, w, w, w. Cost or true ribs. distinguished fi-om the costce. y< y< 11' y> t/' V' y> V' H' y- ^^^ ^^ X, X, X, X, X, X, X, X, X. Cartilages by means of which the ribs are attached to the sternum. z, z, z, z, z, z, z. Heads of the ribs. 1, 1, 1, 1, 1. Superior spines of the first five dorsal vertebras, the fifth being generally the longest spine in the body. 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2. Superior spines from the sixth to the thirteenth, towards which they slope downward; the thirteenth is generally the most upright spine in the dorsal region. 3, 3, 3, 3, 3. Last five of the superior of the back spines, which have an inclination forward.
V, V.
THE LOWS, OR
4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4.
LtJlIBAR REGION.
5, 5,
Superior spines of the lumbar region, thicker than the dorsal spines, and having a decided incluiation forward. 5, 5. Projecting transverse processes of the loins.
THE
6, 6, 6, 6, 6.
SACRITM.
8, 8,
Superior spines of the sacrum leaning decidedly backward, thus leaving a large space between the points of the last lumbar and the first sacral spLue, at which place occm-s the great hinge of the back. 8, 8. Bodies of the sacral vertebrse.
THE
7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7.
T.UL.
Coccygeal bones.
THE
PELVIS.
side.
E. Ossa innominata, consisting of three bones upon each

a.
6.
c.
Ilium. Pubis.
Ischium
9, 9.
10,
c. r.
the three bones unite at the cavity which receives the head of the thigh bone. The inferior spines of the ilium. Superior spine, which partly covers the first sacral spine.
:
Ischiatic spines.
THE THIGH AND
F, F. Femurs. Round head of the boue. d. Short neck of tlie femur. e. P. Great trochanter. Small external trochanter. g. Small internal trochanter. h.
i, i.
XVIII.
OONTINUED.
STIFIJ: JOINT.
Sulcus whence the gastrocnemii muscles originate.
J, J. Posterior condyles of the femur.

h, k.
Anterior trochlea over which the patella glides. 0, 0. Patellas the interarticular cai'tilages of the
:
stifle
joint, as well as the cartilages

ai-e
tipping the dorsal
lumbar
sacral spines,
this delineation,
and the su])erior margin of the blade bone or scapula, which is admirably drawn from a macerated skeleton.
necessarily omitted in
THE TIBIA AND FIBULA, OK LEG BONES, AND THE HOCK

H, H.
1, I.
JOINT.
Tibias.
Heads of the bones.

Fibulas.
m,
711.
n, n. Inferior head of the tibia. I, I. Hock joint.

o, 0.
Asti'agalus.
C'alcis
p, ]}
forming the point of the hock.
THE POSTEKIOR SHANK BONES.

K, K. Canons,
metatarsals, or shank bones. L, L. Splint bones.
THE BONES OF THE PASTERNS, AND
FEET, OF
THE POSTERIOR LIMBS.
M, M.
Sessamoids. It, N. Large pastern bone. O, O. Smaller pastern bone. p, p. Pedal bones.
BONES OF THE ANTERIOR EXTREMITY.

Q. Scapula or blade bone.
a.
b.
c.
Suijcrior
margin whence the cartilage has been removed-
Spine of the scapula. Anterior fossa of the scapula.

Posterior fossa.
d.
e.
f.
Shallow cup which receives the head of the humerus the cartilage, which is situated around the margin of this cup, and which serves to deepen it, has been destroyed by maceration. Tuberosity termuiating the spine of the scapula, whence the flexor brachii originates.
:
It.
g.
h.
i.
Humerus or arm bone. Head of the bone. Smooth cartilaginous and
synovial pulley over which the tendon of the flexor brachii plays.
j.
Ic.
F.xternal trochanter of the himierus. Inferior head of the humerus. Pit into which the ulna is received.
S, S. Ulna, the top of wliich is termed the olecranon. T, T. Radius. Head of the bone. I. m. Inferior head of the bone. TJ, V. Carpus or knee joint, consisting of two rows of bones. n. Trapezium, which gives security to the great flexors, and attachment to several of the lessor flexors of the
fore leg.
V, V.
o, 0.
Head of W, W. Splmt
p.
X,
Y, Z, P.
shanlc bone. the bone receiving the lower row of the bones of the knee. bones. Inferior head of the canon bone. X. Sessamoid bones. Y. Large pastern bone. Z. Small pastern bones. Pedal or coffin bone.
Canon or
DISTRIBUTION OF THE LYMPHATICS.
Mr. Percivall remarks, in his lectures, ginning of the anterior cava. At its termithat " no English veterinarian has, up to nation, it dilates and forms a sinus, whose
the present day (1820), been at the pains
to
mouth opens
into the vein, is guarded
by a
demonstrate, practically, the particular broad valve, so disposed as to prevent any distribution of the absorbing vessels of the reflux of blood into the duct* It has also horse. Professor Girard, whose Traite a ligamentous band around it, at this part,
'
d'
Anatomie Veterinaire
'
does no less credit wliich confines

contents.
it
to the vein receiving its
and industry of its author than honor to the veterinary school over which he presides, has presented us with an artito the talent
cle
"the RECEPTACULUM CHYLI.f

This reservoir forms the point of general confluence of all the lymphatics of the posterior limbs and abdomen, and from which
originates the thoracic duct.
It
is
on the ramification of the lymphatics,
"
wliich I shall translate.

" "
THE THORACIC DUCT.
main-
and most remark- tained by the aorta on one side, the vena able of the lymphatic vessels, in which cava posterior on the other, and is formed terminate the majority of the lymphatics by the union of five or six large lymphatics, of the body, is situated within the thorax, of which two or tlu-ee come from the enon the right side of the dorsal vertebrae, be- trance of the pelvis, two or three others tween the aorta and vena azygos; It re- from the iiicoeiiterj, a single one from the ceives the lymphatics from the posterior environs of the stomach and liver." The Professor here makes a classification extremity, pelvis, parietes, and viscera of
The
largest, longest,
the abdomen, head, neck, withers, and left of the lymphatics of the body.
anterior extremity.
" It takes
its
origin under the loins, in a
dilation or sinus situated at the root of the
great mesenteric artery, and is receptaculum chyli it directs

:
named
its
the
LYMPHATICS DISCHARGING THEIR CONTENTS INTO THE ABDOMINAL PORTION OF THE THORACIC DUCT.
" 1.
ties.
course
forward, enters the thoracic cavity 'by the

aortic perforation through the
These
Lymphatics of the Posterior Extremiare distinguishable into the
diaphragm, superficial and deep-seated. The first origiextends along the bodies of the dorsal ver- nate from the skin and subcutaneous celThey form divers ramificatebrae, until it arrives opposite the base of lular tissue.
the heart, where
it
curves
downward
cross over to the left side in its

anterior opening of the thorax
;
way
as
it
to tions, which accompany the superficial to the veins; of which the most remarkable atleaves tend the vena saphena major, firequently
the spine for this purpose,

;
runs over the anastomosing with one another, and formAll these trachea and esophagus having reached ing an anastomotic network. the left side, it stretches forward to the lymphatics run to the subcutaneous inguiit
beginning of the anterior vena cava, and

terminates in the base of the
vein.
left axillary
* Notwithstanding
sion into the canal
lent death, or in
;
this valve,
blood often gains admisall
this is
observable in
cases of vio-
ends in the right axillary; in some instances, even in the beunfrequently,

it
Not
which struggles and convulsions attend
expiration.
t
Pei'civall's Lectures.
(181)
182
nal glands, which are
"

lodged
upon the they reach these

those of the
last glands,
they pervade
superior and anterior part of the thigh.
mammae.
rise
" 3. Lymphatics of the Parietes of the AbThese vessels, in general but little ascend along with the domen. plantar veins, continue upward among the developed, for the most part run to the inThe superficial set of the muscles, in company with the deep-seated guinal glands.
The
deep-seated lymphatics take their

foot,
from the
veins, corresponding in their principal di- lower
visions to those vessels,
and proceed to the inguinal

tics
inguinal glands.
accompany the cutaneous anastomose with the lymphaof the scrotum and mammas, and traparietes
vein,
:
"All the lymphatics of the posterior limbs assemble at these glands, and here form a plexus, from which several large branches depart and traverse the iliac
vessels,
verse the glands in the groin
some of them
with the
direct their course forward, along
cutaneous external thoracic veins of the

thorax, unite with the superficial lymphatics
glands, clinging to the sides of the iliac of that part,
and proceed
to
the axillary
and discharge
chyli.
their contents into
glands.
the pelvic branch, contributing to the recep- belly
The deep-seated vessels of the run in company with the epigastric

and go
to the inguinal glands, or else
taculum
" 2.
Lymphatics of the Pelvis. The they accompany the pectoral vein, and pervessels coming from this cavity run in vade the glands in front of the thorax. " The superficial or subcutaneous l)mipart to the inguinal glands, and in part
to
vein,
the internal
pelvic
glands.
The
su- phatics of the loins join either those of the

:
lymphatics about the pubes and croup or those of the flanks the deepthe outlet of the pelvis run and join those seated, which spring from the peritoneum, of the extremities those of the perineum muscles, or spinal canal, perforate one of
perficial
;
and anus enter the cavity, and are accom- the lumbar glands, and pass onward panied by those coming from the croup and minate in the main pelvic branch.
tail,
to ter-
" 4. Absorbents of the Mesentery. both proceeding to the glands ^vithin The All the deep- mesenteric branches, ordinarily two or the interior of the pelvis.
seated
lymphatics accompany the veins, three in

for the pelvic glands,
number, the most considerable

is
make
form union with of which
constantly united to the great

artery, receive
the others, and run and

into the
empty themselves mesenteric
aU the vessels
main
pelvic branch,
wherem
their
in-
lymph mixes with

guinal glands.
"
that
coming from the

the
continued from the mesenteric glands, as well as those coming from the mesentery
and
urinary and
"
intestines.
The lymphatics of
The mesenteric
absorbents, extremely
between the layers and of the mesentery, where they form a vascuunite with those of the parietes of the pel- lar network many of them issue from the vis. Those of the scrotum enter the in- exhalent surface of the mesentery and inguinal glands, as also do those belonging testinal tube others take their rise from to the sheath and penis. The ramifications the interior of the intestines, from which derived from the testicle and spermatic they imbibe chyle. All these vessels concord take the course of the veins, and pene- verge towards the lymphatic reservoir, trate one or two of the lumbar glands clinging in their passage around the mesengenital organs, included in the pelvic cavity, numerous, are sustained
also traverse the glands lodged therein,
; ;
lodged at the entrance of the pelvis. The teric veins some, however, taking a solitary lymphatics of the mammae, which are also course at a greater or less distance from any
;
divisible into
superficial
and deep-seated,
blood-vessel.
Having
arrived at the root of
run to the inguinal glands, and anastomose the mesentery, they pass through one or with the superficial set belonging to the in- two, sometimes three, of the mesenteric
ferior parietes of the
abdomen
but, before
glands, and afterwards join the principal
THE HORSE.
183
lumbar lymphatics. The absorbents of the forward between the layers of mediasticolon and ccEcum caput coli run to the num, nearly to the heart, and enter the carglands set at intervals along the intestinal diac glands.
tube,
whence they proceed culum chyli.
to the recepta-
The
" 2.
Lymphatics of
the Thoracic Viscera.

difl'erent
absorbents of the
organs
" 5. Lymphatics of the Liver,
The hepatic trunk several of the bronchial or cardiac glands, Spleen, and Omentum. comprises the lymphatics issuing from the and afterwards form divers branches, which
This branch of the recepta- end in the thoracic duct. The pulmonary viscera. culum chyli not uncommonly consists of lymphatics, very numerous, are distintwo divisions, and receives in addition to the guished into superficial and deep-seated.
Stomach, contained within the thorax traverse one or
above
above-mentioned vessels many ramifications from the crura of the diaplnragm. " The lymphatics of the pancreas, lilie the above, also run with the divisions of its veins, and join either those of the liver
:
The
first
take their rise from the surface of
the lungs, creep along under their envelop-
ing membrane, and
make
for
one or more
set,
of the bronchial glands.
The deep
which originate from the air-cells and from some proceed di- the parenchymatous tissue, follow the dior those of the spleen rectly to the common hepatic trunk. visions of the pulmonary veins, run to the there miite with roots of the bronchia " II. RAMIFICATIONS TERMINATING IN THE the superficial, and perforate one or two of THORACIC PORTION OF THE MAIN COMMON the bronchial glands.
;
DUCT.
"
The
cardiac
lymphatics derive
their
Lymphatics of the Parietes of the The superficial absorbents of Thorax. the chest take their ri^ either from the surface of the skin or else from the subcutaneous muscles they form several large
"1.
from the surfaces (both exterior and interior) of the heart, or from the they muscular substance of the organ
origin either
;
branches which accompany the
thoracic
cutaneous vein, unite with the superficial lymphatics coming from the anterior parietes of the abdomen, and proceed to the
axillary glands.
mount upon the curvature of the posterior aorta, and disappear in the cardiac glands. " The lymphatics of the superior part of the mediastinum, and of the esophagus, join, some the intercostal, and others the bronchial those coming fi-om the anterior part of this membranous partition, from
;
set take divers direc- the thymus, trachea, and esophagus, unite, and pass through the different sets of either with the pectoral, or close with the glands. The pectoral, which anastomose cardiac and anterior intercostal. with ramifications from the abdomen, fol" 3. Lymphatics of the Head. The low the pectoral vein, and reach one or two lymphatics of the head form two planes, glands at the entrance of the chest. The a superficial and a deep one. The superintercostal spring from the pleura and in- ficial pursue the course of the cutaneous tercostal muscles, accompany the intercos- veins, and run in part to the sublingual
tions,
"
The deep-seated
tal veins,
and terminate by
thoracic duct.
"
pervade the internal dorsal glands, and utteral glands. The deep vessels, several branches in the which come from the nostrils, fauces, palate,
of the fleshy
etc., also run to the gutteral and sublingual, part of in which they unite with the superficial. the diaphragm unite, some with the poste- From these two groups of glands, through rior intercostal, others with pectoral those which pass the lymphatics of the head, de-
The lymphatics
coming from the crura run to the dorsal part several large branches, two or three of glands, where they anastomose with the which descend upon the anterior face of the
intercostal
those from the cordiform ten- trachea; others follow the course of the don anastomose with the deep hepatic, run deep-seated and cutaneous veins, unite with
:
184
ANATOMT AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HORSE.
those of the neck, and descend to the front into the axillary glands, wherein they
of the chest.
Almost
all
these vessels ter- with the superficial, and
mite whence they ex-
minate in the thoracic duct; some few tend to the thoracic duct. " The Right terminating Trunk of the alone, on the right side, ending in the right Lymphatics. axillary trunk. This very short lymphatic "4. Lymphatics of the Left Fore Extrem- canal is obliquely situated at the entrance The lymphatics of this member present of the thorax, upon the transverse process of ity. the same disposition as those of the poste- the last vertebrse of the neck, extending in rior limbs, and are divided into superficial a direction from above downward, and from The former, consisting without inward, and terminating most comand deep-seated.
of
diverse ramifications,
;
accompany
the
superficial veins
the more considerable of
monly in the right some instances, it
axillary vein ; though, in
joins the thoracic duct.
them forming a
which accompanies This trunk is formed by the lymphatics the cutaneous (superficial brachial) vein coming from the right axillary glands, and of the limb. The deep vessels originate some from the right lung, and right side of from the foot, muscles, and bones, pursue the neck and trachea." the divisions of the deep veins, and plunge (See Appendix.)
plexus,
EXAMINATIONS ON THE PHYSIOLOGY OF THE LYMPHATICS.

Q.
What
?
lymphatics
A.
is
the character of the fluid found in the latter with the materials of their nutrition, and
It
is
now
2d,
resembles dilute, liquor sanguinis, to be returned to the current of the circulation.
or the Uquid portion of the blood in which the cor- from the particles of the solid frame-work which have
puscles
Q.
float.
becomes of the lymphatic fluid ? retained as components of the h\ing system; they A. It was formerly supposed that the lymphatic fluid therefore reenter the circulation, to be again submitted was eliminated from the system; but Carpenter and to the assimulating process, so that nothing shall be
finally
What
lost their vital
powers, and* are therefore unfit to be
other physiologists
case
ticle
;
now contend
is
that this
is
not the
recep-
lost.
that the
same
poured into the
common
Q.
By what
?
with the nutrient materials newly imbibed from

ai-e
IjTnphatics
A.
process do fluids enter the cutaneous
By
a process of imbibation.
readily absorbed than
the food, whence both
propelled together into the

;
Q.
What
and thus, instead of others? A. Milk. being eliminated, the lymphatic fluid is employed in the Q. What authority have you for this ?
general current of the circulation
fluid is
more
some
A. Schoeger,
lympha-
formation of
Q.
new
tissues.
is
From whence
the Ij-mphatic fluid derived?
in the coui-se of his experiments, found that the

tics
of a limb, long immersed in milk,

it,
became tinged
A.
1st,
from the residual fluid, which, ha^'^ng escaped with

tissues,
while none of
it
could be detected in blood
from the blood-vessels into the
has furnished the drawn from the veins.
^kMrg
0f
fd^rmarg
Cei:|mtrii&s.
(185)
A GLOSSARY OF VETERINARY TECHNICALITIES.
A.
Articular.
horse.
The posterior part of the body of the abdomen. Ahdominalis. Pertaining exterior of of Abdominal Regions. The the abdomen. Abductor. Muscles are named abductors which draw
Abdomen.
to the
divisions
the
Belonging, or {From A A roughness. Astragalus. The bone beneath the os Atlas. The anterior bone of the neck. A name given to muscles which
Articulation.
articidus.)
relating, to joints.
joint.
Asperity.
calcis.
Attollens.
lift,
or raise,
parts from the axis of the body, or given centres.
the parts.
Abnormal.
A muscle of the penis. the cavity Acetabulum. A name given

Accelerator.
to articulates.
Unnatural, irregular.
in
which the
Auricles.
head of the thigh bone

Achillis
Muscles and parts connected with the Auricular. Relating the The anterior of the The part between the superior region of the
Auditory.
ear. to ear.
cavities
heart.
Axilla.
The tendon of the muscle inserted Pointed, a needle. Acuminated. Adductor. Muscles which draw parts toward the axis of the body. Adipose. Fatty matter. Accidental. A term used designate the structures which convey Wings. the chief part Albumen. An element which of the white of an egg. The passage which commences Alimentary Canal. the anus. the oesophagus and ends The bony sockets of Anal. Relating the anus. with a view of displaying the Anatomy. To and uses of Animus. The principle of ligament, found the posterior Annular. A part of the knee of the counteracting muscles Antagonist. A term applied or tendons. what may be situated Anterior. A term applied
Tendo.
into the hock.
like
arm and
the chest.
B.
Biceps.
(From,
The term
bis
is
twice, and caputahead;

applied
to muscles,
two
heads.)
having two
distinct heads, or origins.
Bifurcate.
fork).
it
(Bifurcas;
to
from
bis,
is
twice,
and
furca, a
Adventitious.
Afferent.
A blood-vessel
or muscle
said to bifurcate
when
to
divides into two branches.
fluids to different parts.
Ala:.
constitutes
in
Relating the Brachial. Of, or belonging, the arm. Bronchia. Bifurcations of the windpipe. Bronchial. Relating bronchia. Buccal. (From bucca, cheek. Belonging
Bilary.
bile.
to
to the
the
to the
in
cheek.
AU-eolus.
the teeth.
to
cut,
struc-
penis.
ture, relations,
parts.
vitality.
ring-like
at
A muscle of the cheek. A portion of the tube base of the Bursce. Sacs, or bags. Bursce Mucosa. Sacs found the region of Bursal. Relating
Buccinator.
Bulb.
dilated
at the
in
joints.
to bursse.
horse.
to
to
before another part of the

Anti.
prefix,
same
kind.
signifying against. A Against the bones. Antrum. Cavity Anus. The posterior extremity of the rectum. Aorta. The largest artery of the body. the aorta. Aortic. Pertaining Apex. The pointed end of an organ. Aponeurosis. A tendinous expansion of Arachnoid. A membrane of the brain. Transverse portion of that Arch of Areola. The spaces between composing an organ. A property belonging The change which occurs in venous
Antilabium.
lips.
in
The blind gut. Pertaining the cajcum. Calcis Os. The prominent bone of the hock. Cellular structure of bones. The Canine cuspidati. Canthus. The angle of the eye. Capillary. Hair-like vessels which are found between
C(Ecum.
Ccecal. to
Cancelli.
Teeth.
eye-teeth,
the arterial and venous vessels.

Capside.
to
Capsular.
A membranous A term applied
sac.
to ligaments
which surround
fibre.
articulations.
the Colon.
intestine.
fibres
The head. Cardia. The heart. Cardiac. Pertaining the heart. Carotid. The name of the principal
Caput.
to
arteries
of the
Arterial.
to arteries.
neck.
Arterialization.
Carpus.
blood when brought in contact with

Artery.
The
air in the lungs.
name
of blood-vessels which distribute
The bones of knee. A small excrescence. Carunculce Lacrymalis. Small bodies found
the Caruncle.
fleshy
fleshy
in
arterial blood.
the angle of the eye.
(187)
188
Caarfa.
taU.
GLOSSARY OP VETERINARY TECHNICALITIES,

Coronoid.
The The vein the body of the horse. A hollow part; the abdominal example. Composed of The appearance of the Centrum when a
Cava.
largest in
Cavity. cavity,
Cellular.
cells.
Processes
of bones are thus
named when
they form an eminence.
for
Ovale.
brain,
horizontal section
is
made on a
level with the corpus cal-
Tendinous centre of the Cephalic. Pertaining to the head. Cerebellum. Inferior lobe of the brain. Cerebrum. Superior lobe of the brain. Relating to the brain. Cerebrospinal. Pertaining both the brain and spinal cord. Pertaining to the neck. Cervix. The neck or contracted portion of an organ. ChorcB Tendince. Part of the internal structure of the heart. Choroid. The inner tunic of the eye. A found the thoracic duct and Chyme. A name given the food has passed the pylorus. The hair of the same, A term applied to that part of the brain which of an ash A A part of the pudendum of the mare corresponding to the glans penis of the horse. Coccyx. The bones of the Cochlea. The cavity of the Cascum. (Sometimes The blind gut. Prolongation of the solar plexus, an artery
Centrum Tendinosum.
losum.
dia-
parts.
phragm.
Cerebral.
lines
to
Cervical.
pelvis.
Chyle.
fluid
in
lacteals.
to
after
it
A term applied to numerous prominences in the brain and elsewhere. Corpus. A body Striped eminences in the brain. Corpora Corpuscle. A minute body. Corrugator. A muscle which wrinkles the surrounding Resembling bark. A Pertaining the region of the Pleura. That portion of the plem-a which the of the Cup-shaped. Cranium. The Crassamentum. The or red globules, of the blood. Cremaster. A muscle of the Crest of Ileum. The superior parts of the Ring-like. A In the form of a Crural. Belonging the thigh.
Corpora.
Striata.
Cortical.
Costa.
rib.
Costal.
to
ribs.
Costalis
interior
chest.
Cotyloid.
skull.
clot,
testicle.
the
anterior,
Cricoid.
Crista.
crest.
Crucial.
cross.
to
Cilia.
eyelids,
etc.
Crystalloid.
Cineritious.
is
Cuboides.
One of the bones of the knee, which resem-
Resembling a crystal.
color.
bles a cube, or die.
Circuhis.
Clitoris.
ring.
wedge.
tail.
spiral
ear.
spelt ca;cura.)
A bone of the knee, in form resembling a Cuspidata. The tushes of the horse are thus named Cutaneous. Belonging the The scarf A bladder or
Cuneiforme.
to
skin.
Cuticle.
skin.
Cyst.
sac.
Cosliac.
D.
and vein of
Colon.
intestines.
The
the
abdomen. largest and most dilated portion of the
Cobimnce Camas.
ca-rity
A muscular arrangement within the

joint.
A suture, junction, or Complexus. To embrace or smround. Concha. External cavity of the Conduit. A canal. Condyle. An irregular process or enlargement. Condyloid. A tubercle, wart-like. Conglobate. Ball-shape. Conglomerate. An assemblage of glands. Conjunctivia. External coat of the eyeball, and
Commisure.
ear.
of the heart.
A name given the muscle which corragates the scrotum. Deferens. The excretory canal of the Dentatus. A process on the second vertebra. The twelve Denies of the horse. Denies Molares. The twenty-four grinders. Depressor. A muscle so named when depresses the part on which Diaphragm. The muscle which separates the thorax
Dartos.
to
testes.
tooth-liko
cervical
Incisors.
front teeth
is
it
it acts.
from the abdomen.

Diastole.
Dilator.
inter-
Periodic dilation of the heart. A name given to muscles which

cellular structure,
dilate certain
parts.
Conc-likc. Muscles that are bound together are thus named. Tlie an of having connection. Rolled up. Coracoid. Like a crow's beak a process of the scapula. Cornea. Anterior coat of the Cornu. A horn. Corona. A crown, the superior pastem thus named OS coronse. Coronal Suture. The uniting medium between the
Conoid.
Constrictor.
office is to close
nal lining of the eyelids.
Diploe.
tablets.
The
which separates bony
outlet.
of a larger one.
Continuity.
Idcntitj-
parts,
direct
Convolute.
eye.
A blind diverging from the course Dorsal. Pertaining the back. Ducts. of various Ductus. A canal conveying Doubled. DupKcalure. Reflection of a membrane upon Dura Mater. The outermost tunic of the
Diverticulum.
tube,
to
Orifices
canals.
for
fluids.
Duplicate.
itself.
brain.
is
E.
frontal
and
parietal bones.
Coronary.
Arteries and
veins, proper to the heart, are
Vessels are thus named wliich convey from glands. Elevator. A muscle so called when or elevates
Efferent.
is
it lifts
fluids
thus named.
the parts to which
it is
attached.
GLOSSARY OF VETERINARY TECHNICALITIES.
189
The brain. Sword-like. An appendage the Epigastrium. Region of the stomach. Cartilage the root of the tongue. Epiphysis. A union of bones by means of Epithelium A transparent membrane covering rarious
Encephalon.
Gestation.
Ensiform.
Epididymis.
to
testicle.
Epiglottis.
at
cartilage.
internal parts. Erector.
A name given
gullet.
to certain muscles,
which raise
or erect the parts.
Rough and jagged. The Ecito-Motary. The true spinal nerves. Excretory. Vessels and ducts are thus named which discharge Expiration. The act of expelling from the lungs. several Extensor. To out; a name given muscles and tendons. Extremity. The enJ.
Eroded.
Esophagus.
Ethmoid.
Sieve-like.
fluids.
Pregnancy. An organ of A small gland. Glandular. Resembling a gland. Glenoid. The name of articulating Glissons Capsule. The fibrous envelope of the G/o6a<c. Globe-like. Red of the blood. Albuminous constituent of the blood. Glomerate. Congregated. Glossa. The tongue. Upper opening into the windpipe. Belonging to the haunch. A muscle on the inner part of the thigh. Granule. A small grain. Belonging to the throat.
Gland.
secretion.
Glandula.
cavities.
liver.
Globides.
particles
Globuline.
Glottis.
Gluteal.
Gracilis.
Gutteral.
air
stretch
to
H.
F.
Falciform. Scythe-shaped. Falx. The scythe process of dura mater. The tendinous expansion of muscles.
the
Facial.
Belonging to the
face.
Fascia.
Fascicular.
Fibres arranged bundles. Posterior part of the mouth. Femoral. Of, or belonging the thigh. Fenestra. Part of the internal Fibre. A thread or filament. Fibrous. Composed of Fibula. A small bone attached the posterior part of
in
Fauces.
to,
ear.
Belonging the Hiatus. An aperture or foramen. Hippo. A horse a the Hippocampus. Two eminences of the A prefix designating Homo. Humerus. The bone beneath the shoulder blade. prefix Names compounded with muscles situated near the root of the tongue. the root of the tongue. Hyoides. Bone Hypochondrium. A region of the abdomen. the hypogastric region of the Hypogastric. Relating
Ilepatic.
to
liver.
prefix.
in
lateral ventricles
brain.
similarity.
Hi/o.
this
relate to
at
to
fibres.
abdomen.
I,
to
J.
pelvis.
the tibia of the horse.

Filament.
Heo.
fibre.
A minute Filiform. Thread-like. Fimbria. A A crack or groove. Flavus. Yellow. A name given numerous muscles and dons which bend the limbs. Leaf-form. A minute sac or bag. Foramen. An opening. Fornex. Arch or vault one of the structures of the brain. Fossa. A shallow cavity or depression. Frcenum. A ligament which motion. Frontal. Belonging the anterior part of the cranium. phenomena are Function. Any action by which produced. Fundus. The base or bottom. Funis. The umbilical cord.
fringe.
A the ileum or bone of the tube. Ileum. A portion of the Region of the The twelve front or nippers,
prefix,
intestinal
Iliac.
flanks.
Incisors.
teeth,
of the
Fissure.
horse are thus named.

Incus.
Flexor.
to
ten-
Infra.
Foliatus.
Follicle.
A bone of the Under a prefix the name of several muscles. 7n/ra. Without. Infundibulum. A funnel or Pertaining the groin. Inguinal Ligament. Pouparts ligament. Innominatum. Without a name. Innominatum Os. Union of the ileum, ischium, and
ear. to
;
duct.
Inguinal.
to
pubic bones.
Inosculation.
Insertion.
restrains
to
Union of the extremities of Attachment of a muscle or tendon

moves.
skin and sub-tissures.
joints.
vessels. to the
vital
part which
it
G.
Ganglion.
nerve.
A knot or enlargement
to
secretion,
in the course of
Pertaining the stomach. peculiar the walls of the A siomach. Gastrocnemii. The tendinous portion of muscles
Gastric.
Gastric Juice.
to
in-
serted into the OS calcis, or point of the hock, are thus
named
Gemini.
The Between the Muscles and ligaments situated between bones are thus named. Interseptum. The uvula. A term applied substances occupying the spaces between contiguous Between the spines of bones. Muscles located between the verse processes of bones. The between the vertebra! are thus named. duodenum, of Canal. The
Integuments.
Interarticular.
Interosseous.
Interstitial.
to
pai-ts.
Interspinales.
Intertransversales.
trans-
Intervertebral.
articular
cartilages
Intestinal
interior
the
jejuin-
Twins
two organs precisely
alike are thus
num, ileum, csecum,

testinal canal.
colon,
and rectum, comprises the
named.
190
Intra,
GLOSSARY OF VETERINARY TECHNICALITIES.
Within. The bowels. Animals Ischium. A part of bones of A narrow passage. Jejunum. A term applied
Intestines.
Invertebrata.
vrithout internal
bony structui-e.
the
the pelvis.
Isthmus.
to that portion of
tlie
intes-
tine
which
is
generally found empty.
Jugular.
Belonging to the neck.

L.
to the lips.
lips.
Eclating The Lachryma. A Lachrymal. Structures concerned transmission of Absorbent of

Laborium.
Labia.
tear.
in the secretion
and
tears.
Lacteals.
Lactiferous.
Ducts issuing from small glands. Lamella. Thin Lamina. A of Laminated. Leaf-like. Laryngeal. Relating the larynx. Larynx. The superior part of the windpipe. Lata. Broad. Lateral. Pertaining the A term applied a muscle consequence of great breadth. Lens. A body; a Lenticular. Shaped the Levator. A term applied muscles which the
Lacunce.
plates.
series
Vessels conveying milk.

plates.
vessels
the lymphatics.
to
to
side.
Latissimiis.
its
to
in
crj-stalline
lentil.
like
lens.
to
raise
parts to which they are attached.
Ligament.
Linea.
Liiiea
A tendinous cord. A white thread-like. Aspera. A rough projection.

line
;
A mother. Bones of jaw. Maxillary. Pertaining the jaw. Meatus. A passage. Meatus Urinarius. The internal auditory passage of the Meatus The of urethra. Median. Central, the Mediastinum. The which divides the thorax. Medulla. The medullary substance of brain thus named. marrow or Medulla The spinal marrow. Membranes. Tissues. Membranous. Having the texture of membranes. Meninges. Membranes of the Meningial. Relating the membranes of the Pertaining mesentery. Mesentery. Membranes uniting the Mesian Line. The middle Words compounded of meso middle. Relating the knee of the Metacarpus. The bones of the knee. Molar. The grinders. Motor. To move the nerves of voluntary motion are thus named. Mucus. Animal mucilage. Mucous. A term applied the mucous Muscular. Belonging a muscle. Muscle. Flesh; a bundle of muscular My/o. Names compounded of word muscles located region of the root of the tongue. Myology. A description of the muscles.
Mater.
Maxilla.
the
to
ear.
Urinorious.
orifice
the
central line.
partition
the
is
It signifies
pith.
Spinalis.
brain.
to
brain.
Mesenteric.
to the
intestines.
line.
il/eso.
signify the
il/rfacarpo?.
to
horse.
to
tissues.
to
fibres.
this
relate
to
in the
Linea Semllunarcs, or semi-circularis. Lines on each side of the linea alba, formed by the termination of the
fibres of the
N.
abdominal muscles.
Linea Transversalis. of the abdomen.

Lingual.
Lines crossing the

to
recti
muscles
Pertaining the tongue. Lingualis. A muscle of the tongue. Liquor Sanguinis. The clement of the blood. Lobe. A division of an organ. Lobus. A Local. Confined a Loins. The posterior part of the back, Longissimus. The Longus. Long, lengthy. Lumbar. Belonging the Lumbrici. Worms. Luna. The moon. Lunare. A bone of the knee. Lymph. A found the lymphatics. Lymphatic. Of the nature of lymph.
fluid
The anterior cavity of Nasal. Belonging the nose. Navicular. Boat-shaped. Neurilema. The sheath investing the nerves. Nidus. Naked. Nucha. A part of the superior region of the neck. Nucha Ligamentum. A ligament of the spine. Nympha. Internal of the
A'ares.
tlie nostrils.
to
labice
-vulva.
lobe.
to
part.
O.
oblique direction.
longest.
to
loins.
A term applied muscles that an Obturator. Name of muscles, foramina, Connected with the occiput or posterior
Oblique.
to
h.ive
etc.
Occipital.
part of the cranium.

Occipito Atloid.
put and
alias.
fluid
in
Occipito Frontalis.
That which has reference A muscle which reaches

to
to the occi-
from the
occiput to the forehead.

Ocular.
The greater. Belonging the check. Malleus. A hammer or mallet. Malphigian Bodies. Dark points of the kidneys. Mamma. The udder. Mammary. Belonging the udder. Masseter. A muscle of the jaw. Mastoid. Processes of bones presenting the form of a
Major.
M.
Malar.
to
to
Belonging the Odontoid. Tooth-Uke. (Esophagus. The Olecranon. Point of the arm, formed by the ulna. Relating the sense of smeU. Resembling the Omentum. The Omo. Names compounded of word museye.
gullet.
Olfactory.
to
Olivaris.
olive.
caul.
this
signifv
cles
which are
nipple are thus named.
Not transparent. Optic. Relating vision.

Opaque.
to
attaclied to the scapula.
GLOSSARY OP VETERINARY TECHNICALITIES.

Orhicular.
191
lines the cavity
Muscle of the Orbicularis Palpebrarum. Muscle of the The smallest bone of the internal The bony socket of the Pertaining the to perform. Organ. A part having a Organism. Vital organization. Organized. Possessed of organs endowed with An aperture. The fixed point or commencement of a muscle. Os. A bone. Osseous. Bony. Ovaria. The female Ovum. An egg.
Orbicularis Oris.
lips.
Spherical-circnlar.
Pleura.
The serous
is
membrane which
of the chest, and

Plexus.
reflected
eyelids.
Orbiculare.
Orbit.
ear.
eye.
Orbitar.
to
orbit.
distinct office
A network of nen-es or Plica. A Mi. Pons. A bridge. A part of the brain. Pons Muscles, and vessels
Varolii.
on the contents of the same.

vessels.
Popliteal.
neri'es,
in the region
of the hock.
Pores.
life.
Orifice.
Origin.
testes.
Relating the The roof of the mouth. Palate Os. Bone of the palate. Palpebrcs. The Paries. A wall. The walls of the abdomen and thorax, Parotid. Name of the gland beneath the Parotid Duct. Opening into the cheek from the parotid
Palatine.
to
palate.
Palate.
eyelids.
Parietes.
etc.
ear.
Extremities of the cxhalents of the A door or Portio. A portion or branch. Behind. Posticus. Situated behind. Prcecordia. The anterior part of the First passages of the alimentary canal. Primes Process. The projecting eminence on a bone. Profundus. Deep-seated. Pronatus. Muscles of the fore limbs. Prostate. A gland near the neck of the male bladder. spurious membranes. Pseudo. False a term applied Psoa. The Psoas. Belonging to the Pterygoid. Shaped a wing. Pubes. The junction of the pelvic bones at
skin.
Porta.
gate.
Posterior.
chest.
Vice.
to
loins.
loins.
like
their in-
ferior parts.
gland.
The bone. Shaped the of a comb. Peduncle. A A membrane. The cavity formed by the innominata and sacrum. the male. Penis. The principal organ of generation Perforans. Perforating; the name of part of the tendons. the transmission of the Perforatus. Perforated preceding tendon. Peri. Around an envelope. Pericardium. The sac containing the Pericranium. The membrane investing the Perineum. The part between the anus and organs of generation. Periosteum. Membrane investing bones. Periphery. The circumference.
Patella.
stifle
Pubic.
Pertaining
to the pubes.
Pudendum. The external parts of the female organs

of generation.
Pudic.
Pectinated.
like
teeth
stalk.
Belonging to the pudenda.
Pellicle.
thin
Pelvis.
Pulmonary. Belonging to the lungs. Lachrymalia. The tear-ducts within the eyePuncta.
lids.
in
flexor
A The Pyriform. Shaped

Punctum.
Pylorus.
point. outlet of a horse's stomach.

like
a pear.
for
Quadratus.
Square in fonn or
R.
figm-e.
heart.
skull.
Peritoneum.
terior of the
Relating to the Shaped a Petrosum Os. Rough portion of the temporal bone. Peyer's Glands. Clustered mucous glands of the
Peroneal.
Petaloid.
fibula.
The serous membrane which lines the abdomen and is reflected on its contents.
like
in-
petal.
in-
testines.
Relating the pharynx. Superior part of the the diaphragm. Belonging Phrenic. membrane investing the brain Pia Mater. A Pigmentum Nigrum. Black pigment upon the choroid coat of the eye. Hair. of the Pineal. Shaped the a pea. Pisiform. Shaped Pituitary Membrane. The schneiderian membrane of the Placenta. The Plantar. Relating the
Phartjngial.
to
Pharijnx.
gullet.
to
thin
Pilus.
like
fniit
pine.
like
nostrils.
afterbirth.
to
feet.
Belonging to the radius. Diverging from the centre the sun's rays. Radicles. Germs of the Bone of the fore exti'emity. Radius. Ramify. To branch out, or from. Ramose. Branched. Ramus. A branch. Ranine. Vessels under the tongue. of the scrotum. Rapa^. The central Rectum. The posterior termination of the Rectus. Recurrent. Running in a backward A duplicature. Regions. Divisions of the body. Renal. Belonging to the kidneys. Net-work. Retiform. Net Retina. Expansion of the optic nerve. Retractor. Muscles thus named draw backwards. Retrahens. Drawing back. Rima. An opening or Rotator. A name given to muscles that rotate or volve a Rotundus. Circular, round.
Radial.
Radiated.
like
roots.
line
intestines.
Sti'aight.
direction.
Reflection.
Rete.
like.
fissure.
re-
part.
192
Ruga.
wi-inkle.
A Wrinkled. S. A bag or Saculated. Encysted. Sacral. Belonging the sacrum. Arrow-shaped Salivary. Relating to the saliva Sanguis. Blood. Saphena. A vein of the hind extremities. Scaphoid. Shaped a boat. Scapula. Shoulder blade. Relating the scrotum. Scrotum. Tb& sac in which the tained. Sebaceous. Resembling Secernent. Secretory. Semen. Secretion peculiar to the Semi. One-half. Septum. A partition or Serrated. Resembling the teeth of a saw. Serum. The portion of the blood. Sessamoid. Like seeds. Sigmoid. Flexure. Sinew. A tendon. Sinus. A long
Rugose.
(Sijc.
cyst.
to
Sagittal.
like
Scrotal.
to
testicles
are
con
suet.
to
testes.
division.
fluid
cavity.
Spermatic.
Sphenoid. Wedge-like. Sphenoidal. Belonging to sphenoid bone. Sphincter. Circular muscles, which close an opening, are thus named. Spinal. Belonging to the spine. Spinal Marrow. Medulla Spine. The vertebral column. Spinus. Thorn-like. Splanchic. Belonging to the Squamous. Resembling Stapes. A stin'up bone of the Sternal. Belonging to the breast bone. Sternum. Breast bone. Marked with long Shaped a pointed pencil. Sub. Under; beneath. Sublimus. This term applied to a muscle when seated more than another of the same kind. Sublingual. Beneath the tongue. Submaxillary. Under the jaw. Subscapular. Inner side of the shoulder blade. Super. Above. Upon or near the surface. Superior. The upper Suture. Junction or union. Sympathetic. Associated function. Symphysis. A connection of bones by an intervening
spinalis.
Belonging
to
to the testicles.
The extremity of a muscle. The tendon of the gastrocnemii, Tensor. A name given muscles which or extend Tentorium. A membranous of the Round The Thalami Nervoi-um Opticorum. Sapi>osei origin of the nerves. Thalamus. A bed or origin of Theca. A sheath. Thoracic. Belonging the thorax or Thoracic Duct. The of the absorbents. The Thyro. Names compounded with word belong muscles which attached the thyroid Thyroid. Resembling a The bone beneath the femur. Belonging the Tinea. The name of a the tench. An organized Trachea. The windpipe. Tracheal. Pertaining the windpipe. Names compounded with word belong muscles located the region of the neck. Having a transverse Transversus. Placed
Tendon.
Tendo
Achillis.
in-
serted into the hock.
to
stretch
parts.
partition
brain.
Teres.
cylindrical.
Testes.
testicles.
optic
certain parts.
to
chest.
ti-unk
Tliorax.
chest.
this
ai-o
to
cartilage.
shield.
Tibia.
Tibial.
to
tibia.
;
fish
Tissue.
structure.
to
Trachelo.
this
in
Transversalis.
direction.
across.
Trapezium. A
knee.
Trapezoides.
four-sided-figure,
bone of the horse's

re-
bone which in figure somewhat

;
sembles the preceding

of the horse's knee.
Trapezius.
it
also enters into the composition
-'Eora square; a muscle placed over
the
region of the withers.

Triangularis.
Triceps.
intestines.
scales.
ear.
Tricuspid.
Three-headed. Having three

Three-cleft.
Triangular.
points
;
name
applied to
a valve in the right rentricle.

Tri^rf.
Striated.
lines.
Styloid.
Trigastnc.
like
Trisplanchic Nerve.
glionic nerve.
Having three The

Eminences
tube.
solid
bellies.
great sympathetic or gan-
is
superficially
inferior
Superficial.
part.
A A roundish substance. Protuberance or Tubular. Tube-like. Tunic. A membranous covering. Turbinated. Shajped a Turgid. Swollen.
Tuba.
Tuber.
Tuberosity.
like
TrocAanêr.
or tuberosities on the bones.
projection.
sugar-loaf.
in
U.
Ulna.
Bone of the
fore extremity, termed point of
Bubstanco.
the elbow.
fluid of joints,
Synovia.
called joint-oil.
Systole.
Tho lubricating Contraction of the

T.
sometimes
heart.
An extended surface. Tarsus. The hock. Tegumentary. Relating the Temporal Relating to the temporal
Tahula.
to
Pertaining to the ulna. The navel. Shaped a hook. A tubular connection between and bladder. Urinal. Pertaining the urine. Relating the womb.
Ulnar.
Umbilicus.
Uncifiirm.
Ureter.
like
the kidneys
to
Uterine.
to
skin.
regions of the
The womb. Uvula. A pendulous body,

Uterus.
posterior to the soft palate.
cranium.

Vesicles
193
in
Vagina.
sheath; the cavity between the pudenda
the ovaria (female testes).

Via.
and womb.
Vaginal.
Pertaining to the vagina. Valve-like. Vas. A Vas Deferens. Excretory duct of the Vasa. The plural of vas Vascular. Highly organized with blood-vessels. Vascular System. The heart and Vastus. Relates thick and fleshy musValvular.
vessel.
testicle.
;
Villous.
Graafian. Small bladders or cysts found Way or passage. Velvet-like, applied the villous coat of a
to
horse's stomach.
vessels.
Vital.
its vessels.
to size ; large,
cles of the thigh.
A vein. Vena Cava. The great Vena Porta. The largest vein of the
Vena.
vein.
Venter.
Viscera. Internal organs. Eclating a viscus. An organ within the body. Glassy transparent. Surgical operations on living Vivus. Living; Vulva. The pudendum.
Visceral.
to
Viscus.
Life-like.
Vitreous.
Vivisection.
subjects.
life-like.
liver.
The belly.
Ventricles.
and
Verlebrce.
Vesical.
A term applied the of the brain Vermiform. Shaped a worm. Bones of spinal column; Foi-med a bladder pertaining the
to
cavities
icines.
heart.
like
the
like
to
The science of animals. Relates the curative action of medZootomy. Comparative anatomy. Zygoma. An arch or yoke. Zygomatic. Belonging the zygoma.
Zoology.
Zootherapeutics.
to to
Z.
bladder.
EXPLANATION OF FIGURE XIX.

OSSEOUS STRUCTURE.
1.
Frontalis.
Parietalis.
^
3.
5.' 6. ^ 8.
Occipital.
Nasal.
Lachmyral.
Superior maxillaris.
Anterior
"
Inferior or lower jaw.
5.
10.
11.
16.
Cervical vertebrae.
True
False
ribs.
17.
18.
ribs.
Sternum.
Ileum.
19;
22.
23'.
Femur.
Patella.
24.
25.
Tibia-
Os
calcis.
26. 21,
28. 29.
Astragalus.
Tarsal bones.
Metatarsus magnum.
Sessamoids.
30.
31.
32. S3. 34i
Os Os Os
sufEraginis.
coroiia.
pecb's.
Scapula.
Os humeri.
Radius. Carpus.
35. 36.
37.
Metacarpus magntun.
39.
40.
41.
Os Os Os
suffraginis.
corona.
pedis.
MUSCULAR STRUCTURE.
FOEWAED
a.
6.
c.
PARTS.
THE
HEAD.
Orbicularis palpebrarimi.
Levator palpebrte.
Bilalor nans lateralis. " " anterior.
Orbicularis oris.
d.
e.
f.
g.
r.
Nasalis longus.
Levator
labii superiorus.
Buccinator.
J.
Jc.
Retractor
^lasscter.
labii inferiorus.
m. Attolentes
2.
et abduoens aurem.
Facial vein.
THE KECK.
c".
Trachelo subscapularis.
StSenus.
6.
Rliomboideus longus.
EXPLANATION OF FIGURE XIX. CONTINDF.D.

f.
o.
r.
Splenius.
Abducens vel depiimens aiirem. t. Tendon of the sijlenius and complexus major.
Sterno maxillaris.
V.
X.
Subscapido hyoideus.
THE SHOULDER, ANTERIOR MUSCLES, AND FORE EXTREMITIES.

a.
6'.
Trapezius.
Teres.
Pectoralis parvus.
e".
f.
g".
Antea
spinatus.
Postea spinatus.
Triceps extensor brachii.
I", i:
o".
>".
Flexor metacarpi internus.
s". s".
t. t.
Extensor metacai'pi magnus.
Extensor metacarpi obliquus.
u.
u.
Tendons perforatus and jjerforans. (At the humeral region.) Levator humeri.
Extensor tendons.
hoof.
x". x".
8.
The
THE ABDOMEN
a". o".
.VND POSTERIOR PARTS.
ABDOMINAL
REGION, AND OF HIE COSTA.
Serratus lumborum.
Obliquus externus abdomini.s

Serratus magnus.
(beneath the dotted
line).
D.
POSTERIOR PARTS.
g".
/t.
Ligameuts of the
d. e. Glutei.
patella.
k.
Extensor metatarsi internus.
m. Tensor vagina.
m". Rectus.
o".
Vastus externus.
u.
V. V.
It.
Gastrocnemius internus.
Flexor pedis.
Flexors ])erforatus and perforans.
x". x".
X. X.
8.
Fleshy belly of the extensor.
Extensor tendons.
hoof.
The
^dmnarj
C0nc0liJ5itaI
Cârt.
(195)
A VETERINARY TOXICOLOGICAL CHART,

CONTAINING THOSE AGENTS WHICH ARE KNOWN TO CAUSE DEATH IN THE HORSE; WITH THE SYMPTOMS, ANTIDOTES, ACTION ON THE TISSUES, AND TESTS.
BY W.
J. T.
MORTON,
etc.
Lecturer on Veterinary, Materia Medico,
"Poisons are substances which are capable of altering or destroying,

cases,
in a majority of
some or all of the functions necessary to the support of the vital principle." Fmdere. They are derived both from the organic and inorganic kingdoms and their
;
Local action is referrable to, 1st, Chemical Decomposiand Inflammation; 3d, Nervous Impression. Remote action is effected by, 1st, Absorption 2d, Sympathy. Animal Poisons rank first in potency; next Aerial poisons are, perhaps, the most to these, the Mineral and lastly, the Vegetable.
action is either local or remote.
2d,
Irritation
tion;
insidious.
which poisons are introduced into the System varies. The Alimenand the Lungs, are the media. 1st, They may be taken into the Stomach inadvertently with the food, or they may be maliciously or accidentally administered. They may also be thrown up as Enemata. 2d, They may be
The manner
in
tary Tube, the Skin, the Circulation,
placed underneath the Skin or injected into the Circulation or they may be absorbed from Wounds. 3d, K gaseous, they may be inhaled, and enter the blood during its transit through the Lungs. They are generally arranged according to the effects which they produce upon the Animal Economy. The great end of Toxicological Science is to counteract their influence, which may be accomplished by chemically decomposing them, by their expulsion from the System, and by restoring the Function of the Organ of which they have caused derangement. As comparatively large quantities of the Poisons are required to destroy Life in the Horse, the niceties of chemical manipulation It wUl generally be sufficient to collect in the application of Tests are uncalled for. some of the contents of the Stomach and Litestines, add distilled Water to them, filter and
; ;
to the Solution apply the Test or Re-agent.
heat
and,
when the
contents are not attainable, portions of the Alimentary
have been most acted upon by the Agent are

treated.
Sometimes they require the influence of Tube which to be boiled in distilled Water, and similarly
IRRITANT
POISONS.
These produce their action upon some part of the Alimentary Canal, particularly the StomThe ach and Intestines; and by absorption they are often carried to other Organs.
principal
Symptoms are
those of Irritation
and Inflammation.
axe the
AGENTS.
ACIDUM SULPHURICUM.
Sulphuric Acid.
most powerful of aU
local irritants.
Indications of their action are uneasiness,
frequent
I
pawing and
shifting of the posi-
ACIDUM NITRICUM.
Nitric Acid.
tion, increased secretion of saliva,
ACIDUM HYDROCHLORICUM.
Hydrochloric Acid.
which is sometimes viscid and fetid, the mouth inflamed, difficulty in swallowing from corrosion of the lining of the esophagus, acute
gastric irritation extending to the intestines,
Symptoms.
The
liquid
mineral
acids
and giving
rise to
symptoms resembling a
(1971
198
TOXICOLOGICAL CHAET.
violent attack of colic
most
pain on pres- then expect to find the coats of the stom;
fre- ach and intestines thickened and contracted, quent attempts to dung and stale and, after the result of chronic inflammation, with the fsBces have been voided, a discharge of here and there eroded spots, but not of any mucus streaked with blood takes place depth. tenesmus, pulse quick and feeble, prostraTests. General. neuSour taste
sure being applied over the
abdomen
;
tion of strength, profuse perspiration, cold- tralization
ness of the body, and death, after the ani-
mal has endured excruciating
agonies.
In one case related to me, nitric acid was
effervescing with the carbonates reddening of litmus paper. Particular. Sulphuric Acid. The
by the
alkalies
parts
poured into the ear, and death took place with which it comes in contact are first from inflammation extending to the mem- whitened, and then changed to a brownish branes of the brain. color. By macerating them or the conAs the general symptoms tents of the stomach in distilled water, filTreatment. of poisoning by the liquid mineral acids do tering, and adding a solution of the nitrate not materially differ, neither wiU the general of barytes, an insoluble precipitate, the sultreatment. This will consist, 1st, In dilut- phate of barytes, is obtained. ing the agent by throwing into the stomThe tissues changed of a Nitric Acid. ach large quantities of water by means of yellow color, which is heightened by amRead's pump. 2d, In neutralizing it, by monia. The filtered solution boiled on suspending in the water chalk, magnesia, or copper filings in a test tube emits orangesoap or, in the absence of these, the plaster colored fumes of nitrous acid. Potassa befrom the walls. 3d, In allaying the su- ing added to it, by evaporation a salt is obpervening inflammation by means of blood- tained, which deflagrates or a piece of letting, should the urgency of the symp- bibulous paper may be satmrated with the
toms demand
cents.
it
tration of opium,
and also by the adminisand a free use of demuldebility
solution, dried,
and inflamed.
Hydrochloric Acid.
Its
Tissues
blanched.
The subsequent nervous
fumes are rendered more manifest by a

in
test,
and prostration of strength are to be com- rod dipped

batted by the milder vegetable tonics, and This
however,
of.
ammonia being held in them. we are rarely able to
a gradual return to
liberal diet.
Morbid Appearances. The mouth, pha- nitrate of silver to the solution, rynx, and esophagvTS, present traces of the white precipitate, the chloride of action of the peculiar acid. The stomach is distended with gas, and occasionally AGENT. lined with its disorganized tissue, which is ACIDUM OXALICUM. eroded in patches, and so deeply ulcerated
as to form perforations.
avail
ourselves
On
the addition of
it
gives a
silver.
Intense inflam-
Oxalic Acid.
mation often exists in this viscus, which Instances are recorded of Symptoms. extends throughout the whole of the intes- horses having been poisoned by this acid, tinal tube, involving its peritoneal tunic; but whether maliciously given, or administhis last circumstance has been thought to tered by mistake for the sulphate of magbe distinctive between poisoning by acids nesia, I cannot say. The symptoms attenand metallic compounds this cannot, how- dant on its action, when a concentrated ever, be relied upon. The blood in the solution is given, will not be dissimilar to larger vessels sometimes forms a firm clot. those produced by the mineral acids. When These appearances will not be so marked dUuted, however, it is said to cause death when an acid has been given in small doses by palsying the heart and nervous system, for some time, or if much diluted we may or by inducing tetanus or narcotism but I
; ;
; ;
TOXICOLOGICAL CHART.
199
am
served in the horse.
not aware that such action has been ob- cold; efforts to vomit; countenance anxious, and indicative of great torture mu-
Treatment.
water, as
acid.
it
Avoid
favors
large
quantities of cous tissues injected
mouth hot
is
increased
the absorption of the secretion of saliva, which
singularly fetid
stomach a mixture delirium from pain which has become conof chalk, or of magnesia and water, partic- tinuous; exhaustion; death. The action ularly the former or lime from the walls of tliis poison is not merely as a local irrimay be used either of wliich will form an tant, it being often conveyed to remote
into the
;
Throw
salt. The alkalies are inadmissi- parts through the medium of the circulabecause they form soluble salts. De- tion, thus causing death. Even as an mulcents to be freely employed, and the external applicant it has been known to pro-
insoluble
ble,
remaining
irritation to
be allayed by opium- duce
Morbid Appearances.
in the horse.
None
much
general derangement of the sysits
recorded tem, independent of
influence
as an
this
In other animals the stom- escharotic,
which
is
powerful.
On
ach has been found to contain black extra- account,

vasated blood,
face is brittle,
gelatinized.
its
when
the methods usually resorted

its
inner coat being of a to have failed to demonstrate

in
existence
intesit
cherry-red color;
some
places the
siu:-
in the contents of the

tines, Orfila
stomach and
and the subjacent stratum
has succeeded in detecting
The
intestines are usually in- in the organic tissues, particularly the liver.
flamed throughout.
has been through the
to
When
medium
its
influence
Treatment.
free
use of diluents, or
of the blood of lime water; avoid blood-letting, as this
on remote parts, the heart has been found promotes the absorption of the poison have lost its contractility, and to contain give large doses of the hydrated peroxide arterial blood. of iron precipitated by ammonia from a Tests. Acid reaction on litmus paper. solution of the sulphate of iron, so as to A concentrated solution with ammonia form an insoluble arsenic of iron, which forms a salt whose crystals radiate, the ox- may be expelled by the action of active piu-gatives. The subsequent inflammation alate of ammonia. Hydrochlorate of Lime throws dowia a is to be combatted by the ordinary antiphlowhite precipitate which is soluble in nitric gistic remedies while the debility which
acid, the oxalate
supervenes, and wliich is often great, is best of lime. Sulphate of Copper yields a blue or green- counteracted by the vegetable tonics and
ish-white precipitate, the oxalate of copper. judicious dieting.

Nitrate of Silver causes a dense white
precipitate
;
Morbid Appearances.
intestines,
The stomach and
also
an oxalate which, when
especially the latter, highly in-
dried
and heated, fulminates.
AGENT.
ACIDUM ARSENIOSUM.
Arsenious Acid,
White Arsenic.
and ulcerated in patches. The caecum and colon present the most marked action, the villous coat being black from an effusion of altered blood, and the peritoneal tunic involved. Congestion of blood in the lungs, liver, and kidneys; redness of the
flamed
lining
resembling ing to the air-passages generally conjuncacute enteritis; belly tympanitic, with a tival membrane highly injected, and the
pain,
;
Symptoms.
Intense
membrane
of the windpipe, extend-
rumbling noise in the intestines the dejec- blood in a fluid state throughout the body. tions oflensive, and mixed with mucus Ecchymosis in the heart. pulse quick and feeble, becoming scarcely The susIst, by Reduction. Tests. perceptible at the jaw respiration labori- pected powder, being dried, is to be mixed ous; surface of the body covered with an with twice its weight of newly-burnt and
;
extremely cold,
clammy sweat
extremities pulverized charcoal,
and introduced into a
200
test-tube
:
the heat of a spirit
;
lamp
is
now
AGENT.
HYDRARGYRI BICHLORIDUM.
Bichloride of Mercury,
Corrosive
to be applied
first
to the upper part of the
mixture, and afterguards steadUy to the bot-
tom
of the tube, when,
if
arsenious acid
is
present, the metal arsenicum
will be sub
Suhlimate.
limed, and, encoating the tube, form a ring
Symptoms.
The
effects
which follow
of a polished-steel lustre, the inner surface the of which

is crystalline.
administration of large doses of this
watery salt, resemble those which supervene when vapor, which wiU be condensed within the the mineral acids liave been given, except
little
The
pear,
tube before the metallic crust begins to ap- that, generally, super-purgation is present, is to be removed by a roll of bibulous and the fcecal matter is profuse and highly
paper.
2d, by Liquid Re-agents.
The contents
be
filtered.
offensive.
Its
solubility renders
it
more
it is
energetic than arsenious acid, although
of the stomach, or such parts of that viscus not so frequently had recourse to for poias have been acted upon, being boiled in soning.
distilled water, the solution is to
The ammoniacal sulphate of

this gives senite of copper.
copper added to
an apple-green precipitate, the arThe ammoniacal nitrate of cous lining of the intestines, accompanied silver, a lemon-yellow precipitate, changing with violent purging and tenesmus. to a dark brown on exposure to light, the Treatment. The white of eggs suspendarsenite of silver. Sulphuretted Hydrogen, ed in water, the albumen of which renders generated by the action of dilute suphu- the bichloride of mercury insoluble or large ric acid on suphm-et of iron, in a flask, hav- quantities of wheat-flour, or milk. Iron ing an emerging tube bent at a double right filings have also been advocated, which, angle, passed up through the solution for reviving the metallic mercury, may be ex-
The protochloride of mercury, calomel, when incautiously given, has also caused death, by inducing inflammation of the mu-
ten or fifteen minutes, gives a sulphur yel- pelled by piu-gatives
low
a free use of dilutents. of arsenicum. The treatment of the salivation, which Water impregnated with this gas affords sometimes supervenes, consists in exposure
;
precipitate, the sulphuret
the like compound.

test
The
solution for
tliis
to cool
tives,
air,
the exhibition of saline purga-
must be
perfectly neutral.
This pre-
cipitate
may be
aftenvards subjected to re-
and nourishing diet. Morbid Appearances.
These
duction.
3d, by Nascent
Hydrogen.
This
fluid
closely resemble the effects produced

is ef-
would by the
fected
in
Marsh's tube.
of,
The
con- mentary canal

parts
above agent, tho mucous lining of the alibeing intensely inflamed

its
tents of the stomach, or the filtered solution throughout,
textmre destroyed,
and
in
before spoken
zinc
being introduced into
it,
corroded.
The
disorganized tissue
and sulphuric acid are added, and the often contains the poison, which it yields it escapes from by analysis. the jet inflamed, when luater and metallic Tests. Lime-ivater, which throws down arsenic will be condensed upon the glass an orange yellow precipitate, the h yd rated
arseniuretted hydrogen as
it. The former will be dis- binoxide of mercury. sipated by the heat, ,nd around the latter Iodide of Potassium, which gives a beaua ring of arsenious acid may be seen. In tiful scarlet compound, the biniodide of the absence of a Marsh's tube, a common mercury.
disc held above
two-ounce wide-mouthed vial, with a cork Protochloride of Tin, which first aflbrds perforated by a piece of glass tube or evea a whitish precipitate, the protochloride of tobacco-pipe, may with care be made to an- mercury ; and, on adding more of the test swer all the purpose. a grayish-black powder is formed, which
consists of minutely di\ided metallic mercury.
tills
201
precipitate
by hydrogen
at once dissi-
pates aU doubt.
Sulphurelled Hydrogen, which gives a

blackish compound, a sulphuret of mercury. To these may be added the test by reduction, the reducing agent being the pro-
AGENT.
SALTS OF COPPER.
tochloride of tin, assisted
by
heat.
Symptoms.
re-
The
salts
of
copper are
Albumen
agent.
is
not
now
relied
on as a
rarely
employed as poisons
to the horse.
Large doses of the sulphate improperly

given have sometimes caused
much
intes-
AGENT.
ANTIMONII POTASSIO-TARTRAS.
Potassio- Tartrate of Antimony,
tiiral
irritation,
followed by colicky pains

and, in one instance, death
and
diarrhoea
from
gastro-enteritis.
Doubtless inordinate
life,
quantities
would always destroy
when
Emetic Tartar.
symptoms
similar to those caused
by any
Violent gastric iiTitation; other erodent would be manifested, it being Symptoms. nausea efforts to vomit profuse perspira- a local irritant. The same, perhaps, may copper. tion; catharsis, accompanied with colicky be said of the impure acetate of Li the neighborhood of works for smeltpains and much flatus increased secretion
; ;
frequently attacked at. first much ing of copper, horses are quickened, and afterwards scarcely joercep- with diseases of the joints, indicated by and, tible labored respu-ation injection of the swelling, bursal distension, exostosis,
of urine
the heart's action
mucous
tissues
yellow bark, or any the state of the herbage or the impregnation other astringent vegetable that contains of the air by the vapors disengaged. Give a solution of the ferTreat merit. tannin, to be administered both in powder and decoction a free use of dilutents, olea- rocyanide of potassium, or of soap. Albumetallic iron, ginous purges, and opium, should then be men is also an antidote, and This had recourse to for the purpose of aUaying which latter precipitates the copper. is to be expelled by oleaginous purgatives. the irritation.
Treatment.
The
;
extreme distress
death.
ultimately, anchylosis, arising either from
The stomach Tepid water rendered slightly alkaline may Morbid Appearances. and opium, to allay highly inflamed, and eroded patches on the also be freely given free use of demulcents, as of a deeper color irritation.
;
mucous
coat,
which are
etc., is indicated. than the surrounding parts intestines red- gruel, infusion of linseed, For the local affection, punctm-e the burdened, encoated -with slimy mucus, and after the evacuation of thickened lungs gorged with blood and sal distention, and, cyst, apply an elastic bandage, giving the system inflammation the whole general of Remove the animal gentle compression. consequent on its absorption. Tests. Caustic Potass and Lime-ivater, to another locality.
;
;
which precipitates the oxide of antimony.
The carbonate
greater delicacy.
of potass acts with
still
Stomach ulcerMorbid Appearances. ated where the agent has adliered, and general
inflammation of
its
mucous
lining
with here and Sulphuric Acids also and that of the intestines, instance adthe Li erosion. spots of there strong infuafford the like precipitate. sulphate of copper causing sion of the gaU-nut gives a dirty, yeUo\\ash verted to of the death, there was an engorgement of the white precipitate, the gallate of antimony. the lungs. Sulphuretted Hydrogen throws down an blood-vessels of Copper is with extreme difficulty detected orange-red precipitate, the red sulphuret of It, however, has secretions. antimony, which is so peculiar as to be al- in any of the
Hydrochloric and
ways
distinguished
and the reduction of been found
in the organic tissues, particu-
; ;
202
larly the liver after incineration,
and
also in
Iodide of Potassium likewise gives a yel-
the blood.
Tests.
Water
low
of
precipitate, the iodide of lead.
Ammonia
affords
an
Sidphuretted
Hydrogen causes a black

it
azure-colored precipitate, or a violet-colored precipitate, the sulphitret of lead. solution, the ammoniuret of copper. rod of Zinc introduced into
causes
of Potassium causes a a deposition of metallic lead in a crystalline brown precipitate, the ferrocyanide of cop- form.
Ferrocyanide
per.
The alkaline carbonates and sulphates, Hydrogen throws down a although they give white precipitates with blackish compound, the sidphurct of copper. lead, have been objected to as tests.
Sulphuretted
A piece
copper.
of polished iron introduced into
the solution is soon covered with metallic
AGENT.
POTASS^ NITRAS.
Nitrate of Potash,
Aître.
AGENT.
SALTS OF LEAD.
Symptoms. Of these, like the above, Symptoms. Much uneasiness cholicky comparatively large quantities are required pains pulse feeble, quick, and irregular to cause death. Violent spasms, tremors, respiration accelerated; mouth hot; mu; ;
obstinate constipation of the bowels,
fol-
cous lining of the

highly
vuine
;
eyelids
and
nostrils
lowed by
paralysis, partial or complete, are
injected
increased
secretion
of
the usual indications.
frequent voiding of feeces.
If the
In the neighborhood of lead works animals are often thus affected, when, in addition to these symptoms, there is a depraved appetite present: the stomach after death being found filled to repletion with strange and incongruous substances.
qiiantity given is very great, the
abdominal
pains are -more intense
the breathing
more
ef-
labored; the pulse quicker; inefTectual

forts to stale are
made
the extremities are

is
cold;
and the prostration of strength

If
Treatment. Solutions of the sulphate uneasiness, the faeces are frequently voided of magnesia or soda, combined with croton diuresis supervenes and relief is obtained. or linseed oil afterwards allaying the irriTreatment. free use of demulcents;
;
extreme.
not, after
manifesting
much
tation
by means of opium. The phosphate of soda has

an antidote.
oleaginous purgatives
also
hot rugs to the ab;
been ex- domen, and over the

if
loins
opiate enemata
;
tolled as
necessary, the abstraction of blood
with
ti-eatment for the paralysis wliicli hand-rubbing, and bandages to the extremiremains consists in judicious dieting and ties. Possibly a mustard cataplasm or a
exercise.
The
Morbid Appearances. The lining mem- Such counter irritants as are likely to be brane of the stomach and intestines is carried to the kidneys are to be avoided. sometimes inflamed, sometimes blanched; Morbid Appearances. The villous coat the caliber of the latter is diminished, and of the stomach highly inflamed and studded
sheepskin over the loins will be of service.
its
coats corrugated
throughovit the body has lost

contractility
;
the muscular tissue with dark spots resembling ecchymosis, its power of varying in size and running into patches
the buccal
membrane
and the blood of a brighter

ural.
is pale, they are easily scraped off, and contain a color than nat- deposit of serum. The cuticular coat is
Tests.
Chromate of Potass throws down
also inflamed, but not
so highly,
;
and
its
texture
is
much weakened
the small intes-
a yellow precipitate, the chromate of lead.
tines are pervaded
with an inflammatory
; :
blush
;
203
the lungs and heart are congested, lining membrane of the latter has in some and the venous blood is of a brighter color places a sphaceletic appearance. Washing of the contents of the Tests. Constriction and inflammathan usual. tion of the neck of the bladder have also stomach and alimentary tube will develop
been observed.
Tests.
portions of the beautiful green case-wings

fluid contents of the of the fly,
From the
which appear not quickly

;
to un-
alimentary tube, or from the urine, the salt dergo decomposition Orfila having detected may be obtained by evaporation and crystal- them in a body some months after death.
It is known by deflagi-ating when thrown on a piece of ignited charcoal, of which it animates the combustion and by
lization.
AGENTS.
BITE OF THE VIPER,
yielding nitric acid
when
distilled
phuric acid.
Heat
also disengages
with suloxygen
its
STING OF THE HORNET, WASP, ETC.
/rom
it.
Symptoms.
heat,
Chloride of Platinum added to

tion gives a yellow precipitate.
solution, indicated
Subcutaneous inflammaby swelling and increased

cellular tissue,
with effusion into the
which sometimes goes on to
gangrene;
;
AGENT.
CANTHARIS.
Tlie Blistering Fly.
pain
constitutional excitement
;
quickened
and
intesti-
irregular pulse
bite of
rigors.
Symptoms.
nal irritation
Much
; ;
uneasiness
frequent attempts to stale

;
a viper has been known to cause cerebral derangement and death, by its influence on the nervous system.
The
strangury
bloody urine
accelerated pulse
Treatment.
Removal
of
the
stings
and
respiration
continual pain, with
much
counter-irritants, as
liniment of
ammonia
These symp- or turpentine, which, if sufficient, are to be by scarification, the use of emollients, and the general antiphlogistic remethe scene. Expulsion of the agent dies, such as bleeding, fomentations, and Treatment. from out of the alimentary tube by brisk laxatives, with opium to allay the general The virus of the tooth of the purgatives oil is objectionable, on account irritation. of the solubity of the active principle of viper may be extracted by cupping, or, A free use of dilu- which is preferable, let the part be excised, the cantharides in it. ents opium may be given, and oleaginous and the nitrate of silver freely appfied
coflstitutional
disturbance.
toms increase in urgency,
until death closes followed
and demulcent
bladder.
injections
Sheepskins over the loins
thrown into the afterwards. Morbid Appearances. hot

;
But few instances

If it takes place, it
rags over the abdomen.
of death are recorded.
Morbid Appearances.
The mucous
;
lin- is
probably the result of sympathetic and
ing of the alimentary canal throughout in general excitement of the whole system a high state of diffused inflammation but the usual indications, therefore, of increased the lurinary organs are principally affected nervous and vascular action may be exthe blood-vessels of the kidneys, bladder, pected to be
and
urethra, are
much
engorged, and the
Tests.
None.
met with.
204
TOXICOLOGICAL CHART
II.
NARCOTIC
POISONS.
These produce Stupor, Delirium, and other affections of the Brain and Nervous System, foUoioed by Death.
AGENT.
OPIUM.
Opium.
phia in solution
this
being heated with

niti-ic
sulphuretted hydrogen, any remaining lead

will be precipitated.
On
acid being
morphia obtained by evaporaThe horse will bear large tion, it dissolves with cfTervescence, and Symptoms. doses of this ch'Ug the quantity necessary becomes of an orange-red color. Suspended Sup- in water and treated with a drop or two of to destroy life is consequently great. posed instances are recorded of its causing the permuriate of iron, it is also dissolved, death when given in doses of a few drachms and forms a greenish-blue solution.
added
to the
in order to check superpurgation
also
when
the annual has been debilitated by disease,
AGENT.
TAXUS BACCATA.
The
Teio.
;
when symptoms
of enteritis have
shown
themselves, accompanied with a torpitude
of the bowels, and

to
death.
much sufTering
larger
previous
have,
Effects variable large quanSymptoms. however, often been given with impunity, tities have sometimes failed to cause any injm-y, wliile at others comparatively small and frequently with advantage.
Much
quantities
Expulsion of the agent quantities have destroyed life. It would Treatment. from out the alimentary tube by means of appear to be very insidious in its influence, oleaginous purgatives, eneiiiata, venesec- as the animal generally drops down dead tion, and a free use of demulcents, with without indicating any previous suffering. fomentations to the abdomen, and counter- In some instances slight convulsions have
irritants to the extremities.
preceded death.
The
partially dried leaves
Should a
state of stupor prevail, exercise
appear to be more energetic than the green
may
the head.
be given, and cold water dashed over leaves, probably from greater quantities being partaken of.
Treatment. Usually no oppoiiiinity is The mucous linMorbid Appearances. ing of the stomach and intestines inflamed, afforded for the employment of remedies. and easily torn asunder, the inflammation Should it, however, be the case that the
This has been thought to be a distinctive between the effects induced by mineral and vegetable poisons but it cannot be relied upon, as repeated small doses of an erodent will induce the like
being diffused.
;
leaves of
eaten, I
yew
are suspected to have been
am
not aware of any method which
could be adopted but that of endeavoring

to expel
as possible,
them from the system as quicldy which may be effected by active
appearances, only there will be more thick- purgatives.
The
after-treatment will de-
ening of the tunics.

Tests.
Odor,
pend upon the symptoms which

is
may
pre-
which
characteristic.
distilled
;
sent themselves.
To
the suspected matter
add
water
Morbid Appearances.
fluid state,
The
alimentary
acidulated with acetic acid
agitate for a tube distended with fsecal matter in a semi-
few minutes,
again
filter
filter
;
sistence of syrup
and evaporate to the conboil tliis in alcohol, and

;
and highly
fetid gases.
The mucous
lining inflamed throughout,

larger intestines,
and evaporate
dissolve the re- particularly of the

there
with
siduum
in distilled water,
solution acetate of lead,
and add to the here and which leaves mor- blood.
patches of
extravasated
In
205
some few cases
scarcely a trace of
tissues
ammonia, may be administered, combined
diseased action in the
found.
Tests.
Portions of the vegetable

principle
could be with tonics to rouse the depressed vital powers.

in the
in-
Of
course this treatment will only be of
stomach and intestines mixed with the

gesta.
service
when
the drug has been too fre-
quently given, or administered in too large

active
The
ment.
of the
poison
is
quantities.
imknown, hence the
difficulty in the treat-
Morbid Appearances.
The
inner tunic
of the stomach and intestines sUghtly in-
AGENT.
ACIDUM HYDROCYANICUM.
Hydrocyanic Acid,
Prussic Acid.
flamed; 'the vessels of the lungs gorged
with blood; the parenchyma natural; the lymphatics containmg red blood the heart
;
inflamed,
lining
and spots of ecchymosis on

;
its
membrane
the vessels of the brain
Its influence is sudden, and Symptoms. medullary portion, in which organ the odor that of a powerful sedative to the system, of the acid is easily recognized, as well as and, when the quantity is not large, evanesthroughout the body, and particularly in the cent: otherwise it is followed by marked halitus from the blood. The eyes are gfiscerebral derangement, manifested by gidditening and prominent.
highly injected, particularly those of the
ness
and
coma;
the breathing becomes

;
laborious
the nostrils expanded

;
the pulse
debility is
Tests.
Render
distil
fluid the contents of the
quickened and fluttering

present,
much
:
with
loss of
;
power
to these suc-
an eighth part over, when the following tests will be available The
stomach, and
:
ceed tetanic spasms

rigid
;
the muscles
become
is
odor,
the jaws locked,
and the membrana
which resembles that of bitter almonds, and impresses the throat and noswith a peculiar acridity.
nictitans is
forced over the eye, which
trils
prominent, and has a glassy appearance

profuse perspiration covers the body, accom-
Sulphate of Copper, the solution being rendered alkaline by potass, throws down a
green precipitate, which becomes neai-ly panied by violent convulsions and intense white on adding a little hydrochloric acid, suffering. These effects are succeeded by the cyanide of copper. a remission for a time, during which the Sulphate of the Protoxide of Iron, simianimal appears to be in a state of partial larly employed, gives a gi-eenish precipitate, insensibility but the exacerbations return which becomes of a deep blue color on the again and again, and then the paroxysms
;
become
length,
is
less
all
and
less
powerful, until at
addition of sulphuric acid, the ferrocyanate
action disappearing, the animal
of the protoxide of
iron.
left
in
a state of exhaustion, the vital

Li what-
Nitrate of Silver throws

soluble
down
its
a white
powers being much depressed.

ever
precipitate, the cyanide of silver,
which
dried
is
way
the agent
is
introduced into the
in nitric acid only at
boifing
system, the effects are similar.

active form of the poison
is
The most
temperature, and which,
when
and
When
fering.
the dose
it is
is
sufficiently large to
heated in a tube, emits cyanogen gas, which that of vapor. burns with a rose-colored flame.
suf-
cause death,
unaccompanied with
AGENT.
CARBONIC ACID. Treatment. Cold affusions over the body the inhalation of dilute ammoniacal Symptoms. Instances are known of and chlorine gases, particularly the latter. horses having been suffocated during fires, The coma may be removed by blood- arising from the disengagement of this gas, letting; and diflusible stimulants, such as with, perhaps, some of the compounds of
;
; ;
206
hydrogen.
ant.
Its
sources otherwise are abund- sorbed by the blood, and produces
it
coma
In a state of dilution
causes
coma
and
tetanic convulsions.
Sometimes death
when
pure, spasm of the glottis, and death takes place from asphyxia. Treatment. The same as the above by asphyxia. Removal to the ak cold to which, perhaps, may be added the inhaTreatment. affusions over the body bloodletting dif- lation of dilute chlorine. Morbid Appearances. The muscles have fusible stimulants. Engorgement of lost their power of contractility. Morbid Appearances. The
the vessels of the lungs with black blood. blood-vessels are
gorged with fluid black
The
v-cssels
of the brain and of the heart blood; the bronchial tubes inflamed, with
are in a similar state.
The bronchi and
increased secretion of
mucus both
in
them
is
trachea
filled
Tests.
The
with frothy mucus.

tests for carbonic acid
and the
Tests.
ti'achea
the odor from the body
gas highly offensive.
are simple enough, but here they are inapplicable.
Carbonate
of Lead on a piece
of card paper, exposed to an atmosphere
impregnated with this gas, is turned black by the formation of the sulphur et of lead; SULPHURETTED HYDROGEN. but as the body when undergoing decomThis gas, given off fi-om position emits the same kind of gas, this Symptoms. cesspools and other places, has been at test can only be accepted as a corroboratimes the cause of death. It is rapidly ab- tive proof.
AGENT.
III.
NARCOTICO-ACRID
POISONS.
Tliese
cause Death, either by irritation or narcotism, and sometimes by both combined.

is first local
Their influence
and then remote, impressing
the
Nervous System.
They
are principally derived from the Vegetable Kingdom.
AGENT.
NUX VOMICA ET STRYCHNIA.
Vomic Nut and Strychnia.
pulse and respiration being scarcely perceptible

;
the paroxysm exists for a few minis
utes only, and
followed by a remission
Symptoms.
The
of the symptoms, leaving the animal

irritable.
vomic nut induces a exhausted and extremely

la- exacerbations,
much The
quickened and kritable pulse, highly

loss
however, continue until death

the
bored respiration, snortings, tetanic spasms, takes place from suffocation.

of muscular power, injection of the
tissues,
;
Treatment.
From
tenacity
with
mucous
extreme
thirst,
from asphyxia
loid, strychnia,
previous to
and death which the powder of the nut adheres to the which there is stomach and intestines, it is with difficulty
alka- dislodged.
It
is
intense suflering.
is
The action of its more energetic.
Its
removal
may be
attempted
shown by
of the
tremors, followed by a quickness
and labored respiration, extreme irritability, loss of power in the expulse

tremities, tetanic convulsions increasing in
violence, the
legs being thrust from
the
body, the muscles

fuse
perspiration,
rigid, opisthotonus, pro-
insensibility,
and
the
by means of active purgatives, or antidotes may be thrown in these consist of chlorine and of iodme, which form inert compounds with the active principle, strychnia but, as the action of the alkaloid is on the spinal marrow and the brain, little good can be hoped to be obtained when a dose sufficiently large to destroy life has been given,
;
207
measures be immediately dose be not sufficiently large for this purpose, there will be a succession of paroxysms, leaving behind them much debility, which is to be counteracted
unless
active
adopted.
If the
by inducing violent inflammation of the intestinal canal, followed by superpurgation

;
the alvine dejections being profuse,
watery, and offensive.

Treatment.
free use of demulcents,
by
of
tonics
and
diffusible
stimulants, with, with

challi.
astringents, as
catechu, opium, and

;
perhaps, counter-irritants along the course

the spine, lest
effusion
Bloodletting
opiate enemas.
Hot
should
take rugs to the abdomen, counter irritants, etc.
Violent inflamMorbid Appearances. mation of the intestines, particularly the the alimentary tube inflamed, lungs gorged caecum and colon, involving all the tunics, with blood, and the vascular system through- the mucous lining being easily torn. Faeout the body in a state of congestion. The ces abundant and semi-fluid. Lungs in a
place.
Morbid Appearances.
Mucous
lining of
spinal canal
much
inflamed.
Efl'usion of
state of congestion.
Tests.
bloody serum into the theca vertebraUs motor division of the spinal cord more injected than the other, and the nerves taking
their origin
None
definite.
A GENT.
DIGITALIS PURPUREA.
from
it
inflamed.
The memin-
branes of the brain have been found
Fox
Symptoms.
Glove.
flamed, with effusion on the surface of the
Languor,
gastric
irritation,
cerebellum, and a softening of the whole coldness of the body and extremities, paleRigidity of ness of the mucous tissues, cold and clamcortical portion of the brain.
the muscles of the body.

sition,
Rapid decompo- my perspiration, quickened and feeble pulse, death. accompanied with much fcetor. When it accumulates in the system, afThe powder of the nut has a Tests. greenish-gray color, an intensely bitter taste, ter having been repeatedly given in compar-
and the odor of

it is
liquorice.
Being
collected,
atively
small doses,
it
produces loss of
to.be boiled in water acidulated wath appetite, nausea, languor, a quick and irregsulphuric acid, filtered, and the solution ular pulse, followed by purgation, and the
neutralized by carbonate of lime
and evap-
effects
then gradually disappear.

of
orated to dryness.
hol, these are to
The dry mass being
Treatment.
Expulsion of the agent

The
free
by
acted upon by successive portions of alcosistence of syrup,
means
a solution of aloes, combined

oil.
be evaporated to the con- with linseed
use of demulcounter-irri-
when
the product will be cents;
diffusible
stimulants;
found to have an intensely bitter taste, and tants. Depending upon Morbid Appearances. it becomes of a deep orange-red color with nitric acid, which color is destroyed by the the condition and previous state of the Sometimes it de- animal. If much debilitated, inflammation protochloride of tin. posits crystals of strychnia on standing. of the mucous lining of the stomach and
These
tests will
;
alkaloid
to
which may be added
also be available for the alimentary tube may be seen to exist. its spar- other times no trace of its influence on
At any
ing solubility in water, the alkaline reaction of the tissues can be detected, and it is then of its alcoholic solution, and its forming supposed to cause death by exhaustion of the nervous energy. neutral and crystallizable salts with acids.
Tests.
None
definite.
AGENT.
SEMEN CROTOXI.
Croton Seed.
AGENT.
VERATRUM ALBUM.
in-
Symptoms.
This
purgative,
when
White Hellebore.
cautiously administered, has produced death
Symptoms.
Efforts
to vomit,
acceler-
208
ated
piilse,
untranquil respiration, intestinal
Morbid
Appearances.
am
not
ac-
in-itation,
which,
if
followed by purging, quainted with an instance of death having
affords relief; if not, these
symptoms
is
be- taken place,
although this agent
is
fre-
come more
m-gent, the Ijody
covered with quently given as a vermifuge in very large

cold,
Tests.
perspiration, saliva is secreted in increased quantities.

quantities, the
legs
become deathly
None
definite.
inflammation of the bowels supervenes, and

death.
AGENT.
JUNIPERUS SABINA.
Savin.
Treatment.
free
use of demulcents.
;
Milk has been strongly advocated on what grounds beyond that of its being a bland
fluid, I
Symptovis.
This,
like
the
preceding
am
at 'a loss to conjecture.

;
ginous purgatives counter-irritants. The villous coat then evinced, the animal refuses food, and Morbid Appearances. of the stomach will be found inflamed; the is languid this is followed by diuresis, and
Olea- agent, is given as a vermifuge, and sometimes incautiously. Gastric irritation is
intestines also in a high state of

tion, particularly the
inflamma- sometimes by purging

;
the pulse becomes

respiration hur-
csecum and colon the irregular and heart pale and flabby and the lungs con- ried.
;
full,
and the
gested.
Tests.
None
definite.
AGENT.
NICOTIANA TABACUM.
Tobacco.
Expulsion of the agent Treatment. from out the alimentary canal by oleaginous purgatives demulcents. Esophagus and Morbid Appearances. stomach inflamed, particularly the villous portion of the latter viscus, on which patches
;
Symptoms.
feeble
Nausea,
of extravasated blood are seen to exist
the
giddiness,
and
irritable pulse.
coma, small intestines contain much mucus, and Sometimes gen- are slightly inflamed lungs congested
;
eral excitement of the system, profuse per- larynx

spiration, labored
and trachea of a rusty
yello\y color
respiration, pulse
much
glands at the root of the tongue

enlarged.
much
quickened, partial insensibility.

Treatment. purgatives
exists
: ;
Expulsion of the
agent by
Tests.
The
-partially digested vegeta-
diffusible stimulants
when coma
ble matter
demulcents.
which
may
found in the alimentary tube, be distinguished by its odor.
Under the head of Narcotico- Acrid Poisons, perhaps, should be placed the Atropa Belladonna, Deadly Nightshade, which, in large doses, induces singultus, a dilatation of the pupils, feeble and initable pulse, and a relaxed state of the bowels. Also many of the umbelliferous order of plants, as Conium Maculatum, Common Hemlock, the influence of which is probably that of a Narcotic Cicuta Virosa, Water Hemlock, which, to some animals proves an energetic Poison with a few of the natural family of the Ranunculacae, as the Aconitum Napellus, Monkshood, and Helleboris Niger, Black Hellebore, which cause death by irritation, producing gastro-enteritis, followed by delirium; lilcewise Delphinium Staph vsagria, Stavesacre ; Bryonia Alba, Wild-vine or Bryony, and Felis Foemina, Female Fern; of which latter very large quantities are required to efiect any marked change in the animal system and, indeed, it may be said of the Vegetable Poisons generally, that the Horse is enabled to resist the influence
;
;
of comparatively
209
all
immense doses of them, which
in
probabiiitj-
arises
from the
peculiar structure of his stomach.
Wheat and
poisoning by
Barley have been designated as poisons to this animal

so,
and occasionally
sequela of
;
they have proved to be
by
setting
up acute
gastritis.
very
common
inflammation of the laminae, the result of metastasis and of Barley, a depilation of the skin. are, however, in want of more correct information than at present we possess, before anything definite can be laid down under this head, as both wheat and barley, given in moderate quantities and with judgment, often prove
is
Wheat
We
beneficial.
I am induced to pass the agents above enumerated thus cursorily over, my object having been to give a condensed and tabular view of such substances as are known to
destroy
life in the horse when incautiously or maliciously administered, and to elucidate a Thesis on Poisons which I had the honor to read before the Members of the Veterinary Medical Association in 1836 at the same time, I hope that this attempt may prove of some use to the Student of Veterinary Medicine.
:
27
k M
EXPLANATION OF FIGURE XX.
THE HEAD.
a.
6.
c.
Orbicularis palpebrarum.
Levator palpebroe.
Dilator naiis lateralis.
d.
e. e.
Dilator nans anterior.

Orbicularis oris, the circular muscle of the
mouth
the letters are rather too
low to indicate the musclef. Nasalis longus.

g.
k.
Levator
labii superioris.
Masseter.
et
m. Attolentes
abducens aurem.
c".
s.
.
Trachelo subscapularis.
Splenius.
Scalenus.
THE NECK,
r. t.
Tendon of the
Levator humeri.
splenius and complexus major.
M.
V.
Sterno maxillaris.
muscles.
The jugular vein
is
here shown between the two preceding
THE SHOULDER AND POKE EXTREMITIES.

e".
EXPLANATION OF FIGURE XX. CONTINUED.

POSTERIOR EXTREMITLES.
'.
Erector coccygis.
9.
i.
v.
The three
glutei.
J'. Triceps.
k'. k.
Biceps abductor
tibialis.
5.
Tibia.
6. X. X. g.
V.
n'.
Fleshy belly of the extensors.
Peroneus.
Rectus.
0'.
r.
Vastus externus.
Gastrocnemi internus.
u.
11.
uTu.
Gastrocnemi.
y. X. X. 8. X. u.
Extensor tendons.
Flexors perforans et perforatus.
(Off leg.)
DICTIONARY OF VETERINARY SCIENCE

CONTAINING
MANY PRACTICAL OBSERVATIONS,

OF MUCH IMPORTANCE TO
HUSBANDMEN AND HORSE OWNERS.

SELECTED FKOM VARIOUS SOURCES, WITH ADDITIONS.
(211)
A DICTIONARY OF VETERINARY SCIENCE.

is a barn. This cavity The foal may be weaned at six months if contains the intestines, or bowels, liver, it should die, or be taken from the dam, spleen, pancreas, kidneys, etc., and is sepa- humanity would suggest the propriety of a rated from the thorax, or chest, by the few weeks' rest, to enable the mother to re-
Abdomen.
That
part of
the animal turned into a pasture, where there
usually denominated the belly.
cover from the effects of parturition. Miscarriage, slipping, or slinking foal or Our attention was called, a Abortion. In mares, miscarriage is short time ago, to a mare, about eight years caff, IV arping. She very generally caused by over-exertion durold, said to be laboring under colic. had been driven very fast during the early ing the latter period of gestation. It is not part of the day and about noon, when we unfrequently brought about by accidents at saw her in the stable, she seemed to mani- grass, such as falling in a ditch or hole, and,
diaphragfti.
fest considerable uneasiness.
The
surface struggling violently to extricate themselves.
termittent.
in- Kicks on the belly are by no means an unwere considerably common cause of miscarriage for which swollen, and a slight discharge from the reason, a mare, when near her time, should vagina was observed. She had occasional be kept by herself: after foaling she will uterine pains, which, however, were very require a few weeks' rest, in order to recover from the effects of parturition and, feeble. "We immediately gave the following dif- when first brought into work again, the services required of her should be very fusible stimulant Exposure to wet and cold will ocslight. 1 drachm. Powdered grains of paradise, " bethroot (irillium pwpureum) casion miscarriage also, high feeding and i drachm.
of the body
was The
cold, pulse small
and
genitals
want of proper exercise. Abortion is of This was administered from a bottle. In more frequent occurrence in sheep than in a few minutes, the parturient process com- mares, and is caused by fright, overdriving, menced, and she shortly gave birth to a and being worried by dogs, and by being dead foetus. The mare was in her fifth kept in cold, damp situations, and on imShe was put on a gen- proper food. parturient month. Cows are particularly liable to the acerous diet, and rapidly convalesced without cident of warping, or slinking the calf. any after treatment. Great care and gentleness The common cause of abortion is improper Remarks. should be exercised toward mares diuring feeding. The filthy, stagnant water they Hard work in harness, over are often compelled to drink is likewise a pregnancy. bad roads, is likely to produce attortion serious cause, not only of abortion, but and mares that have once aborted are liable also of general derangement of the animal Light work functions. Dr. White states that " a farm to a recurrence of the same. and moderate exercise, however, are essen- in Gloucestershfre had been given up three
water,
1 quart.
Hot
tial to their
general health.
successive times in consequence of the loss
When
the
the period of foaling draws nigh, the owners sustained

cattle
:
by abortion
in their
mare should be separated from her comHaving foaled, she should be panions.
at length the fourth proprietor, after
suffering considerably in his live stock for

(213)
214
the
first five
A DICTIONARY.
years, suspected that the
water one of the principal causes of miscarriage." filthy, It is supposed that the sight of a slipped might be the cause of the mischief; he calf, the smell of putrid animal substance, Some curious therefore dug three wells upon his farm, and, is apt to produce warping. having fenced round the ponds to prevent cases of abortion which are worthy of notice his cattle fi-om drinking there, caused them happened in the dairy of a French farmer. to be supplied wdth the well-water in stone For thirty years his cows had been subject troughs erected for the purpose and from to abortion. His cow-house was large and his cows were in apparent this moment his live stock began to thrive, well ventilated and the quality of the butter and cheese health they were fed like others in the vilmade on his farm was greatly improved. lage they drank the same water there In order to show," says the same author, was nothing different in the pasture; he " that the accident of warping may arise had changed his servants many times in the
of his ponds, which
was extremely
firom
I will here notice a
a vitiated state of the digestive organs, course of thirty years he pulled down the few circumstances tend- barn or cow-house, and bmlt another, on a
;
;
ing to corroborate this opinion. In 1782, all different plan he even, agreeably to superthe cows in possession of farmer D'Euruse, stition, took away the aborted calf through
window, that the curse of future abormight not be entailed on the cow that The accident was attributed passed over the same threshold. To make fifth month. to the excessive heat of the preceding sum- aU sure, he had broken through the waU at mer; but, as the water they were in the the end of the cow-house, and opened a new But still the trouble continued. habit of drinking was extremely bad, and door. they had been kept upon oat, wheat, and Several of his cows had died in the act of and rye straw, it appears to me more prob- abortion, and he had replaced them by others: able that the great quantity of straw they many had been sold, and their vacancies were obliged to eat, in order to obtain suf- filled up. He was advised to make a thorThis had never occurred to ficient nourishment, and the injury sustained ough change. by the third stomach, in expressing the fluid him but at once he saw the propriety of He sold every beast, and the parts of the masticated or ruminated mass, the counsel. together with the large quantity of water pest was stayed, and never appeared in his they drank, while kept on this dry food, was new stock. This was owing, probably, to sympathetic influence and the result of the real cause of their miscarrymg.
in
Picardy,
miscarried.
The
period
at the
which they warped was about the fourth
or tion
"
farmer at Chareton, out of a dairy such influence

slip their
is
as fatal as the direct con-
of twenty-eight cows, had sixteen

calves
at different periods
tagion."
(See Youatt.)
abortion
of
gestation.
The usual symptoms preceding
The siunmer had been very dry, and, during

pastured in a
are a sudden filling of the udder,
and a
the whole of this season, they had been loose, flabby, and sometimes swollen applace, which was pearance of the genitals, which discharge a Here the cows were little red-colored fluid. The lancet and generally up to their knees in mud and medicine have been resorted to with very In 1789, all the cows in a village little success. Both of them are decidedly inwater. near Mantes miscarried. All the land in jurious the animal should be put into some this place was so stiff as to hold water for dry, sheltered place, by herself, and kept on some time and, as a vast quantity of boiled mashes and gruel for a few days. rain fell that year, the pastures were for a Medicines which are givAbsorbents. long time completely inundated, on which en in view of absorbing gas or neutralizing account the grass became bad this shows acidity in the digestive cavity. that keeping cows on food that is deficient Absorbent Vessels. (See Lacteals, in nutrition, and difficult of digestion, is part first.)
muddy
flooded by the Seine.
; ;
A DICTIONARY.
Absinthium.
for the
215
administered to the horse, they
Common wormwood, used
fore,
when
purpose of reducing swellings that should be diluted with water. have resulted from violence. Two ounces Aconita. Wolfsbane.
of
wormwood
are steeped in one quart of sedative

;
New England rum if a limb of the animal is involved, the wormwood is then bound on with bandages, and the parts
occasionally wetted with the fluid.
Acacia.
Gum
arable,
used as a demulit is
A powerful moderates the action of the heart, and produces depression of the vital energies. It is generally used in the form of tincture. Dose, from ten to fifteen drops. Action. The gait of a horse which depends on his powers and the mode of
;
it
cent and lubricant.

ful to sheathe the
In poisoning,
use- training.
Action of Medicines.* Every mediis endowed with certain inherent charfrom the action of drastic purges. acteristic actions, which distinguish it as Acacia Catechu. Gum catechu. This decidedly as its physical and chemical prois a powerful astringent Thus, some medicines act on the it is obtained from perties.
membranes of the stomach and alimentary canal, and wiU defend them
cine
a tree that grows in Japan.
Acetabulum. The socket in which the head of the thigh bone is lodged. AcETATED Liquor of Ammonia. This has been long known by the popular term of Mindererus' spirit, and is made by pouring any quantity of acetic acid, diluted with seven times its amount of water, upon carbonate of ammonia, until all fermentation ceases, or until a neutral solution has been
bowels, causing purgation
others on the
kidneys, stimulating the secretion of urine
and others on the brain and nervous

tem, causing insensibility
is
;
sys-
in
fact,
there
no part or organ of the body, except the

is
spleen and pancreas, which

enced,
not influ-
and that often in several different ways, by some medicinal agent. It is impossible, however, to explain
why
a medi-
cine should act in one
way
rather than in
formed.
It is
useful in horse practice

is
it
gently invigorates,
diaphoretic,
and someIt princi-
tive,
times
pally
it
proves mUdly diuretic.

its
why, for example, aloes is purgaand not diiuretic, narcotic, or anaesthetic or why chloroform is anaesthetic, and not
another
;
shows
salutary effects in the
com-
vesicant, diuretic, or purgative.
The
stu-
mencement
of the febrile stage, or at the dent In the
must
therefore endeavor to conceive of
close of lingering febrile diseases, particular- these actions, or

ly of influenza.
dynamical
effects of
medi-
more
early stages of cines, in the

:
same manner
as he does of
color, odor,
epidemic catarrh,
the dose
is
their more familiar properties of it may also be exhibited from four ounces to an almost taste, or density.
unlimited quantity.
The author used
this
Some
medicines, as demulcents, caustics,
preparation with remarkable success in the and astringents, have merely a local or topi-
treatment of influenza, winch prevailed, in cal action

Massachusetts, in the
fall
soothing,
irritating, corroding,
and winter of or altering the animal tissues, but not ex1855. The dose for horses and cattle is tending their influence beyond the part to from three to four fluid ounces. It is gen- which they are first applied. Others, either erally given diluted with an equal quan- with or without such a local effect, have a remote or indirect action on organs at a tity of water. Acids. Are distinguished by their sour distance from the part with which they are taste they readily combine with alkalies, first brought in contact. Medicines which producing eflervescence. Those commonly act thus remotely or indirectly are thought used in veterinary practice are sulphuric, to produce their effects in either or both of nitric, hydrochloric, and acetic. They are all the two following ways: (a) They are more or less corrosive, and decompose the absorbed into the circulation, and carried vital tissues, by uniting with their serous, by the blood to remote organs or (b), The albuminous, and saline constituents. There-
* Finlay Duu.
216
A DICTIONARY.
impression, which they produce on the parts the nervous impression
with which they are

is
is produced, not brought in contact, upon the part with which the medicine is transmitted along the nerves to other first brought in contact, but on the interior
first
parts.
The The
latter
mode
of
operation
is
of the blood-vessels after partial absorption.
sometimes called action by sympathy.

(a.)
Part of the evidence in support of these

is
great majority of medicines ap- hypotheses
derived from the fact that
pear to act in the former of these two ways, some poisons operate with such extreme
the surface of the
being taken up by the blood-vessels from mucous membranes, skin, or other part to which they have been applied. Thus, most medicines given by the mouth, after having, if solid, undergone
bile, pass,
rapidity as to render
it
doubtful whether
there could be time for their being absorbed
and making the round of the circulation. Thus: anhydrous prussic acid, conia the alkaloid of hemlock, and aconita the alkaaconite,
solution in the acid gastric juice or alkaline loid of
when
injected
into
the
by a process of endosmose, into veins, applied to the cellular tissue, or given the capillary veins which ramify on tlie sur- by the mouth, produce almost instantaneous face of the stomach and intestines, enter effects, and death in a few seconds. It apthe general circulation by the mesenteric pears, however, that the strongest evidence and portal vessels, and are thus carried to in favor of the theories under consideration aU parts of the body, altering, it may be, consists in the effects of local injuries in the nutritive processes of various organs producuig constitiational disturbance. For and tissues, and at length expelled through example, a blow on the region of the some of the excretory channels, as the skin, stomach sometimes causes fatal swooning kidneys, or bowels. The rapidity with distention of the stomach often produces which most substances are thus absorbed, hiccough the presence of worms in the and make the round of the circulation, is intestines sometimes induces epilepsy and almost incredible. Professor Hering, of the a local injury frequently causes fever and Veterinary College, Stuttgardt, found that constitutional disturbance of all the more
; ;
yellow prussiate of potash injected into one important organs of the body. In such of the jugular veins of a horse appeared in cases the connection between cause and
the other in twenty-five seconds, and
was effect obviously depends on the transmisexhaled from the mucous and serous mem- sion of nervous impressions only. And if branes in a few minutes and also that topical causes are thus productive of remote
;
chloride of
barium injected into the jugular
effects, it is siurely fair to infer
that medi-
vein of a dog reached the carotid artery in cines and poisons

Dr. Blake observed that barium and nitrate of baryies traversed the whole circulation of a dog in nine seconds, and that of a horse in twenty seconds; and a similar rapidity of distribution doubtless obtains with substances which cannot easily be detected in the blood.
may
operate in a similar
seven seconds.
manner.
In fine, although it would appear that most medicines are absorbed and actually conveyed to the parts on which they act, and that such absorption and actual contact are essential to their action, yet
higlily
it is
chloride of
probable (though not yet positively

that
(b.)
The
other hypothesis, regarding the ascertained)

is
some substances,
espe-
action of medicines,
that they
owe
the cially the
more
active poisons, astringents,
development of
tion of
part to
their effects to the produc- and emetics, owe their effects to the prosome nervous impression on the duction of a nervous impression, and its which they are first appKed, and its propagation to remote organs. Nor is it at
subsequent transmission to remote organs all improbable that, under different modifyby means of the nervous system. A recent ing influences, certain substances will opermodification of this theory, advanced by ate sometimes in one and sometimes in Messrs. Morgan and Addison, assumes that the other of these two ways.
A DICTIONARY.
217
is
it
Actual Cautery.
Firing.)
Red-hot
iron.
(See tention
renders
urgent, or the
want
of assistance
Acute. A term applied to those diseases which are sudden in their attack and violence, accompanied with great pain. Acute Indigestion in Cattle, called When cattle have beHove, or Blown. come fatigued by driving or by long fasting, and suddenly find themselves with plenty
imperative to evacuate the gas

to
immediately,
prevent
suffocation
a
it,
puncture which,
is
therefore at once
made
into
among
graziers, is called paimching.

is
When
knife
;
nothing better
the
at hand, this
may
be performed with a lancet, or even a pen-
wound made being
kept open by
the introduction of a piece of hollow elder
of food before them, particularly such as or

requires
little
common wood;
the place of puncture

or haunch-
mastication, as chaff, bran, being

;
midway between the ileum

rib,
grains, etc., etc.
and
also
at
all
times bone and the last

left side,
a span below the

first
when
they meet with food they have long transverse processes of the lumbar vertebrse
of,
been deprived
greedily,
as various artificial grasses, on the
to
which the
stomach
particularly red clover, they are apt to eat or
paunch
inclines.
cattle
trocar will,
and omit to stop for the purposes however, permit the gas to escape with cerby which means the rumen tainty and speed, and should always be or paunch becomes so distended as to be used to make the punctm'e, in preference to As soon as the air incapable of expelling its contents. From any other instrument. this, fermentation begins to take place, and is perfectly evacuated, and the paunch is a large quantity of gas escapes, which in- observed to resume its office, the trocar creases the distention, until the stomach, may be removed the wound being careby its pressure on the diaphragm, suffocates fully closed by a pitch plaster, or other adof rumination
;
;
the animal.
hesive matter.
It is
necessary to observe,
so simple
The symptoms are uneasiness and distress,

;
that this operation
is
and
safe,
with quickened respiration sometimes there that, whenever a medical assistant cannot When it is be obtained, no person should hesitate a is a degree of phrensy present. The dooccasioned by green food, the evolution of moment about doing it himself.
gas
is
enormous, and the tympanitis gives mestic remedies
for lessening the distention,
a drum-like distention to the belly; but by condensing the gas, have been various
when
dry food, as chaff, bran, etc., etc., has as oil of turpentine, and particularly ambeen taken, the impacted matter does not monia, a strong solution of which in water The alkalies distend so quickly, and the symptoms are has been found serviceable. less acute they resemble those of constipa- generally have long been used with variable and sounding the side gives back a success. Vinegar, in the Qiiarterhj Journal tion
; ;
response as though a solid matter were hit of Agriculture, is strongly recommended; against. It is thought to be more likely to but, as it is observed that the elastic fluids
occur in
other
;
weather than in any developed are not always alUie, so the effects it must arise resulting from the most reputed agents have from the state of the vegetable matter and too often failed. Mr. Youatt recommends the surrounding warmth both being favor- the introduction of chlorinated lime, given in doses of from 3ij to 3iv suspended in able to fermentation.
and,
if
warm and wet
such be the case,
The
treatment
^vill
consist in attempting water.
to lessen the distention
by evacuating the dis-
But
it is
to a foreign veterinarian
we
are
tending gas, or otherwise trying to neutralize indebted for the best agent for neutralizing Purgatives have little or no effect. The the gases given off when the rumen is disit.
evacuation of the gases
is
effected
is
by the tended.
M. Charlet has recommended
the
introduction of a probang, which
down
or it is the esophagus about by puncturing the side, when the

;
passed chloride of potash, which substance has a brought great affinity for the compounds of hydrodis-
gen that usually form the major portion of
; ;
218
those which exist in the
A DICTIONARY.
stomach.
This and are in
substance
is
to be
given in doses of an teeth.
like manner replaced by horse's Between the fourth and fifth year,
ounce to a horse, half an ounce to a cow, and three drachms to a sheep. Occasionally, however, irom the contents of the stomach being in a state of fermentation, no gas wiU escape, upon the probang or The chloride of trochar being introduced. potash is then to be poured down the probang or trochar, which ever may be used and this substance must not be mixed with either mucilage or aromatic bitters, but sixlphuric ether and cold water may be joined to it without injuring its effects. .i3Ether Nitrosus. Sweet spirit of
the corner teeth are changed; the
tushes
fifth
make
their appearance.
About
the
year, the horse is said to have a full mouth.
After this period,
up
to the eighth year, the
age of a horse can, with some degree of certainty, be known by the cavities in the teeth, which at first are deep, but are gradually,
nitre.
Sweet
spirit
of nitre
is
by the process of mastication, worn down, and about the eighth year disappear. After the fifth year, the above criterion of age may be corroborated by the grooves in the tushes of the male, which are inside they are two in number. At six, one of stimulant, these cavities, viz., the one next the grinder,
; ;
anti-spasmodic, diuretic,
The dose is from one
to
and diaphoretic. disappears at seven, the other is considertwo ounces, diluted ably diminished and at eight is almost,
but not always, entirely gone.
After this
with water. Age. The age of a horse
may be known
period, the tushes
become more blunt and
by marks
the under jaw, until he
and tusks of round. The marks in the upper teeth are about eight years by some considered indicative of the horse's old, after which period it is a matter of age those in the two front teeth disappearguess-work yet those who are expert can ing at eight, in the two next at ten, and in tell very near the exact age. There are the corner teeth at twelve. The marks in many circumstances which tend to show the lower teeth will disappear about the whether a horse be old or not. The num- eighth year. ber of a horse's teeth is forty, twenty-four As a horse, grows old, he generally turns
in the front teeth
is
;
;
grinders,
and sixteen
age
others,
by some of
more
or less gray
the cavities above the

;
which
period.
his
may be known up
to a certain eyes
become deeper
the under lip
falls
Mares have only thirty-six teeth, the gums shrink away from the teeth, giving as in them the tushes are usually wanting. them the appearance of a greater length A few days after birth, the colt puts forth the back becomes hoUow, or curved. two small front teeth in the upper and unAge of Neat Cattle is known by their der jaws, and soon after two more these horns. At the age of about two years, are called nippers. The next four shortly they shed their first fore teeth, which are reafterwards make theii- appearance. The placed by others, larger and more prominent four corner teeth as they are termed about five, the early teeth are all replaced come a few months after the last named. by the permanent ones. As the animal adThese twelve teeth, in the front of the vances in years, these teeth wear down, the mouth, are small and white, and continue enamel disappears, and they assume a black without much alteration until the colt is or brown appearance. When three years about two years and a half old, when he old, a change takes place in the structure begins to shed them. The two teeth that of the horns after which period these apfirst make their appearance are the first that pendages, lilce the permanent teeth, preserve are lost, and are replaced by two others, the same character. After the third year, called horse's teeth, considerably stronger the horns continue to grow as long as the and larger than those that have made way animal lives, and the age is indicated by for them. Between the third and fourth the rings, or prominences, which are easily year, the two teeth next the first fall out. distinguished on the horn, and by which the
:
A DICTIONARY.
219
tained,
Alum. A mineral astringent, used to age of the creature may be nearly ascer" Alum is a powerful by adding three years to the number destroy proud flesh. astringent, whether administered internally of rings.
Airing, in the
management
of horses, or applied externally.

air.
It
may
be given to
implies exercising tliem in the open
to 3iv, and That part of the white of an its employment has been attended with Albumen. egg which coagulates into a solid mass some benefit in obstinate cases of diabetes, when boiled it abounds in the bones, also in diarrhoea, the primee viaj having been previously emptied by means of laxmuscles, cartilage, hoof, hair, etc. Tliis is ex- atives. Rectified spirit. It has lilvewise been found useful Alcohol. For either of tensively used in medicine for maldng tinc- in dysentery and lead colic.
the horse in doses of from
3ij
With an equal quantity of water it these diseases it may be advantageously termed New England rum. Alcohol is a conjoined with opium and aromatics." powerful irritant and caustic poison, to (Morton's Pharmacy.) whatever part of the horse it is applied. If Amaurosis, or Gutta Serena.* This applied externally, it causes swelling, pain, disease, known by the term glass eyes, and imtation if given internally, it absorbs from the pecuHar glassy appearance the from the living parts the serous or watery organs assume, is generally considered portion, and condenses the fibrous struc- as dependent on a paralytic state of the ture. Alcohol, diluted in any form, acts on optic nerves, or of their expansions, the the horse as a diuretic, causing the kidneys retinsB. By others, it is, however, thought
tures.
is
to secrete a large
amount of urine, in con- to arise from the effects of inflammation, sequence of which they become overworked, by which coagulable lymph is placed over and finally diseased. It is used as a diffu- the optic nei-ve, rendering the retina inacsible
stimulant.
The
best
substitute
is
cessible to the stimulus of light
this
can
warm
ginger tea.
which nourishes the the usual, cause. The disease, however, is liliely to arise from any imtation of the The interior of brain thus, it is found to follow staggers Alimentary Canal. the stomach and intestines! and the loss of large quantities of blood There are different sorts: which last-mentioned cause especially afAlkalies. soda, potash, and ammonia, are alkalies. fects the nervous system. The veterinarian Obtained from the aloe plant. should make himself familiar with the apAloes.
Aliment.
system.
That
hardly be an occasional, and
is
certainly not
The
aloes
now
in use as a cathartic for pearances of this complaint, otherwise he
horses, cattle,
and sheep, are the Barbadoes. may lie open to serious imposition. In Pure Barbadoes aloes are of a dark brown amaurosis, a horse presents indications of color, present a rough appearance when blindness in his manner, though but little in broken, and have a rather pleasant aroma. his eyes ; he seems cautious in stepping (See Purgatives.) his ears lifts his legs high, and moves Alteratives. A class of medicines quickly, as though endeavoring to make up that act gradually and permanently upon by sound the intelligence lost by the deprithe horse, by increasing the tone and vigor vation of sight but, above all, a hand of the secreting, excreting, and absorbing moved close to tlie eye occasions no winksystem, without diminishing or destroying ing, unless held near enough for the motion their power. to influence the air around, which an artful This plant person might manage with ease. When Marsh mallows. Althea. is generally used in the formation of emol- this Idnd of eye is examined closely, the lient drinks, as it contains a large amount pupil will be found of one invariable size
of mucilage.
220
A DICTIONARY.
it
and unvarying hue
will not enlarge
and
re-
diminish as in a healthy horse,
when
moved
farther from, or nearer to, the light
usuaUy observed in the spring and autumn. There is, however, some general atony of the whole system, and the oedema
is
for the retina, ceasing to be influenced
the luminous ray, no longer controls the
by disappears as the constitution establishes itself. At other times anasarca and cedema movements of the ms. It is, therefore, from appear as accompaniments or sequelaB to the peculiarities in the manner of the horse, acute diseases that have disturbed the functhe invariable size of the pupil, and a green- tions generally, in the which case the or to the ish glassy cast in such eyes, that these cases absorbents become irritated may be distinguished. As it has hitherto oedema is added tumefied lymphatics. Anjisthetics. Agents which produce proved incm'able, we shall waste no time on insensibility to external impressions and to its treatment. This is a volatile alkali is pain. The author uses, for inhalation, tliree Ammonia. rapidly absorbed by water and, by imion parts of sulphuric ether to one of chloroform. with acids, forms several salts. The com- In allusion to the use of anaesthetics, pounds of ammonia employed medicinally Mr. Morton wiites " Anaesthetics are less are: hydrochlorate of ammonia, sesqui-car- used in surgical and other painful operations bonate, and solution of the aceiate of in the lower animals than in man, on account ammonia. The aromatic spirit of anuuonia of the larger quantities required, the diflHis a valuable stimulant and anti-spasmodic culty of administration, and the undue proFor the preparation of longation of the preliminary stage of in colic or hoven. They have been used in parthe latter, ]\Ir. Morton gives the following excitement. turition, and afford, as in the human subject, formula Take of spirit of ammonia, 8 fluid ounces volatile immunity from pain, but without apparent oil of lemons, 1 fluid drachm volatile oil of rosemary, interference with the force or irequency of
;
14
fluid
drachm.
Dissolve
the
oil in
the spirit by
the involuntary contractions of the uterus.
They have further been used for relieving form of di'opsy that the irritability and pain of such diseases as affects the whole, or nearly the whole sysperitonitis, pleurisy, and pneumonia for tem, or, in other words, an effusion of serum removing the spasms of tetanus, coUc, and into the meshes of the cellular tissue. ^ asthma and for alleviating, by local appliAnasarca, (Edema, and Water Farcy.* cation, the in-itability of severe wounds. need make no distinction between For aU such purposes then- use might,
Anasarca. That
; ;
agitation.
We
\\dth
these terms, particularly the
two
first.
generally accepted, csdema carries

rather a
As advantage, be much extended." probably Anastomosis. The communication
of
more local definition with it thus, blood-vessels with each other, or their openwe say an oedematous swelling but ana- ing one into the other, by which means, sarca is more frequently used to designate when the passage of blood thi'ough an an extensive dropsy of the cellular mem- artery or vein is prevented by ligature, combrane. Both, however, have the same pression, or any other cause, the cuculation origin, and are accompanied by the same is still kept up by means of the anastomsymptoms. It differs from ascites princi- osing vessels. pally in its external seat, which is someAnatomy. The science that teaches times partial and sometimes general. It the structure of the animal economy.
; :
also appears under different forms, as

different origins
;
it
has
Analysis. The resolution of compound
terminations are bodies into their original or constituent prinalso under the influence of these circumciples.
its
and
stances.
A debility of the
absorbent system
joint.
Anchylosis. The loss of motion in a There are two kinds, called com-
A DICTIONARY.
In the former, the and incomplete. grown together so as to be immovable in the latter, some motion remains, and the rigidity is owing to the contraction and thickening of the ligaments. Anchyplete joint has
;
221
general
of curing aneurism is around the artery the coats of the artery become united, and part
The
mode
by tying a
ligature
of the artery obliterated

carried
the circulation
is
on by anastomosing vessels. (See Some aneurisms have been losis in the horse is not unfrequently a con- Anastomosis.) sequence of wounds or bruises the latter, known to undergo certain natm-al changes, causing an absorption of the fluids that by which they have been spontaneously nom-ish the joint, anchylosis is the result. cured, thus proving that the vital power is In bad spavins and ringbones, there is fre- more efficient " than an evil system of medquently anchylosis of the hock and pastern ication." joints. The author's attention has lately Anise Seed. A mild carminative. It been called to a case of ringbone that had is much used in veterinary practice, and is been operated upon by some person totally one of the ingredients in cordial balls. Medicines that relieve pain, unacquainted with the nature of the disease. Anodynes. The operation was performed in the most procure sleep, and lessen the irritability of The operator the nervous system. cruel and barbarous manner. having never studied the anatomy of the
;
parts, it could not be otherwise
expected.
ANTACIDS.
ALKALIES.
an examination of the animal, ossific Anthelmintics. Medicines that are said or bony deposits were found inside the hind to destroy worms, and are supposed to cause legs, in the form of a spavin deposits also their expulsion from the animal. Many of existed on the canon bones, and on the the remedies recommended by some writers pasterns, thus proving that the disease was would be more likely to kill the horse, in;
On
incurable
the general health
the knees sprung, and the animal
nounced by the owner to specimen of inhumanity, the self-styled feeding, watering, etc., and give cathartics. " doctor," had the audacity to state that he Antimony. A mineral poison. It has could perform a cure for the trifling sum of been extensively used in veterinary practice. five dollars. The fact of his attempting to There are numerous preparations of anticure a constitutional disease by local means, mony, but they are all more or less objecunder such unfavorable circumstances, tionable. Large quantities of this mineral shows that he was an ignoramus and the have been used on horses yet, in some barbarous manner in which he performed cases, where there is vital power enough in the operation, shows that he was destitute the animal to dispossess it from the system, of every particle of humanity. The author no immediately unfavorable results were has digressed merely for the purpose of observed. Yet it is an agent of such diverwarning owners of domestic animals sified therapeutical powers, that the wisest
;
was impaired, stead of the former. The proper method was proof preventing the generation of worms in be worthless yet the afimentary canal, is to pay attention to
this
against trusting them, the hands of those
when
diseased, in of the faculty have never ventured to pre-
and fix limits to its action. (See ToxicoLOGiCAL Chart.) filled with blood, ]\'L-. Finlay Dun, of the Edinburgh college, communicating with an artery. It usuaUy has lately made a series of experiments occurs from rupture of one of the coats of with tartar emetic, on horses, and he speaks the artery, and dilitation of the cellular coat very highly of it as antiphlogistic. The is then denominated true anemism. dose for a horse is from one to four drachms, it When an artery is wounded, and the blood either in bolus or solution, repeated as ocescapes into the smTounding tissues, it is casion may require. called false aneurism. Antidotes. See Toxicological Chart.
are unacquainted scribe
who
with their mechanism. Aneurism. A tumor
222
Antiseptics.
A DICTIONARV.
Medicines
The
that
correct globe
and prevent
acid,
putridity.
best and most
it is composed of oxygen, nitrogen, and a small portion of carbonic acid gas.

;
efficient are charcoal,
Peruvian baik, acetic In stables that are not ventilated, the vapor
arising from the
and bayberry bark.

in spasmodic
Anti-spasmodics.
Medicines
that are with

dis-
employed
orders.
and convulsive
dung and urine combine and render it unfit for respiration. Atlas. The first vertebra, or bone of
it,
The most
efficient are assafoetida, the neck.
pennyroyal, or any of the mints.
The most
powerful in spasm, or lockjaw, are lobelia,
warmth and
seng,
moisture, castor, musk, gin- the heart.
and Indian hemp, or milk weed. Apoplexy. A lesion of some of the kind
A wasting of the body. The two small Backgalled. When accidents of

Atrophy.
Auricles.
;
cavities of
this
occur, the saddle or harness should be
vessels of the brain.
A term applied of the Aromatics. Medicines

Arm.
fore leg.
to the
padded, or chambered, so as to remove upper part pressure from the part sometimes they are
difficult to heal,
owing
to the presence of
that
have
a morbific matter in the system.
warm, pungent
of this kind are
taste,
and fragrant smell
Backraking.
This
is
name
given by
cardamom
flag, etc.
seeds, cloves, farriers to the operation of introducing the
and nutmegs, sweet

Arsenic.
It
A destructive mineral poison.

many
benefit.
"
hand
into the fundament,

its
and emptying the

of injec-
rectum of
contents.
The use
has been used, in

states,
diseases of the tions will, ere long, supersede this beastly

Dr. practice.
horse,
without the slightest
The most
suitable injection
to
White
So various
are its effects, soften the faeces is
that he has
known a
very small quantity to
Back Sinews.
The
warm
soapsuds.
flexor
tendons of
terminate fatally."
When blood is taken are frequently strained, or otherwise injured, Arteriotomy. from an artery, the process is called arteri- by over exertion or accidents. Bolus, or large pill. The mode Ball. otomy. The proper place for punctming the temporal artery, is at the precise spot of giving a ball is by di-awing out the where this vessel leaves thfe parotid gland tongue to the right side, and holding it in to curve upwards and forwards around the the left hand, while an assistant stands on The the left side and holds the mouth open. jaw, which is just below its condyle. operation should be performed with a lan- The ball is to be held by the finger and thumb of the right hand, drawn into as cet. Arterio- Phlebotomy is sometimes re- small a compass as possible, and passed as This must be sorted to for the abstracting blood from far as the horse's throat. the roof of the mouth and the toe of the done by a quick motion of the hand, which foot in such cases, however, a want of should be kept toward the roof of the knowledge, as regards the anatomy of the mouth, as there is more room for it in that
the fore and hind legs are so named.
They
parts,
Dropsy of the abdomen. originate Asthma. Supposed

Ascites.
to
may
occasion a serious hasmoiThage.
direction.
Balsam.
name apphed
to
several
tolu,
in the resinous substances, such as
balsam of
muscles of respiration.
ing, etc.)
(See Cough, Roar- Peruvian
Astringents. Medicines that contract and condense muscular fibre. The principal are kino, catechu, oak bark, nutgalls, and bayberry bark.
Atmosphere.
The
name
given to an
elastic invisible fluid
which surrounds the
balsam copaiba, etc., Canada or fir balsam the medicinal properties are stimulant and diuretic. Balsam Copaiba, or Capivi, is used for chronic cough the dose is about one ounce. A preparation Balsam of Sulphur. made liy boifing sulphur and olive oil together, until united in the form of a darkbalsam,
;
;
A DICTIONAET.
colored tenacious mass.
225
This has been
Bark.
This name
different
is
generally applied
much esteemed by
coughs.
old farriers in obstinate to
several
species
of
Peruvian
active
When mixed with

it
a small propor- bark, the yellow and the red.

is
The
tion of oil of anise-seed,
has been thought principle of the yellow bark
more
efficacious,
and
is
then
named
anis- principle,
an alkaloid called quinse, combined with a

;
ated balsam of sulphur.
Bandage.
Strips
three
peculiar acid, called kinic, or cinchonic, in

cotton,
of linen,
or the state of an acid salt
besides these,
it
flannel, abovit
or four inches wide. contains

ter,
They
are serviceable in habitual swellings
and a yellow coloring mattannin, kinate of Ume, and woody fibre.

an
oily
of the legs, or weakness of the fetlock joint. Then- value in ti'eating diseases of the horse
They
are likewise used for the purpose of

di-essings, or assisting in uniting
;
consists in their tonic

erties.
and astringent propone ounce of powIt
keeping on
It
should be given to the horse in

;
parts that are cut or lacerated
they assist the form of infusion

or
by pressure
compresses
orrhage. to the leg
in
expelling matter,
pre- dered bark to a quart of boiling water.

is
venting the descent of ruptures, and as

for resti'aining
also useful to restore indolent ulcers to
bleeding or hem- healthy state.
The
best tonic for a horse is
The mode
is
of applying the bandage hydrastis Canadensis (golden seal).

:
the material, after Bar Shoe. A particular land of shoe, being cut the proper width, must be rolled which is sometimes used to protect the frog up, and the bandage fixed by taking two or from injury; also in corns. (See Foot, part three turns in the same place after which, Bars of the Foot.
as follows
;
the roUer
may
be carried round
spirally,
first.)
taking care that every turn of the bandage

one.
Bars of the Mouth. Transverse ridges

mouth
in
;
overlaps about two-thirds of the preceding on the roof of the
they are most
When
the
inequality
it
of the
parts conspicuous,
re-
or fuU,
young
horse.
cause the margin to slack,

versed, or folded over;
must be
When
horse
is
swollen, or fuller than said to have the lampas.
usual, the
that is, its upper margin must become the lower, etc. A bandage should be moderately tight, so as to support the parts without intercepting the circulation, and should be so applied as In bandto press equally on every part. aging a horse's leg, the roller should be applied from the upper part of the hoof to the knee in every case it is advisable to bandage from joint to joint, thus leaving When it is found the joint at liberty. necessary to bandage a joint, the bandage should be put on in the form of a figure 8. Barb. A general name for horses imThe barb, one of ported from Barbary. the most celebrated of the African races, is to be met with izi Barbary, Tripoli, and Morocco he seldom exceeds more than fourteen hands and a half in height. The barb requires more excitement to call out his powers than the Arabian but, when sufficiently excited, his qualities of speed and endurance render him a powerful antagonist
;
Basilicon.
A digestive ointment, com-
posed of equal parts of olive oil, yellow beeswax, and common resin (or rosin). These are to be melted over a slow fire, and stirred until the mixture is quite cool.
Bay.
leaves.
bay
its
color,
in
horses,
is
so
named from
Biceps.
resemblance to dried bay

is
muscle, which serves to bend a limb.
Bile, or
secreted
The biceps Gall. A
a double-headed
greenish
fluid,
bitter,
by the
liver for the
purpose of asis
;
sisting digestion.
In the horse there
no
it
gall bladder, or receptacle for the bile
passes directly into the duodenum, or
first
part of the small intestines, a few inches
from the stomach.

Bilious.
Diseases
are
called
bilious
when they depend on a morbid

liver.
state of the
Bits.
in use
curb.
;
There
snaffle
are various kinds of bits

are the snaflle
among them
and
to the Ai'abian.
may
be either plain, or
224
twisted, but the latter
is
A DICTIONARY.
apt to
make
the bandages, and the poultice renewed every
mouth
callous
it
consists of
two
pieces, six hours, until all signs of poisoning disap-
having a sort of hinge joint in the centre. pear. The animal should be kept on scalded When used for the purpose of breaking shorts, in moderate quantities. Bladder. The bladder is a musculoyoung colts, it should be made large, so as The form of the membranous bag, situated, when empty, in not to hurt the mouth. Its use is to concurb bit resembles somewhat the letter H. the cavity of the pelvis. The bridle is fastened to the side pieces, tain the urine, which flows into it through which act as levers of different powers, ac- the ureters, from the kidneys. It is divided cording to the distance from the cross-bar, into three jiarts, viz., the fundus or bottom,
to
which the
bridle is attached.
The
hu- the body, and the neck.
When
;
full,
the
mane man
severity
will
never
inflict
unnecessary fundus of the bladder protrudes out of the
on the horse, and will avoid contin- pelvis, into the abdominal cavity it then on the reins or bridle, which, receives a covering from the peritoneum. aside irom the torture they inflict, tend to Its other coats are an internal mucous memThe best brane, and an external muscular coat, formed render the horse's mouth callous. form of bit, and the most simple, is the stiff, of two distinct sets of fibres the one lonarched bit. The author has seen a very fine gitudinal, and the other circular. The specimen of this article, manufactm-ed by former are thickest about the fundus, the Messrs. Hannaford & Usley, of this city. latter about the neck or cervix, which, by The centre piece is large and cru"ved the this arrangement, is always kept closed, checks are movable, and their upper ends except during the time of voiding the urine. curved outwards, which prevents their injur- On opening horses that have died from ing the cheek bones. It is very important accident, we sometimes find the bladder that a horse should be properly bitted; empty, and its muscular fibres so condensed many docile horses are rendered stubborn that it appears like a solid mass of small and unmanageable, by having a bit that is dimensions such is the contractile power too narrow. Many young horses are injured of its muscular coat, by which, with some while they are teething, and the mouth is assistance from the abdominal muscles and tender, by bearing too hard on the rein. diaphragm, the urine is expelled. The The author would suggest a trial of an author has opened several horses that have Lrdia rubber centre piece, in such cases. died from lockjaw, and found the bladder Bite of any Rabid Animal. In most distended to its utmost capacity, containing works on veterinary science, the writers re- about a gallon and a half of dark-colored commend excision, or cutting out the bitten fluid, resembling coffee-grounds. In one part, and afterwards cauterizing with the case, the muscular fibres about the neck firing iron but this method is very unsatis- of the bladder were lacerated by the overfactory, and only puts the animal to unne- distention and spasm of the ^neck of that cessary torment. The morbid matter from organ. When horses are accustomed to a rabid animal is generally taken up by the di-ink too much water, without being alabsorbents, sometimes in a few seconds, lowed to stale often enough at work, the and the operation of cauterizing would then bladder becomes over-distended, and often be of no avail. The treatment we recom- paralysis, weakness, or local debility sets mend is, to dose the animal with a tea of in, and the neck of the bladder becomes at lobelia half a pound of the herb and seed length so relaxed as to be unable to offer may be steeped in two quarts of scalding sufficient resistance to the muscles that prowater, and given in doses of half a pint, at pel the urine into the urethra, so that it is intervals of an hour. A large poultice of constantly diibbling off as fast as it is the same should be bound on the bitten secreted. Tiiis is termed incontinence of part, and kept in contact with the parts by luine.
ual
sti-ain
;
A DICTIONARY.
225
;
Sometimes the
ill
irritability
of the bladder, sixth day she died " thus proving that the
the latter case, depends on the acrimony

;
remedy was worse than the
disease.
of the urine
and, whenever this

feeding,
is
the case,
etc.,
attention to
watering,
animals are blasted in a moderate will degree, the carminative drink, and decoction
In
all
When
remove
it.
Diseases of the kidneys and of lobelia, will prove effectual.

it
cases
bladder are accompanied with tenderness of hove,

over the loins, and a remarkable stiffness of tions of
the hind
legs.
will be advisable to give injec-
warm
salt,
Whenever
the bladder
is
ful
of
distended with m-ine, recourse should be charcoal. had to the catheter. blast, it
Palsy, or paralysis,
water, to which add a handand the same quantity of As a means of preventing the
may
be remarked, that animals
of the bladder,
is
should never be turned into any nutritive
sometimes dependent on functional de- pasture while the rangements, as stomach staggers, or injuries after rain.
to the brain
dew
is
on the ground,
or
and spinal marrow.
Blasting.
first
When
Bleeding.
The practice of abstracting
cattle
or sheep are blood has received the seal of antiquity, yet
turned into luxuriant pasture, after bethat is no argument in favor of its usefuling poorly fed, they frequently gorge them- ness and, in view of improving in the selves with food, which, fermenting in the future, the author here introduces an article
;
rumen, or paunch, so distends it with gas on the subject, by Professor Buchanan " that the animal is often in danger of suffoaffirm that bleeding is a barbarous cation. The symptoms are most disti-essing; and unscientific remedy, and deny that it is and, unless relief be speedily afforded, death ever necessary. In this matter we take our
:
We
very
commonly
ensues.
If the
symptoms stand upon
the facts recognized
by
the high-
are very alarming, a flexible tube
may
be est authorities in medical

refer
literature.
We
Ma-
passed
rary
down
the gullet
this will generally
to the
allow the gas to escape, and afford tempo- searches in

relief,
;
most recent and accurate rechemistry and pathology to the

;
until
more
efficient
means
are experimental investigations of Andral,
resorted to
these will consist in arousing gendie,
the stomach and digestive organs to action,
by stimulants and carminatives, and counteracting the tendency to putrescence by

doses of charcoal or lobelia.
titioners
Some
prac-
recommend puncturing
;
the rumen,
or
paunch
but there
it,
is
always great danit
ger attending
palliative,
and, at best,
is
only
Simon, and many others, which have settled, beyond all doubt, and placed among the permanent facts of medical science, to be received by all medical schools of whatever therapeutic faith, the phenomena of the blood, when its composition has been affected by hemorrhage, by bleeding, and by various other agencies.
Louis,
" It is indisputably established that bleed-
and the process of fermentation

;
will proceed
the gas
"
may
escape, but the ing produces a special change in the

stiU
com-
materials
that furnished
:
it
remain. position of the blood.

it
The change which
Youatt
bor,
states
A cow had
to
eaten a large
quantity of food, and

deal about cattle,
was hoven.
A neighgreat
who was supposed

;
know a
made an
incision into the
paunch
the gas escaped, a great portion
was removed with the hand, and the animal appeared to be considerably relieved, but rumination did not return on duces the red or globulous portion of the the following day the animal was dull she blood, because it removes or destroys a refused her food, but was eager to drink. certain amount of the red globules, and the Slie became worse and worse, and on the loss wluch it produces is readily supplied by
of the food
:
produces is not a removal of any effete or morbid materials, not a removal of any element which tends to create or aggravate disease, but a removal of the most necessary and healthy portion, upon the presence of which we depend for the maintenance of health and vigor. Bleeding inevitably re-
29
226
A DICTIONARY.
absorption of water and of comparatively he destroys with unnatural violence a large
crude materials, while the highly-organized portion of the vital blood itself, which is as globules are regenerated with great slow- necessary to the body as its solid tissues, he
ness and difficulty.
" It is a well-established fact, that the red
acts with as
savage,
much scientific precision as the who would treat a case of convul-
globules of the blood are essential to
and that
criterion
life, sions, not by removing its causes, but by abundance or scarcity is a cutting out a portion of the convulsed of the vital force and activity of muscles."
their
the constitution.
As
the proportion of the

the
It
red globules
increases,
general vital vince
wiU be very difficult, however, to consome of the " older heads" and the
dis;
power
rises,
and the
activity or energy of all

;
world in general, that bleeding can be

therefore the veterinarian
the organs increases
while a diminution of pensed with

just
their ratio enfeebles or disorders the various be prepared to please his
must employer, and do
and predisposes to nervous and and to the whole range of adynamic and cachectic diseases.
organs,
as his superiors have done,
or
else
tuberculous disorders,
If the ratio is
" loose caste "
Blemishes.
ters, splents,
They
and
practice.
consist of
broken
diminished as
is
much
as one- knees, loss of hair, cracked heels, false quarwindgalls, spavins, etc.
seventh, general debility
the consequence,
predisposing to disease and diminishing the
power of recovery
if
as
much
Blind, Moon. A disease of the horse's as one-fourth eyes, which is supposed to be the forerunner
or more, this reduction of vital
power
is
of cataract, and often ends in total blindness.
incompatible with health, and inevitably

results in
Blister Fly.
fly.
Cantharides,
or Spanish
some form of
not,
disorder.
The
object in applying a blister is to
and to combat deepmeasure seated inflammations. Bloodroot. Sanguinaria Canadensis, which, even in the most vigorous health, tends directly, with rigorous precision, to used to prevent the gi'owth of fungus, or destroy the vital powers and bring on proud flesh a substitute for caustic. Enlarged bursae. disease ? Yet this measure has been, and Blood Spavin. still is, sustained by many medical men, BoTS. Short reddish worms, which are although clinical experience, as well as often found attached to the horse's stomach.
" Is
it
then, exquisitely absurd to promote absortions in disease, a
adopt, as a
remedy
chemical science, has shown

effects,
its
injurious
Mi\ Clark says " that bots are not, properly
and thousands in America and speaking, worms, but the larvae of the gadEurope have been, and are now, demon- fly, which deposits its eggs on the horse's strating that all forms of disease may be coat in such a manner as that they shall be better treated without bloodletting than received into his stomach, and then become with it. bots. When the female fly has become im" We affirm that, in disease, the patho- pregnated, and the eggs are sufficiently magenetic elements of the blood should be tured, she seeks
among
the horses a subject
removed, instead of
pmpose, and, approaching it on the sary constituents. Natm'e has provided for wing, she holds her body nearly upright in the removal of all noxious materials, by the air, and her tail, which is lengthened for numerous appropriate outlets, which dis- the pm'pose, carried inwards and upwards. charge every thingthat is injurious to human In this way she approaches the part where health. It is the duty of the physician to she designs to deposit the eggs and, susaid nature by such medicines and means as pending herself for a few seconds before it, will rouse the secretions and excretions, and suddenly darts upon it, and leaves the egg thus insure the restoration of the blood to a adhering to the hair by means of a glutiperfectly healthy condition. When, for nous liquor secreted with it. She then want of knowledge how to accomplish this. leaves the horse at a small distance, and preits
healthful
and neces-
for her
A DICTIONARY.
pares the second egg
;
227
fol-
and, poising herself

it
of treating a horse for bots, can use the

:
same way lowing the liquor dries, and the egg becomes firmly Powdered " glued to the hair. This is repeated by vabefore the part, deposits
in the
;
poplar bark,
...
.
.
4 ounces.
2 ounces.
rious
flies, till
four or five hundred eggs are
" " " "
mandrake balmony (snakehead),

wormseed,
golden
seal,
.
4 ounces.
.
sometimes deposited on one horse. They are usually deposited on the legs, side, and those parts most exback of the shoulder, posed to be liclced by the animal in licking, the eggs adhere to the tongue, and are carried into the horse's stomach in the act The bots attach themof swallowing. selves to the horse's stomach, and are sometimes, though less frequently, found in the
....
.
. . .
.
2 oimces.
1
ounce.
slippery elm,
4 ounces.
Mix.
Di^^de into sixteen powders, and give one, night

in the food.
and morning,
Regimen. The animal should be kept on a generous diet green food or succulent and agreeable vegetables will effect a change and assist to detach the bots. If, however^ such articles cannot be procured, let the The number varies consid- horse have a mess of scalded shorts every first intestine. erably sometimes they are not half a dozen, night. They Bow-legged. Defective conformation at others they exceed a hundred. are fixed by the small end to the inner coat of the legs. Box, Loose. A loose box, as it is genof the stomach, to which they attach themselves by means of two hooks. The slow- erally called, is a place wherein a horse is ness of their growth, and the pmity of their turned without being fastened to the manfood, which is supposed to be the chyle, ger or rack such a place is useful to turn a must occasion what they receive in a given horse into when he is sick, or when the mare from is about foaling. time to be proportionably small which, perhaps, arises the extreme difficulty Brain. The connection that exists beof destroying them by any medicine or poi- tween the brain and stomach, by means of son thrown into the stomach." A large the eighth pair of nerves, or par vagum, is amount of opium, tobacco, and corrosive the cause of this important organ being
;
sublimate, sufficient to destroy the horse, often disturbed in

;
its
function.
Thus
it
is
have from time to time been given and, on that, when the stomach is loaded with food, opening the stomach, these animals have its function becomes deranged, and the brain been found uninjured. " The presence of is affected sympathetically. A diseased bots in the horse's stomach is not easily action is then set up, and all the functions
bers have been found after
num- become more or less deranged. A horse in death in the this case will become dull and languid, and stomach, without appearing to have pro- sometimes labor under symptoms of apoduced any land of inconvenience to the ani- plexy. In consequence of this nervous
ascertained, as
it is
certain that great
mal while aUve. It does not appear that communication between the stomach and any eftectual remedy has yet been discov- brain, the latter organ is sometimes affected ered for bots." Mr. Blaine says, "that he by the irritation of bots in the stomach. has kept them alive for some days in olive The best way to prevent apoplexy, staggers, oil, and in oil of turpentine, and that even etc., is, by attention to diet, exercise, etc. the nitrous and sulphuric acids do not imDropsy of the brain does not often occur mediately destroy them. At a certain sea- to horses or cows but sheep appear to be son of the year, they detach themselves from more liable to the disease than other quadthe stomach, and pass off with the excre- rupeds. The symptoms of the disorder in ment." A run at grass is the most effec- horses are variable. " In one case there tual remedy. was a considerable degree of dulness and Compound for Bots. Persons desirous heaviness about the head; the pulse was
;
228
not
A DICTIONARY.
much affected, but there was loss of ap- bridle hand, in contradistinction to the right, The animal appeared as if suffering which is termed the whip hand. much pain in the head, generally keeping it Broken Wind. The origin of broken
petite.
These symptoms wind is supposed to be a morbid secretion were foUovved by deUrium, convulsions, and from the membrane lining the windpipe, death. In another case, when probably the bronchial tubes, and ramifications the airwater had accumulated very gi'aduaUy in cells are somewhat ruptured, and the air is the ventricles of the brain, the horse ap- entangled in the cellular substance, or compeared to be free from pain, except when mon connecting membrane. The buUi of the circulation was hurried by brisk motion, the lungs is greatly increased, while their when he would faU down in violent spasms, capacity for containing air is diminished. the fit seldom lasting but a few minutes. It is stated in Rees' CyclopcBdia, under the This horse, being of scarcely any value, was head of broken wind, " that, after opening destroyed, and, upon opening the brain, more than ten broken-winded horses, their about six ounces of water escaped." Sir lungs were uniformly found emphysematGeorge Mackenzie has described two kinds ous. (See Emphysema.) This complaint but it of this disease which sometimes happen to is generally considered incurable sheep " The first consists of an accumula- may often be alleviated by constant attention to diet." The animal should be fed on tion of water in the ventricles of the brain which is most common arises shorts, and green food if it can be procured, the other from animalculae, called hydatids. In this and boiled carrots. When used, his exercase, the water is contained in cysts, or bags, cise should at first be moderate, and he unconnected with the substance of the brain, should never be exercised immediately after on wliich it acts fatally by pressure. Very feeding. If the horse shows any disposition soon after water has begun to collect, either to eat the litter, a muzzle must be provided. According to Rlr. Richard Lawrence, in the ventricles or cysts, the animal shows evident and decisive symptoms of the dis- " the most common appearance of the lungs He starts, looks giddy and confused, in broken-winded horses is a general thickease. as if at a loss what to do retires from the ening of their substance, by which their flock, and sometimes exhibits a very affect- elasticity is in a great measure destroyed, ing spectacle of misery." and their weight specifically increased. At The breaking of young the same time, their capacity for receiving Breaking. horses is a matter of great importance, and air is diminished." Dr. White writes, "that should never be intrusted to any one of a he has examined the lungs of broken-winded
lower than the manger.
;
; :
cruel or harsh disposition, as, under such a horses without obserîng this general thick-
master, the very best-tempered horse
may
ening of their substance
on the contrary,
They are often broken they have appeared superficially lighter and when much too young they are often found larger than in their natural state. Two racing at tlu-ee, and in constant work before horses were purchased for the purpose of they are four years old. This is one of the making experiments, and so badly brokenbe rendered vicious.
;
causes of contracted feet and lameness, that winded as to be useless.

notice.
Li the
first,
the
are continually presenting themselves to our lungs were unusually large,
and
there
was
Farmers
in general put their colts a considerable quantity of air in the cellular

;
to
and, although exercise membrane but it was not ascertained improve their growth and constitution, whether the air had escaped from the airyet this advantage is more than counter- cells, or had been generated within the balanced by their being shod at a period common cellular membrane. The other when their feet are tender. horse was kept about a month in a field Bridle Hand. The left is called the where there was no water and very little
;
work too young
may
A DICTIONARY.
grass.
229
taken up, he appeared per- much milk at a time, or from the milk not from the disorder. He was shot being sufficiently fresh, or being taken from Whenand, upon examining the lungs, they had a cow whose health is impaired. not the slightest appearance of disease." ever the stomach is disordered, either by the This proved the superiority of nature's quantity or quality of the milk, it causes a The same variety of disorders, such as scouring, want remedies over those of man.
When
fectly free
author relates that he purchased a broken- of appetite, costiveness, coUc, yellows, coning.
tity
winded horse that was incapable of workBy allowing him only a small quan-
vulsions, etc.
Calkins.
A name given
to the promi-
of hay, sprinlded with water, giving nences on horses' shoes, which are turned mashes, mixed with a small quantity of downward for the purpose of preventing
oats, and only a small quantity of water, their slipping. Calving. At the end of nine lunar taking care at the same time that he had regular and moderate exercise, his wind be- months the period of the cow's gestation is
came gradually better, and he afterwards complete but the parturition does not exit is someactly take place at that time, was perfectly free from the complaint. The author has examined the lungs of times earUer, at others later. " One huntwo horses which were said to be afflicted, dred and sixteen cows had their time of fourteen of them calved for some time previous to death, with bro- calving registered ken wind, without detecting a loss of con- from the two hundred and forty-first day to tinuity in their strvicture neither was their the two hundred and sixty-sixth day,
;
specific gravity diminished.
Bronchia.
BKONcnoTOMY.
ing
(See Windpipe.) The operation of openmay

remove any have lodged in the
that
is,
eight
months and one day

;
to eight
ing the windpipe for the purpose of producartificial respiration, or to
substances that
upper part of the larynx.
by a mixture of equal portions of lime-water and linseed
Burns
are best treated
oil,
the parts being frequently anointed with
the mixture.
These
BuKsÊ Mucosa.
are described as
Mucous Bags, or Sacs. membranous sacs,
containing a fluid similar to synovia, or

joint oil, and interposed between tendons and the parts on which they move. In violent exertions these vascular membranes, \\-hich secrete and confine the synovia, are
injured
hence
we
have windgalls, bog-
months and twenty-six days three on the two hundred and seventieth day fifty-six from the two hundred and seventieth to the two hundred and eightieth day eighteen from the two hundred and eightieth to the two hundred and ninetieth day twenty on five on the three the three hundredth day hundred and eighth day consequently there were sixty-seven days between the two exImmediately before calving, the tremes. animal appears uneasy; the tail is elevated; she shifts about from place to place, and is frequently lying down and getting up again. The labor pains then come on, and, by the expulsive power of the womb, the foetus, with the membranes enveloping it, is pushed At fii-st the membranes appear forward. beyond the vagina or shape, in the form of
;
;
spavin, etc.
An instrument used by horse-shoers paring the So named C^cuM. The blind

BuTTERis.
for
a bladder of water: this soon bursts, the
water
is
discharged, the head and fore feet
horse's hoofs.
of the calf are protruded (in natural labor)
gut.
because
it is
open at one end only.

is
horse this part of the intestines
ably large.
Calf, Diseases of.
Many
beyond the shape. The body next appears, and the delivery is complete. In a Uttle remark- time afterwards, some trifling pains take place, which separate the afterbirth, or
In the
;
of the dis- cleansings
and, these being expelled, the
eases of calves originate in a disordered process

state of the stomach, either
is finished.
from taking too
When
the
membrane
breaks,
and the
230
fluid escapes early in calving,
A DICTIONARY.
the
and before position that the hind parts may be higher ex- than the fore. If any dust or straw remain panded, the process is often slow, and it is about the womb, they should be carefully a considerable time before any part of the removed before the womb is put back. A The practice linen cloth is then to be put under the calf makes its appearance. of hurrying the process by introducing the womb, which is to be held by two assistants.
mouth
of the uterus
is sufficiently
hand, or di'iving the animal about when The cow should be made to rise, that being symptoms of calving appear, is very impro- the most favorable position, and the operaper.
It
has been
known
in
many
It
instances tor
is
then to grasp the mouth of the

hands, and
so returned, one
womb
it.
to cause the animal's death.
sometimes with both
gently return
appears that a wrong presentation takes

place,
When
hand
is
to be im-
without assistance.
and renders the calving impracticable mediately withdrawn, while the other reLi such cases it is mains to prevent that part from falling The hand at liberty is then necessary to introduce the hand in order to down again. ascertain the position of the calf, and change to grasp another portion of the womb, which When, is to be pushed into the body lilie the former, it when it is found unfavorable. This is to be for example, the head presents without the and retained with one hand. fore legs, which are bent under the breast, repeated until the whole of the womb is if the womb does not contract, it cannot, in this position, be well drawn put back away without danger. In this case the calf friction with a brush around the belly and should be gently pushed back in the uterus, back may excite the muscles to contraction: placing the cow in the most favorable should this fail, the animal may have an position, and taking the opportunity for so astringent and aromatic drink, made by indoing while there are no pains nor straining. fusing three ounces of ground poplar bark When the calf is pushed back, the fore legs in about three pints of hot water; when are to be carefully drawn downward, in a cool, administer with a horn or bottle, taking line with the head, and brought out into the care, while pouring down the oesophagus, The author has known several to let it fall gently and gradually by that vagina. cases, where parturition was seemingly dif- means it will pass over the pillars of the to the third ficult, of a resort to force in extracting the oesophagean canal, and on otherwise it would fall into the calf; but it should be recollected that nature stomach is never to be interfered Vidth in the process rumen, and defeat the object in view. Camphor. A narcotic vegetable concreof delivery, or in any of her operations, This medicine, says Dr. White, " is unless it is clearly ascertained that assist- tion. When much force is employed both internally and externally. It ance is necessary. used in drawing the calf, and especially if is given inwardly as an anti-spasmodic, as
;
the animal be rather
fat,
a disease of the in lockjaw,

;
when
it is
commonly joined with
womb
in,
is
apt to follow, puerperal fever sets opium
and as a
febrifuge, or fever medi-
Great mis- cine, joined with nitre and antimonial which often proves fatal. Camphor Mr. Morton writes is also done by endeavoring to extract powder." the calf without regard to its position in the has been occasionally given in tympanitis, uterus it is sometimes so placed that de- and it has been supposed to act by rousing In a state of fine powder livery is not practicable until the position the vital energies. When much force it is sometimes sprinkled over a linseedof the calf is shifted. is used in drawing the calf, it sometimes meal poultice, when it has been found to happens that the womb falls out or is in- allay irritation although, as a sedative, thus verted, and great care is requu-ed in putting applied, it is not equal to the extract of the it back, so that it may remain in its situa- deadly nightshade. On account of its sedative influence, it tion. In doing so, there is an advantage derived from placing the cow in such a may be advantageously combined with
chief
:
: ;
A DICTIONARY.
231
Yet at the upper part digitalis for clironic coughs. ately over the artery. any length of time, it pervades of the neck they are at such a distance that the system, and is excreted by the lungs and there is no danger of wounding the latter in
opium
Given
or
for
kidneys.
Canthakides.
for
Spanish Fly.* Several

now
bleeding.
Cartilage.
are
Gristle.
A smooth, elastic
Cartilages
elasticity is
preparations of cantharides are
in use substance
attached to bones.
example.
Vinegar of Cantharides. in powder,
filter.
situated in parts
;
where
required
1
they render the parts connected
Take of Catharides
"
part,
Diluted acetic acid.
8 parts.
with them capable of slight changes of form, and instant recovery, to accommodate themselves to accidents
Macerate for fourteen days, and

Oil
of Cantharides.
1
out serious injury to themselves.

part.
and circumstances, withThere are

;
Cantharides in powder,
Olive
oil
also inter-articular cartilages
that
is,
flat,
8 parts.
for tivo horu's,
Digest in a water bath
and filter
smooth
bones.
or joint
cartilages,
between the ends of two
for use.
These, being covered with synovia,

oil,
Ointment of Cantharides. Take Cantharides in powder,

.
serve to facilitate the motion of
part.
"
"
Hogs
lard,
filter
6 parts.
the joint.
Digest in a water bath and
tlu'ough paper.
Castor.
peculiar matter found in
Capped Hock.
A swelling on
;
of the hock, generally occasioned by blows;
near the rectum of the beaver. It is the point sacs, used as an anti-spasmodic, in doses of two
drachms (for a horse), mixed in thin gruel. Castration. An operation often peran attempt horses, and other domestic anishould be made to reduce them by counter- formed on The best method of performing it is mals. friction is also useful. irritants means of the clams, and ligature. Capsicum. In its pure state it contains by This appliCataplasm, or Poultice. It increases tonic and stimulant properties. when designed to promote suppurathe physiological or healthy action of the cation,
they seldom cause lameness
are
but, as they
a considerable
blemish,
system.
tion, or
formation of matter,
is
best
made
Capsular Ligament. The ligament by by mixing together equal parts of slippery which two bones are joined together. It elm and flax-seed, pouring a sufficient mixture, to forms a complete sac round them, and serves quantity of boiUng water on the make it of the consistence of mush, and to confine the synovia, or joint oil. Caraway Seeds. These are cordial binding it on the part the bandage should
and carminative. The dose is from one to not be so tight as to interfere with the retm-n of blood by the veins. A poultice two ounces. Carbon. Pure charcoal, unmixed with should always be renewed every twelve hours. any foreign body. It is antiseptic and Cataract. A disease of the horse's absorbent useful as a poultice for putrid
Inflammation of the Caries. Ulceration rottenness of bone. Carminatives. Medicines that

Carditis.
or
flatulency, or expel -wdnd
;
sores.
eye.
heart.
cataract
may
be partial or
total.
The
partial cataract is
known by
specks in
which interrupt vision in propora the pupil, tion to their size, and according to their
In the total or complete cata-
correct situation.
the principal of ract, the whole of the pupil becomes of a
these are the caraway and fennel seeds.
white or pearl color.
A horse's sight is least
Carotid Artery. A large artery, that injured by partial cataract, when the speck runs on each side of the neck, near the is most remote from the centre of the pupil, windpipe. The jugular vein runs immedi- and near to the upper margin. When a
complete cataract takes place in one eye,
* Morton's Manual. the
strength of the other becomes estab-
232
lished,
A DICTIONARY.
so that the horse soon
accommo-
action of the gastric, pancreatic, and bilious
fluids. Chyle is absorbed and carried by Catarrh, or Cold. This is, perhaps, a the lacteals to the thoracic duct; but, predisorder more common in horses than any vious to its arrival there, it passes through
dates himself to the loss.
other.
The author attributes some
colds (in the mesenteric glands, where, probably,
it
this city) to the bountiful
use of Cochituate undergoes some change.

Cicatrix.
water.
When
the
horse has just arrived
from a journey, or is in a state of perspiration, the showering process, so much in If fashion just now, is decidedly injurious. the legs of the animal are sluiced \\'ith water, and he is afterwards suffered to stand where a current of air blows on him, he is likely to Horses accustomed to warm take cold. clothing and warm stables are, of course, most liable to cold. The symptoms are from the nostrils, frequently accompanied by sore throat and difficulty of swallowing. The epidemic caCatarrh, Epidemic. tarrh is so named from its spreading over a country as a general disorder, often for a
sore,
The mark that remains after wound, or ulcer has been healed. Circulation of the Blood. (See
Heart.)
Clipping.
of a horse.
Cutting the
It is cliiefly
long, rough hair done to improve
the appearance of the horse.
The author
Hair, part
doubts
first.)
its
utility.
(See
article
Clothing.
the
stable
pernicious
custom
in
is
cough, dulness, want of appetite, discharge often adopted of keeping horses clothed in
;
making no
difference
the
warmth
be.
of the clothes, whatever the season
of the year or the state of the weather
may
it
(This custom
is
not so prevalent here

is
as in England.)
In a good stable,
it
considerable time.
prevalent,
it is
When
the disease
is
so probable that even in winter

;
might be
dis-
supposed to depend on a cer- pensed with

less liable to
and a horse
take cold,
will then be
much
tain state of the atmosphere.
Catheter.
used
for the
A gum
horse
is
when
he happens to
elastic tube, for the
stand in a cold wind or rain.

is
When a horse
purpose of di'awing off the urine.
The one
feet in
moulting, or shedding his coat, light cloth;
about four
that
ing might be useful
and, at such periods,
length.
showering, or standing
out in the rain,

In summer, the
Caustics.-
Preparations
destroy
would be very
injm-ious.
him to The substance protect him from the flies. Cellular Membrane. Clysters, or Glysters. A liquid by which various parts of the body are The cells of which preparation, forced into the rectum by means united to each other. this structure is composed communicate of a syringe. Coffin Bone, or Os Pedis. The bone with each other; which is proved by making a small opening in the skin of an ani- which is inclosed by the hoof. Coffin Joint. (See Hoof.) mal, introducing a blow-pipe, and blowing Colic A very common disease in through it, by which the adjacent skin will It begins with an appearance of puff up if sufficient power were employed, horses. the air may be thus forced all over the body. uneasiness he paws his litter sometimes Cerebellum. The small brain. It is makes ineffectual attempts to stale stamps situated immediately behind the cerebrum, with his feet gathers up his legs, and lies or large brain, and upon the origin of the down heavily groans, and looks round to
the part to which they are applied.
horse should have a net thrown over
spinal marrow.
Chest Founder.
Chronic.
A term used
milky
(See Founder.)
fluid,
his flank
lies
and
all
rolls
on
his back.
down heavily again, as before, The body sometimes

not promptly afforded,
increase
dis-
to denote a dis- swells.
If relief is
ease of long standing, unaccompanied by

fever or inflammation.
the above
symptoms gradually
Chyle.
becomes quick, the breathing formed by the turbed, and the pain is so great that a
the pulse
vio-
A DICTIONARY.
lent perspiration breaks out,
23c
becomes ahnost
about the
stall,
and the horse bad quality in the miUc they drinli, when throwing himself fed by hand. Taking too much milk will Carminatives so that it is dangerous to often bring on the disorder.
delirious,
This term used imply perfect a horse being Conjunctiva. The external coat membrane of the (See Eve, part Consumption. In consumption
Condition.
is
come near him.
and tonics
which,
it is
generally
afford
rehef;
after
to
necessary to be inore attentive
in
health.
to the futm-e
mode of feeding, giving a
little
or gruel occasionaUy.
eye.
first.)
Cordials.
that possess
ties,
Medicines
are thus termed
there
is
warm and
stimulating proper-
a gradual loss of flesh and strength, while
such as ginger, caraway seeds, anise
seldom impaired in the early stages. It is sometimes accompanied by a discharge from one or both nostrils, and a swelling of the glands under the jaw such Concases are often mistaken for glanders. sumption does not often take place suddenly, but is very insidious in its attack and it often happens, that the complaint is not much noticed till tubercles are formed
the appetite
is
;
The outer transparent part of Corner Teeth. The outermost of the are thus named. the Corns. Corns generally appear from ner angles of the Coronet Bone. Os corona. The
Cornea.
the eye.
front teeth
seeds, etc.
at
in-
fore feet,
injuries, etc.
sec-
ond of the consolidated phalanges of the

horse's foot.
in the lungs,
and the mesenteric glands are

is
The upper part of the hoof, Coronet. where the horn terminates. Among the Corrosive Sublimate. fast to the ribs, he should be warmly clothed, and fed on scalded shorts, oats, and poisons that are given, with a view of boiled carrots by proper attention to stable curing disease, corrosive sublimate seems to
diseased.
flesh, his
When a horse
observed to lose
coat staring, his skin feeling as
if
management, he may gain flesh and strength, stand foremost in the destruction of vitality, his coat will become smoother, and his skin and the production of incurable diseases.
looser.
Should
it
now
be the season of the Dr.
White remarks
its
" It is necessary
effects
;
to
year
when good
grass can be procured, this observe carefully
for,
whenever
should be
wUl
perfect the recovery.
The
best medi-
it
takes off the appetite, or causes uneasiit
and phosphate of lime. Contagion. The mode in which a disease is communicated from one animal to another. It is derived from the word contact, or touch, and is used in contradistinction to infection, which implies the communication of disease by unwholesome miasmata, sometimes spreading to a very concines are cod liver oil
ness of the stomach or bowels,
immediately discontinued. A solution of corrosive sublimate in water has been employed as a lotion in mange, but is generally considered
dangerous
a fatal disorder
of the bowels having in several instances
followed
its
use.
Five cows, that were
siderable distance.
from
Convalescence. A state of recovery Cough. A cough is sometimes the first but there illness, or an approach to a state of symptom of a cold, or catarrh is another kind of cough, which accompahealth. Under this name, Gib- nies indigestion. Horses that eat too much Convulsions. son has classed lockjaw and staggers. hay, and drink a large quantity of water, Modern writers treat of these diseases under often have chronic cough. This can be Calves are subject removed by proper attention to feeding. their respective heads. The disorders of Cows, Disease of. to convulsive diseases, from indigestion, and the consequent formation of acid in the cows are not so numerous as those of the stomach. It is often occasioned by some horse they are often brought on by feeding
;
bathed with a solution of corrosive sublimate in tobacco water, died soon after.
30
234
A DICTIONARY.
on improper food, or by being kept on low, fends the true skin. It is this which forms marshy grounds. Cattle that are brought the bladder raised by blistering. Cutis. The skin, or hide, which lies from a warm to a colder climate, and such as are naturally of weak constitution, are under the cuticle. Besides the cuticle and skin, horses and other large animals have a most liable to disease. Cramp. A spasmodic affection of the muscular expansion, which lies immediately muscles, either of a particular part, or of the under the latter, called the fleshy pannicle, whole body. In lockjaw, for example, the by which the skin is moved, so as to shake muscles of the jaw are at first chiefly affect- off dust or flies, or anything that hangs
ed
but, gradually, unless relief is afforded, loose
upon the
the spasm, or cramp, generally extends to the neck, limbs, and at length t6
all
Cutting.
A horse
is
hair.
is
said to cut,
when
parts
he strikes the inner and lower part of the

fetlock joint, in travelling.
of the body.
Crassamentum.
Red globules, or
color-
of correcting this,
to
The usual mode make the outer side
ing matter, of the blood, mixed with coagu- of the shoe liigher than the inside. Debility. Debility may be permanent lable lymph.
Cremaster.
A muscle which sun-ounds

it
or temporary.
is
In the
first,
the constitution
the spermatic cord, as

belly into the scrotum.
passes out of the

Its
naturally weak, or has been rendered so

;
use
is
to sus-
pend and draw up the testicle. A disagreeable and inCrib Biting. jurious habit, which some horses acquire it consists of laying hold of the manger with their teeth. It generally proceeds from
by improper treatment, or sickness the second generally arises from over-exertion,

and,
if
the exciting cause be frequently re-
peated, terminates very
commonly
decay of the constitution.
in a total Rest and kind

in-
treatment are the best cure for weakness
indigestion.
inclosed between the
Cropping THE Ears. The ear may be two parts of a carpenter's rule, which can be adjusted and held so as to give the ear any shape that
duced by
a horse
fatigue.
The
greatest attention
should be paid to the degree of work that

is
capable of enduring, as what
may
be salutary for him at one period
may
and
greatly exceed his strength at another;
may be
required.
All that part outside the this generally depends on the
mode
of stapractice
rule is then cut off with
sharp knife, and then bathed with tincture of

of m}"rrh.
one stroke of a ble management. The working horses too

results in debility.
common
early
frequently
Crupper. A strap affixed to the saddle, Decoction. The process of extracting with a loop at the end, for the purpose of the virtues of a substance by boiling it in admitting the horse's tail. water. The liquid so prepared is termed
Cud. The food contained in the first decoction. Almost all the medicinal propstomach, or rumen, of a ruminating animal, erties of plants may be extracted by pourwhich is returned to the mouth to be chewed ing boiling water over them. In boiUng
at the animal's leisure.
A swelling of the hock, generally caused by blows or Cutaneous Diseases. Diseases whose
Curb.
horse's
strain.
Cumin Seeds.
A carminative,
they lose their volatile properties.

or cordial.
Deglutition. The act of swallowing. The power of swallowing is often impeded

in the horse
by
sore throat, distemper, etc.
is only of a temporary mange, for ex- nature but there is another, which is of a ample. They are generally dependent on more serious kind, and interferes with masa vitiated state of the secretions, and a dis- tication as well as with swallowing. The ordered state of the bowels. grinding teeth of horses often wear down Cuticle, or Scarf Skin. A thin, in- in such a manner, that the outside edge of sensible membrane, which covers and de- the upper grinders irritates or wounds the
This impediment
;
seat
is
in the skin, as the
A DICTIONARY.
cheek,
235
firom the
acts similarly
and the inside of the lower grinders the cavity of the chest upon the tongue, or the skin or belly.
abdomen,
Whenever a horse is it. DiARRHCEA, or Purging. Li Professor observed to void unbroken oats with his PercivaU's lectures on diarrhoea, he states dung, the teeth and cheeks should be ex- that, " for the majority of cases brought to
connected with
amined.
to rasp
grinders,
It will
often be found necessary us,
we
are indebted to the groom, the

stable-keeper,
f?ir-
the
outside
edges of the upper
rier,
and
who used
to
kill
and sometimes the inner edges of many horses by
the lower ones.
Demulcents.
purging them to death. Thirty years ago, an ounce and a Medicines of a mucila- half or two ounces of aloes, occasionally
literally
sheath the mucous membranes when they are tender and irritable, and defend them from the action of what would otherwise injure them. Of this kind are marsh mallows, linseed tea,
ginous kind, which
combined with one or two drachms of calomel, composed the common purge and even now, among these people, nine, ten, and eleven drachms are by no means unusual doses. Young horses, on their first
;
solution of
gum
Dentition.
the
fifth year.
The
arable.
arrival in the metropolis, are all
physicked
act of changing the they have given to them, indiscriminately,
going on from the second to doses of aloes, every one of which would During this period, the horse's be sufficient to purge two of them the remouth is apt to become tender, which ren- sult is, that the light-carcassed, irritable ders it necessary to keep him for a short subject is carried off at once by superpurgatime on scalded shorts, or boiled carrots. tion, while another, or two, may linger in Diabetes. An excessive discharge of misery and pain from a dysentery that wiU urine, accompanied by thirst and debility. end in gangrene and death, or be rendered There are three outlets for the fluids of the more speedily fatal by the doses of opium, body, the surface, the limgs, and the or some other powerful astringent, which When either is deficient are so perniciously resorted to on these urinary passage. in action, one or both of the others must occasions. There is another not uncommon make up that deficiency so, excess in one cause of this disease, and that is, continuous produces deficiency in the others hence, in and excessive exertion. After having been diabetes we often find a dry skin and stare- ridden for many hours, a horse wiU often ing coat and in excessive perspiration, the express irritation in the bowels, by freurine is scanty, whatever be the organs quently voiding his excrement, which ^vill affected or whether the one or the other be be fomid to be enveloped in a sfimy or The indications mucous matter, that is called by some excessive or diminished. are, to equalize the action of these opposing molten grease." or sympathizing surfaces, by restoring the DiLUTENTs. Those substances that indiminished secretions, and cleansing and crease the fluidity of the animal economy. toning the organ whose action is excessive. Water may be justly considered as the only
teeth, which is
;
AU
direct efiorts to
without regard
to a
produce specific effects, dUutent. balance of action Director.
A grooved instrument, made

A
through the whole animal, do more harm for the purpose of conducting the knife in than good. open sinuses, and in several other operaDiaphoretics. Medicines that promote tions of surgery. insensible perspiration, or excite moderate displacement of a Dislocation.
sweating.
Of
this class
are lobelia
and bone from
its socket.
dislocation of the
be replaced, and kept in Diaphragm, Midriff, or Skirt. A mus- its position by bandages the horse should cular and tendinous expansion, which divides not take any exercise until it is completely
emetics, given in infusion.
fetlock joint
may
236
healed.
patella,
A DICTIONARY.
dislocation
of the
stifle,
or organs generally are so far disorganized, or
must be reduced by bringing the injured, that there is very little chance of the horse's leg under the belly, and then depress- animal's recovery. Dropsy of the Belly, or Ascites. ing the outer angle of the patella, or stifle bone, with the hand, v/hich gives the The causes are the same as above the only muscles the power to draw the bone into its difference is, that, from circumstances pre-
place.
rare.
Generally speaking, dislocations are disposing, the fluid
Distemper.
This
to
is determined on the peritoneum (see Peritoneum) instead of
name
is
applied to the pleura.
diseases that prevail at particular periods,
Duct.
A membranous
which certain
tube, or canal,
and
spread
a considerable
distance. through
fluids are
conveyed.
Thus the lachrymal duct conveys tears from (See Epidemic.) Cutting off part of the tad. the eyes to the nose. Docking.
If this is ever necessary
doubts
old.
it),
then
the operation should

is
(and the author be
Dung.
By
examining a horse's dung,

the
we
are enabled to judge of the state of his
performed before the animal
two years
health.
When
dung
is
hard, and in
that operate powerfully.
A term applied to purgatives Drenches, or Drinks. When

Drastic
it
small knobs, and covered with slime, laxative

is
medicines are beneficial
and when
it
is
passed in too great quantities, it commonly arises from too liberal allowance of
If
necessary that any medicine should operate food.

speedily, this is the best
oats
are
voided whole,
to
teeth,
it
will
can be given.
form in which A bottle with a short neck
it
generally be
found
be caused either
or
is
by a defect of the
appetite,
by a too
food
;
the best drenching instrument.
In giving a voracious
occasioning the
drench, the tongue should be at liberty, the to be

;
head moderately elevated the drench is then poured down moderately. The head shorts, or scalded food. The first intestine that Duodenum. is to be kept in an elevated position until If the animal comes from the stomach. (See Intesthe drench is swallowed. happens to cough while the drench is in his tines.) throat, the head should be immediately let A strong membrane that Dura Mater.
swallowed without mastication in which case the animal should be fed on
down.
Dressing.
term employed to desig- lobes. It likewise separates the large brain nate medical applications to a wound, or (cerebrum) from the small, or cerebellum. ulcer, and the operation of cleaning a horse. Ear. The horse's ear is merely an organ This disease consists in a col- for collecting sound; consequently he has Dropsy. lection of serous or watery fluid, either in complete power over the muscles attached
invests the brain
and divides
it
into
two
cavities, as the chest, belly, or ventricles of to
them, and can turn them in different
the brain, or in the cellular membrane under directions.
the skin.
times,
Dropsy
is
more a symptom of
disease than a disease itself; but some- from bodies.
on account of the violence and danger

it is
of the symptom,
disease.
often treated
is is
as a
The proximate cause

;
a check to
vapors that Effusion. The oozing out of serum, coagulable lymph, from the preparation Embrocation. A
Effluvia.
Invisible
arise
or
blood-vessels.
for
liquid
perspiration
the remote cause
bleeding, rubbing
upon the
skin,
and generally used
or
any thing that can
debilitate the general
for strains, bruises,
system.
Dropsy of the Chest.

and,
times a consequence of disease of the lungs
when
it
some- a very narrow pelvic opening on the fore part of the mother, or monstrosity on the part of happens, those important * BUaine.
is
;
This
Embryotomy.*
When, from weakness,
and enlarged glands.
A DICTIONARY.
the foal, no efforts can bring the fa3tal
237
away
knife
entire, it
mass Enteritis. Inflammation of the bowels. must be dismembered. A This is a very serious form of disease, and is
purpose, having the blade the result of plethora, or the sudden applicaIt is
made for the
concealed, with the haft lying within the tion of cold to the surface.
sometimes
hollow of the hand,

the vagina.
ally,
is
to be taken
We
from
are told that,

in
owing to an overloaded state of the stomoccasion- ach and bowels. Obstinate spasm will also
up
into
hydrocephalus
the
colt
prevents produce
it.
Such a case Epidemic. Diseases which spread over a will detect itself by the volume that will whole country, at certain seasons, are thus be felt on examination, and which will named. If many suffer in the same manner, be easily lessened by plunging the point of it is called epizootic. There are very few the knife in the forehead, and evacuating the diseases which assume, in its latter or earlier contents by pressing the skull in when, stages, such a variety of forms; perhaps laying hold of the muzzle, the head may be depending on the location, and the peculiar brought through the pelvic opening. But it state of the constitution. Youatt writes is usually the natural size of the head which " In 1711, an epidemic commenced, which, forms the obstruction in which case the although it sometimes suspended its ravages, head itself must be removed. When the would visit new districts it also appeared head has been dissected off and brought in a certain district, and confined itself to away, it will be necessary probably to con- that location. In 1747, it appeared, and tract the volume of the chest; which will would seem as if there was a strange caprice not be difficult, by cutting the cartilaginous about it. It would select its victims, the
the
head
passing.
portions of the ribs, detaching the thoracic best of the herd, around a certain district,
and then crushing, or rather mouldempty thorax together after which the rest of the body ^vill offer little obstrucWhen the head cannot be got at, the tion. limbs must, one by one, be detached after which the body, and at last the head, may be drawn out either entire, or lessened conviscera,
and confine
time
In
;
ing, the
itself to that location for a short then disappear for several months,
return,
and pounce upon this privileged spot. some districts, it would attack the mouth and throat; commencing with a loss of appetite and difficult respiration, terminat-
ing
mth
a discharge of blood from the

will eat
;
siderably.
Emetic, Tartar.
Tartarized antimony.
poison. Dr.
anus.
Sometimes the animals

until they suddenly expire
It
;
and
work
others will
corrosive metallic
:
White
linger in dreadful agony."
appears that
for the
relates
"
From examining
the stomachs of this
malady
is
not infectious
same
horses that have taken this mineral, I

satisfied that irreparable mischief
am
may
author writes: " Cattle were in the same be barn as those infected they ate of the same
;
done with
inflicted."
it,
and
certain
it
is
that a vast fodder
that the
distempered
beasts
had
deal of unnecessary
pain
Emphysema. Swellings which contain without being the least affected. In 1756, Such swellings are known by a kind of it assumed a different form some cattle crackling noise, or sensation, when they are were taken aU at once with violent trempressed with the finger. bling of every limb, and blood ran from the Emulgent Arteries. The arteries nose, and bloody slime from the mouth, and which convey blood to the kidneys. the animals died in a few hours." Encanthis. A disease of the inner Epiglottis. The cartilage which covers
air.
;
has been thus slavered upon, drank after them, and constantly received their breath and odor,
corner of the eye.
which consist of a
term applied to tumors time food or water is passing into the gullet. Epilepsy. -The falling sickness; fits. contained in a sac, or cyst. Horses, cats, and dogs are subject to fits,
solid or liquid substance,
Encysted. A
the larynx, or top of the windpipe, at the
238
A DICTIONARY.
which often depend upon an accumulation of water in the ventricles of the brain, or upon the irritation of worms in the stomach During the present year, the or bowels.
author's attention
(the
animal has suftered immensely, who,
if
he
was not deprived of the power of speech, would make the ears of his oppressors tingle
with a tale of man's barbarity and inconsistency.
the
was called to a horse, property of Mr. Downs, of this city ;) horse was lying down, and at times
;
The bony
vital solids,
structure, being
composed of
appeared insensible
although studded with crystalconvulsive struggling lizations of saline carbonates and phos-
The mus- phates, is liable, like other parts of the strucwere affected by spasm, and ture, to take on preternatural or morbid distorted; the duration of the fit varied. action, and may result from or accompany As the disease progressed, the hind extremi- constitutional idiosyncrasies, resulting from ties were paralyzed, and the horse would hereditary taints on the side of the dam or struggle violently at intervals of fifteen stallion. The most frequent causes of minutes. On an examination, after death, splent, spavin, etc., are undue acts of exernearly a peck-measure-full of the long round tion on hard pavements, and the imposition worm was found in the small intestines. of weight disproportioned to the strength of The author examined the brain of a horse the animal: young horses are particularly that was said to die in a fit, and found about liable to exostosis when severely worked or five ounces of water in the ventricles of the over-burdened. Any sudden or extraordibrain. These fits in horses do not exactly nary efforts in backing or suddenly pulling resemble those occurring in man. up at full speed, racing before the horse shall Epistaxis. Bleeding at the nose. This have arrived at maturity, while the joints sometimes occurs in glanders, and denotes are yet in a state of imperfection, very frewould take place
cles of the eye
occasionally.
a considerable ulceration within the
nostrils.
quently lay the foundation of exostosis.
happens to a horse in health, it shows an unequal circulation of the blood. Epsom Salts. Sulphate of magnesia. A neutral salt, often employed as an aperient for cattle but it is very uncertain in horses, and is apt to gripe them. Eschar. A slough formed by the appliit
When
The parts being sprained and taxed beyond

endurance, disease
is
excited in the liga-
mentous substance, and extendsitself to the periosteum and bones the ligaments often become ossified, and are rendered fixtures the periosteum, being raised by bony ac;
cumulations, presents itseK in the situation

of splents, spavin, or ringbone.
cation of caustic.
Excrescence. Any preternatural forSir A. Cooper divides exostosis, in refermation on any part of the body, as warts, ence to its seat, into two Idnds, periosteal wens, etc. and medullary and again, as to its nature, Exostosis. An osseous tu.mor originat- into cartilaginous and fungous. " But," ing from a bone such as splent, spavin, says Mr. Percivall, " it is to that kind only ringbone, etc. Perhaps no animal is more which is situated between the shell of the subject to this disease than the horse and bone and the periosteum covering it, that in no department of the veterinary science we have to attend in veterinary practice. is there a greater need of reform than in the On dissection we find the periosteum thicker treatment of the disease now under con- than usual, with cartilage beneath it, and sideration. Almost every man who knows ossific matter within the cartilage, extendanything about a horse can detect a ing from the shell of the bone nearly to the spavin, etc. but not one in a hundred can internal surface of the periosteum, still tell anything about the true nature of the leaving on the surface of the swelling a thin malady, or the indications to be fulfilled in portion of cartilage unossified." the treatment and in consequence of a lack When the accretion of these swellings of knowledge on this subject many a poor ceases, and the disease has been of long
A DICTIONARY.
239
standing, they are found to consist on their equalize the circulation, and excite healthy
exterior surface, of a shell of osseous matter action to the parts
by stimulants and counare

inactive)
similar to that of the original bone
conse- ter-m-itation
(if
the parts
quently,
in the
when an exostosis has been formed
poultices, fomentations, etc., if there is pain,
the original
manner here described, the shell of bone becomes absorbed, and
or increased action.
If tliis is
exostosis
is
easily arrested, unless
done early, an hered-
cancelli are desposited in its place.

" In the
itary taint is manifest.
mean
time, the outer surface of
The removal
of exostosis
by an operation,
in
it
the exostosis acquires

that of the bone
itself.
shell
resembling
we
it
are told, has been performed with suc-
When the exostosis

tliis
cess,
and no doubt there are cases

safely be performed
;
which
cannot
has been steeped in an acid, and by
may
yet
means deprived of
its
phosphate of lime, be successful on spavined horses, the natas the diseased of the bones of the hock
the cartilaginous structure remains of the ural termination of spavin being anchylosis
same form and magnitude

deposits
discover,
;
and
inter-articular
and, as far as I have been able to cartilage.

it is
A knowledge
;
of this fact has led
effused precisely in the
manner
"
as healthy bone.
exostosis,
An
same men to suppose that Nature has turned a summerset and they endeavor to set her abstractedly considered, right with the firing iron and the imple-
does not appear to occasion

stages.
much
incon- ments of death
whereas,
if
her intentions
venience to the animal, except in the early were aided, the result would prove more
A ringbone, confined
is
to the pastern satisfactory.

;
Extravasation. The escape of blood seldom or other fluids from their proper vessels. Eye. fails to produce lameness, which is often of (See part first.) a permanent nature. Lameness, therefore, Falling of the Yard or Penis. This disease sometimes happens to horses and is not an invariable symptom of exostosis for most splents, and many ringbones, and bulls, in consequence of swelling, excreseven spavins, exist without lameness. cence, and ulceration of the parts, someWhen this disease invades ligamentous times of an obstinate or malignant nature. structure, however, lameness generally ac- It may also be occasioned by too frequent companies it, an effect we would refer to sexual intercourse. It may also depend on the excessive tenderness of the part. Should weakness of the part and, when this is the the tumor interfere, either from its bulk or case, there is no ulceration nor excrescence situation, with the motions of joints, mus- about it. If it depend on debility, then cles, or tendons, lameness is a concomitant, tone up the whole animal, and wash the and often irremediable, symptom." parts, first with castile soap, then with cold It appears that various constitutional and water. If it result from ulceration, wash local remedies have been tried for the pre- with weak vinegar and water, afterwards vention and dispersion of exostosis, viz., with a mixture of powdered charcoal and " the actual cautery, ammonia, cantharides, water. The latter may be thrown up the caustic, and setons." The constitutional sheath with a common syrLnge or injection remedies are of the same destructive nature, pipe. 'When the ulcers show a disposition and have but too often aggravated that to heal, a little powdered bayberry bark which they were intended to relieve we do will generally complete the cure. When not believe that any specific treatment has excrescences form on the sheath or inside ever had the honor of curing these forms of of it, they should be taken 'off by applying disease that course of treatment we have a ligature tight around their base. ever found the most satisfactory that is calFalse Quarter. This can hardly be culated to promote the general health by considered as a distinct complaint, but, sanative means; we cleanse the system, more properly, as a consequence resulting
bones, of
little
consideration
but, should
it
it
show
itself at or
near the joint,
240
A DICTIONARY.
of the definition
from some one of the former diseases in which, from the injury done to the coronary vascular ligament, it can never afterwards secrete horn but the break or interruption, produced by the interposition of a portion of non-secreting substance, causes a part of the outer crust of the wall to be absent. Such a blemish is called a false quarter and it is evident that it inust greatly tend to w'eaken the hoof. It likewise sometimes produces the same unpleasant effects as a sand-crack, by the separation of the under layer of the wall admitting the vascular laminsB between the opening. The treatment can be only palliative. Keep the neighboring horn always thin use a bar shoe, and " lay off" (as a smith calls it) the deficient quarter. This may be done either by paring the crnst, or by an indentation in the shoe the choice of which is left to the prudence of the operator, with this exception, that, in a weak, thin foot, the alteration should always be made in the shoe, and in
;
we
light wall begin to shine,
have given, then the and medical dark-
ness will be rendered more visible.
Fever, as
vital
we
have
said, is
an
effort
of the
power
to regain its equilibrium of
action through the system, and should never be subdued by the use of agents that deprive the organs of the power to produce it. Fever will be generally manifested in one
more of that combination of signs commonly given as a description of fever, viz

or
ness, pain
increased velocity of the pulse, heat, redsurface, etc.,
and swelling, thirst, obstructed some of which will be present,

In
local or general, in greater or less degree, in

all
forms of disease.
what
is
called
acute attacks these signs are very manifest

in chronic cases, they are often faint
still
they
to
exist.
When
but an animal has taken

;
cold,
tem
and there is power enough in the syskeep up a continual warfare against

is
obstructions, the disturbance of vital action
being unbroken, the fever

unbroken.
called pure, or
a strong one, in the crust.
Farcy.
A disease of the lymphatics or

Its
The powers
of the system
may
and
this
:
become exhausted by
is
efforts at relief,
absorbent vessels.
termed, w^hich
most usual form

their
is
the fever will be periodically reduced

called remittent.
It
that of small tumors, or buds, as they are form of fever
make
appearance in be as absurd to expect that the

all its
would most accuin
different parts of the surface, gradually be- rate definition of fever
would correspond,
come soft, or suppurate, and burst, and become a foul ulcer. Its cause may be found
in
details,
with another case, as to ex-
anything that wÛl derange the general

;
system, or produce debility
its
proximate
immoderate work, inattention to diet, hot unhealthy stables, sudden changes of temperature, standing on filthy litter, etc. Fauces. That part of the throat which
cause
is
lies
tery of the thigh.

or
The principal Femur, Os Femoris.- The thigh bone. Fetlock. A lock of hair at the'lower
Femoral Artery.
ar-
behind the tongue.
part of the fore
and hind
all
legs.
effort
Fever
is
a powerful
of the vital
principle to
remove
obstructions to or-
dinary and proper action.
The reason why
veterinary practitioners have not ascertained

tliis
fact heretofore, is, because they have been guided by the false principle ih^X fever is disease. Let them but receive the truth
all animals to be afike. There are many agents that obstruct vital action, and many an organ to be obstructed, which some have classed as distinct fevers for example, milk fever, puerperal fever, symptomatic, typhus, inflammatory, etc. Our system teaches us that there is but one cause of fever, viz., the natural motive power of the system, and but one fever itself, viz., accumulated vital action; hence the treatment must be physiological. Veterinary Surgeon Percivall,in an article on fever, says: " We have no more reason, nor not near so much, to give fever a habitation in the abdomen, as we have to enthrone it in the head but it wôuld appear, from the full range of observation, that no part of the body can be said to be insusceptible of inflammation [local fever] in human fever, though, at the same time, no organ is
pect
A DICTIONARY.
invariably or exclusively affected.
241
All
provement.
When discoveries
are leaping
wish to contend for is, that both idiopathic on discoveries, and medical reform has gerand symptomatic fevers exhibit the same minated, shall we not permit the poor dumb form, character, and species, and the same brute to share the benefits of our investigageneral means of cm-e and that, were it tion ? Every man who loves a horse, or not for the local affection, it would be wishes well to the cause of horse-manity, will
;
difficult or
impossible to distinguish them. say that a more safe and effectual system of
to
examine the accounts and compare them one with another, we can hardly refrain from coming to the conclusion that their descriptions were originaOy derived from human medicine, and have been but
of different authors on fever,
variously modified to suit the prevailing
doctrines of the day
;
When we come
veterinary practice
is
necessary to rescue
firing iron
from the torture of the

noblest
the world.
one of the
in
and most valuable quadrupeds
" The rage of firing is very generally, and much too frequently, adopted, and no doubt
upon most occasions, hurried on by the
they have gone through pecuniary propensity and dictation of the
transferred the observations
a system of imaginary fevers, and regularly interested operator, anxious to display his and language dexterity, or, as Scrub says, 'his newest
of ancient authors
upon
diseases of the flourish' in the operation;
human
species to the constitution of quad- formed,
rupeds."
In the treatment of disease,
fever is present, manifested
and when perand the horse is tiorned out to gi-ass, if taken up sound, I shall ever attribute and when much more of the cure to that grand specific, rest,
by a determina-
than to the
effects
p. 83.)
of his
fire."
tion of blood to the head, the object is to

invite the blood
or, in
(See Taplin's Farriery,
Hence
the
downward and outward;
firing iron, like all other destructive
agents,
other words, equalize the circulation excites the system to rally her powers and
externally, as in resist the
by warmth and moisture

lockjaw.
In neat cattle, should fever be present,

the eyes appear dull
dry,
and watery, the inuzzle and rumination has ceased then the
;
blood, for
sues, is
want of room forced upon the
in the nutritive tis-
lungs, liver, spleen,
brain, or other glandular tissues,
and men
have named the disease congestive fever. The author advises the reader not to feel alarmed about the fever, but set to work
encroachments of disease yet the a citadel by storm the breaches that are made by the weapons of warfare (such as the firing iron, scalpel, lancet, and poison) can be traced, and leave unmistakable evidences of their encroachments. Instead of provoking the vital powers to action by such destructive enginery, we should afford Nature all the aid we can, but never interfere with her opera;
process
is like talting
tions.
and
relieve the congestion.
Disease of the
to the
Fistula of the Withers.

points of the shoulder,
"An
ob-
bowels, garget of the teats and udder, will stinate disease of the horse's withers, or
require fomentation
parts.
and stimulants
to
she
A name given a mare years Film. Opacity of the cornea. through Filtration. Straining
Filly.
is
until
two
or three
old.
commonly produced No wonder Dr. White calls it "obstinate," when the following treatment is recommended by
by a bruise of the saddle."
imsized paper
stone.
Firing.
bones,
A
it is
it consists him: "The scalding mixture of any fixed oil (as lamp or train oil), spirit also through sand or porous of turpentine, verdigris, and corrosive sublimate. These are put into an iron ladle, and in this severe operation, often per- and made nearly boUing hot
liquids
formed on horses,
etc.
:
for spavins, curbs, ring-
state the mLxture is to be

parts,
applied to the
little
Such barbarity should never be diseased
by means of a
!
tow
practised
a disgrace to this age of im- fastened to the end of a stick
It is
neces-
a
242
A DICTIONARY.
is
sary to prevent the mixture from flowing dressing
composed of powdered
the
lobelia,
over the sound parts, as
it
would not only formed
to
consistence of paste, with
take off the hair, but cause ulceration of the honey. Foul Feeders. skin." If this mixture wiU produce diseased
action in the sound parts,
Horses
are so
named
we need
not ask that have depraved or vitiated appetites,

eating foul
litter
what wiU be
parts
the result
already diseased.
when applied to The author has
Founder.
horse.
A term expressive of the

viz.,
and earth from the ground.

dif-
many cases of fistula, by treating them as common abscesses, with the applicured
poultices (see Poultices),
ferent forms of
rheumatism and ruin in the

dif-
Veterinary writers describe three
cation of stimulating antiseptic and tonic ferent forms of this disease,
founder of
and by a
puri- the body, chest,
and feet. This is one and the
fying
course
of
treatment, with
proper same disease, only located in different parts,
attention to diet, etc.
Fleam. horses and

cles
An instrument with which are the musFlesh. A common name of the body. are those that Flexor. The
cattle
bled.
flexors
bend one bone upon another. that serve to bend the leg, for example,
and may arise from the same general causes; which consist in chUling the animal when exhausted, by which means the perspiration for is obstructed, by much fatigue, and by violent and long-continued exertion exposing the animal to cold wind or rain, or washing The tendons his legs and thighs, and sometimes his body,
:
are
is
often the cause of founder.

" founder,
Dr.
White
named
flexors.
The bringing forth young in ruined state Foaling. mares is not so often attended with difficulty might call it " ruined." How many thouas in cows, and they have seldom occasion sand animals have been ruined, not by the They should be placed in a disease, but by the treatment I Here is a for assistance. Dr. White says: " The situation where they may have shelter, and specimen of it. horse was bled before I saw him five quarts where they are free from danger. Fomentations are genof blood were taken off". I desired he might Fomentations. erally made by pourmg boiling water on be bled again, when half a pailful ntiore was camomiles, burdock, poplar bark, etc. For abstracted. In less than an hour I saw him an emollient fomentation, ground slippery again, and, finding that he was not relieved, elm is preferred. In inflammation of the took another half-pailful, amounting in all The horse was sent home, bowels, for example, the parts may be to four gallons fomented with flannels wrung out in a thin and seemed to be doing weU in a straw yard, mixture of slippery elm. though very weak and thin. [ No wonder, (See part first.) Foot. after such a loss sustained by the vital This name is applied to a powers. ] At the end of tliree or four months Foot Rot. This disease he began to lose his fore hoofs, and, after dedisease in the feet of sheep. often happens to such as are fed in low clining some time longer, he died" meadows, or where the grass holds the frost victim to science. It is evident, from expeor cold dews for a considerable time. Prob- rience and facts, that the above treatment ably a ford habit of body may be a predis- renders the disease incurable, and is the true
:
calls
a term expressive of the of the horse." And weU he
posing cause.
we
In the treatment of foot rot, cause of death therefore, not suitable to should endeavor to find out the cause, the true ends to be accomplished. What,
;
or causes, of the disorder,
and change the

If
then, are the true ends to be accomplished
muscular structure, determine has spread under the horny covering, all the action to the surface, improve the secretions, superfluous horn should be carefully pared and remove obstructions which disturb or away, so that the dressing may be applied repel vital action. This will equalize the to the whole of the affected parts. The circulation of the blood, ivhen it will be
food or location of the sheep.
the disease
relax
To
A DICTIONARY.
243
and observes
with right
found
that
there will be no necessity for small, to be given in each feed,

its
diminishing
controlled
is free
quantity.
The inflammaalways
sufficiently
that,
by continuing
this practice,
tion, as it is termed, is
and well-timed exercise and
careful feeding,
when the circulation of the blood he has known many horses to recover, even and universal. Therefore, instead of when there has been a suspicion of their withdrawing vital action, promote its equal Avind. Gastric Juice. A juice formed in the and universal diffusion. The posterior part of the horse's stomach for the purpose of digestion. Frog. Gastritis. Inflammation of the stomfoot. A gum resin, sometimes ach. Galbanum. Gaunt-Bellied. A term applied to a employed as an expectorant and anti-spasmodic the dose, three or four drachms. It horse when he is drawn up in the* flanlt. Gelatine. A component part of aniis used, also, in the composition of warm adhesive plasters, such as gum and diachy- mal matter. Gelding. A castrated horse. Such lon plaster.
and flesh, upon the same quantity of food. A good tonic for a Gentian Root. able quantity of bile, however, is formed by the horse's liver, and is conveyed by the horse the dose is two or three drachms. Gestation. Being with young. The hepatic duct into the first intestine, or duodenum. Li the cow and sheep, the gall time of gestation in the mare is eleven
gall appearance, as to coat
A common name A produced by harness. chafing, of the saddle Gall Bladder. The horse has no
Gall. Gall.
for bile.
horses are not so vigorous as stallions
the
sore
pressure, or latter are freer
or
from disease than geldings, and will do more work, and keep a better
bladder, or reservoir for bile.
A consider-
bladder
months; in the cow, nine months. Ginger. An aromatic root, possessing natural enlargement, or knot, in the course stimulant and carminative properties. of some of the nerves. Glanders. A contagious disease pecuGangrene. An incipient mortification. liar to the horse, the ass, and the mule. In this stage of the disease, there is gener- Many persons suppose that glanders and
is
of considerable
Ganglion.
This
size.
is
term
applied to a
ally
absence of pain
the part
is
deprived farcy are the effect of a specific poison in
of vital force, by causes inducing a loss of the

tone.
blood
but this theory

will tlu"ow
is
exploded.
upon the horse as subject, for which we are indebted to R. a diffusible stimulant and expectorant Vines, V. S. " All the symptoms of disease The which constitute glanders and farcy invaripossessing, also, diuretic properties. author considers garlic a valuable remedial ably depend on the unhealthy state of the agent in the treatment of any disease where system into which it is reduced or brought, the constitution has suffered through hard and not, as is supposed, from a specific work, or ill usage. It is a general custom, poison contained in the blood; and these on the eastern coast of China, to allow cattle symptoms of disease are found to depend to eat as much as they choose. They are on, and arise from, a variety of causes never known to suffer any inconvenience whether they occur at the latter states or
Garlic.
It
The following
operates
:
some
light
on the
from
thrive,
it
on the contrary, they appear to stages of common inflammatory diseases, and are scarcely if ever sick. The such as strangles, common cold, distemper,
;
only objection to
cattle
is,
its
long-continued use in disease of the Imigs, dropsy,
etc.,
or
whether
that
it
to the meat. be a valuable remedy in coughs.
imparts an impleasant flavor they arise independently of such causes It is considered by Gibson to for, when the system is brought into an un-
He advises
healthy state, and is more or less debilitated,
two
or three of the cloves or kernels, cut from neglect, or
by the improper treatment
244
of any of these diseases,
A DICTIONARY.
[many of them are

is
place.
It is
often necessary to repeat the

If the throat is
improperly treated], farcy, or glanders,

the result.
will,
bleeding two or three times.
The
disease of every animal very sore, blister the part."
(See Canthar-
ing to the state of the system."

:
iDEs.) The secretions now become imMr. Perci- paired, there is loss of appetite, the coat " The state of the body, or stares there is a dull, sleepy appearance vall, V. S., says the discharge from the constitution, will always have considerable about the animal influence on the character and tendency of nostrils now assumes an acrimonious and
therefore,
assume a character accord-
In horses whose bodies are, and putrid character, which, acting chemically have long been, in an unthriving and un- on the membrane of the nose, constitutes healthy condition, a common swollen leg ulceration the latter corrode the cartilage will occasionaOy run into farcy and a com- and bones, and glanders is the result. Now mon cold or strangles, or an attack of influ- we will view it in another form. The anidisease.
:
;
enza, be
followed by glanders.
Li other mal
cases, such unfortunate sequels will super- lungs
vene without any ostensible or discoverable cause." The great fault of those who have
from previous and the subin a hot sequent inhalation of impure are incapacitated, and crowded
disease,
air
has taken cold (see Catarrh)
the
stable
employed
their talents in the investigation

is,
and
their
is
power
to purify
and
vitalize the
of the subject (glanders)
that they take blood

:
destroyed; hence
hold of the
wrong end
engaged
in
of it they are of morbific matter attempting to discover the brane, which corrode, ulcerate, and
we have deposits on the mucous memfinally
where none exists, when attack the substance of the lungs, and their time would be more profitably engaged tubercle is the result, which may terminate The expectoration, or passage in studying the principles of a system of in glanders. medication that would rid the system of of acrimonious humors through the nostril these early exciting causes, viz., common of the horse from the lungs, does, in its pascolds, etc., and thus prevent this great bug- sage, irritate the schneiderian membrane at The author can at any a point where it is in immediate contact bear, glanders. time, within a period of a few months, and with ossific or cartilaginous structure, and without the assistance of " specific poison," sufficiently accounts for the ulcers found in We do not manufacture a case of genuine glanders out the nostrils in the above case. A horse would hesitate to say that glanders can be proof the following materials and many such could be found duced loithout infection, or contagion, and be selected whose general health that a common cold or catarrh, neglected or in the city of Boston
" specific poison,"
:
shall
be impaired
let
the surface be ob- improperly treated, will often terminate in
without
rain, glanders. Mr. Vines, V. S., states "that anything to protect the animal the practice of physic ing horses, and exposfrom the pelting storm then put him into ing them to wet and cold, when they have a stall near the door, where a current of common catarrh, wUl produce confirmed
structed
by standing in a shower of
cold air will pass the hind extremities he remains in this situation during the night. On the following morning, the animal appears dull, and is off" his feed. It is soon ascertained that he has taken cold; now treat him according to the kiU-or-cure prac:
glanders."
According to the testimony of Mr. G. Fenwick, V. S., of London, " Glanders is

a
symptom
of tubercles in the lungs in nine

;
times out of ten " hence,
when a
is
horse
has taken cold, and the surface
obstructed,
tice
the throat
and the prudent owner will endeavor to force a that is, to open the pores of the sldn, This can be usual first thing to be and promote perspiration. done is, to bleed largely, until the horse done by the use of warmth and moisture faints. He should then be put into a cool externally, and the administration of warm,
:
" If there is difficulty of breathing,
symptoms, the
is sore,
or,
in other words, the crisis
A DICTIONARY.
anti-spasmodic drinks.
245
the stricture of the surface,
This will relieve an overloaded stomach. When they are in and permit the this state, they are said to be blasted, blown, egress of morbific matter, which would or hoven probably from the quantity of otherwise be thrown on the lungs, or kid- carbonic acid gas that is generated, and by
;
neys.
If there is
the system to determine action to the surface,

JMr.
not sufficient power in which the stomach is so distended that catWhen tle often die in consequence of it.
then administer diffusible stimulants. cattle are put into a pasture, which abounds " Improper stable in nutritious food, to which they have been Youatt remarks
:
a more frequent cause of unaccustomed, or have an improper quanThe air which is tity given them, they frequently fill the glanders than contagion. necessary to respiration is changed and em- paunch to such an extent that they are inpoisoned in its passage through the lungs capable of ruminating hence, the food re-
management
is
and a
fresh supply
life.
is
necessary for the sup- maining in a
warm
situation, the
combined
port of
That supply may be

life,
sufficient action of heat and moisture generates the gas.
barely to support
but not to prevent
Granulations.
little,
terra applied to the
the vitiated air from again
and again pass-
red,
grain-like, fleshy bodies,
which
ing to the lungs, and producing irritation arise on the surface of ulcers and suppinratand disease. The membrane of the nose, ing sores. Their use is to fill up cavities,
and approximate the sides. Grease. A sweUing of the horse's man relates a case which proves to demon- heels, and discharge of stinking matter. (See Colic) Gripes.* stration the rapid and fatal agency of this
possessed of extreme sensibility,
is
easily
irritated
by
this poison.
Professor Cole-
cause.
'
In the expedition to Quiberon, the
had not been long on board the cartilage. is to transports, before it became necessary to shut down the hatchways the consequence groggy, when he has a tenderness, or stiffof this was, that some of them were suffo- ness, about the feet, which causes him to cated, and that all the rest were disem- go in an uneasy, hobbling manner.
horses
:
Gristle. A name commonly given (See Cartilage.) be said Grogginess. A horse

to
barked either glandered or farcied. In a close stable, the air is not only vitiated by
breathing,
but there are other and more

Tiie
"
Scientific Treatment of Colic, or Gripes. On the 5th Sept., 1824, young bay mare was admitted
a.
powerful sources of mischief.
dung
fer-
into the infirmary, with

lost eight
symptoms of
colic, for
in.
which she
pounds of blood before she came
The
fol:
and the urine are suffered to remain,
menting and giving out injurious gases.' Soft, spongy substances in Glands. various parts of the body, which serve to secrete particular humors from the blood.
"
lowing drenclFwas prescribed to be given immediately laudanum and oil of turpentine, of each, three ounces,
with the addition of six ounces of decoction of aloes.
the course of half
In
They
Gleet. A discharge of a mucous from the urethra, vagina, or nostrils.

or top of the windpipe.
this part
is
Glottis. The upper part of the larynx,

The
if
are vulgarly called kernels.
was repeated But, shortly after, she vomited the greater part by the mouth and nosobtained, twelve pounds of having been trils. No relief blood were taken from her, and the same drink was given. and for the In another hour this drench was repeated
an hour
this
! ;
fluid fourth time, during the succeeding hour both of which, before death, she rejected, .is she had done the second Notwithstanding these active measures were drink.
;
sensibility of
so great, that,
into
any substance
pro-
promptly taken, she died about tlu'ce hours after her ad(See Clarke's Essay on Gripes.) It appears mission." Twelve ounces that the doctors made short work of it.
of laudanum, and the
happen
painful
;
to fall
the larynx, the most
and distressing symptoms are
But
this is
same of turpentine, in secundum artem. This is called
three hours
skilful
treat-
ment, and justifiable in every case where the symptoms are

urgent.
expelled
duced and, unless the extraneous matter be by coughing, or removed by an

operation (bronchotomy), a fatal termination will be the consequence.
Gorged.
A term applied
Uad the relaxing and stimulating plan, practised by us, been resorted to, and in a proper time and manner, it would probably have saved the poor brute. We have attended a large number of the same sort of cases, and have
not yet lost the
first.
to cattle
with
246
A DICTIONARY.
Gullet, or CEsophagus. A muscular skin wiU be contracted, and found tight and membranous tube, by which the food, about the ribs. It is a symptom of disease, etc., is conveyed from the mouth to the and shows that the general health is imstomach.
passes
cavity, is
The upper part, or funnel-lilic named pharynx. The gullet down the neck behind the windpipe,
paired.
Hip-sHOT.
This
is
known by one
of the
It
hip bones being lower than the other.
along the neck, tlirough the diapluragm, and generally depends on a fracture of the os innominatum, or part of the pelvis the part terminating in the stomach.
The of the Habit. By

Gums.
teeth.
fleshy parts of the sockets having
formed an irregular Idnd of union, so that the bone on that side is shorter than
position, or
this term is meant the dis- the other. temperament, of the body or Hock.
constitution, whether natural or acquired.
The term
habits,
habit
is
also applied to
any
vice,
as starting, kicking, rearing, etc.
AU bad
temper, or disposition of animals,

in
whether of the body, constitution, may be
some measure corrected, if not entirely to, by proper attention to breaking, breeding, and stable management.
put a stop
Halter Cast.
Owing
it,
to the improper
is
horse's hock is composed These bones are all connected together by very strong ligaments, which prevent dislocation, but allow a slight degree of motion among them. The surfaces that are opposed to each other are tliickly covered by elastic cartilage, and by a membrane secreting the synovia, or oily fluid, which guards against friction. These bones are so strongly bound together
The
of six bones.
length of the halter, the horse

his fore leg across
falls
apt to get as almost to defy dislocation.
down, and some-
HooF-BOUND.
bid
state
dry, brittle,
times injures himself considerably.
This is the name given to the action, occasioned, says Dr. Ham. muscular part of the hind leg, terminating flammation," which he calls disease. Now in the great tendo AchUlis, or hamstring. it is evident that no vital action, as that of The division in the standard for fever and inflammation, can be properly Hand. The only action that can measuring horses is thus named. A hand termed disease. be properly termed disease, is the chemical is foiu" inches. Haw. (See Eye, part first.) action manifested in suppuration and gan(See part first.) grene. This is the great popular eiTor that Heart. Heel. A term applied to tlfe back part we are laboring to overcome. It is that of
of the foot.
and morwant of vital White, " by in-

its
of the termination of the hoof.
Hemlock.
deriving
A narcotic vegetable poison,

It
attributing disease
and death
to the action
of the powers of
life.
When a
part has be-
deleterious properties from an
come
diseased, especially the foot (for from
has been it the blood has a kind of up-hill work to have par- perform, in returning to the heart by the very veins), there is a low state of vitality taken of it. Hemorrhage. A flow of blood from little can be accomplished by the vital powany part of the body, in consequence of ers, amounting only to a low form of inthe rupture of an artery or vein. Hemor- flammation. And, of course, the chemical
alkaline principle, called conia.
known
to
kill
many
horses
who
rhage, from external injury,
stopped by taking up the bleeding vessel, and never
and tying
this
it with saddler's cannot be done, the bleeding may gen- which, if improperly treated, the hoof faUs erally be stopped by pressure, or styptics. off by the process of decomposition, or, in Hepatitis. Inflammation of the liver. other words, mortification. It becomes sepWhen horses are out of arated from the living parts, for want of Hide-Bound. condition, and have harsh dry coats, the inflammation, or vital supremacy, over
; ;
most readily power of decomposition, always present tired, gets the advantage and silk but, when decomposes the part we then have thrush,
is
A DICTIONARY.
247
chemical agency
and then the
loss of the thereby lessen the effusion of fluid into the

;
hoof
is
strangely attributed to inflamma- chest
and secondly, by increasing the

the
ac-
tion, or the vital
power, which did
all
it
tion
could to prevent such a termination. A partial or complete Most surgeons Hoof-Casting.
absorbent system, effect the removal of what is already accumulated." *

of
recommend
trocar
early tapping in
separation of the horse's hoof from the sen- dropsy. with the sitive foot.
The
operation
may
be performed
common
and canula.
The
HoosE.
A term
used by cow doctors. best place
for the introduction of the instru-
It signifies a cough, either chronic or acute, with which cattle are affected, from exposure to cold winds or rain. A bitter vegetable, used HoREHOUND.
ment
ninth
is
the space between the eighth and

;
ribs, close to their cartilages
not be-
tween the
punctured.
latter,
lest
the pericardium be
Here, making the sldn tense

point dh-ected upwards and
little
in horse practice as a tonic
HovEN.
fluid
Hydatid.
(See Blasted.) A thin bladder, containing a

occasions a disease
and expectorant. with the
fingers of the left hand, the instruits
ment, with
inwards, may, with a
rotary move-
resembling water, and nearly trans- ment, gradually be thrust in, until the rewhen It is fomid in dilferent animals. sistance to its entry suddenly ceases parent.
;
Li sheep,
it
named
gid,
the trocar should be ^\'ithdlawn,
and the
or giddiness; the hydatid being found in canula at the same time pushed onwards, one of the ventricles of the brain, or in its lest it slip out. If the flow of water sudOn account of the pressiure denly ceases, a small whalebone probe convolutions. it makes on the brain, it disturbs the func- should be introduced through the pipe. Ichor. A thin, acrimonious discharge tions of that important organ, especially
when
its
Dropsy of the Hydrophobia. Canine madness.

Hydrocele.
appendages.
the sheep are hun-ied or driven.

testicle
from
and
or
Mr.
jects
Hydrothorax,
to
or
Dropsy of the Chest.
yellows. Icterus. Jaundice, Idiosyncrasy. A peculiar temperament. portion of the Ileum. The
ulcers, or diseased parts.
or
constitution,
last
small
Percivall informs us, " that the ob- intestine.
It
terminates in the large intes-
be pursued in the treatment of

:
tine, or blind gut,
Imposthume. A collection of matter, or diminish any excess of action that may pus, in any part. A continual Incontinence of Urine. show itself in the sanguineous system,* and drippmg of the urine from a horse's sheath. * In plain English, abstract blood. This not only diInflammation and fever Inflammation.
hydrothorax are twofold
first,
we
are to
named
csecum.
minishes the sanguineous system, but eveiy other function

or system.
The
;
regulars have tried blood-letting to their

theii-
hearts' content
patients have been rowelled, blis-
tered, calonielized, turpentinized,
and
liellebored, yet they
have never been able
to preserve life,
;
cases in Mi'. Sewell's practice

in his lectures, that " he never
" except two solitary " for Mr. Percival tells us,
and the same thing. When fever is confined to a small part, it is called in(See Inflammation, part flammation. first.) Dr. White, although an advocate of
are one
saw a case terminate favora proof that our brethren are on the wrong track 1 We are told that the proximate causes " of dropsy are " debility and an obstructed perspiration and that it may result from "loss of blood, diarrhcEa, diabetes, and other circumstances that rapidly exhaust the
ably."
Is not this
;
the popular error,
viz.,
blood-letting,
makes
some very
If
sensible remarks
on the
subject.
men
generally
would
carry out these
* The action of the absorbent system never was, nor

be, excited
system."
Hence
the processes of cure are just the
means never can

sorption
when
the lancet
is
cooperative.
Ab-
calculated to produce the disease.

in the treatment are, to
The
true indications
is
a physiological
result,
and cannot be excited by

balance between ex-
warm and
relax the surface, and
agents that act pathologically.
The
promote perspiration; for whatever checks it stops the halation and absorption is lost, iu consequence of which, egress of morbific matter from the system, and, of course, more fluid is poured out than is taken up hence, if we determines it upon the internal surfiices. Diffusable stim- excite the exhalents to throw off the morbid fluids from
:
ulants
may
be given, to keep up
tlie
action
on the
suri'ace.
the surface, there will be less for the absorbents to take up,
The
geueral health must be improved.
and the chances of success
will be greater.
248
principles, they
A DICTIONARY.
of property.
v^rhen
" It
would prevent a great loss must be obvious, that

is
situated
between the
ribs
thus,
we have
intercostal muscles, etc.
an animal
laboring under general
Intermittent.
name
off"
given to dis-
inflammation, or fever, in consequence of
orders that appear to go
at certain peri-
a suppression of the natural discharges, ods, and return after some interval. Intestines. The horse's intestines are whether it be perspiration, urine, or dung, he cannot be cured merely by the abstraction about ninety feet in length. Intus-susception. This is occasioned of blood for, however large the quantity abstracted, that which remains will be im- by one portion of the bowels being drawn
pure, or acrimonious,
and
It is
unfit for carrying within the other.
on a healthy action.
absolutely neces-
Iris.
That
part of the eye
by which
is
sary to restore the natural discharges
by the
light
admitted to the retina
regu-
means of suitable medicines, unless that be effected by an effort of natiu-e, which is not
an
the
lated.
Irritability.
All muscular
and are
parts pos-
uncommon
animal
is
occurrence, especially
when
sess the property of contracting, or shrinking,
supplied with
some bland
when
u-ritated,
therefore en-
fluid,
such as bran water, or thin bran dowed with
irritability.
Issues.(See Rowels.) sometimes by the Itching. Itching in horses is generally kidneys or bowels, and sometimes by a gen- a consequence of foul feeding, and may be eral relaxation of the skin, and the body is occasioned by mange. thus restored to health." From the above Jaundice. In jaundice, the natural we are led to the conclusion that, after all, course of the bile is perverted, and re-abNatiore is the most efficient doctor, and that sorbed into the circulation. Jaw-Locked. (See Lockjaw.) man should be her servant, to procure what Jejunum. Part of the small intestine is she wants, merely to be used in her own thus named, from its being generally found way. Epidemic catarrh. Ca- empty. Influenza. Joints. tarrhs, or violent colds, attended with sore A joint is formed, generally throat, and a thin, watery discharge from spealdng, by the heads of two or more These ends are covered by a layer the eyes and nose. It appears to be infec- bones. tious, seldom making its appearance with- of cartUage or gristle, which is of a yielding out attacking several horses in the same nature. There is formed within the joint a stable. The horse should subsist on warm shppery fluid, called synovia, or joint oil. gruel, and have a blanket thrown over him, The ends of the bones, thus covered with a and a diink of hyssop tea. As soon as the smooth, yielding surface, so slippery that surface of the body is relaxed, and becomes they move freely on each other without suffering from friction, are then firmly tied tomoist, the catarrh wLU disappear. Injection. A term sometimes applied gether by a strong substance, named ligament, which completely surrounds the head to clysters. Inosculation. The running of arteries of the bones this is termed capsular ligaand veins into one another, or the inter- ment. In some joints we find an additional union of the extremities of arteries and ligament within the capsular ligament, or
mashes.
The morbid matter sometimes

nostrils,
runs
off"
by the
veins.
The act of drawing into the lungs. Integument. Any common covering of
Inspiration.
the body
:
cavity
thus, in the hip joint, a strong lig-
air
ament connects the head
of the thigh bone

it.
with the socket that receives
Joints are subject to disease, either from

ertion of them.
it
generally includes skin, muscle, external injury, or from long-continued ex-
and membrane.
Intercostal.
In the former, the capsular
term given to parts ligament
is
penetrated, and a discharge of
A DICTIONARY.
synovia
" that, in
249
;
ensues.
Mr.
Percival
many
cases of open joint (com- of
remarks healing balsam and, if the limb will admit it, a splint may be bound to the back part
I
called so), there is no division nor of it, so as to prevent all possibility of flexwhatever of the capsular ligament ion. K union cannot be produced by this but merely the exposure of some bursa mu- means, the parts may be poulticed with The object is to close the cosa placed between the joint and the ex- astringents. If the ternal wound the discharge is of the same joint, and promote gramilation.
monly
injiory
kind as in the former case, and

determine which
the
it
we can
is
by
all,
carefully probing the
only parts are inactive, sprinkle the surface of poultice with charcoal and capsicum.
In a case that
wound.
this
Most of
we
are likely to
came under
and one
in
the
author's
make
hock,
mistake in the shoulder joint and care in this

heat and swelling are present.
inflamed, the system quickly,
invariably, sympathizes
;
when
From
parts
the acute sensibility of ligamentous
when
and almost
in
all
so that,
severe cases of this nature,

fever
symptom-
atic
supervenes, the pulse becomes
accelerated, the horse heaves at the flanks,
refuses his food,
the most affecting suffering.
and shows symptoms of It must be
which there was no hope of its healing by the first intention, the tincture of capsicum was daily injected this, together with tonic, stimulating, astringent poultices and fomentations, completed the cure. In cases where the external wound is large, and there is much heat, pain, and loss of motion, poultices of a relaxing and lubricating nature should be used such are lobelia and slippery elm. A
city,
: ;
borne in mind that, although a joint be not severe injury of this land may be converted open in the first instance, subsequent slough- into a simple wound by the combined influNow, the ordi- ence of these remedies. The horse should ing may expose its cavity.
nary
effects
of
disease
membrane
are, first,
tion of synovia,
hence
in the synovial be kept at rest, on a light diet of scalded food, a preternatttral secre- and an occasional dose of alterative medi-
the profuse dis- cine.

;
charge observed in these cases

of the joint;
third,
second, an
When lameness
is
manifest without heat

is
effusion of adliesive matter into the cavity or swelling,
and there
reason to suppose
a thickening of the that the animal has been overworked, rest synovial membrane, a conversion of it into and proper attention to diet will be all that a substance resembling gristle, and an effu- is necessary. When the case is one of long
of adhesive matter, and probably standing, a run at grass may effect a cure, serum, into the cellular substance around, unless there is reason to suppose that the by which the external parts and those of articulatory surfaces of the bones are dission
the
joints
are
firmly
cemented together. eased;
we
are not
supposed to do more
Li the latter stage the disease
commonly
;
for these subjects
than alleviate their suf-
extends itself to the cartilaginous surfaces ferings, or, what amounts to the same thing, they exfoliate, leaving the extremities of the diminish their lameness. The large veins of the Jugular Veins. bones denuded, to grate on each other as
often as the joint

their turn,
is
moved.
The
bones, in neck, where a horse
Kernels. A common name for glands throw out deposits from their a process that ulti- thus, the parotid glands, situated beneath ends around the joint, mately ensues, and anchylosis is the result." the ear, are termed the kernels under the The indication to be fulfilled is to pro- ear. An astringent gum resin. Kino. mote adhesion by bringing the edges toLacteals. Absorbent vessels, which gether and confining them in contact, either by taking a few stitches, or shaving the hair convey the chyle from the bowels into the
is
bled.
off
around the parts and applying
strips of thoracic duct.
adhesive plaster.
pledget of lint
The
parts
may
have a
Lameness.
The
cause of lameness in
bound
on, moistened with horses is often very obscure,
and can only
250
A DICTIONARY.
be discovered by a patient and careful ex- the coronet, at the heels and quarters, and that A islight degree of lameness this enlargement feels hard and bony. This amination. often passes unnoticed or, if it be observed, is termed ossification of the lateral cartithe owner too often persuades hypself that lages it is more distinctly seen by comparIn lameness of It is always the most pruit will pass off. ; it with a sound foot. dent plan to lay up a horse the moment he the foot, there is sometimes a crack in the is observed to be lame, and submit to the horn towards the heels, extending from the inconvenience of doing without his services coronet a little way down the hoof: this When lameness is caused happens sometimes after a horse has been until he is cured.
; ;
by wounds
generally
or bruises, the injm-ed part is travelling.
This
is
named a
is
sand-crack.
discovered
without
difficulty,
When
joint,
the seat of lameness
in the fetlock
though pricldng, in shoeing, is not always All lameness from injuries so easily seen. within the hoof is often detected with difficulty. Slight lameness is most readily seen by making the horse trot gently, without giving any support to the head by the bridle or halter, and without urging him with the whip the lameness is then seen by his dropping harder and dwelling longer on the sound leg than on the lame one, in order to favor the latter and this, when the lameness is at all considerable, is attended with a corresponding motion of the head, which drops a little whenever he steps on the sound limb. An experienced observer can at any time distinguish lameness merely by seeing a horse walk out of the stable. It often happens, in very severe lameness of one or both
: ;
some degree of heat or swelling will As the horse stands, he will be observed to favor the joint. Lameness
be perceived.
of the back, sinews, or flexor tendons of the
leg, is easily
perceived by the heat and tenten-
derness of the part.
Lampas.
A swelling and sometimes

When
the part
is
derness of the roof of the mouth, adjoining

the front teeth.
tender,
and prevents the horse from feeding, he should be fed on scalded shorts for a few days during that time, the mouth may be washed twice a day with an infusion of powdered bayberry bark. Two ounces of bark may be infused in one quart of boiling
;
water
after
macerating for one
hovu:, it will
be
fit
for use.
Larynx.
The upper part of the trachea
fore feet, that the horse,
when
led out, will or windpipe.

:
is
(See Scouring.) appear to be lame in the hind feet also this Lax. Medicines that purge genoccasioned by the animal endeavoring to Laxative. favor the fore foot or feet by throwing the tly the most simple and safe is aloes. Ligaments are strong, elastic membranes, bulk of his weight on the hind legs. In aU cases of lameness, miless the cause is so evi- connecting the extremities of the movable
dent as to render
to
it
unnecessary,
it is
proper bones.
Twine, thread, or sUk, Ligature. examine the foot carefully in the first place and it shoidd never be forgotten that waxed, for the purpose of tying arteries, swelling, heat, and tenderness of the fetlock veins, or other parts. joint, or even the leg, may arise from an inLights. A common name for lungs.
;
jury to the foot.

other.
In lameness of the foot,
the affected foot will be
warmer than
the
excellent or Considerable relief may almost always be afforded in foot lameness by keep- emollient drink is made by pouring two ing the feet moist, or pasturing the animal quarts of boiling water on four ounces of in soft meadow land, or by stopping the Linseed, and suffering it to stand in a warm bottoms of the feet with a wet sponge, by place for a short time. It is useful in cold, paring them when necessary. some- catai-rh, and in diseases of the kidneys or times find, on examining a lame foot, that bladder. The root, dried and powLiquorice. there is an enlargement immediately above
The root of the white lUy quently used Flaxseed. An Linseed,

Lily.
for poulticing.
is fre-
We
251
disease, efforts
;
A DICTIONARY.
dered,
is
must be made to tranquillize and the most powerful agent is Lobe. A portion of the lungs and liver bleeding. [Yes, most powerful to kill.] Twenty pounds of blood may be taken away is thus named. This disease is too well with manifest advantage. There is not a Lockjaw. known to require a particular description. more powerful means of allaying general
used
for the
same purpose as
the
last article.
the system
It is
tem,
cally
other
evidently a disease of the spinal sys- irritation

parts
the next thing
is
to resort to phyis
affected,
becoming sympathetiand often arises from a

:
sic.
Here again that physic

its
best which
is
speediest in
operation
the Croton nut
wound of a
occasion- has no rival in this respect; the first dose Mr. You- should be half a drachm, and the medicine att tells us, " This is one of the most fatal repeated every six hours, in doses of ten The bowels, in diseases to which the horse is subject." grains, untU it operates.* For the information of ovir readers, we wiU all these nervous affections, are very torpid.
tendon, or nerve
it
ally follows nicking, or docking.
detail the treatment
recommended by
the
"
Then, as
it is
a diseased action of the
above author.
of
We presume that every man

come
common
fatal
sense will
to the conclu- the
sion that the disease could not be otherwise
than
barity.
under such unwarrantable barhave no personal disrespect for Mr. Youatt. It is the system of treatment
We
recommended by him
cured.
that
we war
:
against
a system that has killed more than it ever Mr. Youatt observes " The rational
marrow, whole of the spine should be bUstered (See Cantharthree or four inches wide. Having bled largely, and physiced, iDEs.) and blistered, we seek for other means to luU the irritation and we have one at hand, small in bulk and potent in energy, opium f Give at once a quarter of an ounce, and an additional drachm every six
nerves, proceeding from the spinal
;
method of cure would seem to be, first to hours." The best method we know of, in the remove the local cause but this will seldom avail much. The irritation has become treatment of lockjaw, is, first, to apply a general, and the spasmodic action constitu- poultice to the foot (if it has been wounded), tional. The habit is formed and will con- consisting of about six ounces of lobelia, tinue. It will, however, be prudent to en- four ounces of slippery elm, two ounces
;
deavor to discover the local cause. If it be a wound in the foot, let it be touched with
the hot iron, or caustic, and kept open with
digestive ointment.
let the incision
diseases
"
Is
it
not a wonder that any live
their escape be attributed to the conservative
system, in spite of the violence done
When
Must not power of the 51r. Youatt

?
If it follows nicking,
recommends cutting
docking,
filed the
the tail a
little
higher, to cure a dis-
be made deeper, and stimulated by digestive ointment and, if it arise

;
ease that was produced by the
same operation, viz., he puts the author in mind of the man who
his razor to
edge of
the
first
sharpen
it.
from docking,
higher.*
let the
operation be repeated
the
constitutional
* In
serves,
part of this paragraph,
JIi-.
Youatt ob-
Li
treating
"the most powerful agent to tranquillize the sysbleeding."
tem
dom
* " Fu-5t, to remove the local cause but this will selavail much." Then wliy torture the poor brute?
;
the
t
So say the butchers when they bleed ox, and conduct the process till no blood remains.
is
This
is
a narcotic, vegetable poison, and, although large
We
need not trouble ourselves about the particular

to
ner\'e
quantities have lieen occasionally given to the horse with-
affected
enable us to relieve a sympathetic disease,
out apparent injury, experience teaches us that poisons
when we have a medicine
hemp that will relax every nerve in the animal. be a wound in the foot, let it be touched mth the hot
This
is
lobelia
and milkweed, or Indian

" If it
iron."
a means better calculated to injure than relieve.
We
act
on the whole nervous stnicture.

let
should apply, at once, the means that are known to " If it follows nick-
notmthstanding the various modes of their and the difterence in their symptoms all agree in the abstraction of vitality from the system. Dr. Eberle says, " Opiates never faU to operate perniciously on the whole organization." Dr. Gallup says " The practice of
in general
action,
using opiates to mitigate pain

It is
is
greatly to be deprecated.
ing, let the incision be
made deeper
is
!
and
if it arise
from
probable that opium and
its
preparations have done
docking,
the operation be repeated higher."
beautiful philosophy this
make
is
What
to cure
fatal
seven times the injury that they have rendered benefit on

the great scale of
tlie
one disease
civilized world.
Opium
is
the
most
another.
Is
it
strange that " this
one of the most
destructive of all narcotics."
252
of capsicum, powdered
suitable quantity of
;
A DICTIONARY.
mix them with a Mange. A disease which manifests itmeal sufficient for two self in the skin, and causes a horse to be Cattle, sheep, poultices, which should be renewed every perpetually rubbing himself. twelve hours. After the second application and dogs are also subject to mange. It is examine the foot, and, if suppuration has a well known fact, that horses are very apt taken place, and the matter can be felt, or to become mangy, if kept long in the stable yet the disease may seen, a small puncture may be made, talcing withovTt grooming care not to let the instrument penetrate arise from causes independent of a negbeyond the bony part of the hoof. Next lected skin, though it seldom attacks a wellMr. Percivall observes stimulate the surface to action, by warmth cleansed animal. and moisture, as follows take about two " It seems that mange may be generated quarts of vinegar, into which stir a handful either from immediate excitement to the of lobelia; have a hot brick ready {the skin itself, or through the medium of that animal having a large cloth, or blanket, sympathetic influence which is known to thrown around him), pour the mixture gradu- exist between the skin and the organs of We have, it appears to me, an ally on the brick, which is held over a digestion. bucket to prevent waste the steam arising excellent illustration of this in the case of will relax the surface. After repeating the mange supervening upon poverty, a fact operation, apply the following mixture too notorious to be disputed, though there around the jaws, back, and extremities may be different ways of theorizing upon chloroform, and olive oil, equal parts rub it." the mixture well in with a coarse sponge Mr. Blaine says, " Mange has three this will relax the jaws a trifle, so that the origins filth, debility, and contagion." Owners of horses must bear in mind, that animal can manage to suck up thin gruel, which may be given warm, in any quantity. mange can be communicated by the brush This process must be persevered in al- or comb used about a mangy subject the though it may not succeed in every case, pustules on the surface contain acari or The author has been very successyet it will be more satisfactory than the nites. blood-letting and poisoning system. No ful in the treatment of this disease, by the medicine is necessary the gruel will soften daily use of sulphur and soda. the faeces sufficiently if the rectum is Marasmus. A decay or wasting of the loaded with faeces, give injections of an in- whole body. Marsh Mallows. fusion of lobelia. A plant used for Lumbar Muscles. Muscles of the loins making emollient drinks and fomentations. within the body, and in the region of the Mash. A mash is made by pouring kidneys. These muscles are sometimes in- boiling water on bran, or shorts, then covjured by violent exertions, and the kidneys ering the bucket until sufficiently cool for
;
: ;
often participate in the injury.
Lungs, or Lights. The organ of respiration. (See Respiration, part first.) Luxation. A partial displacement of the bones forming a joint. Lymph. (See Blood.) Lymphatics. (See part first.) Macreation implies soaking or steeping any substance in water, or other fluids, so
use.
Mashes
are excellent for sick
and
convalescent horses, and such as have not
keep them in health. Masseter. The name of a muscle of the cheek, by which mastication is persufficient exercise to
formed.
Mastication. (See part first.) Materia Medica. A catalogue and description of the various articles used in
as to soften, dissolve, or separate
it
some other parts with which it is combined. Mallenders. A scurvy kind of eruption on the back part or bend of the knee joint.
from medicine. The jaw. Maxilla. Maxillary. Belonging to the jaw; as the maxillary arteries and glands. The
A DICTIONARY.
glands under the
illary glands.
253
jaw
are
named sub-max-
horses' throats.
Mediastinum.
cavity of
parts.
instance
The following is a strUdng gentleman, in London, was
duplicature
membrane, named
the
pleura,
is
chest
Medicine. Mr. Clark, veterinary sur- he ordered a pint to be given to his horse at geon of Edinburgh, says " Medicine is often once. It was no sooner given, than the given to the poor brutes unnecessarily, and, horse lay down, stretched himself out, and K a man, or died." of course, mischievously. horse, be in a state of health, what more is Medulla Oblongata. The commencerequired, or how can they be rendered bet- ment of the spinal marrow, within the crater ? Health is the more proper state of nium. Membrane, Mucous. the animal body, and it is not in the power This membrane
:
of the greatly prejudiced in favor of vinegar, as a by which the cure in many diseases. His favorite horse divided into two was taken ill in very warm weather, and, as he thought vinegar was a cooling arvicle,
of medicine
it
to
make
state."
:
it
better, or to
preserve
is
folded into
all
the orifices of the animal,
in the Dr.
same
as the mouth, eyes, nose, ears, lungs, intes"
White says
The custom
is
of giving tines, bladder,

;
etc.
in fact, into every cavity
medicines too frequently,
a bad one
the that has a direct communication with the

Its
constitution adapts itself to it, which cir- external surface. cumstance renders medicine inefficacious capillaries, venous
structure of arterial
radicles,
nervous projec-
when
necessary,
or,
at least,
it
greatly re- tions,
etc.,
is
similar to the skin,
and
is
duces the effects." considered a duplicate of the external surIf a horse is in health, the proper way to face. Its most extensive surfaces are those promote it is to proportion the food to the of the lungs and intestines. This membrane furnishes from the blood a fluid called labor.
Dr.
White continues
These
" Medicines
title
are
given to the horse under the

atives.
of alter- protect
into
mucus, to lubricate its own surface, and it from the action of materials taken
the
alteratives are
composed of
nitre,
system.
The
sldn
and mucous
antimony,
mercury,
sulphur,
aloes,
membrane
are a counterpart of each other.
If the action of the sldn is suppressed, the bad for ivorse). Mr. Clark says, " That sulphur not only mucous membrane performs a part of its opens the body, but the skin also, and there- office thus, a cold, which closes the pores
salts" {generally altering
used with caution, as horses of the skin, stops perspiration, which is now are very apt to catch cold on too liberal a forced through the membrane, producing use of it." discharges at the nose, eyes, etc.
fore should be
Salts bring on gi'eat sickness, and someSerous MEMBRANE.-Of this kind are times violent purging, and, instead of pro- the pleura and peritoneum they are dismoting the secretions, occasion gi-eat dryness tributed in all parts of the system, Lining of the skin. muscles, tendons, and tendinous sheaths,
:
" Aloes given in small quantities, by way the ends of movable bones, etc. in short, of alteratives, and too frequently repeated, wherever there is need of the protection of weaken the stomach, so as to bring on a parts against friction. They secrete from
;
lax,
or
what
is
called a
washy, habit of the blood a

pose of
fluid called serum, for the pur-
body.
affording this
protection.
The
Antimony should always be rejected, if coarse and black, like gunpowder." (See
"
excessive discharge of fluids into cavities lined by serous membrane, constitutes the
different
White's Farriery, p. 559.) The above author says
" It is
amazing membranes,
what different kinds of
trash are forced
down
fat
There are other which secrete the of the body; synovial, which secrete
viz.,
forms of dropsy.
adipose,
254
synovia, or joini oil;
brane, or tissue, is the
A DICTIONARr.
and
cellular
mem-
through
artificial ones,
the effects of acci-
common
connecting dent.
substance of most parts of the body.
Mesentery. A thin membrane by tion of gut can be readily returned, it is which the bowels are held together, and called a reducible hernia but when it ocover which the lacteals, or chyle vessels, curs through a small opening, and the inBesides the chyle vessels, there are testine cannot be replaced, it is termed an pass. If the mouth of the considerable veins and arteries passing over irreducible hernia. The arteries are distributed opening, round the intestine, constringe, the mesentery. to the bowels, and the veins terminate in and prevent the return of the bowel, it then forms a strangulated hernia, and usually the vena porta, or great vein of the liver. The metacarpus of the proves fatal, unless relief be promptly obMetacarpus. horse consists of one great bone, commonly tained. The hernia, by far the most common in named the canon, shank bone, or fore leg, and two small bones, or splent bones, at- the horse, is the inguinal, of which the tached by ligaments to the back part of the scrotal, or when the bowel descends into canon bone, rather towards the sides. The the scrotum, is most frequently observed in suspensory ligament passes down on the the staUion. Bubonocele, or that of the back part oi the canon bone, and between groin, is a very rare form of disease, but it the two splents. The flexor tendons, or back is occasionally witnessed in geldings. In sinews, pass down over the suspensory lig- the former, the intestine accompanies the ament. When the bones only of the fore spermatic cord by the inguinal canal leg are spoken of, they are termed meta- through the abdominal rings into the scrocarpus. They begin at the knee, and end tum in the latter, the bowel alone lodges in the groin. at the fetlock joint. The ruptures we have named Metatarsus. The hind leg, between may be considered as the only ones common to the horse. Some of them are very the hock and fetlock joints. Metatarsal Bones. The hind canon, rarely seen hernia is more frequently on or shank bone, with the two small splent the right than on the left side and scarcely bones attached to it. The large blood- ever appears in mares. However, ventral vessels and nerves, in this situation, are also hernia, or rupture of the muscles of the abdominal sides, and protrusion beneatii named metatarsal. Poisonous effluvia. the skin of a portion of intestine, is someMiasmata. times beheld in either sex, and perhaps, of Midriff. (See Diaphragm.) The name of the grinding the two, is more frequently witnessed in MoLARES.
;
such protrusion takes place through a moderate opening, and the por-
When
teeth.
Molten Grease.
the female.
name which Mr.
The
causes which produce hernia
are
Blaine has given to dysentery.

tines, ETC.
various, but all arise from violence of exertion, or the effects

injuries.
Morbid Displacements of the IntesRupture, or Intestinal Hernia*
consequent upon external

efforts
With us the
used in racing,
Hernia, in
its strict sense, is

its
any viscus out of
a protrusion of and the leaps taken in hunting, are causes, natural cavity hence as we may readily suppose when we con; ;
we
have hernia of the bram, of the lungs, and of the various viscera of the abdomiHernia, as we propose to nal regions. consider it, is a displacement of the intestines from the abdominal cavity, either
abdomen, by weight and tight girthings, must press backwards the intestinal mass. Rearing and kicking also, and being
sider that the dilatation of the
it is
restrained as
cast for operations, particularly the rising
through some of the natural openings, or up after castration, have all brought it on. Blows with a thick stick, or from the horn * "Blaine's Outlines," by Mahew. of a cow, may likewise induce it.
A DICTIONARY.
255
The symptoms of strangulated hernia are the opening. However small the protruded very similar to those of acute enteritis ; portion of gut, the practitioner wiU be able This exthere is the same uneasiness, shifting of to detect, and even to reduce it.
up and lying down again. same manner, and in turning on his back sometimes seems to get a momentary respite from pain yet it is but momentary, for the suffering is not one of remission it is constant tliis wiU serve as one distinguishing mark between it and spasmodic colic, with which it has
position, getting
ploration
ture
;
may
it
be
made
in the standing pos-
The
horse rolls in the
but
will be
conducted
loith
more
facility
and certainty
if the animal be cast,
ivhich is the preferable
mode of proceeding. Secondly, the application of means preto the taxis

:
paratory
bleeding,
these are said to be
and
partially paralyzing the parts

;
by administration of chloroform
;
or lessen-
been confounded.
nomonic symptom
the hernial side
is
In stallions, a pathog- ing the volume of distention by dashing or, if the horse is, that the testicle on the part with cold water
drawn up
;
to the abdo- be already cast,
by spreading
ice over the
men, and is retained there, with only mo- beUy. Thirdly, the manual efforts to return the mentary fits of relaxation toward the last, To fulfil this indication, we the horse displaced gut. the pulse is quick and wiry paws, looks at his flanks, but seldom kicks are, with the same hope, at once to proceed We assure ourselves of her- thus; The horse is to be thrown upon the at his belly.
;
nia
by an oblong tumor
;
in the groin, of
soft,
opposite side to that disordered
and, after
one hind leg has been drawn and fixed formay contain either faeces or gas, in which ward, as for castration, he is to be turned When upon his back, and in that position mainlatter case it will also be elastic.
larger or smaller bulk
hard or
as
it
tumor is raised by the hand, or pressed, tained by trusses of straw, whUe other a gurgling sound is emitted or, if the horse trusses are placed under him to raise the be coughed, it will be sensibly increased in croup. With both arms weU oiled, or covered with some mucilaginous decoction, dimensions.
the
;
the operator wiU now commence his exploThe treatment of strangulated hernia. horse suffering under the affection we ration, taking the precaution of emptying AS soon as he will suppose to be a stallion, and then de- the rectum as he proceeds. scribe the various manipulations for his shall have ascertained that it is a case of have assvired himself the gut prorelief firstly, the examination into the state hernia, of the hernia secondly, the application of truded through the ring is undergoing means preparatory to the application of neither strictm-e nor strangulation, he may pressure thirdly, the application of pres- endeavor to disengage the hernial part, by sure itself also, the operation of removing softly drawing it inward within the cavity, the stricture and, likewise, the application at the same time pusliing it in the like of the various processes to hernia in the direction with the hand within the sheath. horse. Should he experience much difficulty in The treatment of hernia in a stallion. these attempts, he is to desist violence First, the examination of the hernial sac. being too often the forerunner of stranguHe must bear in In this manipulation both hands are em- lation and gangrene. ployed one is introduced into the rectum, mind, also, that, although the reduction is the other into the sheath. The one within effected, unless it be followed by immediate the rectum must seek the internal ring; castration, it does not always prove to be a the protrusion recurs after a time, while the other, pursuing the course of the cure cord on the side affected, is to be pushed up and occasionally even the moment the anito the external ring and thus, in the nat- mal has risen. K the taxis should be fortuural state, the opposed fingers may be made nate enough to reduce the hernia, and it be
The
nearly to meet,
and so estimate the
size of
not intended to castrate the horse, apply a
256
A DICTIONARY.
diminishing,
well-wadded pledget, or folded cloth, to the part this may be retained with a bandage crossed between the legs from side to side, and fastened by one part under the belly to a girth and also passing between the legs, it may be again made fast to the back por; ;
and ultimately vanishing. Should it continue beyond a year or eighteen months, it is to be regarded as a chronic or permanent hernia. Chronic or permait
nent hernia,
vations being so
may be remarked, our obsermuch limited to geldings,

Castration, however, with
is
tion of the
this
is,
same
girth
the intention of
we
see
little of.
to
prevent the protrusion of the the armed clams,

rising,
the evident cure.
gut by the exertion of

quently
it
and conse-
Strangulation of the Intestines, or Morbid
that danger is over.
should be removed as soon as Displacement of the Intestines. The intesIf a radical cure were tines, in consequence of their peristaltic attempted, of course the clams would su- motion, become sometimes entangled topersede
tills,
either in the stallion or gelding. gether,
and a
fatal strangulation takes place
concerning the treatment of strangu- this happens, occasionally, from some of lated hernia in geldings. Liguinal hernia, the mesenteric folds entwining them some;
And
taking the same course,

the
is
susceptible of
same terminations, and requires same treatment as in stallions. The taxis the opening they have made but it is much is to be employed, and will be used with oftener the consequence of spasmodic acmost effect, the operator (the horse lying tion, and during colic these inversions, invoupon his back) extending the hernial sheath lutions, invaginations, and introsusceptions
:
times by their rupturing the mesentery, and the becoming strangulated by passing through
with one hand, while he manipulates with occur. When thus affected, it is not unthe other or, should this fail, by instructing usual for the ileum to become reversed in
;
his assistant to hold
up the
hernial
mass
its
usual course
in
which
case, a portion,
from the beUy, so as to take its pressure off the ring, and thus give him an opportunity to renew his eflbrts with more effect. In some cases, the introduction of one hand into the rectum becomes necessary. The
then contracted by spasm, becomes forced

into a part less constringed,
and an impen-
etrable obstruction thence is formed.
We
may draw
cases,
that
a practical inference from these

in
spasm we should attempt
reduction of the hernia should be followed an early relief; and likewise that
we
should
up immediately by
clams,
the application of the endeavor, in
all
cases of failure in bowel
if we unite with the reduction an affections, invariably to make a, post-mortem attempt at permanent cure of the hernia examination : and this we may do on the taking care, at the time, to draw out the ground that repeated cases may enable us part of the scrotum to which the vaginal accurately to interpret symptoms then, alsheath is adherent, and to push up the though we cannot relieve, we may offer clams as close as possible to the belly they such an opinion as will convince our employers it is not our ignorance of the signs, are then to be closed, as for castration. Of congenital hernia, our limits allow of but our circumscribed means, which is the little more than the mention; nor need cause of our inability to afford assistance.* Mortification. A part deprived of more be detailed, as its consequences are seldom injurious. It appears that inguinal vital force, by causes inducing a loss of tone.
; ;
hernia
utero.
commonly
is
M. Lineguard, V.
where breeding
present at birth
Moulting. Casting the coat. In spring in Normandy, the old coat is shed, or thrown off, and the very extensively pursued, horse gradually improves in spirit and in
exists
in the foetus
S.,
of
has ascertained that enterocele

;
is
invariably appearance
but, during the change, he is
even in abortions, and in more liable to take cold. In the latter part The congenital enter- of the year, the coat becomes longer and subjects still-born.
ocele is
an attendant on
birth, increasing
up
*Blaines' "Outlines."
to the third or sixth month, but afterwards
A DICTIONARY.
coarser,
257
and
loses its healthy gloss
at the pernicious.
The
true plan
is
to give anti-
becomes weak, spasmodics. (See Anti-spasmodics.) Nares. The nostrils. sweats readily upon moderate exercise, and Necrosis. The mortification and sepais often incapable of performing his usual This is more especially the case ration of a portion of dead bone from the labor. with horses that have been hard worked other parts of the bone. and badly fed. At both these periods it is Nephritics. Medicines that act on the
same
time, the horse often
necessary to take particular care of horses, kidneys.
and work them moderately.
A horse, when
Nerving, Nerve
sists
Operation.
It
con-
moulting, should not be exposed in the

stable to a current of air, but kept in a ven-
of cutting out a portion of the nerve
which supplies the foot, either just above the fetlock joint, which is named the high Mucilage. A solution of gum, or any- operation, or in the pastern, which is called In the former the senthing that partakes of the nature of gum. the low operation. Gummy or mucilaginous drinlis are useful sibility of the foot is supposed to be entirely in internal disease the cheapest is an in- destroyed, and in the latter only partly so. fusion of linseed or marsh-mallows but the Dr. White observes, serious mischief, such best, perhaps, is a solution of gum arable. as the loss of the hoof, has sometimes folMucous Membranes. (See Membrane.) lowed the higher nerve operation.
tilated stable.
Warm
clotliing is improper.
Mucous. Many
of the secretions of the
" After the division of
a nerve, the ex-
tremities of the divided portion retract, body are of a mucous nature. Mucus. A fluid secreted by mucous become enlarged and more vascular; but especially the upper portion; and coagusurfaces. The parts that are usually in- lable lymph is effused, which soon becomes Muscle. cluded under this name consist of distinct vascular. In a few days the coagulable portions of flesh, susceptible of contraction lymph from each portion becomes united, and relaxation. and anastomosis forms between the bloodMusk. A powerful odorous substance, vessels the lymph gradually assumes a whose medical virtiies are chiefly anti-spas- firmer texture, and the number of the bloodmodic. vessels diminishes, and the newly-formed Myrrh. A gum resin of a fragrant substance appears to contract, like all other smell and bitter taste. It is given internally, cicatrices, so as to bring the extremities of as a tonic, in doses of one or two drachms. the divided portions nearer and nearer to Tincture of myrrh is sometimes applied to each other. It is difficult to determine, wounds, ulcers, and sinuses. from an experiment on the limb of an Nag. A name sometimes applied to animal, the exact time at which the nerve road horses, and such as have been docked, again performs its functions after being in contradistinction to those that have long divided. In eight weeks after the division
or are used in harness. of the sciatic nerve, I have observed a rabNarcotics. Medicines which stupefy, bit to be in some degree improved in the relieve pain, and promote sleep. There use of its leg but at the end of eighteen are, however, two different ways to effect weeks it was not perfect. When the nerves these objects, and, of course, two different of the leg of a horse are divided just above characters of remedies to be used for the the foot, they are sufficiently restored to
tails,
purpose.
The popular method
is
to ad- perform their functions, in

six or eight
whose natural tendency is to depress the vital powers, and deprive them of sensibility. All mixtures, in any
minister opium,
for the present, are ultimately
that these
tion.,
some degree, in must be observed nerves are only formed for sensaweeks
;
but
it
and
is
it is
very different with the nerves
form, that contain opium, though soothing of nutrition, voluntary motion, etc.; the re-
and surely union
sometimes accomplished by gran-
258
Illations.
A DICTIONARY.
Secondly,
I
would
as
observe, that
number
of beats, and the visible
mucous
Blood
vein, it
arterial
punctures and partial divisions of nerves membranes were highly injected.

heal in the
same way
;
when
that,
there has being
withdrawn from the jugular

all
been a
the
total division
and
even on presented
the appearances of
first infliction
of the wounds, the func- blood.

is
In the serum the existence of the

it
tion of the nerves
very
little
impaired." salt could be detected, but

affec- in
was obtained
abundance from the urine. From this period the symptoms became less urgent, tions.) Mr. SeweU finds " that, in cases of entire and the pulse gradually regained its healthy section of a nerve, sensation returns in standard but the dung and urine continued about two months but in others, in which to be passed more frequently than natural a portion of nerve has been exercised, that throughout the day. Externally applied, nitrate of potassa is a the period of restoring feeling can by no means be foretold in one of his own valuable stimulant to wounds, and it may liorses, he ascertained that there was no be employed with much benefit when ganFor this purpose, sensibility in the foot, even at the expiration grene has taken place. of three years and in some others, after a a saturated solution is ordered to be kept in longer interval, the organ appeared to be the pharmacy. Oats. According to Sir H. Davy's whoUy destitute of feeling." Nicking. An operation often performed analysis, oats contain 742 parts of nuti-itive on horses, to raise the tail, and make them matter out of 1000, which is composed of carry it more gracefully, or rather to suit 641 mucilage, or starch, 15 saccharine New matter, and 87 gluten, or albumen. the taste of man. The front teeth, above and oats are difficult of digestion. Nippers. The muscles of Oblique Muscles. below, have been thus named. " Nitre the abdomen, or belly, are thus named. Morton writes Nitre. IVIr. given internally is a febrifuge and diuretic. There are four of them two external and The dose is from two to four drachms. Li two internal. Some of the muscles of the
(See Swan's work on morbid local
; ; :
order to obtain
it
its
fuU
effect as
a febrifuge, eye are also

ball,
should be exhibited in the form of

it
;
so
Occiput.
CEdeiia.
The back part of the head.

or dropsical swell-
named
oblique muscles.
that
may
undergo solution in the stomit is
A watery
ach
but as a diuretic,
It
its
best given in ing.
CEsoPHAGUs, or Esophagus. The tube be readily passing from the mouth to the stomach. Ointments. Unctuous substances of detected in the urine by means of bibulous paper immersed in it, which, on being the consistence of butter when made consolution.
passes to the kidneys un-
changed, and
presence
may
dried, deflagrates
or, if
the quantity given siderably thinner
by the addition of
;
oil,
be great, it may be procrued in crystals from the urine. Very large doses of this salt act as an irritating poison. Two pounds being given in sLx: pints of water to a horse, apparently in health, within half an
liour irritation of the
they are termed liniments

solidity
is
but
when
their
etc.,
increased by wax, rosin,
they are termed plasters.
Olecranon.
The
(see
head of the
bone
;
named
ulnar
cut), in the
horse
it
mucous
lining of the affords a powerful lever for the triceps ex-
alimentary canal began, evidenced by the tensor cubiti muscle to act upon, in straightfaeces
quantities.
being voided frequently and in small ening the fore arm ufjon The kidneys were soon after (See Skeleton.)
tlie
the
humerus.
excited into increased action,

forcibly expelled,
urine being
Olfactory Nerves
are spread over
and the act accompanied the
interior of the nostril,
aU and constitute
or caul,
is
with uneasiness.
In about four hours after, the sense of smell.
the pulse had risen to nearly double the
Omentum.
The omentum,
A DICTIONARY.
double
folds
259
membrane, containing within its feet: it is prudent, therefore, in all operaa considerable quantity of fat, in the tions, to blindfold the animal, as by this he human body and many animals. But in becomes particularly intimidated, and if he the horse this is never seen nor does the strikes he cannot aim. When one of the omentmn contain much fat what there is fore extremities requires a very minute exlies in the region of the stomach. amination, it is prudent to have the oppoOpacity. A want of transparency in site leg held up it may, in some cases, be those parts of the eye named pupil, or tied and when one of the hinder feet is the cornea. object of attention, the fore one of the same side should be held up, as by this means the OPERATIONS. animal is commonly prevented from strikOf surgical operations,* and the vari- ing. If this precaution be not taken, still ous RESTRAINTS IT IS SOMETIMES NECESSARY observe to keep one hand on the hock, while TO PLACE THE HORSE UNDER FOR THEIR PER- the other is employed in what is necessary
; ;
" When it is necessary to perFORMANCE. form any painful operation on so powerful an animal as the horse, it is of consequence to subject him to a restraint equal to the Horses are very dissimilar in their occasion. tempers, and bear pain very differently but it is always prudent to prepare for the worst, and few important operations should be attempted without casting. Humanity should be the fundamental principle of every proceeding, and we ought always to subject this noble animal to pain with reluctance but when circumstances absolutely caU for
;
by which means, if the foot become elevated to kick, sufficient warning is given, and the
very action of the horse throws the operator
away from
self to
the stroke.
Without the use of

trevis is the very
these arts the practitioner will expose him-
much
risk.
The
utmost limit of
restraint,
and
is
seldom used
is
save by smiths, to shoe very violent and
powerful horses
to
it,
whenever recourse
is
had
the greatest caution

all
necessary to
bed and bolster

to
the parts that are likely
come
in contact
with the body.
On
the
Continent
we have
seen horses shod in this
it,
we
should joyfully close our hearts to
all
machine, and apparently put into it from no

smith from being
dirtied.
necessary sufferbig.
horse
is terrible,
The
it is
resistance of the necessity greater than to prevent the clothes
and
but
common
it.
pru- of the
Horses
The have been destroyed by the trevis, as well among them as by casting or their aversion to the relesser restraints are various may be first noticed the twitch. The twitch straint has been such, they have died from
dence to guard against the
effects of
: ;
is
a very necessary instrument in a stable, the consequences of their
own
resistance.
though,
used,
it
when
frequently
ill
and
its
officiously
The
side-line is
now very
generally used, not
may
have the
effect of
rendering only in minor operations, but also in those
some
In
horses violent to resist
application.
many
instances blindfolding will do more use

;
more important. Many veterinarians do not any other restraint than this, in which
and some horses may be they consider there is safety both to the is not excessive, by horse and to the pperator. It is applicable holding the ear in one hand, and rubbing to such horses as are disposed to strike beA hind and consists in placing a hobble strap the point of the nose with the other. soothing manner will often engage the atten- around the pastern of one hind leg, and thea tion and prevent violence but it is seldom carrying from a web collar passed over the that either threats or punishment render an head the end of a rope through the D of the Inexperienced hobble, and back again under the webbing unruly horse more calm. persons guard themselves only against the round the neck. A man is then set to puU hind legs; but they should be aware that at the free end of the rope, by which the some horses strike terribly with their fore hinder leg is drawn forAvard without elevatthan the twitch
quieted,
when
the pain
BLiines' "Outlines."
ing
it
from the ground.
By
this displace-
; ;
260
A DICTIONARY.
leg the
ment of one
horse
is
effectually casting, as
some
horses struggle much,
and
secured from kicking with either.

:
Occasion- throw themselves with great violence a con;
aUy it is thus applied hobbles are put siderable way to one side or the other and on both hind legs, and the rope is passed they are able to do this if the feet have not through each of the rings. According to been brought near together previous to atthis last
method, the horse

fall
is
actually cast, tempting the cast.
The
place should be also
as he must
when
the ropes are pulled. very well littered do^^m.
The
legs
having
Take a long
rope,
and tie a loop in the mid- been brought

it
together, the assistants
must
dle, wliich is to
be of such a siê as
;
may
act in concert; one particularly should be
serve for a collar
pass the loop over the at the head, which must be carefully held
head, letting the knot rest
upon the withers
throughout by means of a strong snaffle

;
then take the free ends, pass them through bridle another should be at the liind part the hobbles, and bring it under the loop. to direct the fall, and to force the body of
Let two men pull at the ropes, and the hind the horse to the side which is requisite. Pursuing these instructions, the animal may wUl be drawn forward. " Casting: The objections to this prac- be at once rather let down than thrown, by tice arise from the dangers incurred by forc- a dexterous and quick drawing of the rope ing the horse to the ground. Rlr. Bracy the whole assistants acting in concert. The Clark simplified casting, by inventing some moment the horse is down, the person at the patent hobbles, having a running chain in- head must throw himself upon that memstead of rope, and whicli, by a shifting D, ber, and keep it secure for all the efforts of made the loosening of aU the hobbles, for the animal to disengage himself are begun the purpose of getting at a particular leg, by elevating the head and fore parts. The unnecessary. These were still fiuther im- rope is tightened. The chain is fixed by proved by Mr. Budd, so as to render a inserting a hook tlirough one of the links, release from all the hobbles at once practi- of sufficient size not to pass the hobbles. Hobble leathers and ropes should be When the operation is over, the screw which cable. kept supple and pliant with oil, and ought fastensthe chain to the hobble, first put upon one fore leg, is withdi-awn. The chain then to be always examined previous to using
legs
nor should the
or ring of the strap
be of
flies
through the D's of the other hobbles,

free,
any other metal than iron. Brass, however and all the legs are the thick, is brittle, and not to be depended on. first alluded to
;
save the fore leg
strap of this has to
To
the
or ring of one pastern hobble, a afterwards unbuckled.

;
be There are also other

as
chain of about four feet long is attached
to apparatus
used
in
casting,
a strong
this a strong rope is well fastened, and, ac- leathern case to pass over the head, serving
cording to the
way the
:
horse
is
to be tin-own,
as a blind
when the animal is being thrown when down.

This
is
this hobble is to
be fixed on the fore foot of and as a protection against his rubbing the
skin off his eyes
the contrary side
the rope is then passed from the hobble on the fore foot to the D of the hind foot of that side, then to the other hind foot, and, lastly, through the D of the
other fore foot.
Then a
sur-
cingle is also used.
fastened round
the horse's body,
and from the back hangs a broad strap and a rope the strap is fastened
:
After this,
much
of the ease to the fore leg of that side which

sired should
;
it is
de-
and
safety of the throio
depend on bringing
This to a man should be done by gradually moving them to the generality of the pullers. On the nearer to each other, without alarming the signal being given, the men having hold of
the legs as near together as possible.
be uppermost the line is given who stands on the opposite side
which will very much facilitate the the hobble rope pull the legs one way, while and is really of more moment than he who has hold of the rope attached to the is generally imagined. A space sufficiently surcingle pulls the back in a contrary direclarge shoxild be chosen for the purpose of tion, and the horse is immediately cast
horse;
business,
: ;
A DICTIONARY,
261
" Slinging' is a restraint which horses It is founded on the superior placidity of submit to with great impatience, and not temper it gives. The castrated horse no without much inconvenience, from the vio- longer evinces the superiorities of his mas-
by the friction culine character, but approaches the softer and pressure of the bandaging around his form and, milder character of the mare. Graver evils are also brought about Losing his ungovernable desires, he submits body. by the abdominal pressure some horses to discipline and confinement -^dthout resiststale and dung ^\dth difficulty when sus- ance; and, if he be less worthy of the paintpended; and inflammation of the bowels er's delineation and the poet's song, he is has not unfrequently come on during sling- valuable to his possessor in a tenfold degree. ing. The slings are, however, forced on us In England, where length in the arms and in some cases, as in fractured bones, the of the wide spread angles of the limbs is abtreatment of open joints, and some other solutely necessary in the horse to accomplish womids where motion would be most un- the rapid travelling so much in vogue among favorable to the cm-ative treatment. Sus- us, the exchange of the lofty carriage and
lent excoriations occasioned
:
pension
may be
partial or complete.
Sus- high action of the stallion

;
is
absolutely
pension of any kind will require the appli- necessary
and,
when we have added

founder,
the
cation of pulleys and ropes affixed to the lessened tendency of the gelding to
some
beams, that the whole body of the horse may be supported. A sling may be formed of a piece of strong sacking, which is to pass under the belly, the two ends being fastened firmly to pieces of wood each of about three feet long, and which are to reach a little higher than the horse's back to the pieces of wood, cords and pulleys are to be firmly attached, by which means the sacking can be lowered or raised at pleasure. To the sacking, also, are to be sewn strong straps, both before and behind, to prevent the horse sliding in either direction, without carrying the sacking with Mm. Upon this so-formed cradle he is to recline. If horses when they are fresh should be placed in this machine,
;
:
diseases,
as
hernia,
cutaneous
affections, etc.,
we may
be content to leave
the sexual type with the racer for his breed

also with the drayhorse for his weight,
and
it,
the
fancy of his
owner.
to
Supposing
therefore, eligible
castrate our
horses,
what
is
the proper age for the operation?
What
are the relative advantages
and
dis-
advantages of the different methods of performing it ? The proper age to casti-ate
young horse must depend on circumas on his present appearance, his growth, and the future purposes we intend him for observing, generally, that the more
the
stances
early
for,
it
is
done, the safer
is
the operation
until these organs begin to secrete, they
most of them would either injure themselves, are purely structural parts, and as such are all restraint. However, by not so intimately connected with the symtying up their heads for three or four nights, pathies of the constitution. Some breeders their spirit is destroyed. The slings may of horses castrate at twelve months others
or break through
;
then be applied without the fear of

:
resist-
object to this period, because they think the
ance it is the best method not to piJl the animal has not sufficiently recovered the canvas firm up, but to leave about an inch check experienced from weaning, before this
between the horse's belly and the cloth, so that the animal may stand free, or throw his weight into the slings when he pleases. In this fashion a horse may remain for months in the slings, and at the end of the time display none of the wear and tear so feelingly described by old authors. " Castration. This practice is of very ancient origin and is as extensive as ancient.
new shock
to the
common
purposes,
sort of horses
it
is
system occurs. In the more used for agricultural probably indifferent at what
is
time the operation

sideration
performed
tliis
con-
being
kept in view, that the

lighter will the horse
earlier it is
done the
be in his fore-hand; and

protracted the heavier
the
greater his weight
the longer
his crest,
it
is
wUl be
before,
and which in
262
A DICTIONARY.
is desirable.
For car- testicles; there are methods of rendering and the the animal impotent without the actual defor if by any period of two years is not a bad one for struction of these organs their casti-ation. The better sort of saddle- other method the secretion of the spermatic horses should be well examined every three glands is prevented, our end is answ'ered. " Castration by cauterization is the method or four months particularly at the ages of which has been principally practised among twelve, eighteen, and twenty-four months at either of which times, accordmg to cir- us. But this by no means proves it the best cumstances or to fancy, provided the fore- on the contrary, many of our most expert hand be sufficiently developed, it may be veterinarians do not castrate by this method. Waiting longer may Mr. Goodwin, and many other practitioners proceeded with. make the horse heavy but, if his neck ap- of eminence, never castrate by cautery. " A preliminary observation should be pear too long and thin, and his shoulders spare, he will assuredly be improved by be- made previously to casting, to see that the
riage horses
it
heavy draught work
would be
less
so,
ing allowed to remain entire for six or eight horse is not suffering from a rupture such months later. Many of the Yorkshire cases have happened and as in our method breeders never cvt tOl tsvo years, and think we open a direct communication with the
: ;
abdomen, when the horse rises it is not imbowels protrude until they case is, that the stallion form will be too ti'ail on the ground. Hernia as a consepredominant, and a heavy crest and weighty quence of castration may easily occur by
their horses stronger
and handsomer
for
it
some wait even
longer, but the fear in this probable that his
fore-hand be the consequence

the temper
little
perhaps also the uncovered operation;

obsen-ed,
it
for,
as
already
may
suffer.
Young colts require

;
makes
the scrotal sac
and ab-
preparation, provided they are healthy dominal cavity one
continuous opening.
and not too full from high living if so, It is not to be wondered at, therefore, if the they must be kept somewhat short for a few violent struggles of the animal should force days and in all, the choice of a mild season a quantity of intestine through the rings and moderate temperatiue is proper. When into the scrotal bag. Should we be called a full grown horse is operated on, some fur- on to operate on a horse which aheady had
;
ther preparation is necessary.
He
should hernia,
it,
it is
evident
we ought
not to proceed
not be in a state of debility, and certamly with not in one of plethora

:
unless the owner be apprised of the
in the latter case, risk, to case
lower his
give
that
it
diet,
and
it
would be prudent
It is also
and willing to abide by it. In such we would recommend that the method
i.
him a
purgative.
advisable of Girard be practised,
e.
to inclose the
(suffi-
duce death in the part) pushed high up against the abdominal ring, and then to reseason, previous however to the flies becom- move the testicle, being very careful to ing troublesome, is the proper time for the avoid injimng any portion of intestine in performance of the operation upon all valu- the operation. When a discovery is made able horses and be careful that it be not of the existence of hernia after an opening
;
be done when no influenza or strangles rage, as we have found the effects of castration render a horse very obnoxious to any prevalent disease. The advanced spring
tunica vaginalis within the clams
ciently tight to retain them, but not to pro-
been have a favorable effect on the future coating of the horse, independent of the circumstance, that at a period of change the constitution is not favorable to any unusual excitement. " Castration is performed in various ways,
until after the wdnter coat has
done
has been already made for the

tinue his process, and castrate
say,
;
common
pur-
shed,
which
will
pose of castration, should the operator con?
We should
by no means but, on the contrary, we would greatly prefer the method recommended by Mr. Pervicall, firmly to unite the lips of the external wound by suture,
but in
all
it
expresses the removal of the allowinsr the testicle itself to assist in block-
A DICTIONARY.
iiig
263
up
the passage
the inflammation
with a hope also that ear or muzzle rubbed, or even by the twitch caused by the excision if not, the rope may be carried actually
might altogether stop up the scrotal com- round each fetlock, which then acts like a munication with the abdomen. But, in the hobble and this rope may be gradually appalling case of immense protrusion of tightened: tliis last, however, is a very ques]Vlr. Cole- tionable method, and the others therefore intestine, what is to be done ?
;
in such a case, proposes to make an ought to be long tried before it is resorted opening near the umbilicus, large enough to in this way people have succeeded with
man,
and thus di-aw in the bowels. jNIr. Percivall would prefer dilating the external ring but the testicle must be very firmly retained, and even permanently
to introduce the hand,
:
very refractory colts

able assistants, and,
but
it
requires very
if possible,
the
man
who
has been used to the individual colt

In either way, as soon
should be present.
of
it
fixed against the dilated ring, or the bowels as the rope is fixed, with a
man
to each
end
would
again
descend.
The
intestines
in
behind the
colt, let
them, by a sudden
probably would
become
inflated
any and
forcible effort in concert,
approxunate
however,
it
such case.
"
As unbroken young
horses are the
Ms liind legs most Mm. Before

is free
to his fore,
and thus throw
the colt
is cast,
usual subjects of this operation, and as such should be endeavored to ascertain that he
often have not yet been bridled, if a colt cannot be enticed with oats, etc., he must
"
from strangles and herma. Being satisfied that no hernia
exists
on
be driven into a corner between two steady either side, proceed to cast the colt, tm-ning horses where, if a halter carmot be put on, him, not directly on the left side, but prinat least a running hempen noose can be got cipally inclining that way and, if possible, round his neck but, which ever is used, it let the croup be very slightly elevated it is should be flat, or the struggles, which are usual to place him directly flat on the left
;
often long and violent, may bruise the neck, side, but the above and produce abscess or injury. When his Next secure the near
exertions have tired him, he
is
more convenient.
may
leg with a piece be then of hempen tackle, having a running noose

;
Mnd
tMs not being at hand, should be engaged while the hobbles are make use of the flat part of a hempen halput on, if possible if not, a long and strong ter, which should for safety be put on becart-rope, having its middle portion formed fore the hobble of that leg is removed as
led to the operating spot
;
here his attention or, in default of
into a noose sufficiently large to take in the
be readily done, if the hobbles having head and neck, is to be slipped on, with the shifting or screw D's, as described in castknotted part applied to the counter or breast ing, are made use of. Every requisite being the long pendant ends are passed back- at hand, the operator, having Ms scalpel
the fore legs, then carried ready, should place himself behind the round the hind fetlocks brought forward horse, as the most convenient way to peragain on the outside, run under the coUar- form his mampulations and, firmly gi-asprope a second time carried backward on ing the left testicle with his left hand, and the outer side of all, and extended to the drawing it out so as to render the scrotum full length in a direct line behind the animal. tense, he should make an incision lengthThus fettered, Mr. PercivaU says his liind ways, from the anterior to the posterior feet may be drawn under him toward the part of the bag. The resistance of the elbows it has been, however, often found cremaster muscle has to be overcome bethat, at the moment the rope touches the fore the testicle can be forced to the bottom legs, the colt either kicks and displaces the of the scrotum and this is the more readily rope, or altogether displaces himself; but accomplished if the anrnmal's attention be his attention can generally be engaged by engaged. The incision may be earned at one fore leg being held up, or by having his once through the integuments, tlie tMn dar; ; ;
; ;
may
ward between
: ;
264
tos expansion,
testicles,
A DICTIONARY.
and the vaginal coat of the determine on the part where the
:
division of
with a sweep of the scalpel
but the cord

civall's
is
to take place.
'
To
left
use Mr. Perit is
with one less dexterous at the operation, it win be more prudent to make the first incision through the scrotum and dartus only, to the required extent and then to do the same by the vaginal coat, thus avoiding to wound the testicle, which would produce violent resistance, and give unnecessary
;
words,
it
be
too long,
apt to hang out of the
wound
afterward,
and retard the process of union;' on the other hand, if it be cut very short, and the arteries happen to bleed afresh after it has been released from the clams, the operator will find it no easy task to recover it. The We, however, take this opportunity natural length of the cord, which will mainly pain. of noting, that cases have occurred, when depend on the degree of the descent of the the tunica vaginalis was divided, no testicle gland, will be our best guide in this particfollowed firm adhesions between this tuiric ular. The place of section determined on and and the tunica albviginea having retained it marked, close the clams sufficiently tight to fast. In such cases the scalpel must be retain firm hold of the cord, and to effectuemployed to free the testicle, by dissecting ally stop the circulation within it. There When no are now two modes of making the division it away from the vaginal sac. such obstruction occurs, the testicle, if the the one is to sever it with a scalpel, and opening be sufficiently large, will sUp out then to sufficiently sear the end of it as to but the operator must be prepared at the prevent a flow of blood. The other, and moment of so doing to expect some violent in some respects the preferable method, is struggles, more particularly if he attempt to employ a blunt-edged iron, which is to to restrain the contractions of the cremas- divide by little crucial sawings, so that, ter, and by main force to draw out the tes- when the cord is separated, it shall not prePreparatory to this, therefore, the sent a uniform surface, but ragged edges, ticle. twitch should be tightened the attendants, which will perfectly close the mouths of the especially the man at the head, must be on vessels. This done, loosen the clams sufthe alert and the testicle itself, at the time ficiently to observe whether there be any of this violent reti'action of the cremaster, flow of blood gently wipe the end of the should be merely held, but not dragged in cord also with the finger, as sometimes an opposition to the contraction. If the clams accidental small plug gets within the vessel; have been put on over the whole, according this had better be removed at the time. to Mr. Percivall's method, they will assist Retain a hold on the clams a few minutes
;
;
in retaining the retracting parts but they longer and, whUe loosening them gradumust not be used with too much pressiue. ally, observe to have an iron in readiness The resistance having subsided, the clams again to touch the end of the cord, if any must now be removed or, if they have blood makes its appearance. Satisfied on not been previously in use, they must now this point, sponge the parts with cold water
;
be taken in hand, and, having been prepared by some tow being wound round them, should be placed easily on the cord, whUe time is found to free from the grip of the pincers the vas deferens, or spermatic tube,
no
sort of external application is necessary,

less
still
cord,
any resin seared on the end of the which can only irritate, and will never
adhere.
On
the after-treatment
much
dif-
ference of opinion has existed, and even yet
which
mis.
is
seen continued from the epididy- exists.
The powerful evidence
of
accumu-
Goodwin informs us, cut it through when they operate. Humanity is much concerned in its removal
Russians, Mr.
The
lated facts has
now
convinced us of the
and propriety of some motion for newly castrated horse, as a preventive from pressure, because of the excess of of local congestion such practice is compain felt when it is included. It is neces- mon in most countiies, and seems salutary
necessity
the
;
sary, before the final fLxing of the clams, to in
all.
Hurtrel d'Arboval, thus impressed,
A DICTIONARY.
265
and the clam is an placed well above the epididymis, on the hour and it is a general plan in France to cord. The operation, performed in either walk such horses in hand an hour night and way, requires us to provide ourselves with a morning. IVIr. Goodwin, in proof of its scalpel, a pair of clams, a pair of long pinnot being hurtful, informs us that whole cers, made purposely to bring the ends of studs of horses, brought to St. Petersburg!! the clams together, and some waxed string. to be operated on, are immediately travelled The clams may be formed of different lands back a certain portion of the distance, night of wood but the elder is considered the and morning, until they arrive at home. best, and generally made use of. To make We have, therefore, no hesitation in recom- a clam, we procure a branch of old and dry mending a moderate degree of motion in elder, whose diameter should be about an inch, and whose length should be from five preference to absolute rest. " The French method of castration is advo- to six inches of course, the dimensions cated by Mi\ Goodwin and it is sufficient must at all times be proportioned to the that it receives his recommendation to en- size of the cord we have to operate on. At it is rendered the more the distance of half an inch from each end, title it to attention so, as he observes on the method in general a small niche, sufficiently deep to hold the use among us, that the operation per- string, must be made, and then the wood formed by the actual cautery always in- should be sawed through the middle lengthEach divided surface should be duces, more or less, symptoms that often ways. become alarming; and that it cannot be planed, so as to facilitate the opening of performed on the adult without incumng the clams, either when about to place them more swelling and severer consequences on or take them off. The pith of the wood than attend other methods of operation. If is then to be taken out, and the hollow J ever use the actual cautery, it is for the should be filled with corrosive sublimate and sake of expedition, and then only on a flour, mixed with sufficient water to form it Some persons are not in the yearling, or a two-year old but I am re- into a paste. solved never to employ it again on an habit of using any caustic whatever then, adult.' These observations, as emanating of course, scooping out of the inside of the from such a source, must be deemed im- clam is not necessary notwithstanding, the portant. Ml-. Goodwin then offers the de- caustic, inasmuch as it produces a speedier scription of the French method of operating, dissolution of the parts, must be useful, and Castration, by ought not to be neglected.' The addition from Hurti-el d'Arboval. means of the clams, is the method in genof the caustic, however, Mr. Goodwin oberal use, if not the only one now employed jects to with great reason, remarking, that it is the most ancient, since it was recom- unless it be a very strong one, and therefore mended by HierocUus among the Greeks. dangerous to employ, it cannot be of any It is performed in two ways, the testicle use to parts compressed and deprived of being covered or uncovered. In the former, circulation and Life. He further informs us the exterior of the scrotum, formed by the that he has operated in six cases in successkin and dartos muscle, is cut through, and sion with the same effect, without any esthe testicle is brought out by dissecting charotic matter whatever. An experimental away the laminated tissue, the gland being case of Mr. PercivaU's terminated fatally: covered by the tunica vaginalis the clam by the use of caustic the cord was greatly is then placed above the epididymis, outside inflamed, as high as the ring, and which the external peritoneal covering, of the cord. unquestionably produced the unfortunate In the uncovered operation, the incision is result. The covered operation,' continues made through the servus capsule of the tes- Mr. Goodwin, is the one that I am about ticle the tunica vaginalis being divided. to advocate, and which differs only inso-
recommends the
horse,
immediately
after the testicle presents itself,
the operation, to be led out to

;
walk
for
'
'
'
'
266
A DICTIONARY.
much, that the scrotum and dartos muscle as a safe and less painful process than the must be cautiovisly cut through, without emasculation of the horse. It consists in a
dividing the tunica vaginalis.
sieur Berger,
It
was Mon-
longitudinal section through the scrotum,

dartos,
who was
accidentally at
my
and vaginal
sheath, so as to expose
is
house when I was about to castrate a horse, and who, on my saying that I should probably do it with the cautery, expressed his surprise that I should perform the operation
in
the cord, from which the vas deferens
to
be separated and severed from the artery and
There is a certain consent of parts, by which the sympathy of an organ remains

vein.
any other way than on the plan generally after its functional offices are apparently Being a stranger destroyed. There can be little doubt but approved of in France. to it, he kindly consented to preside at the the nervous excitement would continue, the operation, and, after seeing liim perform on vein and artery remaining entire. There
the near testicle, I did the
right, but, of course,
cility.
same on
the
fa-
are
certain nice conditions of the

;
organ
not with the same
necessary for propagation
thus, the horse
After opening the
scrotum, and
who
retains his testicles within his abdoall
dissecting through the dartos,

readily
which
is
very men, possesses
the roguish qualities of

:
done by passing the knife lightly him with one perfectly evolved he is lustover its fibres the testicle, and its covering, ful, and can cover, but is seldom fruitful. the tunica vaginalis, must be taken in the Of the morbid consequences of castration right hand, while the left should be em- we have little to say by early evacuations, ployed in pushing back the scrotum from green food, a loose box, a cool air, moderate and, having your assistant clothing, but particularly by walking exerits attachments ready, as before, with the clam, it must be cise, swellings of the parts may be preventplaced well above the epididymis, and great- ed if not, bleed and foment should super pressure is, of course, necessary, as the puration follow, and sinuses form, ti-eat as directed under those heads and if tetanic vaginal covering is included in the clam.'
; :
;
"
Mr. Goodwin further observes, that in symptoms start up, refer to that
article.
Russia he has seen hundreds of horses op- There has been lately practised in India a erated on, even after the human fashion, novel mode of castration, which is said to be
with safety and, he remarks, it certainly the invention of a Boer settled at the Cape produces less pain, the animal loses less of Good Hope. The cord is exposed in the from the cord the artery is flesh and condition, and is sooner recovered usual manner than when operated on by the actual cautery. singled out this vessel is scraped through
;
" Castration by ligature is a painful, bar-
with a coarse-edged blunt knife, when the
barous, and very dangerous practice
and other constitutents of the cord are cut away, This method consists in inclosing the testicles and scro- and the operation is finished. tum within ligatures, until raortj|ication oc- is much praised by those who have adopted It is practised by it, and is said to be always attended with ciu-s, and they drop off. some breeders on their young colts, but it success. Hru'trel d'Arboval's acis always hazardous, and disgracefully cruel. "Lithotomy. The substance of the testicle in some coun- count of the progress of lithotomy in veteriThe tries is also broken down either by rubbing, nary practice commences in 1774. or otherwise by pressure between two hard second case was successfully operated on in bodies this is practised in Algiers, instead 1794 and at later periods other veterinary In moof excision, and tetanus is a frequent con- surgeons have also performed it. In Portugal they twist nodactyles there are two methods of opersequence of it. round the testicle, and thus stop the circu- ating for the stone one through the rectum,
:
'
lation of the gland.
Division of the vas the other through the bladder.

it is
The
first,
deferens has been performed,

success,
said,
on many animals
and
is
with which consists in lying open the bladder by proposed a longtitudinal incision made through the
A DICTIONARY.
parietes of the part of the rectum adherent thin skin of the perineum, to
it,
267
by means of a
;
straight bistoury,
its
:
is is
smooth externally and marked with a raphe densely cellular

;
easily practised
but in
consequences
internally
2ndly, adhering to the tissue,
dangerous in the extreme in fact, it is an the faschial covering, derived from the fasoperation never to be adopted but in a case chia superficialis abdominis, wliich has here where the magnitude of the stone precludes become fibrous it forms the common en:
its
extraction through the neck of the blad- velope to the parts vmderneath,
der.
In
all
other cases, lithotomy
and is closely by the connected with the corpus musculosum urethrse

:
is to be pursued. For its performance, are required a straight probe-pointed bistoury, a whalebone fluted staff, and a pair of forceps curved at the extremities. The animal should, if practicable, be main-
urethra
3rdly, the corpus
musculosum
urethrce,
that penniform
band of
fleshy fibres
which
springs by
tuberosities
two branches from the

embracing the sphincter
;
ischiatic
ani,
and
tained in the erect posture.
The
tail
concealing the arteries of the bulb whence plaited they unite, and proceed to envelop the
urethra: 4thly, the corpus spongiosum urethrce,
the part immediately covered by the muscular envelope, and which here is bulbous. It is more particularly worthy our remarlv, from two arteries penetrating the bulb, which come from without the pelvis, it onward into the bladder. Now, placing ascending obliquely outward to reach the the back of the bistoury within the groove part 5thly, the suspensory ligaments of the of the sound, by gliding the knife forwards, penis, pursuing the course of, and adhering the pelvic portion of the urethra, and also to, the tendinous union of the erectores. the neck of the bladder, become slit open An attention to the relative position of these the latter in two places, in consequence of parts will demonstrate the advantages of a second cut being made in withdrawing the lateral oblique incision over one made The opening made being directly along the raphe by pursuing the the bistoury.
: :
round on the right quarter, the operator feels for the end of the staff introduced up the urethra, and makes an incision directly upon it, from above downwards, an inch and a half or two inches in length. Next, he introduces the sound, and passes
carried
and
considered of sufficient dimensions, the oper-
latter,
we
necessarily cut through the sus-
ator introduces the forceps into the bladder, pensory ligaments
and
seizes the calculus,
one hand being up ing thereby the

in so doing.
arteries
and into the bulb, woundwhereas, by the

;
the rectum, to aid
him
The
former,
it
all
this
danger
is
avoided, besides
forceps clasping the stone are
now
to be that
renders the operation
more simple
this
and with a vacillating sort of movement of the hand from side to side, in order more easily to surmount any difficulties in the passage, and the more effectually to avoid contusion or laceration. M. Girard tells us, That the cut
withdrawn, but with gentleness
; '
and
facile.
" Tracheotomy.
Cases occur when

;
operation
the
is
required
as in strangles,
through the pelvic portion of the urethra ought always to be made obliquely to one
side
;
the operator should hold his bistoury
in such a direction that its cutting edge be
turned toward the angle of the thigh. By this procedure we shall gain easier access to
the bladder
;
and not only avoid wounding

itself,
tumors tlureaten suffocation, or any substance has remained unswallowed in the oesophagus, the pressure of which obstructs respiration. In a distressing case of gunpowder bursting immediately under a horse's nose, the eflects of which tumefied his mouth and nostrils, so as to prevent free inspiration, the animal owed his life entirely to our excising a portion from the tracheal rings, about ten inches below the
when when
the rectum, but also the artery of the bulb, angle of the throat. as well as the bulb
The
operation
is
a very
or
and suspensory simple one, and may consist
either in a
ligaments of
the penis.'
The
parts
cut longtitudinal section
made through two
through in the operation
are, 1st, the fine
three of the rings, or a portion, occupying
268
about an inch round,
proper mode,
A DICTIONARY.
may be
excised from failed.
The probang for the horse, however,
the anterior cartilaginous substance.
The
can be done, however, is to make a circular opening with a very nan'ow knife, removing a portion of two cartilages, or taking a semicircular piece from each and this last, although it is seldom
it
;
when
performed,
is
by
far the best

first
method
the
integuments should be
divided in the
exact centre of the neck, three or four inches
below the obstruction; then the skin and

tissues should be sufficiently separated to
allow a tube adapted to the size of the trachea to be introduced the tube having an acute turn and a rim, which must be fur;
nished with holes for the adaptation of tapes

to secure
it
around the neck.
There are
several instruments of this sort in use, of
from that used for the cow. formed after the fashion of the one adopted by the human practitioner, consisting of a pliable piece of whalebone, having a sponge tied to one end. The operation being determined on may be practised standing if the swelling be large, no fear need be entertained about cutting important organs, as the enlargement will push them on one side. Cut down, therefore, directly upon the centre of the impacted substance. If the horse be cast, which is quite unnecessary, have him of course thrown with his left side uppermost. It will also be necessary to command a good light. The part of the neck chosen for the opening must of course be governed by the obstructing mass. A
differs materially
It is
;
which that adopted by the French, or the section should be made throiigh the integuone invented by ]\Ii". Gowing of Camden- ments and cellular tissue beneath them,
Town,
is
to be preferred.
The operation
stricture
right into the oesophagus, if possible with

If
has been also performed in cases of roaring, one cut, and into the centre of the pipe.
under an idea of dividing the
which
this
be not done at once, and

it,
it
requires
to
impeded
respiration
but, unless the exact dexterity so as to effect

it
mind
some make all

opentis-
situation of this were discovered,
would
future incisions in a line with the
first
be but an experimental attempt. " (Esophagotomy. It was long thought that a wound in the CEsophagus must be necessarily fatal, but we have now sufficient proofs to the contrary on record; so that
ing
as
it is
important that the cellular

little
sue should be
interfered with.
The
so,
it
oesophagus, fairly cut into the impactment,
should jiimp forth
should
it
not do
do
not manipulate, or attempt to force
out,
from cutting into the but enlarge the opening, and the substance it is necessary but will come through when that is long enough it is an operation requiring skill and anato- but no fingering could compel its exit while mical knowledge and its future results are the opening is too small. The end gained sometimes very serious. The cases that for which the incision was made in the call for esophagotomy are the lodgment of oesophagus, the wound may be then closed An by the interrupted sutures, each holding a accidental substances within the tube. apple once so lodged was removed by inci- small piece of tow above the orifice, and sion by a veterinary surgeon at Windsor. having their ends hanging out of the exterCarrots, parsneps, beets, etc., are liable to nal opening, which should also be brought produce such obstruction when not sliced. together by sutures. The after-treatment Too large a medicinal mass also has lodged should be, to interdict all dry food the anithere and a voracious eater has, by at- mal ought to subsist on very thick gruel for tempting to swallow too large a quantity of three, foiar, or five days. If the condition not saUvated bran or chaff, produced an ob- appears to suffer much, allow malt mashes, struction which pressed on the trachea and and when so doing watch the wound and
are not deterred
we
esophageal tube
when
threatened suffocation.
struction of this kind
In
all
cases of ob- if the matters taken in are seen to ooze out,
we wUl suppose that a wash them away frequently with warm probang well oiled has been previously at- water, to prevent lodgment, which might tempted to be passed, and has completely encourage sinuses to form and after each
;
: ;
A DICTIONARY.
washing, syringe with some very mild stimu- almost impossible
lant, as
:
269
here,
by depriving the
a very
weak
solution of sulphate of foot of sensibility,
we
deprive the horse of
zinc
{icliite vitriol), etc. etc.
" Neurotomy.
has now instance the dressings can be effectively nerves of the foot. stood the test of very extensive application applied, and the healthy processes cannot
Division of Neurotomy
And,
if
that
sentient
which
is
injurious to
him
it
;
the sore
it-
the
self is often
amended by
but in every
our writers
of
offer
innumerable proofs of
its
be at
"
all
suspended.
respect to whether the lower or
restoring almost useless animals to a state
With
much
it
utility.
there are chances upper incision ought to have the preference,

cir-
that
may
occasion such injury as to the decision should be guided by the

it is
hasten the end of some horses,

in such as the disease
usually cumstances, as regards the intensity
and
The operation would have done the the seat of the disease. Having commonly leaves, for a considerable time, no distant period. stated thus much in its favor, it must not some enlargement around the spot, the be supposed that we recommend it as an effects of the adhesive matter interposed unqualified benefit, even where it succeeds between the severed portions of nerve and best. No neurotomized horse ever after which can be remedied by no application This bulging remains so goes with the same freedom, nor with equal of bandages. and, however cunsafety, as he did before the operation was long as life continues performed indifference to the nature of the ningly the incision be concealed, this can ground gone over, is said to have fractured be felt with ease, and tells the truth ever legs it is quite common to batter the feet after the operation has been performed. to pieces and, although horses have hunted Such a circumstance has, however, led afterwards, and hackneys have carried their some practitioners, when it has been wished riders long distances, yet it is more calcu- to make the upper section, and yet to avoid lated to prove beneficial to carrriage than the chance of detection, to operate on the to saddle horses. This we believe to be a metacarpal nerve on the outside, and on the just statement of its merits but there are pastern or plantar nerve on the inside. benefits which it offers to the animal of a "Mode of performing the operation. The more extensive and constitutional kind. situation of the section through the sldn Those gained by the bodily system gener- being determined on, a guide to which may ally have been in some cases very marked: be gained from the perforatus tendon, and thus, an aged and crippled stallion, from the having firmly secured the leg to be first irritatioa constantly kept up, became so operated on, cut the hair from the part. emaciated as to be unable to fecundate This being done, and the exact course of but, being relieved from a constant state of the artery being ascertained by its pulsasuffering by neurotomy, improved in health tion, make a section close to the edge of and condition, and was again used to cover. the flexor tendon. Let the cut be near, but It happened, also, that a mare similarly cir- rather behind, the artery, if below the fetcumstanced ceased to feel oestrum The cellular substance being but lock joint. after neurotomy it again returned, and she cleared away will bring the vessels into resumed her character of a brood mare. It view, and the nerve will be readily disappears to act with most certainty when a tinguished from them by its whiteness. portion of the irritated nerve is excised. Elevating it from the vessels, and its memOne case has actually occurred where the branous attachments, by means of a crooked tetanus, occasioned by a wound in the needle armed with thread, pass a bistoury foot, was arrested and removed by neuroto- under it, as near to the upper angle of the my. It also promises much in the painful section as possible. The violent spasm the state of some cankers, where the irritation division of the nerve produces may be has rendered the application of dressings somewhat lessened by pressing the nerve
same
for at
;
: ;
270
;
A DICTIONARY.
between the finger and the thumb when Having introduced tins knife, he turns the an opportunity may be taken, either with cutting edge downward, and with it incises
the scalpel or scissors, of dividing
it
;
then, the enlargement, sending
the blade
right
taking hold of the lowermost portion be- through the periosteum, and also tlirough tween a pair of forceps, excise about three- the substance of the exostosis, if it be not
fourths of an inch of
finished, if
its
trunk.
Having too
solid for the knife to penetrate.
This
both feet are affected, proceed latter fact is only to be ascertained by acto operate upon the contrary side of the tual experience, and no opinion formed other leg after which turn the horse, and after an external examination can be of any repeat the operations on the like parts of value such being much more the guess of
;
;
each leg as they come in succession. The a pretender than the judgment of a surgeon. integuments may be now drawn neatly The age of the animal may be some guide, together, and seciured by a twisted suture, but even this it is better not to depend upon
the whole being
light compress.
It is tru.e that young horses properly covered by a too entirely. Tie up the head for a day freely cast forth exostoses, which aged anior two, after which put on a cradle keep mals mostly absorb but this rule, though the horse very quiet and low give mashes very general, has exceptions, and by no to open the bowels but we should avoid means is to be absolutely depended upon. " The enlargement being cut through, next phi/sickinsc, from the fear that gripmg might
; ; ;
;
occur,
which would make him
restless, or
take a seton needle armed with a tape, and
probably require exercise.

" Periosteotomy.
This operation
draw
it
through the channel already

its
made
consists tie a knot "at either
end of the tape, large

being pulled through
thrown upon his side, and the leg to be operated upon released from the hobble, and extended upon a sack this is done filled with refuse hay or straw by means of a piece of webbing passed round the hoof, and the end given to a man
in having the horse
:
enough to prevent
is
the opening at either end,

over.
and the business

It is,
The
some
affair is
very simple, and the

let up.
horse
may
be at once
cases,
how-
ever, in
and only
in some, of so
to hold,
who
member. and feels
benefit that the horse, being thrown dead lame,' gets up and trots off quite The operator then kneels down sound. However, ere you adopt the operapulls rather violently at the
'
much
for the exostosis he intends to per- tion, apprise the
form periosteotomy upon. This may be a splint or a node, and commonly exists upon the metacarpal portion of the fore limb. The operator having foimd the excrescence, snips just below it with a pair of rowelling scissors. He then takes a blunt seton needle and drives it through the cellular tissue, and immediately over the enlargement. Next, another slit in the skin, above the exostosis, is made with the rowelling scissors, and through this last opening the point of the seton needle is forced and then withdrawn. Into the free space thus made a curved Imife is introduced the point of this knife is blunt, and the blade curves upward, the cutting part being below. Some persons use a very diminutive blade, but the editor prefers a rather large instrument, as being more under the command of the hand.
:
owner of the risk incurred, and that it is by no means a certain cure. Leave the choice with him, but be sure and tell him the openings made for the entrance and exit of the seton commonly leave a blemish behind them and where the seton
;
travelled, often there
remains a thickening,
which
"
it
may
require
months
to obliterate.
The
fro
after part of the
treatment consists
in merely having the seton daily
moved
to
though some persons apply an active blister all over the parts immediately in the neighborhood of the seton under
and
the idea that the vesicatory renders the
operation of greater efficacy, which however

is
very questionable.
When
perioste-
otomy acts at all, it mostly does so at once and when its benefits are not immediate, it
is
better to
after blemish, rather
withdraw the seton to prevent than hazard further and
A DICTIONARY.
useless treatment
271
stallion, particularly in
by the application of a mare, or
fractures
stimulant to skin already deprived of any of the fore extremities.
Professor Dick, of
connection with the deeper seated structures. the Edinburgh Veterinary College, furnishes There a case sent to him by one of his pupils, to ''Division of the flexor tendon.
are so
many
accidents and diseases that the following effect
'
performed amputa;
produce contraction of the flexor tention upon the cow on the 7th of July after dons, that we only wonder we do not more having properly secured the animal, and
may
which we should applied a tourniquet above the carpus, I made a circular incision through the integspau-ing of being able to aflbrd relief, ad- uments round the leg, a little below the
often
meet with them
certainly do, but that
the attendants, de-
The operation con- carpus and, having separated the skin so as making a longitudinal incision of to allow of its being pushed up a little, I about three inches in length along the inner cut through the sinews, and lastly sawed dissecting each off* the stump the parts are now comlateral edge of the tendon
vise their destruction.
sists
;
in
portion from
its cellular
attachments, so as pletely whole, although she has been going

;
nerve, artery, and tendons. at gi'ass aU the time and, now that she has This opening will allow the perforans to be got the advantage of a cork stump, makes freed from the perforatus, when a division a wonderful shift for herself, and yields a should be made by a scalpel applied to its good supply of millv to her owner.' Mr.
to expose the
surface.
It is
evident that this should take Dick also notices another case of amputation
;
or adhesions of the fore leg of a two-year-old heifer and which may have permanently connected the of a third, where the hind leg was removed tendon with the neighboring parts any above the tarsus. Such operations have lesser attachments will be broken through, occasionally occurred from time immemoby forcing back the foot to the just position. rial, with a few enterprising characters. By Mr. Dick this was done 'by placing his We have heard of them, but they were knee against the front or projecting part of mostly regarded as mere matters of curiosity the pastern, at the same time laying hold or wonder and therefore were not imitated. of the foot with one hand and the upper We shall, however, probably ere long have part of the leg with the other, and using them more common, in cows at least for, considerable force and this appears to be occurring below the carpus and tarsus, they necessary, in order to break any adhesions are as easily performed as nicking or dockthat may have formed.' The limb should ing and there is no doubt but, were a holnow be placed in a poultice and, if any low padded stump applied, such low operafear of future contraction should arise dm-- tions might be prudent in many cases. ing the cure, lengthen the toe of the shoe Fractures, with great comminution of bone,
; ; ;
place below
any thickening,
proper to the foot operated on.

exercise after the
first
Some
slow considerable ravages of disease within the
week may be
allowed, foot, or extensive gangrene, are the cases
but previously to that the horse should be which might call for amputation. Of the confined to a stall, during which the bowels method of amputation little need be added
must be kept open with mashes.

^Âmputations.
These have been hitherto

tail,
to the above.
are, the fixing
The
principal practical points
of a tourniquet of sufficient
its
confined principally to the

other
parts
the ears,
and
force,
which should be padded to make
of minor importance in the principal pressure on the leaduig arterial animal frame but veterinary surgery now trunks, while its general circumference wiU
;
takes a wider
field,
amputated with
horned
the
cattle
still
and the extremities are act on the smaller vessels a ring should be certainty of making cut lightly below the intended place of opera: ;
serviceable for the pur- tion, only through the integuments

;
which,
ad-
pose of yielding milk
and, without doubt,
when
separated
for
from
six
their
cellular
same might be done with
the brood hesions
about
inches,
should be
272
turned back
then be
talcing
;
A DICTIONARY.
and a
cii'cular incision
may
etc.,
geons.
In India
it is
applied over the abdo-
made through
the muscles,
men
for the cure of sciiThosity of the liver.
up by ligatiire such vessels, both venous and arterial, as display a disposition The section thus for much hemorrhage. made, free the bone from the soft parts by the scalpel, where the adtierences are very intimate and having by means of a crucial bandage retracted the soft parts altogether above the bone, saw it through. Finally,
;
in veterinary practice has, by Mr. Coleman's pupils, been justified as only men wiU justify a favorite operation, the vhtues of which have been impressed upon their
Fii'ing
ininds by an eloquent teacher.
When Cole-
man was
the chief of the veterinary profes-
under his rule was used for any and every occasion. It was ridiculously principal vessels, supposed to act as a permanent bandage as effectually secure the when, bringing the soft parts and sldn over if a few stiokes with a heated iron could the bone, retain them there by proper band- destroy the elastic property inherent in the aging, which suffer to remain without dis- skin. It was the favorite styptic of these
sion, firing
;
turbance until the third or fourth day.

^^
Amputation of the Penis.

is
Amputation
:
practitioners,
and was applied to

as though
it
arteries (as
of the
itself
tail),
possessed udthin
of the penis
not
unknown among us
has been performed several times, and
found that no canula is open the m-ethra the force of the urinary in ulceration. It was called into action to flow brealdng down any incipent cicatriza- promote granulation, in broken knees and The sheath is first forced was also a favorite agent to check granulation of its orifice. back, and the penis brought forwârd to its tions, when they were too luxuriant. In whatever portion short, there was no folly which a hot iron did gi-eatest possible extent it is intended to remove is now cut through not cover. It has now happily fallen into Most modern practitioners will by means of an amputating knife when disuse. the remainder is retracted within the sheath, now confess that their chief reason for exerand little haemorrhage has afterwards oc- cising the iron is to satisfy the proprietor, cmTed, except at the time of passing the not to benefit the animal. After such an urine but there appears to have been no acknowledgment, who would submit to have alarming quantity of blood lost. his patient servant's sliin scored and burnt with red hot metal? 'Âmputation of the Tail, or Docking.
: ;
some medicinal virtue. It was used promote absorption, as in callus and was necessary to keep lilvcwise resorted to to check absorption, as
it
it is
to
We are
most happy to
state this filthy
and
It
iinnecessary operation
is
now discarded.
force,
" The mode of cauterization differs according to circumstances. As a general rule it
never consisted of more than the cutting off ought, of course, to be applied in the direc-
a portion of the stump with brute
and
tion of the hair,

:
by which the blemish

it
is
the cruel application afterwards of a hot lessened

iron to the small artery of the taU.
" Nicking.
but
this rule
cannot be arbitrarily
followed, although
We should be
ought to do away with
grateful that all the false pride of displaying the taste in

is
this
barbarous and dangerous process
no the
figures scored
longer numbered
ations.
It is
among the necessary
oper-
The Veterinary
;
College
upon a prostrate beast. recommends that

fired in perpendicular
so beset with accidents
which the limbs be always
no
one
skill
or prudence can prevent, that no lines
others advocate aU
manner of
;
fanci-
Some cast the horse many has a free will ought to mutilate a ful marks. horse by nicldng. surgeons perform standing. The irons used The practice of firing was not are of various shapes and dimensions. ^'Firing.
who
always confined to quadrupeds on the con- Some recommend the firing of aU things to be very light others persist there is no virtrary, it probably was first used on man and to this day in many counti'ies it is a tue in hot iron unless it burns very deep. very popular remedy among human sur- The operation consists in having irons of
;
;
A DICTIONARY.
273
some substance made red hot, and then tions seldom exist in the vicinity of each drawing them mechanically along, or twist- other therefore, when such an affection has ing them about upon the skin. The figures taken place in any part, and we wish to reare various, so is the depth of the incision. move it, we attempt to raise an artificial inBoth must be decided by the taste, judg- flammation in the neighborhood by means
;
of blisters which, if persevered in, destroy, ment, or heartlessness of the operator. This is an operation of veiy or at least lessen, the original one. Occa''Blistering. great utility, and is, perhaps, compared with sionally also we blister the immediate in;
its
is
benefits
and importance, the
safest that
flamed
part,
with an intention to hasten the
a vesicatory becomes suppurative process by increasing the acabsorbed through the pores of the skin, it tivity of the vessels as in deep-seated ab-
performed.
When
inflames the sensible cutis underneath
the scesses and also in those which attack glan-
therefore employ blisters, consequence of which is, an effusion of serum dular parts. through the part, which, in the human sub- to hasten the maturation of the tumors in When the flagging powers ject, elevates the cuticle into a bladder equal strangles.
to the surface inflamed, but in the horse, from vacillate
We
between resolution and suppuraof
the greater tenacity of the cuticular connection, as they often do in the phlegmonous
tions, it
becomes separated in the form of inflammations of glandular or

If the irritating
deep-
small distmct vesicles only.
seated parts, blisters

resolution, or they
cause be quickly removed, the serum
may be
by a
If
may either hasten the may add their influence

thus
re-absorbed, and the surface restored

slight effort of adhesive inflammation.
to
the
attempted suppuration, and

it
bring
to
maturity.
But we
carefully
the irritant act in a
still
minor degree, it sim- avoid, in other cases, applying a vesicant to
ply irritates the vessels of the cutis to an in- a part immediately in a state of active infiltration of fluid
through the sensible pores, flammation: particularly
we
should avoid
but produces no desquamation of cuticle what is too often done, that of blistering such has been called, a sweating blister. over the tendons, ligaments, and articula-
But when, by continued

is
irritation, the cutis
tory surfaces
of a tumid
limb, laboring
exposed, suppuration succeeds, and the under a congested state of the parts from
is fully blistered.
Here we should by causmoting absorption in combating deep- ing a greater deposit of lymph, and by hasseated inflammations, and in aiding others. tening its organization into an injurious As a stimulus to the absorbents, they act bond of union between the inflamed parts. beneficiaUy in the removal of injinious The vesicatory or blister, for general use in deposits, as the coagula remaining after veterinary medicine, as a simple stimulant, inflammatory lessons. But it is to be re- should be principally composed of Spanish marked, that when any existing deposit is of flies. Cheaper substitutes are used, but
part
The
salutary action excess of vascular action.
of blisters
is
exerted in several
;
ways
in pro-
do great injury were
we
to blister,
long continuance, or
is
osseous,
it
requires they irritate violently
in extensive inflam-
that the action of the vesicatory be kept up. matory afl'ections, they are on this account
Mercurial blisters have been thought to have a superior influence in accelerating absorption. Mercurials, rubbed in some weeks or days previously to blistering, are certainly great assistants, and should always be employed in the treatment of obstinate osseous
or ligamentry enlargements.
Blisters are
perfectly inadmissible
requires anything
and wherever a case more it will be noted.

;
The mode of
blistering with
the Spanish
hair should
fly is sufficiently
known.
;
The
be cut or shorn as close as possible from
around
the
part
the
blistering
matter
should then be well rubbed in for ten or

If the
very important aids, in inflammatory affec- fifteen minutes.

tions, as counter-irritants, derived
pasterns
and
fet-
in
from a law locks are the parts to be bfistered, previous the animal economy, that two inflamma- to rubbing in the ointment, smear some lard,
; ;
274
A DICTIONARY.
tallow, or melted suet, over the heels,
and
this plan.
a blister be necessary,
blister.
it re-
within the hollow at the back of the small quires

pastern.
all its activity.
This wiU often
prevent
some
blister-
'^
Aminoniacal
Spanish
flies
are
troublesome sores forming, from the
only efficacious
when
the animal can afford
ing ointment falling on these sensitive parts. to wait their action, which is rather slow. While a blister is acting, the litter should In most of the acute diseases, the horse
be removed from under the

ticlde the legs,
feet, or it will
would
rise,
perish
before the blister began to
and
irritate
but, above
all,
wherefore resort has been had to boU-
the head ought to be most carefully secured, ing water and red-hot iron.
The
action of
two days and nights, to oppose lying these down, more especially to prevent the horse alone
for
last coarse
and brutal measures was controlled by the violence of the in;
biting
the blistered
part.
On
the
third ternal inflammation
and,
if
the practitioner
evening he
tinued,
may
be permitted to repose
l;e
was mistaken
in his estimate of the
imme-
but a prevention should even then
con- diate danger, extensive and lasting blemish
by means of what is called a cradle. was the consequence. have in the This apparatus may be bought at every liquor ammonia an agent quite as formidaturning shop or may be made of eight or ble as boiling water or heated iron, but it is ten pieces of round wood, an inch and a rather longer in displaying its force where;
We
half in diameter,
are strung at
and two feet long these fore, it allows time for watching its action, each end on a rope, and fas- and of checking it the instant it has suffi:
tened around the neck.
When
it
is in-
ciently blistered the skin.
It is
true the
tended to blister repeatedly, the efiects of fiquor ammonia upon the skin cannot be the first shoidd have subsided before the removed, neither need it be counteracted.
second is applied the scurf and scabs also Ammonia is like steam, only powerful be cleared away, and the part well washed when confined. The ordinary soap liniwith soap and water. In all cases, the third ment, if covered over, would, because of the or fourth day after the application the part ammonia it contains, produce a lasting should be thoroughly painted over by blemish but every veterinary surgeon knows means of a long haired brush (such as are how very harmless a i^reparation that is in use with pastry-cooks to glaze their when simply rubbed upon the surface. So, crusts) with lead liniment, which should be when we desire the active effects of liquor repeated every day; and when it is proposed ammonia, we double a blanket or rug four to tiurn a horse out, it should never be done or five times and hold it over the liquid.
: ;
until the
whole
It
blistered surface be quite

dirt, flies, etc.,
It
takes from ten to twenty minutes to raise

blister,
healed
otherwise
may prove
in
and
it
consequently can from time

;
hurtful.
remains to observe,
that, instead
to time be observed
and,
when
its
action
of repeated active blistering,
it is
some has reached the wished-for
point, all
we
cases preferable to keep
up a continual have to do, effectually to stop it, is to take slight irritation on the original blister by away the rug or blanket. That removed, means of stimulants, as iodine ointment, the free surface and the heat of the body mild blistering applications, etc. caution is occasions the ammoniacal vapor to be dishowever necessary to avoid forming an persed, and the animal is safe. " RoivelUiig. eschar, and thereby a permanent blemish Rowels act as foreign subbut when a blemish is not of consequence stances within the body they cause irritathis plan will be found often more effica- tion and suppuration, whereby more deep;
cious than firing, as in splints, spavins, etc. seated inflammations are supposed to be
Some
practitioners blister mildly one day,
removed
they are, however, often very
and on the next wash

there is
off the blistering convenient,
because they stand
as
sign-
matter, thereby saving loss of hair.
But boards
in
to
show
the proprietor that some-
more of apparent than
real
good
thing has been done.
The common mode
A DICTIONARY.
of
275
making a rowel is after the following last method of fastening is, however, often manner a slit is first made by means of objected to, from the danger of its catching the rowel scissors, on any part of the integ- in something, and being torn out, to the uments held between the finger and thumb; disfigrurement of the horse. "When a seton
:
with the handle of the scissors separate is placed in a sinuous track, for the purpose from its cellular connections a circle of two of inflaming, it is moved twice a day freor three inches in diameter, into which in- quently, and moistened each time with some
troduce something to prevent the reunion stimulant, as oil of turpentine, tincture of All setons require piece of circular leather, aloes and of benjamin. of the skin.
tolerably
common
changing
as
When they with a central hole, is a very daily cleaning and moving. substance used, but is objected to are required to act more quicldy, the tape
stifl",
by some on account of the

it
difficulty of
:
is
infused in terebinthinate of cantharides,
without injuring the skin

If
tow, or small pieces of black hellebore are sewn

it.
more
pliant, is irequently introduced into within
An
old material,
composed of
hair,
is
this
cavity.
the rowel runs freely,
it
woollen,
flax, or cotton,
and
also
should be dressed every day, by changing used instead of tape. Setons, however, are They are the plug, if of tow, and by cleansing it, if of small service in acute cases. of leather. No rowel should go mrdressed chiefly in use for disturbances of a chronic
beyond the second day,

the horse.
for the
comfort of description.
" Abstraction
They
are very favorite applica-
tions with farriers,
Blood is abstracted by openand therefore are fre- Artertotomy. quently abused, by being employed in aU ing the conducting vessels, arterial and veWhen taken from arteries, the cases indiscriminately they are now, how- nous. ever, falling into disuse, setons having almost process is called arteriotomy ; when by the
;
of Blood, or Bleeding.
superseded them.
" Setons, in their action, resemble
latter,
phlebotomy.
Some bleedings include

;
a very both these operations, as general scarificamild form of rowel, but are more conven- tions of the soft parts bleeding at the toe There is hardly point divisions of the vessels of the cornea, ient in their application. a part of the body where a seton may not etc., etc. Blood-letting is called local when be conveniently placed they have been put it is practised on or veiy near the affected around the eye they have also been entered part and it is supposed to act more imat the withers, and brought out between mediately than general bleeding, because it so exten- produces more effect with the loss of less the humerus and the sternum,
; : ;
;
can they be made. blood. Local bleeding is therefore usually In sinuous ulcers of the withers and of the practised on the minor branches of the neck, they may be placed; through the arteries and veins, as on the temporal artery, heels, in foot diseases, they have been in- the plate vein, the vena saphena, etc. serted. In cavernous sores, they are en- Leeches are a means of local bleeding not tered at the superior part, and are brought often used by us in veterinary practice but out at an inferior, so as to form a depending there is no reason whatever why they should
sive or so diminutive
;
The formation of a seton is very not be employed when applied to the eye, a skein of thread, or a piece of tape and occasionally to other parts also, they of a convenient size, may be used at the adhere readily, absti'acting blood rapidly, one end place a large knot; arm the eye and therefore might be valuable aids in
orifice.
;
simple
of a corresponding-sized seton needle with violent local inflammation. the free end of the tape
;
Cupping
is
introduce this into also practised in France and other parts of

the Continent with very large glasses, and
is
it
any proposed part, and, bringing it out at some other, either make a second knot, or tie the two ends of the tape together which
;
there supposed to act remedially in
many
local inflammations.
By
general bleeding
276
A DICTIONARY.
understand the depletion of the system moderate or slight flow of blood from the and this we practice in extensive palate may be obtained by light scarifica;
we
at large
inflammations.
"
The except under circumstances of the most Division of the temporal artery. proper spot for either its puncture or divi- urgent necessity, had better be avoided. " Bleeding by the toe is also arterior-phlesion is directly where the vessel leaves the
parotid gland, to curve
tions of the rugSB
but
all
bleedings here,
upward and forward botomy.

below
it
By no means
cut out a portion
around the jaw, a
little
its
condyle. of the sole at the point of the frog, wliich

;
but with a enough hav- very fine drawing-knife cut down exactly in ing been obtained, divide the trunk when, the line of union between the crust and the the receding portions becoming pressed by sole then, by punctm-ing the part with a the integuments, and lessening by then- lancet, a vast flow of blood may be obown contractility, the hemorrhage is stopped. tained, the benefits of which in some cases very marked, particularly in acute It should be punctm-ed by a lancet a fleam are
it
When
is
punctured,
usually affords frequently occasions abscess
much
blood
and in such
case,
may
can founder. If the blood should not flow with be readily made also either by a lancet or sufficient freedom, place the foot in warm scalpel. water the bleeding finished, cover the punc" Bleeding by the palate is also a species tm-e with some tow and a little tar, and There are, howof arterio-phlebotomy, and is a very favorite lightly tack on the shoe. spot for abstracting blood with most igno- ever, other methods of bleeding from the
fix itself in
the bone.
Its division
rant persons,who vehemently

in spasmodic colic or gripes,
it toe. Maver uses a drawing-lmife Ml". megrims. with a long curve, so that one sweep of In such cases, however, a want of knowl- the blade may cut a piece out of the This appears to us bad practice edge of the anatomy of the parts has occa- foot.
recommend
in
and
sioned a serious hemorrhage to occur
it
as
it
leaves
nature a space
to fUl
up,
may
prove a fatal one,
if
the artery proper instead of a simple incised
wound
to heal.
to the part be divided incompletely.
The Others take away none of the horn, but and nerve run near each merely make a slit through the outer coverother, on each side of the roof of the mouth, ing on to the vascular portion of the foot. so as to divide the inner surface of the hard The flap of horn they hold up so long as No they desire blood, by the insertion of a piece palate into three nearly equal portions. and when they have obtained other than a direct division of the vein of wood
palatine artery
;
should ever be
made
therefore,
when bleed- blood enough, they

it
take out the
wood so
as
ing
This last horny flap down. phmging a lancet or even a penknife in a method, of all others, appears to us the
is
determined on at this place, do
by
to let the
direct line across the rugae, one inch luithin easiest

the mouth, exactly betioeen the middle aiid
"
and the best. Sometimes the plantar vein
is
opened as
Scarifications are also occasecond nippers ; there these vessels form a a substitute. curve, which curve will then be divided, and sionally practised, which, of course, divide In will then yield tines or foiu" pints of blood. both venous and arterial branches.
the insti'ument enter too
side, as
much on one France extensive scarifications used to be about the middle of the second made into indiuations before the suppuraand longitudinal
divi- tive process
nipper, then a partial
sion
had commenced, which in some and the remedial wounds made were healed by alarming case, the section must be enlarged and deep- adhesive inflammation, or by healthy granened inwardly, that is, away from the teeth, ulation; the same method has also been which completely severs the vessel, and its occasionally practised here, but it is not
of the artery
may be made, and an hemorrhage may follow. In this
cases prevented that from going on;
retraction
will
stop the
hemorrhage.
A now often
attempted.
A DICTIONAEY.
" Phlebotomy, or the puncture of a
is
277
venous wards in company with the external ceurotid toward the middle of the neck it blood in veterinary practice, and may be becomes more superficial, and is now disemployed on any point of the body but tinctly seen progressing rather above and
branch,
the most usual
mode
of drawing artery
some
vessels
are
much more
frequently loithout the carotid artery and trachea, or
opened than others, and most of all the Bleeding by the thig-h vein. The jugular. saphena is a prominent vein, continued from the inner part of the hock, and may be opened by the fleam; but with much greater The safety and propriety by a lancet.
windpipe.
beloiu
The
carotid, therefore, in the

is
future coiu-se of the jugular,

little
situated a
and more deep-seated than the

is
vein.
The jugular
also separated from
the carotid by a slight muscular band, derived froiu the levator humeri.
is
Its further
opposite
leg
being held up, the operator track
marked
in the hollow formed
by
placing himself in front of the thigh, and the inferior edge
of the levator humeri,
steadying himself and the horse by placing where it is covered by the panniculus carone hand on the hock, may fix the vein nosus and integuments only when, having with the little finger of the other; while the nearly reached the jaw, it makes its well;
thumb and fore known division into two portions. Bleeding This vein should never by the jugular is usually practised with a be opened, save upon absolute necessity, as lancet or with a fleam. The proper spot it is often ti'oublesome to pin up. A horse for the puncture may be found anywhere has been cast for the trivial matter of stop- between twô inches and six from the division ping the haemorrhage. Bleeding from the of the vein this latitude is here mentioned, This vein is frequently opened because it is prudent to avoid punctiuing plate vein.
lancet held between the
finger punctures
it.
to abstract blood after injuries of the fore directly over a former bleeding-place,
extremities.
is
The
known
superficial brachial vein
a continuation of the superficial division

receives
of the metacarpal veins, and in the passage
upwards
more than one branch
its
principal trunli ascends along the inner side
of the radius.
It
may
also be well to refi-om
mark,
that,
when taking blood

arm
the
by the scar and enlargement it should also be avoided where a fittle knot in the course of the vein will sometimes denote the existence of one of the venous valves. But in all ordinary cases, where these hindrances do not appear, operate at two or three inches from the division of the vein which
:
superficial veins of the
or fore-arm, if
will be sufficiently evident
when it is
pressed
below the place punctm-ed. Avoid sufficient flow, the lifting up of the other operating low down in the neck, as there leg, by throwing the muscles of the jwmc- the vessel is deeper seated, and near to imtured one into action, will force the blood portant parts. " First moisten the hair and smootli it from the inner to the outer set and an increased quantity may be obtained. The down; then, steadying and enlarging the plate vein, or external thoracic, is often vessel with one hand, with the other plunge opened, as it emerges from behind the anu, the point of the lancet into the integuments, and is pinned up without any difficulty. so as just to punctiue them and the vein " Bleeding by the jugular vein. The situ- then, by a sUght turn of the wrist, carry the ation of this important vessel is well known, instrument obliquely forward to finish the but its internal connections are not so cut. For opening the smaller veins, the familiar, though such knowledge is essen- lancet should always be used. In all but
difficulty is experienced in
any
obtaining a on
tial to
The
right
the uniform safety of the operation. the practised hand, the fleam horse has only external jugular veins, a for bleeding from the jugular
is
the safest
it is
always
and a
left
the chest,
it
as each emerges from prudent to have the eye of the horse covis found deep-seated, and ap- ered unless the eye be covered, the horse
: :
;
one
proaching the trachea
it
then passes
for-
will be likely to ffinch at the
moment
of
; :
278
the stroke, and the puncture
in
A DICTIONARY.
may be made orifice, and had relays of men to hold it any place but where we wish. The hair there for eight-and-forty hours when it was being first wetted and smoothed, and the found the bleeding had stopped. The
;
fleam being retained in the
left
hand, the admission of
air is also
another serious ac-
unemployed fingers pressing on the vein so cident that now and then attends bleeding as to fix and swell the vessel let the point it sometimes happens from the sudden removal of the fingers or blood-can, or whatrest exactly in the middle of the swelling strike the fleam sufficiently hard to penetrate ever was used to distend the vessel by obA blood-stick is prefer- structing the return of the blood this being the skin and vem. suddenly taken away, allows the escape of able for the purpose of striking the fleam there is a vibration between two hard bodies the blood toward the heart, and occasions when they meet, which, in this instance, is a momentary vacuum, the air being heard favorable to a quick and moderate puncture to rush with a gurgling noise into the vein After the vein has been through the orifice it then mixes with the of the vein. opened, moderate pressure with the edge of blood, and occasions, in some instances, althe can which catches the blood is sufficient most immediate death. The animal begins to keep up the flow: it may also be en- to tremble he next staggers, and finally couraged by putting a finger within the falls in a state of convulsion if the quan;
: ; ;
mouth. The requisite quantity of tity of air taken in has been considerable, blood being drawn, remove the can. The death ensues. The remedy must, therefore, remaining process of securing the vessel is be instantaneous, and consists in again The sides of the opening the orifice, or making a new one, of equal importance. orifice are first to be brought in apposition, to gain an immediate renewed flow of without pincliing them, and without draw- blood, which will, in most cases, renovate ing them from the vein the same cautions the horse, who has been found after%vards should also be observed when the pin is in- to be tormented with an intolerable itclung. troduced let it be small, with an irregular Opiates. (See Narcotic) Opium. A narcotic vegetable poison. point, and when inserted wrap round it a Mr. Coleman " thought, from some experifew liairs or a Little tow. " Common, however, as this operation is, ments made at the veterinary college, that and qualified as every one thinks himself opium has no apparent influence over the to perform it, yet there are very serious acci- nervous system of the horse, and that it dents which do arise occasionally. It has does not alleviate pain." Dr. White says, occun-ed that the carotid artery has become " I think that opium, as to its effect on the When the puncture has been horse, does not possess that soothing anopenetrated. made through the vein, the accident is dyne and soporific quality for which it is known immediately by the forcible and justly distinguished in himian medicine." pulsatory gush of florid arterial and dark Opium always tends to depress the vital venous blood together. In one instance of organs in proportion to its quantity. Opodeldoc, or Soap Liniment. A sothis Idnd, which occurred to a French practitioner, he immediately thrust his finger lution of soap and camphor in spirits of into the opening through the vein, and rosemary. The nerve on wluch Optic Nerve. thus plugged up the artery, intending to
horse's
:
wait for assistance. In this state he re- sight depends. Orbit. The socket of the eye is thus mained, we believe, an hoiur or more when, removing his finger, to his surprise, he found named. disease is said to be orOrganic. the haemorrhage had ceased, and did not again return. In another case, where an ganic when any particular organ of the body English practitioner accidentally opened is affected.
;
the carotid, he placed a compress on the
Ossification.
Ligaments
and
cartila-
A DICTIONARY.
279
ges
sometimes
become bony,
especially small or
minute paps.
term applied to
those ligaments which unite the splent to small elevations on different parts of the
the canon bones, and the lateral cartilages body, whether morbid or natural.
Those
eminences on the internal surface of Ovaries. Two appendages to the womb, the leaves, or laminae, of the cow's third or uterus, which are cut out in the operation stomach, or manyplus, are termed papilof the foot.
little
of spaying.
Overreach.
lary.
horse
is
said to over-
Par Vagum.
reach, or overlash,
when
he
wounds
the fore are thus
heel with the hind foot.
Overwork.
Pace.
Many
The
The eighth pair of nerves Paracentesis. The operation of tapnamed.
of the diseases of
ping, for the purpose of giving vent to water
horses originate in overwork.
The peculiar manner of motion,

trot,
collected in the chest,
abdomen, etc.
It
has
frequently been performed on animals with-
or progression.
natural paces of the out any benefit.
horse are, the wallv,
and
gallop, to
Parietal.
The
bones that form the
named. Paring. Palate. The upper part or roof of the Cutting the hoof in order to mouth. prepare it for the shoe. Palliative. Medicines and operations Parotid Glands. Two large glands by which diseases appear to be relieved, but situated under the ears they secrete saliva, not cured. However desirable palliatives which is conveyed by a duct into the may be in the diseases of the human body, mouth. they are seldom satisfactory in the diseases Paroxysm. The periodical accession, and lameness of horses. or the periodical increase, of a disorder. Palpitation. Beating of the heart Parturition. The act of bringing forth against the breast-bone or ribs. young. Palsy, or Paralysis. A loss of muscu- Pastern. The part between the fetlock lar power, or an inability to move any part joint and the hoof. (See cut of the foot,
which some add the amble.
sides of the skull are thus
of the body.
Pancreas, or Sweetbread. A gland- Pastern Nerve. The nerve from which ular substance situated in the abdomen, near a portion is cut out in the operation of the stomach. It secretes the pancreatic nerving.
Pasture. Pastures in elevated situaPanniculus, or Fleshy Pannicle. A tions are the best for horses. thin muscular covering attached to the skin Patella. The knee-pan of the human
juice.
part
first.)
by means of which they body, and the stifle of the horse. (See it, and get rid of flies, Skeleton.) etc. Pathology. The doctrine of diseases. Panton Shoe. A contrivance for ex- Paunch. The common name for the panding contracted feet but, like all other first stomach of the cow.
of brute animals,
are enabled to shake
mechanical contrivances, they are useless or

pernicious.
Pectorals.
Medicines
that
relieve
Paps.
When young
cough, and other diseases of the lungs.

horses are cutting
Pectoral Muscles.
the breast.
The
or
muscles of
that
and sometimes after that period, the excretory ducts of some of the salivary glands under the tongue become enlarged. These are named paps. They should be touched with a solution of alum, and the animal fed on mashes. (See Mash.)
their teeth,
Pelvis.
The
basin,
cavity
wherein is lodged the bladder, uterus, and the rectum.

Penis.
gan.
The
yard or male genital
or-
Papillary.
Pap-like;
or
rather
like
Perforans
Tendon.
The
innermost
280
of the back sinews, or that
A DICTIONARY.
which goes to
plish the object
by the stimulating influence

diet.
the OS pedis.
Pericardium.
Heart, part
The Pericranium. The

first.)
of medicated vapor, enemas, nervines, and
heart bag.
(See a mucilaginous
is
Whenever the
disease
it
treated by the abstraction
of blood,
membrane
the
that
is
generally terminates in dropsy.
closely connected with
bones of the
Perspiration.
creted
The
fluid
which
is se-
head.
of the bones.
the
cine to promote sweating in the horse is a muscular coat of the bowels which tea composed of lobelia, capsicum, and pencauses the food and excrement to pass nyroyal. Pharynx. The upper part of the oesophthrough them.
The investing membrane Peristaltic Motion. That motion of

Periosteum.
by
the vessels of the skin.
Perspirain
tion is a
highly important discharge
horses and other animals.
The
best medi-
Peritoneum.
The
membrane which
abdomen;
forms the external coat of the bowels, and
some other of the

it
is,
viscera of the
therefore,
named
the peritoneal coat
Phlegm. A mucous liquid thrown up from the lungs. Phrenic Nerve. A nerve that passes
agus, or gullet.
of the bowels.
It lines, also,
the internal through the thorax, over the heart, to the
surface of the belly.
Peritonitis.
Inflammation of the
when
diaphragm.
peri-
toneum.
Diseases of the peritoneum are

treated on
is
very rare in horses, and,
the depleting, antiphlogistic principles of

allopathy, generaUy terminate fatally.
Inflammation of the In language, the term applied to purgative medicines. Physiology. That branch of medical
Phrenitis.
Physic.
brain.
stable
When
science
which describes the functions of
the physiological equilibrium
is
interrupted, every part of the body.
and inflammation of the peritoneum ensues,

the available vital
force
is
PiA
Mater.
delicate
membrane,
concentrated that closely invests the brain. resin upon a small region of the body. The true Pitch, Burgundy.
indication
is,
to invite
tliis
force
away from from

it
fir
it is
obtained A used in the composition of
that region,
and
Tliis
to distribute
it
over the plasters and charges.
general system, that
shall not
be excessive
anywhere.
mode
;
of relief
;
we
call
equalizing the circulation
the
allopaths
term
it
it
counter-irritation
they concentrate
form of rowel and blister, their own works wUl show with what success.* Our principles teach us to accomin one spot, in the
*Mi-. Percivall details a case of peritonitis, after the usual sjTuptoms in the early stage had subsided. " The
horse's bowels
:
The afterbirth. Placenta. A large vein that runs Plate Vein. from the inside of the fore leg to the chest. Plethora. A fulness of vessels. Horses are often brought into this state from overfeeding, and want of sufficient exercise. It
is
known by
heaviness, dulness, unwilling-
ness to work.
The
urine
is
high-colored,
slimy.
and the dung generally hard and
there
this
suspecting that became much relaxed was some disorder in the alimentary canal, and that was an effort of nature to get rid of it, I promoted exercise. the diarrhoea by giving mild doses of cathartic medicine,
in combination with calomel
cure consists in the reduction of the quantity of food, warm mashes, and regular
The
"
the
On
the third
day from
its
this,
prolapsus ani (falling of

After the return
given internally, and in spite of another bleeding, and some subordinate measures, carried him off [the treatin the course of a few hours. a slight blush pervaded the peritoneum, at least the parietal portion of it, for the coats of the stomach and intestines preserved thennatural whiteness. About eight gallons of water were measured out of the
fundament) made
appearance.
ment,
we presume]
:
of the gut, the animal grew daily duller and more dejected, manifesting evident signs of considerable inward
disorder, though he
" Dissection
diarrhoea continued
showed none of acute pain. The swellmg of the belly and tumefacEight pounds of blood belly. The abdominal viscera, as well were drawn, and two ounces of oil nf turpentine were showed no marks of disease."
;
tion of the legs speedily followed.
as the thoracic,
A
Pleura.
DICTIONARY.
covers
281
be given to a horse at a certain time,
;
The
membrane which
may
time,
the lungs so closely as to appear a part of without any perceptible effect

their substance.
at another
Pleurisy, Pleuritis.
the pleura.
Inflammation of
for
one-half
the
quantity will
destroy
him.
A net\vork of blood-vessels inflamPneumonia. A general term mation of the lungs. dewhich impede Poisons.
Plexus.
nerves.
Articles
Poll-Evil.
An obstinate
It
disease,
which
or often happens to horses.
generally pro-
ceeds from a blow received upon the poll

or back part of the head.
or
the
stroy the vital operations.
Some
;
people
The name of the great vein of Poultice, or Cataplasm. The emolPorta.

liver.
proclaim that
all
food
is
poison
that the lient poultice
may
be composed of equal
difference in the effect
produced
lies in
:
the parts of slippery elm and flaxseed.
The
qtiantity given.
We
deny
this
good
corn, intentions to be
answered by poultices are
oats, and hay, whose nature is to nourish relaxation and stimulation. To relax a part, and support the animal, can never be a legit- add to the above emollient, lobelia when it
;
imate cause of disease. Its excess in quantity, and its chemical decomposition for want of digestive power, are aU of true food On the other that can prove injurious. hand, experience teaches us that opium, arsenic, corrosive sublimate, tobacco, and calomel are inimical to the animal organization, and will never change their chemical
is
necessary to
stimulate,
use
cayenne.
Poultices that are designed for foul ulcers,

in addition to the
above
articles,
should
contain at least one-third powdered charcoal.
Prevention of Disease.
than cure, and,
Pricks, or
horse, the
It is
is
an
old,
but true saying, that prevention
better
we may
safely add, less ex-
equivalents.
grain of arsenic will pensive.
always be a grain of that poison, and can
Pricking.
In
shoeing
same applies to opium. A very few grains of opium injected into the carotid artery of a dog when the same killed him in four minutes quantity was injected into a vein, the ani"When mal lived twenty-five minutes.
be detected after death
:
the
injected
into
the
bladder,
it
sometimes driven in a wrong direction, and the sensible parts are wounded he is then said to be pricked. When a horse has been slightly pricked, and the nail immediately withdrawn, it may not be followed by lameness but, when required a the wound is considerable, matter will form
nail is
;
;
larger quantity to destroy
life.
if
the matter
it
is
not
let
out by paring
away
Again: one drop of the oil of tobacco applied on the tongue of a rabbit killed him instantly; one drop applied to the same organ of a cat, threw her into convulsions two drops placed on the tongue of a squirrel killed it instantly. Hence, it does not re;
the horn,
sole,
quickly spreads under the horny
and upwards through the laminated

(See Coronet.)
substance of the foot, and breaks out at

the coronet.
this,
To
prevent
the parts, as soon as the accident has
happened, should be bathed with healing
quire
much
is
penetration in order to decide balsam.

is
what
and what
not poison.
If the horse goes lame for several Animals days, a poultice must be applied to promote
often get, apparently, well, although large suppuration.

quantities of the above poisons have been
given.
Primje Vi^. The first passages, or no proof that the poisons stomach, and first intestines. cured them. In the early stage of the disProbang. Ail instrument for removing ease, the constitution can bear more vio- any obstruction in the oesophagus or gullet. lence blood-letting and poisoning than It consists of a rather flexible rod, covered when it becomes debilitated. This explains with leather, with a round, smooth knob at
This
is
the reason
why
large quantities of
opium one end.
282
A DICTIONARY.
Probe. An insti-ument for examiiiing wounds. Prolapsus. The falling down of a part, as of the uterus or fundament. The muscles that lie Psoas Muscles. under the loins. These muscles are some-
to be attended to,
with an occasional dose

salt.
of nitrate of potassa, and clysters of thin

gruel
and common
By
this
means
the disease
times injured in strains of the loins. Diseases of the back. Pulmonary Diseases.
lungs.
Pulmonary
sels
sist
Vessels. The
be subdued. If the disease first appears in the foot, a charcoal poultice must be applied. Rack Bones. The vertebrse of the
may
Radius.
blood-ves-
and
air-vessels of the lungs,
which con-
of the pulmonary artery and vein, and
The bone of the fore-arm. (See Back Raking.) (See Intestines.) Red-Water. This disease often attacks
Raking.
IJ.ECTUM.
is
the bronchia, or branches of the windpipe. cows, and
Pulse.
The
named from
the red appear-
beating of the
arteries.
ance of the urine.
most conveniently felt Respiration. The act of breathing; which which includes inspiration, or the taking in of air by the lungs, and expiration, or the passes under the angle of the lower jaw. Two orifices act of discharging it. Puncta Lachrymalia. Ringbone. A bony excrescence on the near the inner corner of the eye, through lower part of the pastern, generally, but not which the tears pass.
The
horse's pulse is
in that
part of the carotid artery
A part of the The white matter formed by the process of suppuration. portion of the Pylorus. The stomach. Quarter Evil. Quarter
Pupil. Pus.
eye.
inferior
always, causing lameness.
Roaring.
disease
which takes
its
name from
makes
motion.
the wheezing noise the horse
III,
or
There
is
a variety of names given to this such

as joint
when put into quick supposed by most veterinary writers to be caused by an effusion of lymph Our own view of the in the windpipe.
in breathing,
It is
is,
disorder,
murrain, or gar- subject
that
it is
owing
to a contraction
get, black quarter, quarter evil,

etc.
black
leg,
of the respiratory tubes.
The
true causes of this disease are
Rosemary.
is
The
essential
oil
of this
generally too liberal an allowance of food, shrub

or a
a useful ingredient in stimulating
luxurious and nutritious
sudden transition from poor keep to liniments. diet. In some Rot. A disease of sheep, resembling cases the energy of the body is lessened by pulmonary consumption, compKcated with exposure to cold and wet hence the quar- dropsy. Its causes are flooded lands and
ters
and feet sweU, and it is this circum- unsubstantial food. stance which has given rise to the name Rowels. These are considered as artiby wliich the disorder is commonly known. ficial abscesses, or drains. They act on the The approach of this complaint is generally principle of making one disease to cure indicated by the animal separating himself another. from his companions; by his appearing Chewing the cud. Rumination. dull, listless, and heavy, and by his refusing Rupture. A swelling caused by the The more immediate symptoms are protrusion of some parts of the bowels out food. lameness and swelling of the hind quarters, of the cavity of the abdomen into a kind and occasionally of the shoulders or back. of sac, formed by that portion of the periThese swellings, when pressed, make a toneum (which see) which is pushed be(See Emphysema.) The fore it. crackling noise. mouth and tongue are frequently found That part of the back bone Sacrum. A spare diet, and from which the tail proceeds. blistered in this disease.
keeping the animal in a dry barn, are
strictly
Saliva.
Spittle.
A DICTIONARY.
283
A profuse and continued Sand Crack. A perpendicular crack on quarter of the the greenish matter, Sanies. A bloody
Salivation.
flow of saliva.
side or
hoof.
or
Slipping.
Sole.
(See Abortion.) (See Foot, part Spasm. An involuntary and

;
first.)
^
continued
contraction of muscles
thus, lockjaw de-
pends on a spasmodic contraction of muscles.
which
ulcers.
is
sometimes discharged from foul
Sarsaparilla.
for
An
Spavin.
infusion of
is
A disease of the horse's hock,

Spavins
:
equal which generally causes lameness.

useful are of
parts of sarsaparilla
and sassafras
animals
when
the blood is loaded with blood,
two kinds the bone, and the bog or spavin. The former consists of a
inside of the
;
The shoulder blade. Scarf Skin. (See Cuticle.) Scarification. An incision of the skin with a hard tumor. SciRRHus. An Sclerotic Coat. (See Eye.) purging, Scouring. A scouring,
Scapula.
lancet.
morbific agents.
bony enlargement of the

joint,
hock
towards the lower part the latter, of a soft but elastic tumor, towards the bend of the joint. Mr. Percivall remarks: " Notwithstanding our confessed inability to cure
this disease,
it,
indolent,
we
are often called on to treat

it by means of a Although the practice
as to the removal of
or
is
chisel, file, or
is
saw.
common among
It is
all
our domestic animals.
exceedingly commendable in cases of

exostosis,
;
not a disease, but only a
symptom
of
common
it is
not so well adapted
a loss of equilibrium, which may proceed from improper food, exposure to the cold and rain, which, of course, includes a loss of There is no general remcaloric, or heat. edy, or one more speedy and effectual in the onset than mucilaginous drinks composed of slippery elm, combined with injecWarmth and moisture tions of the same. to the surface, and antispasmodics (which
such means seldom fail to leave the parts ultimately in a worse state than they found them. Ommost successful remedies are such as come under the denomination of counter-irrito spavin
those
who employ
tants."
Spermatic Cord. The vessels, etc., by which the testicles are suspended, consisting of the spermatic artery and vein, the see), combined with astringents (bayberry vas deferens, or seed duct, cremaster musbark is the best, in doses of half a table- cle, and cellular membrane.
spoonful every six hours), will seldom
to effect a cure.
fail
Sphincter.
A name given
to muscles
di-
about rection, and whose office is to shut up the the heels, depending on morbific agents in parts to which they are attached such are the system for the cure of which, see the sphincter of the neck of the bladder, " Modern Horse Doctor." and the muscles which close the fundaScrotum. The bag or covering of the ment. testicles. Spine. The spine of the neck and back Secretion. The word secretion is used is composed of many small bones named vertebrae. to express that function. Seven belong to the neck, eightSerum. The watery part of the blood. een to the back, six to the loins, five to the Sessamoid Bones. Two small bones on sacrum, and in the tail there are about thirthe back part of the fetlock joint. teen. Sinew-Sprung. A term sometimes ap- Spleen, or Milt. A soft substance, of plied to strains in the back sinews. a long, oval form, and purple color. It Sitfast. A horny kind of scab, which seems to be a reservoir for the blood that forms on the skin in consequence of a may be designed for the secretion of bile in
Scratches.
sores
; ;
Troublesome
whose
fibres are
arranged in a circular
saddle-gall.
Skin.
(See Cutis.)
the
liver.
Splents.
These are bony excrescences,
284
A DICTIONARY.
Tartar, Cream of. Used on horses to promote the secretion of m'ine. Staggers. This is named from the Tenaculum. A kind of hook, for taking staggering gait of the animal. It may be up an artery. br6ught on by the horse eating too greedily, Tendo Achillis. The great tendon, swallowing Ms food when imperfectly which is fixed or inserted into the calcachewed, or eating freely of food that is dif- neum, or projecting bone of the hock. Horses of rather an adTendon. The white shining extremity ficult of digestion. vanced age, and weak digestive organs, of a muscle. Tenesmus. Continual efforts to void when improperly fed, or when a large quantity of meal is allowed, are very liable to dung, withoxat any discharge. The disease is genTent. A piece of lint, or tow, smeared apoplexy, or staggers. erally symptomatic of derangement of the with ointment, and thrust into a sore, in stomach, indigestion, and over-distention of order to prevent a too hasty and superficial
which grow on the inside of the shank

bone.
the digestive organs.
The breast bone. Sternum. This joint is composed Stifle Joint. of the bones called os femoris, tibia, and (See Skeleton.) patella. A mixture of clay and cowStopping. dung is employed for the purpose of stopping horses' feet, and keeping them moist. For all kinds of strains, rest Strains. sometimes they require is the best remedy
healing.
Thoracic Duct. The trunk of the ab(See Absorbents, part first.) Thrush. A disease has lately prevailed to a great extent in the New England States, which deserves some consideration. It is called thrush, and is supposed to be a dissorbents.
ease of the horse's frog, consisting in a dis-
charge of matter from

also
affected,
its cleft,
or division
sometimes the other parts of the frog are
poultices, fomentations,
will be indicated
etc.
The
.latter
become
which
it
soft,
ragged, and
Stubs.
When a
by pain and
horse
is
swelling.
incapable of
sensitive frog,
affording protection to
covers.
the
wounded by
We cannot
a splinter of wood, about the foot or leg, he agree with many writers, that thrush is a strictly local disease for, after it has passed is said to be stubbed. Medicines which stop bleed- through the different stages; viz., inflammaStyptics. ing. The most effectual method of stopping tion, suppuration, etc., the whole system
;
bleeding
is
to tie the
SuDORiFics.
sweating.
It
Medicines
is
wounded
vessel.
takes
up
the diseased action, either
which
excite pathy or irritation.
by symHence the reader will
very difficult to sweat a see the folly of depending on local agents,
horse, except the process
be assisted by in the form of ointments, for the cure of the

Lobelia, disease, in which
all
warmth and vapor

sensible perspiration
in infusion to the
-externally.
the organs are
more or
pennyroyal, and capsicum, promote the in- less concerned.

;
they must be given
The
exist,
ill
internal
remedies
we recommend,
cause, if any
amount
in
of half a gallon are alteratives; remove the

diseases, diet, hard work, partial
or more.
as an alterative.
Used cutaneous Sweetbread. (See Pancreas.) Synovia, Joint Oil. A mucilaginous

Sulphur.
the form of bad ventilation, poor
grooming, or the
sluicing of cold water
on the
legs.
the animal have bran mashes, with a
Let few
boiled carrots, every night.
fluid
formed
-wdthin joints, to render
motion
expel
easy, or diminish friction.
Tansy. worms. Tar.
A medicine used to Common used as an

tar is
feet.
The local remedies consist in paring away the ragged or uneven parts of the frog then wash the surface with castile soap and
lukewarm water afterwards with a solution
;
astrin-
of
common
:
salt,
in the following proporsalt to
gent for horses'
tions
one tablespoonful Liverpool
A DICTIONARY. a pint of rain water

;
285
;
then apply linseed a part
such as the tunica vaginalis of the
equal
let
oil, spirits
of turpentine, pyroligneous acid, testicles.
parts,
in the cleft of the frog
whole surface be covered with tow, then upon the tow place a flat piece of one wood, about the width of the frog, of the ends passing under the toe of the shoe, the other extending to the back part of the frog, and bound down by transverse slips of wood, the ends of which are to be The moderate presplaced under the shoe.
the
vessels in
TuRGESCENCE. All over-fulucss of the any part. Tumeric. Tumeric root, an aromatic stimulant, sometimes used in jaundice or
yellows.
Twitch.
this is
An
instrument
made by
lip
fix;
ing a noose, or cord, to the end of a stick
put on the horse's upper
and
twisted rather tight, which makes
him stand
sure thus applied will contribute materially quiet during an operation.

to the cure
and
to the production of solid
horn.
If,
This dressing must be repeated daily. after this treatment, matter should disthe
heel
contract,
men by
charge,
and the
horn
A distention of the abdoTyphus. Putrid a glandular body, Udder. The udder

Tympany.
air.
fever.
is
a poultice of Indian meal, whose office is to secrete milk. It is diwith half a tablespoonful of cayenne pep- vided, in the cow, into four quarters each per on the surface, washing the foot, as of which has an excretory duct, or teat,
soften, then apply
;
above, every night.

Tibia.
that
is,
The bone of the

Insects
A
whose
horse's thigh
;
office is to facilitate the extraction
of milk.
At
the extremity of each teat is

for the
the bone between the hock
and the a contrivance
purpose of retaining
it
stifle.
the ffuid contained in the udder, until

that infest sheep
be-
Ticks.
and comes much distended

off",
other animals.
lia will
strong infusion of lobe-
it
when, if not drawn flows spontaneously, and the animal

;
destroy them.
The tongue is a muscular Sometimes the udder swells and becomes composed of fibres variously ar- sore, as is often caused by improper feedranged, by which it is rendered capable of ing. As there is great sympathy existing that diversity of action which we observe between the stomach and udder, whatever
Tongue.
substance,
;
is
thereby partly relieved of her burden.
it
has also several muscles attached to
it.
deranges the former will also affect the
lat-
The small bone, to which it has a muscular ter, through the medium of sympathetic In this case, the cow should be attachment, is named os hyoides. action. Medicines that augment the drenched with a tea of pennyroyal and thorTonics. The udder strength of the body, such as gentian, wild oughwort, and fed on gruel.
cherry, poplar bark, etc.
muUen leaves. Should the swelling conmeant, putting a horse in that state in tinue, and appear painful, the following which aU the functions of the body are in embrocation may be used linseed oil and equilibrium. K an abscess In order to bring a horse into lime-water, equal parts, mix. this desirable state, we refer the reader to forms, and matter can be felt, it should be
Training.
the
By
should be fomented with an infusion of
word
training
is
Modern Horse Doctor." opened at its most depending part, so that Tubercles. Small tumors that some- the matter may run freely off". times suppurate and discharge pus they Ulcers. There are quite a variety of are often found in the lungs. ulcers to be found in animals the most of Tumor. A swelling on any part of the them will heal by the application of' a mild body. Tumors are of various kinds some- astringent, or tonic, such as an infusion of times caused by bruises, or other accidents ' bayberry bark, or the tincture of capsicum. at others, arising without any visible cause. If it be foul or callous in any part, then Tunic. A coat, or membrane, investing powdered bloodroot will be proper.
the "
286
A DICTIONARY.
Ureters^
the larine
is
Two small tubes by which as in coughing. conveyed from the kidneys to when the horse
It is
is
on
this
account that,
affected with nausea, or
the bladder.
has the action of the stomach biverted, Urethra. A membranous and muscu- which sometimes happens, though very the contents of the stomach will be lar tube by which the urine is conveyed from rarely,
the bladder
it is
of considerable length in discharged through the nostrils
but
if
the
the horse.
Urine, Excessive Discharge of.

Diabetes.)
(See
horse happens to cough during the process,
some part
Vagina.
will
Urine, Incontinence of.

tinence.)
(See InconThe
uterus of
The passage from the external

or shape, to the
be discharged by the mouth.
pudendum,
mouth
of the
Uterus.
the
The
is
womb.
it
mare
very unlike that of the
subject, in
whom
used been consists of one bag, underrated by writers on veterinary mediroot of valerian
;
womb. Valerian. The
is
human
as an antispasmodic
its
virtues have
an oval shape, somewhat resem- cine. bling a pear; but in the mare and other quadVeins. The motion of the heart is rupeds it has a body and two branches, known to communicate momentum to the
rather of
called
its
horns.
The
uterus terminates in blood through the veins.

:
Mr. Percivall
the vagina by a narrow portion, called the says
"
We
are not to reject the
power of
neck or mouth of the womb. The extrem- the heart altogether, merely because the ities of these horns have tubes attached to blood flows ^vith a uniform stream in the
them, which, from the name of the discov- veins for the absence of pulsation in them one end is no proof that the motion of the blood is erer, are called Fallopian tubes
;
expanded, and has a fringed land not influenced by the contractions of the named the fimbria of the heart the extreme division which this fluid Fallopian tube. The Fallopian tube is undergoes in its circulation through the very tortuous in its form and that end capillaries, and the tortuosity and complicawhich proceeds from the horn of the uterus tion of the numberless small veins, account but the other, which is for the regular and uninterrupted stream is extremely small slightly attached to the ovarium, is consid- which we meet with in the larger branches. The ovarium is an oblong To prove that this is the explanation of the erably larger.
of each
is
:
of edge
this is
body, about the size of a small hen's egg.
The
are
ovaria
for there are
two of them
;
fact, if
direct
you open a vein jthat has free and communication with the extremity
artery
(its
composed of a number of transparent of an

;
capillary structure), the

it
ova (eggs) each ovum is and surrounded with cellular membrane when the ovum is impregnated and passes into the uterus, it leaves a mark which is
vesiculae, called
blood will flow from

satory motion as
:
with the same pul-
if
the artery itself had
been penetrated but if the vein be one of large size, remotely situated from any arterial communication, or if it be one that named corpus luteum. Uvula. In the human subject, the springs from the union of numerous capilsmall flesh-like substance hanging in the laries, that smooth and even stream, with middle and back part of the throat, is thus which the blood circulates in the trunks, named. In the horse, this is of a very dif- wiU be observable here. These facts, then, The uvula completely closes lead us to conclude that the force of the ferent form.
the opening to the pharynx, though

ily yields to
it
read- heart
is
not suflicient of
itself
to propel
the passage of food, or any blood through the venous system."

gullet
;
liquid,
toward the
is
it
prevents, also,
From
the collected accounts of writers

it
the retmrn of anything to the mouth, even on this subject,

the air which
less it
seems highly probable,

from the reaction of
exph-ed from the lungs, un- that the blood flowing in the veins receives
effort.
be thrown aside by a violent
additional
momentum
A DICTIONARY.
the capillaries,
21
Windgalls. Elastic tumors on each and that it is further urged on by some contractile force resident in side of the back sinews, immediately above That the blood the fetlock joint they are often caused by these vessels themselves. is advanced in its course by the action of hard work, or trotting on hard roads, at too There are various operations those muscles contiguous to veins furnished early an age. with valves, is, without doubt, well founded, recommended, such as firing, blistering, etc.; as far as an occasional auxiliary is con- but the remedy is generally worse than the Rest, bandaging, and the occacerned, as the common operation of bleed- disease. ing demonstrates for it is in consequence sional use of liniment, is all that can be of muscular pressure upon the veins about done with safety. Withers. The part where the mane the head, that the motion of a horse's jaw
;
accelerates the flow of blood through the ends
jugular vein: as such, however,
it
cannot
named in the horse. Worms. The stomach and bowels

is
thus
of
be ranked
among
the essential causes of horses are liable to be infested with different

;
the blood's motion in them.
expel worms. Vertebra. The and Vertigo. A Viscera. The

which
is
kinds of worms but as the same treatment One of the cavities of the is proper, of whatever kind they may be, it Ventricle. is needless to enter into a particular descrip(See Heart.) heart. Medicines that destroy or tion of them. Many articles are recomVermifuge.
mended by
veterinary writers, for the pur-
bones of the neck pose of ridding the animal of these pests, viz., antimony, calomel, turpentine, either of spine. slight degree of apoplexy. which would be just as likely to kill the The true indications plural of viscus, a term horse as the worms. applied to the internal organs, as the lungs, to be fulfilled are to tone up the stomach and digestive organs.* bowels, etc. VivES. A swelling of the parotid gland, Yard, Fallen. (See Falling of the
situated between the ear
angle of the jaw.
parts
A name given external females. of generation have Wall Eyes. A horse said
Vulva.
to the
and the Yard.) Yard, Foul.
The
horse's penis
some-
times requires to be washed with soap and

water, in order to free
it
in
from mucous
is
is
to
matter and
dirt.
a wall eye, white color.
when
the
iris is
of a light or
Yellows.
This disease
is
indicated by
Warbles.
horse's back,
Small, hard swellings on the
a yeffowness of the membranes that line

the eyelid, and the inner parts of the lips
caused by the pressure, or and mouth.

excrescences which absorbed
tinges the
In this disease, the natural

perverted
;
heat, of the saddle.
Warts.
Wens.-
Spongy
course of the bile
it
into the
cii'culation,
becomes and thus
membranes and fluids of a yelThe excrement is generally of a The most lighter color than usual. The disease may in different parts of the body. effectual method of removing them is to dis- be produced by a want of tone in the liver, sect them out, together with the cyst, or caused by obstructing the surface. The skin bag, in which they are formed. * Dr. J. Hinds says, " Since the worms are not always is then to be sutured, and treated as a comto be killed, even by strong poisons (calomel), nor brought mon wound. away by brisk purgatives, reason dictates and nature
arise in various parts of the body.
Hard
ttimors, of various sizes,
low
color.
Whirl Bone,
is
or
Round Bone.
effectual
is
The
beckons us to follow her course in affording to the horse a
hip joint
Wind.
The most
thus named.
run at grass
if
that
is
impossible, adopt the
means nearest
is
bringing a horse to his wind,

regular exercise.
method of to give him
and
thereto that
lie
within our reach."

it
is,
thousands declare
then
If calomel
it
must
a poison, entail a
disease
more
fniTnidalile
than the one
it is
intended to cure.
: ;:
APPENDIX
TO
PART FIRST.
LIGAMENTARY MECHANISM OF
ARTICULATIONS.
ARTICULATIONS OF THE TRUNK.
cartilaginous surfaces of the articulatory

processes.
Intertransverse
ligaments
fix
the trans-
Ligaments of the spine. Those between gether. Interspinous ligaments are found between first and second vertebrae are Lateral ligaments, one on each side, that the spinous processes of the back and loins. Ligamentum subflavum (or nuchse) exrun from the coronoid processes of the occipital bone to the fore part of the atlas, and tends from the occipital bone to the tail. It
the head and
are fixed in the roots of the transverse pro- covers
cesses.
verse processes of the dorsal vertebrae to-
of the back, loins, sacrum,
and connects the spmous processes and coccyx.
Suspensory ligament of the head is a broad This ligament forms a strong connecting ligament enclosed within the capsular. It medium between the spines of the verproceeds from the body of the atlas to the tebrae.
occipital bone.
Ligaments of the
is
pelvis.
Two superior
;
Capsular ligament
pital bone,
attached to the occi- transverse ligaments are fixed to the trans-
loid process,
around the roots of the condy- verse processes of these bones above two and to the anterior articular inferior, below, run from the fom-th and fifth
transverse processes of the loins to the crest Superior ligament runs from the long ring of the ileum. Sacro-iliac symphysis conof the atlas to the spine of the vertebra sists of a cartilago-ligamentous substance
processes of the atlas.
interposed between, and fii-mly adherent to, Odontoid ligaments are three in number the transverse processes of the sacrum and the two long pass from the sides of the the inward part of the ileum. This union process dentata to the occipital condyles is strengthened by ligamentary bands, which the last runs from the point of that process run from the posterior spine, and border of
dentata.
:
to the anterior and inferior parts of the the ileum, to the transverse process of the
atlas.
sacrum.
Sacro-sciatic ligaments are broad expanto the second sions
Inferior ligament runs from the inferior
spinous process of the

vertebra.
fii-st
stretched
across
the
sacro-sciatic
notch.
to the spine are
They
arise
from the transverse pro-
The ligaments common

Intervertebral ligaments.
They
cesses of the sacrum,
are the three uppermost bones of the coccyx,
and those of two or and
chief
is
bond of union by which one vertebra are extended to the posterior parts of the bound to another. Ueum and ischium, and to the tuberosity The common inferior and superior Hga- of the latter.
vients.
The former passes obliquely along

37
Obturator ligament
last,
is
an expansion,
thin-
the inferior parts of the vertebrEe, and the ner than the
latter
wliich passes across the
runs within the spinal canal.
Capsular ligaments surround the smooth
foramen magnum ischii. Ligament of the symphysis
is
the carti(289 >
: :
290
APPENDIX TO PAET FIRST.
lago-ligamentous substance which unites the OS cuneiforme; and a
pubic bones.
Ligaments of the
viz.,
ribs.
Every
rib is
between the os they have all con- separate capsular ligaments and synovial
fifth
pisiforme and os trapezoides
nected to two vertebra by four ligaments, linings.
The ligaments of the knee, and the tendons passing over it, are gu-t by broad, Capsular ligament of the head invests and glistening, ligamentous bands, which retain Two the latter in their places, and render the holds it within the vertebral socket. articular cavities are found \\dthin it, one joint stronger and more compact. Between with each vertebrae, which have separate these ligaments, fascia, and the extensor
two
capsular, internal
and external
lig-
aments.
synovial linings.
tendons, are
some small
bursse.
Capsular ligament of the tubercle sur-
External lateral ligament runs from a
rounds
it
at
its
articulation with the trans- tubercle
upon the radius
to the
head of the
verse process of the vertebra.
external metacarpal bone.
External and internal ligaments consist

of strong fibres, which connect the neck of
the rib, above and below, to the spine.
two which proceed from a similar tubercle upon the inside, and from the body of the
Internal lateral ligament consists of
parts,
The longer is fixed to the inner Intercostal ligaments are broad fibrous radius. bands which run obliquely across the inter- head of the metacarpal bone, and the costal spaces, and hold the ribs and their shorter to the fore part, of the metacarpal. cartilage firmly together. Ligamentum annulare passes from the os These several pieces trapezium to the ossa scaphoides and cuneiSternal ligaments. of the breast bone are united to each other forme it confines the flexor tendons. Capsular ligament is atby intervening cartilaginous substance in Fetlock joint. addition to which they are connected by tached to the articulatory sm-faces of these ligamentary bands, both inwardly and out- bones; and the synovial membrane, after havwardly. The fore part of it is surmounted ing lined it, is reflected upon their cartilages by a broad portion of cartilage, which runs it ig guarded in front by the extensor tendon. along its under part. Long lateral ligament is fixed to a projecARTICULATIONS OF THE FORE EXTREMITY. tion upon the side of the metacarpal bone, Shoulder joint. The capsular ligament and to the os suffraginis. around this joint is strengthened in many Short lateral ligament runs underneath places by additional fibres dispersed upon the latter. These Ligaments prevent motion It is fixed to the rough margui sideways. its exterior. of the glenoid cavity, and to the neck of The ligaments of the sessamoid bones
the OS humeri.
it,
A synovial membrane lines

be followed upon the
carti-
are
seven, viz.:
superior
suspensory, the
which
may
long
inferior, the short inferior, the
two
lat-
laginous surfaces of the bones.

this
Externally, eral, and the
two
is
crucial.
is clothed on every by muscles, and to them is attributed the main strength of the joint. The ligaments of it are Elbow joint. two lateral and a capsular. Knee joint. In the knee there are five one between the radistinct articulations dius and the three small bones of the upper row a second between the small bones, above and below a thud betAveen those of the lower row and the metacarpal bones; a fourth between the os trapezium and the
ligamentous capsule
Pastern joint
capsular, and
side
of the ossa suffraginis and corona.
formed by the adaptation It has a

pairs of lateral ligaments.
two
The capsular ligament is inserted into the smooth cartilaginous ends of these bones it is blended vnih the extensor tendon in front, and behind with the long inferior ligaments of the sessamoids. The lateral ligaments are inserted on the sides of the os coronse and suffi-aginis, Cojfm joint is made up of three bones the os corona, pedis, and naviculare.
:
LIGAMENTAET SYSTEM.
Capsular ligament envelopes the articulatory surfaces,
limits
;
291
The
and
synovial
is
membrane
lines the socket,
and
is
inserted
beyond
their
reflected over these parts.
is composed of the os femoris, and patella. Ligamenta patella are composed of four Li addition to the the tendo perforans. capsular, there are three pairs of ligaments. strong cords, which descend over the conTlie first pair passes from the superior dyles of the OS femoris, and are inserted
in front
;
it is
united with the extenit
Stifle
joint
sor tendon
behind,
is
sh-engthened by the
tibia,
edges of the os pedis to the lateral parts of into the tubercle of the tibia. The external the OS corona, and are inserted about its one passes upon the outer and anterior part of the external condyle the internal, middle.
;
from the ex- upon the inward part of the internal contremities of the OS pedis to the os corona, dyle and the middle one, between them. They approach each other in their descent. and are fixed below and behind the first. Third pair arise from the sides of the Concealed by the external one is the fourth
The second pair
is sti-etched
tilages.
coronal process, and terminate in the car- ligament of the patella ward part of the tibia.
it
runs to the out-
The ligaments
four, viz.
:
of the os naviculare are
The patella, with
its
articulatory surface
its
t\vo single,
and one
pafr.
its
of the condyles in front, forms a joint of
Superior ligament runs fi-om
upper own, perfectly distinct from that between

the tibia and os femoris.
and posterior part to the tendo-perforans.

Inferior is a very broad ligament, arising
Its capsular ligament is fixed to its surfrom the whole of the lower edge of the rounding border. Internal lateral ligament descends from bone, and thence extending to the os pedis, the internal condyle to the ixmer and upper above the long extensor tendon.
Lateral ligaments
fix
the os naviculare, part of the tibia.

sides
by
its
two
ends, to the
of the os
corona.
the internal
stronger than External lateral ligament runs from the external con-
ARTICULATIONS OF THE HIND EXTREMITY. dyle to the upper end of the fibula. Crucial ligaments, short and strong, and The thigh joint is formed by the reception of the head of the os femoris into its socket. deeply buried within the joint, run from the Capsular ligament is attached aromid the space within the condyles to the tibia. cervix of the os femoris and the margin of The synovial membrane, after having
the acetabulum
it is thickly clothed on lined the capsule, is reflected upon the carevery side by muscle, which assists to main- tilages and ligaments included within it.
;
tain
its position.
is
Hock
nal.
joint has
four lateral ligaments,
The acetabulum
circular ligament,
surrounded by the two on each
side, called internal
and
exter-
ward
to
whose border turns inembrace the cartilaginous head of
Capsular ligament includes the lower end

of the tibia, and the pully-Hlce part of the
;
the OS femoris.
to both of wliich, and the latits inward asti'agulus by the transverse ligament, eral ligaments, and to the os calcis, it is which here makes up for the deficiency in firmly attached.
The
notch in this cavity, to
side, is crossed
the bone.
The OS calcis forms a joint with the os bundle of cuboides, and the ossa cuneiforme are also ligamentous fibres inclosed in a sheath a joint, and the middle and small bones which proceed from a pit in the inner and make joints with the cuboid above, and the upper part of the ball to a similar one in metatarsi below hence, there are sLx articthe roof of the socket. Another portion of ulations in addition to what we commonly it leaves the cavity under the transverse understand by the hock joint, that between
Ligamentum
teres consists of a
;
ligament, and
is
implanted in the pubes. the tibia and astragulua.
LEMy'08
82

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/.

the zjgomatic arch.

f". Antea spinatus. g". Postea spinatus.

Dilator naris lateralis. " " anterior.

Obliquus capitis inferiorus,

#lossarg of ycttrinarjt Eethnicaliiits, oTovuological (fbart, anb giritonarg of tftrhiarn ^rirnre.

THB MODERN HORSE DOCTOR," "CATTLE DOCTOR,"

JEWETT AND COMPANY.

CLEVELAND, OHIO H. P. B. JEWETT. NEW YORK: SHELDON, BLAKEMAN AND COJIPANY.

Entered accoriliug to Act of Congress, in the year 1866, by

JEWETT AND COMPANY,

of the District Court of the District of Massachusetts.

UinOTYPED BV THE AJIERICAN STEREOITPE COMPANY,

the anatomy and physiology of the Horse

The natural inquiry

protect our property?"

the only probable and

practicable security against the

casualties incidental to the halitats

of the barn and

text-books and teachers

In view, therefore, of supplying the above deficiency, which

men, the author has undertaken the double task

that the effort will not be thought untimely.

The work, however,

principally intended for veterinary surgeons, teachers

necessity for such a work, at the present time,

evident from the

that three veterinary colleges have lately

into legislative existence,

suppose that, ere long,

candidates for the honors of

must then need

m view of furnishing a part of what the author

foresees every teacher

will read these

pages with considerable

REMARKS IN REGARD TO THE COMPOSITION OF THIS WORK.

relation, connection, figure, di\'ision, solar border, laminae, quarters, heels,

coronary border and

The Sole. The Frog.

hoof; structure of the hoof; production of the hoof; propftties of horn,

Intern.u- Parts of the Hoof.

tabular \iew of the bones of the horse,

..-.-...-....-. ...-..---...-...--.--...------ The coronary substance

connection, structure, and

names and number of muscles, divided

tabular s}'nopsis of the

of injecting the Ij-mphatics

and parotid gland and distending the limgs

GENER.vTrvE Org.vns OF THE M.ALE.

Vasa gland, Cowper's glands, OF Generation Continded.

pancreas, kidneys, supra, renal capsules, ureters, bladder, urethra,

defercutia, vesiculae seminales, ejaculatory ducts, pros-

and scrotum, spermatic cord,

Fem.\le Organs of Generation,

Examination on the digestive system,