Preferred Citation: Zanker, Paul. The Mask of Socrates: The Image of the Intellectual in Antiquity.

Berkeley, Calif: University of California Press, c1995 1995. http://ark.cdli .or!/ark:/1"#"#/ft"f59n$ #/

The Mask of Socrates

The Image of the Intellectual in Antiquity Paul Zanker
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESS

Berkeley Los Angeles Oxford

!""# The Re$ents of the Un%&ers%t' of Cal%forn%a

Preferred Citation: Zanker, Paul. The Mask of Socrates: The Image of the Intellectual in Antiquity. Berkeley, Calif: University of California Press, c1995 1995. http://ark.cdli .or!/ark:/1"#"#/ft"f59n$ #/

% i& %

Ackno(le)$*ents
'his ook (ould never have co)e a out if not for the invitation to deliver the *ather Classical +ectures at Berkeley in the sprin! of 1991. ,s an archaeolo!ist, - sou!ht out a topic that - hoped (ould attract the interest of an audience of philolo!ists, historians, and philosophers. 'hou!h this hook uilds on earlier (ork developed in classes and se)inars in .unich, (ithout the challen!e of the *athers, (ould not have dared atte)pt this synthetic account of a topic so road and co)ple&, (hich has already een the su /ect of )uch speciali0ed research. .y first de t of thanks is therefore o(ed to all )y collea!ues in the 1epart)ent of Classics at Berkeley. 'he hospitality and friendship of these collea!ues, especially the then chair)an, .ark 2riffith, )ade the )onths in the Bay ,rea a truly )e)ora le e&perience for )e and )y fa)ily3one that (e often look ack on (ith !reat nostal!ia. 4or the pu lication, it has see)ed to )e necessary to revise fully and in places to e&pand the lecture te&ts. 'he asic structure and style of the presentation, ho(ever, retain the essaylike character of the lectures, and - have tried to restrict )ost of the )ore technical and scholarly discussion to the notes. 'he co)pletion of the )anuscript in this for) (ould not have een possi le (ithout an invitation to spend the 199"596 acade)ic year at the 7issenschaftskolle! in Berlin. 'he re)arka le intellectual at)osphere there, )arked y open and sti)ulatin! e&chan!e of ideas in )any areas, has, - hope,

!reatly enefited the )anuscript, even as it has, re!retta ly, enlar!ed it considera ly. 8ver the years - have received )uch help and encoura!e)ent fro) students, collea!ues and friends. 8f those (ho have !iven a critical readin! to all or parts of the )anuscript or helped in other (ays, %&% (ould especially like to thank .arianne Ber!)ann, 2len 7. Bo(ersock, 9ans:Ulrich Cain, ,nthony 2rafton, ;icola 9oesch, <olf von den 9off, 7olf!an! =e)p, >rnst Peter 7iecken er!, alon! (ith the )e) ers of the *ather Co))ittee in Berkeley. 'at/ana Catsch, 1erk 7. von .oock, and *i)one 7olf have rendered indispensa le assistance in the preparation of the final )anuscript. +astly, a special (ord of thanks to ,lan *hapiro, (ho not only sacrificed his o(n valua le ti)e to )ake the >n!lish translation ut also helped )e, throu!h his pertinent ?uestions and co))ents, to clarify a nu) er of i)portant points. %1%

I+ Intro)uct%on, I*a$e- S.ace- an) Soc%al Values

'he i)a!e and appearance of the intellectual chan!e alon! (ith his society and his particular role in it, for every a!e creates the type of intellectuals that it needs. 7e ourselves have (itnessed such a chan!e /ust since the late si&ties. 'hat era !ave rise to a type of politically and )orally activist, left:(in! intellectual, (ho had an i)pact on pu lic discourse and protest far eyond the orders of classroo) and ca)pus, a type that is no( dyin! out, alon! (ith his characteristic features, fro) the unconventional, (orkin!:class clothes to his )anner of speakin! and !eneral lifestyle. 8ur consu)er: and leisure:oriented society has spa(ned its o(n replace)ents for the si&ties intellectual: the apolitical @)oderator@A the entertainerA the analyst and pro!nosticator, (ho spots ne( trends or )ay even e e)ployed to try to create the). 'he partisan critic and refor)er is no lon!er in de)and, rather the co))entator (ho is hi)self essentially confor)ist and unaffiliated. 'his ne( reed of intellectual also looks very different fro) his predecessors, often assi)ilatin! the clothes and )anners of the dyna)ic and successful entrepreneur or )edia )o!ul, (ith (ho) he in fact happily associates. .ost, ho(ever, are indistin!uisha le fro) the avera!e usiness)an and pro a ly share a si)ilar inco)e and i)a!e of the)selves as @specialists.@ -n short, their i)a!e reflects, in e?ual )easure, oth ho( they see the)selves and the role they play in society. But re!ardless of his specific role3the disaffected critic and provocateur, the educator, or the sy)pathetic and popular entertainer3every society needs intellectuals and cannot do (ithout the). -t !ives %B% rise to the particular type it needs )ost at any !iven ti)e: prophets and priests, orators and philosophers, scholars, )onks, professors, scientists, co))entators, )edia e&perts, fil))akers, and )useu) curators. 7e need the) to shape the )ood and opinions of the pu lic, to invent the concepts, visual i)a!ery, and styles that are the prere?uisites for a social dialo!ue. 7e need the) as )uch to plan a party as a revolution, to dissent and critici0e ut also at ti)es to rule and !overn.

- trust the reader (ill not e&pect fro) a hu) le archaeolo!ist a precise definition of the concept CintellectualC. - use the (ord si)ply as a convenient shorthand, in order to avoid havin! to repeat such cu) erso)e for)ulations as @poets and thinkers, philosophers and orators.@ ;either the 2reeks nor the <o)ans reco!ni0ed @intellectuals@ as a defined !roup (ithin society. *uch a sense of !roup identity see)s to have arisen for the first ti)e (ithin the conte&t of 4rench intellectualsC involve)ent in the 1reyfus affair.D1E ;evertheless, as in )ost other societies, prophets, (ise )en, poets, philosophers, *ophists, and orators in 2reco:<o)an anti?uity did consistently occupy a special position, oth in their o(n self:consciousness and the clai)s they )ade for the)selves, and in the influence and reco!nition they en/oyed. 8f course, the roles they played (ere very different in the t(o cultures. >ven so, it see)s to )e le!iti)ate to in?uire into the i)a!e of the intellectual in a !iven period, fro) the point of vie( of clai)s )ade and reco!nition accorded, as (ell as, )ore roadly, that periodCs attitude to(ard intellectual activity. ,s an archaeolo!ist, )y pri)ary interest is in the specific visual i)a!es3votive and honorific statues, !rave )onu)ents, and portrait usts3not (ith the far lar!er and )ore co)ple& pro le) of self: identity as conveyed in literary sources Ffor e&a)ple, the inspiration of the poet y the .uses or the ideal of the philosopher:kin!G. .y su /ect is the intent and effect of the i)a!e (ithin the para)eters of, on the one hand, a !iven eraCs collective nor)s and values and, on the other, the e&pectations of the su /ect and the patron for (ho) the (ork (as )ade. -nstead of a lon! theoretical dis?uisition, a rief look at so)e e&a)ples fro) )ore )odern ti)es )ay help clarify )y purpose. %"%

4i!. 1 Holtaire y Iean:,ntoine 9oudon F1J$1G. Paris, Co)Kdie 4ranLaise.

The Mo)ern Intellectual /ero

Iean:,ntoine 9oudonCs portrait of Holtaire Ffi!. 1G, fro) 1J$1,DBE is perhaps the )ost cele rated )onu)ent of a >uropean intellectual of the )oder) era. -t sho(s the su /ect, (ho had died t(o years efore, seated on an @ancient,@ thronelike seat, (earin! a philosopherCs ro e and the @(reath of i))ortality@ in his hair. 'hus did 9oudon hi)self characteri0e Holtaire, (ho had sat for his portrait shortly efore his death. 'he statue co) ines in e&traordinary fashion the intellectual lucidity and physical frailty of the a!ed Holtaire (ith his o(n apotheosis. 'he )onu)ent (as ori!inally intended to stand in the ,cadK)ie 4ranLaise, not only to co))e)orate Holtaire hi)self, ut as testi)ony to the self:conscious pride of the ,cade)y )e) ership. 'he %6% statue of Holtaire cele rates the >nli!hten)ent as the hi!hest )oral and spiritual authority, and the leaders of the >nli!hten)ent here lay clai) to a position of authority in the state and society. 'hey set the philosopher, in the !uise of Holtaire, on a throne3not /ust any throne, ut an ancient one, as an ancient philosopher. -n this (ay classical anti?uity is invoked to le!iti)ate the self:conscious political clai)s of the intellectual Klite. ;eedless to say, no ancient philosopher ever sat on a throne.

-t (as, y contrast, an entirely different co)ple& of values and necessities that inspired nineteenth: century 2er)any to honor its culture heroes in a verita le cult of statuary. ,fter the (ars of li eration in 2er)an lands had rou!ht neither political freedo) nor national unity, the citi0enry e!an to seek in cultural pursuits a su stitute for (hat they still lacked. 4or e&a)ple, they erected )onu)ents to intellectual !iants, usually at the )ost conspicuous location in the city, an honor that until then had een reserved for princes and )ilitary )en. 'hese )onu)ental statues (ere planned and e&ecuted y local and national co))ittees and associations, and their unveilin! (as acco)panied y dedication cere)onies and even popular festivals. 'here arose a true cult of the )onu)ent, (hich included roadsheets, picture ooks, and lu&ury editions of @collected (orks.@ 7ith all this activity, the 2er)ans e!an to see the)selves, faute de )ieu&, as @the people of poets and thinkers.@ 'his is especially true of the period of the restoration and, in particular, the years after the failed revolution of 1$6$, (hen )onu)ents to fa)ous 2er)ans, a ove all 4riedrich von *chiller, sprouted every(here. 'hese statues (ere not /ust o /ects of veneration a)id national pride ut served the populace as )odels of citi0en virtues (ith (hich they could identify. 'he !reat )en (ere deli erately rendered not in ancient costu)e, and certainly not nude, ut in conte)porary dress and e&e)plary pose. Perhaps the )ost fa)ous of these )onu)ents3and the one considered )ost successful y people of the ti)e3(as the !roup of 2oethe and *chiller y >rnst <ietschel, set up in 1$5J in front of the theater in 7ei)ar Ffi!. BG. , fatherly 2oethe !ently lays his hand on the shoulder of the restless youn! *chiller, as if to ?uiet the over0ealous %5%

4i!. B .onu)ent to 2oethe and *chiller y >rnst <ietschel F1$5JG. -n front of the theatre in 7ei)ar. passion for freedo) of the youn!er !eneration. 'he relationship of the t(o poets F(hich in reality (as so)e(hat pro le)aticalG is thus styli0ed into a sy) ol of authentic 2er)an )ale ondin!, a classical paradi!) and standard of conduct for the citi0enry.D"E -t is, ho(ever, no accident that the statue ases on (hich the poets stand are /ust as hi!h as those of princes and rulers. 7e !a0e up to the) fro) the drud!ery and confusion of daily life. @'here is so)ethin! hi!her than the daily routine,@D6E na)ely, the everlastin! (orks of po: %M% etry and art, in (hich (e can find consolation and edification. ,lthou!h orn of political disappoint)ent, these )onu)ents erected y the our!eoisie in no (ay represent a call to political action, not even the *chiller )onu)ents of the postrevolutionary period. 8n the contrary, they attest to an i)plicit attitude in (hich the political has een su li)ated in favor of pra!)atic citi0en virtues. 'his process (as facilitated y the fact that the !reat 7ei)ar poets (ere in the service of the court and, like )any other successful intellectuals of the ti)e, proudly displayed the honors and )edals esto(ed y the prince.D5E -n the late nineteenth century, the cult of the )onu)ent spread throu!hout >urope. But the poets,

)usicians, and artists (ho are thus honored are turned into solitary, superhu)an fi!ures efore (ho) posterity can only kneel in a(e and (onder. 'he earlier i)a!es of the fello( citi0en realistically depicted in conte)porary dress !ive (ay to a ne( vision of !iants and titans, nude in the )anner of the anti?ue. *tatues like <odinCs Hictor 9u!o or .a& =lin!erCs so)e(hat later Beethoven Ffi!. "G render the apotheosis of the !reat )ind in such e&a!!erated for) that, not /ust for )odern taste, it ver!es on the ridiculous. Conte)porary reaction (as also divided, unlike in the precedin! period.DME 'he 4rench poet in his e&ile resists the reactionary stor) reakin! over his country, depicted as )i!hty (aves threatenin! hi) in his rocky seat. 'he 2er)an co)poser, on the other hand, in his heroic detach)ent, is utterly divorced fro) the present. 'his is a re)arka ly co)ple& cult statue that reflects )ore the feverish i)a!ination of its creator than the eliefs of his conte)poraries.DJE Beethoven is enthroned hi!h up on a kind of rocky outcrop, solitary and half:naked. 'he )i!hty ea!le at his feet )akes the allusion to Zeus o vious. But this hero, despite his vi!orous pose, deter)ined e&pression, and clenched fist, is not a ruler. 8ri!inally =lin!er (anted a line fro)n 2oetheCs Faust carved on the rock: @1er >insa)keiten tiefste schauend unter )eine) 4uss.@ *cenes fro) classical and Christian )ytholo!y are represented on the e&terior sides of the throne, includin! the Crucifi&ion of Christ, the Birth of Henus, ,da) and >ve, and the fa)ily of 'antalus. 'he !reat !enius sees the unity of the (orld that is hidden fro) others. 9is )usic is a kind of reli!ious revelation, and in this role as prophet he eco)es a !od hi)self. 'hat this is truly the %J%

4i!. " .a& =lin!er at (ork on his )onu)ent to Beethoven F19#BG. )essa!e intended is confir)ed y the circu)stance that =lin!er carried out his (ork on the statue for )any years (ithout a co))ission, at enor)ous personal cost in e&pensive )aterials, and, (hen it (as finished, (anted to have it displayed in a specially uilt cult place. F'his (as in fact done, first in the e&hi ition of the Hienna *ecession and later in the )useu) at +eip0i!.G 'he creator of this !i!antic vision, ho(ever, (ithdre( to play the role of priest in the cult. +ike )ost artists and (riters of this period, =lin!er deli erately cultivated a our!eois i)a!e and appearance. 9e had hi)self photo!raphed, (earin! the proper suit, (ith his titanic statue. 9e is /ust another adorant of the @i))ortals.@ 'here is a deep divide et(een the present and the !reat )en of the past, (ho, (ith %$% their (orks, hover a ove conte)porary life like !uidin! stars, unattaina le and un(averin!, like spiritual revelation. 'he educated look up to the) and derive sustenance fro) the). 'hey enhance the ?uality of our leisure ti)e ut other(ise deliver no cate!orical i)peratives, like the earlier )onu)ents of the artist as )odel citi0en. ,rt and life had eco)e co)pletely separate real)s. ,ppropriately, )any of the later )onu)ents (ere not displayed in city s?uares, ut rather in parks and pu lic !ardens, put there as part of local eautification ca)pai!ns.D$E - shall resist the te)ptation to pursue this line of in?uiry and develop a full typolo!y of the i)a!ery of

intellectuals in the )odern era. 'hese fe( e&a)ples (ere intended si)ply to illustrate )y approach and the kinds of ?uestions - (ish to pose. >ach of the three, al)ost rando)ly chosen, instances that - have dealt (ith could easily find a parallel a)on! the portraits of 2reek intellectuals that (ould e in one (ay or another e?uivalent. But this (ould not !et us very far, for (hen (e look closely, the historical fra)e(ork is as different as the portraits the)selves. 'he point - (ish to stress )ost is that in oth cases a successful interpretation is utterly dependent on ho( (ell (e can reconstruct the specific conte&t in (hich a particular portrait (as created and displayed. ,s (ith )odern portraits, (e have to ask (here the )onu)ent (as set up, (ho co))issioned it, and (hat circu)stances o tained in a particular society. *pecifically, (hat value (as attached to intellectual activity, and (hat (as the relationship et(een society at lar!e and the individual intellectual or !roup of intellectualsN -n li!ht of the e&tre)ely fra!)entary and inco)plete nature of the evidence, as (ill shortly eco)e clear, it is )uch easier to pose these intri!uin! and, in recent years, increasin!ly fashiona le ?uestions than to ans(er the). ,rchaeolo!ists have thus far dealt (ith the )aterial at our disposal fro) this perspective either in very restricted instances or not all. Positivist scholars, (ho laid the !round(ork over a century of intensive and detailed scrutiny, concentrated pri)arily on pro le)s of identification and datin!. 'he cul)ination of this approach is 2isela <ichterCs ad)ira le 19M5 corpus The Portraits of the Greeks, in (hich the portraits %9% are ordered chronolo!ically accordin! to (hen the su /ects lived, rather than (hen the portrait type (as created, as if the !oal (ere to produce a set of photo!raphs for a )odern Who s Who . 'hose scholars (ho (ere )ore interested in the content of the portraits have devoted the)selves al)ost e&clusively to ?uestions of the @character@ and @spiritual physio!no)y@ of each individual and have sou!ht in the portraits a reflection of spiritual and intellectual ?ualities. Chief a)on! these is =arl *chefold, (hose ook !ie "il#nisse #er antiken !ichter, $e#ner un# !enker of 196" is the only study that deals (ith the )ost i)portant portraits of 2reek intellectuals in chronolo!ical order.D9E 7hat )akes )y approach different fro) *chefoldCs is that )y focus is not on the fi!ure of the individual intellectual, ut rather on the position and i)a!e of intellectuals as a class (ithin a particular society and the chan!es (e can detect in periods of transition fro) one era to the ne&t. 7hat - propose is a history of the i)a!e of the intellectual in anti?uity. 4or this reason - shall proceed asically chronolo!ically, even thou!h )uch of )y te&t retains the essaylike flavor of the lectures on (hich it is ased. ;evertheless, - elieve this )ethod has a certain distinct )ethodolo!ical advanta!e, !iven the pro le)s of identification that eset so )any portraits. 'hat is, even anony)ous portraits and those that can e dated only appro&i)ately retain their interest as evidence for the ?uestion of !eneral attitudes (ithin a !iven period. -n )ost instances it )atters less %ho is represented than ho% he is represented3 thou!h ad)ittedly it is frustratin! to ackno(led!e that even in the case of so)e portraits of evidently key fi!ures (e are still !ropin! in the dark.

Ro*an Co.%es- or Throu$h a 0lass 1arkl'

<e!retta ly, (e cannot )ove directly fro) these preli)inary re)arks to the su /ect at hand (ithout a rief detour to consider (hat - call the fo!!y )irror in (hich (e )ust vie( )uch of the portraiture of ancient intellectuals. -t is a fact that al)ost all portraits of the !reat 2reek poets and thinkers are kno(n to us only in copies of the <o)an

% 1# % period. 'his )eans that each individual case is open to difficult, so)eti)es insolu le pro le)s of reconstruction, analo!ous to the philolo!istCs te&tual criticis). - (ill spare the reader in the present conte&t a lon! e&cursus on the )ethods of so:called &o'ienkritik .D1#E But it is a funda)ental principle of any historian that efore he can use his pri)ary sources and evaluate their i)portance, he )ust ask (hy and for (hat purpose they (ere created in the first place. -n our case, this ?uestion leads us strai!ht to an essential chapter in the history of the i)a!e of the intellectual. 'hese copies served specific purposes for the <o)ans that had nothin! (hatever to do (ith their ori!inal function as honorific statues in the a!ora or dedications in sanctuaries. 4or the <o)ans they functioned as the icons in a peculiar cult of 2reek culture and learnin!, a topic - shall pursue in so)e detail later in this ook. 4or the )o)ent, let us /ust cast a critical eye on these copies, in consideration of their usefulness for the reconstruction of the lost ori!inal. *ince the <o)ans (ere pri)arily interested in the faces of the fa)ous 2reeks, (hich they elieved they could @read@ in the sa)e (ay as )odern critics do, they usually had only the heads copied. 8f course such a ust or her) (as also cheaper than a life:si0e statue and took up less space.D11E But 2reek artists had produced only full portrait statues, into the +ate 9ellenistic period, and for the 2reeks, fro) ,rchaic ti)es on, the true )eanin! of a fi!ure (as contained in the ody. -t (as the ody that e&pressed a )anCs physical and ethical ?ualities, that cele rated his physical and spiritual perfection and eauty, the kalokagathia of (hich (e shall presently have )ore to say. 'he )ost i)portant ?ualities transcended the individual person, for the function of the portrait statue (as to put on display societyCs accepted values, throu!h the e&a)ple of (orthy individuals, for a didactic purpose. Personal and io!raphical details (ere of lesser i)portance. 'he portrait ust, (hich lar!ely shaped the reception of 2reek portraiture in the <o)an >)pire, arose first only in the course of the 9ellenistic period.D1BE Iust one e&a)ple )ay serve to illustrate ho( )uch is lost in this reduction to only a head, and (hat pro le)s and uncertainties it creates for a proper interpretation. 9o( are (e to interpret the vi!orous e&pression of this 9i!h 9ellenistic portrait of a % 11 %

4i!. 6 9ead (reathed in !rape leaves, of the sa)e type as the old sin!er in fi!. J9. Paris, +ouvre. poet, preserved in several her) copies Ffi!. 6GN 7hat kind of a ody should (e i)a!ine (ent (ith such a headN 7ould (e ever have !uessed that this is the e&pression of an i)passioned sin!er, )ovin! in rapt e)otion to the )usic, as (e no( kno( thanks to the chance discovery of an al)ost fully preserved statue Fcf. fi!. J9GN , further pro le) is the relia ility of <o)an copies of the heads. 'he issue is not only one of the co)petence of the sculptor, ut of the level of interest, or lack of interest, on the part of the ori!inal uyer. 'here (ere passionately cultivated <o)ans (ho sou!ht in such statues conversation partners, (ho used the), as *eneca says, as incitamenta animi F('. M6.951#G. 'hese individuals presu)a ly (anted carefully detailed sculptures of hi!h ?uality, ut that does not necessarily )ean the sa)e thin! as faithful copies. 'he kno(led!ea le <o)an patron had his o(n preconceptions of the 2reek su /ect

and (as lookin! for % 1B %

4i!. 5 *ocrates. <o)an copy of a 2reek ori!inal of ca. "$# B.C. F'ype ,G. ;aples, .useo ;a0ionale. FCastG

4i!. M *ocrates. Post:anti?ue ron0e cast after a no( lost <o)an copy of the sa)e 2reek ori!inal as fi!. 5. .unich, 2lyptothek. the kind of @talkin! head@ that (ould reveal so)ethin! of the su /ectCs character and (ork. 'he o vious solution (as to take a face that did not see) e&pressive enou!h and e) ellish it, if necessary (ith physio!no)ic detail. 7e )ay see a !ood e&a)ple of such e) ellish)ent in the finest of the copies of the earliest *ocrates portrait, an >arly -)perial ust in ;aples Ffi!. 5G. 8nly recently has a careful co)parison (ith other copies of this type revealed that the !entle s)ile that distin!uishes this face )ust e an innovation of the copyist, an atte)pt to @hu)ani0e@ the *ilenus features and, perhaps, to su!!est a touch of irony. , ron0e head in the .unich 2lyptothek, ho(ever, see)s to provide a relia le renderin! of the ori!inal face Ffi!. MG. ,nd yet the head is pro a ly not even ancient, ut rather a )odern cast of a no( lost <o)an copyO 'his is, ad)ittedly, an e&tre)e case, ut it does illustrate so)e of the constant perils (e face in the study of 2reek portraits and their trans)ission. % 1" %

4i!. J Pindar. 4irst:century B.C. copy of a statue of ca. 6M# B.C. 8slo, ;ational 2allery.

4i!. $ Pindar. *econd:century ,.1. copy of the sa)e type as fi!. J. ;aples, .useo ;a0ionale. -n addition, the prevailin! tastes of each period could play a considera le role. *ince, for e&a)ple, ,u!ustan art did not look kindly on (rinkles, and youthful faces (ere the order of the day, the portraits of .enander )ade at this ti)e (ere eautified in the sa)e (ay as those of the e)peror and his fello(s.

-n the case of .enander, if (e did not have )ore su tle copies fro) other periods, (e (ould e i!norant of certain essential features of the ori!inal. By contrast, the last decades of the <o)an <epu lic valued a ove all faces (ith e)phatic physio!no)ic traits. 4or the copyists, this )eant heads (ith e&tra (rinkles and )ore e&pressive faces. , strikin! e&a)ple is the portrait of the poet Pindar Fd. 66M B.C. G that has only recently een identified. , very detailed copy of the first century B.C. in 8slo pro a ly e&a!!erates the ori!inalCs features of old a!e and adds a realistic ?uality to the flesh and skin te&ture unkno(n in the period (hen the portrait (as created Ffi!. JG. ,n e?ually finely (orked head in ;aples Ffi!. $G, on the other % 16 % hand, assi)ilates the poet so fully to the style of the 9adrianic period, especially in the eyes and facial e&pression, that one could take it at first !lance for a likeness of one of that e)perorCs conte)poraries. D1"E But it (as the lack of interest on the part of <o)an patrons that took a far !reater toll on ?uality and fidelity to detail. Perhaps no !roup of <o)an copies can clai) as )any e&a)ples of hasty (ork)anship and poor ?uality as the portraits of the 2reeks. 'he chief culprits are serial and )ass production. Portrait her)s (ere often displayed in villa !ardens lined up in lon! !alleries. 'hey (ere si)ply part of the decorative sche)e of (ealthy ho)es, like the furniture, co)pletely divorced fro) any cultural interests the o(ner )ay have had. 'here (ere even instances (here hundreds of such her)s (ere arran!ed alpha etically, providin! nothin! )ore than a visual dictionary of 2reek learnin!. Phrases carved on the her) shaft3a snatch of poetry, a sayin! of the philosopher, or even a ?uick io!raphical sketch3served as )ne)onic devices for rudi)entary education Fcf. p. B#$G.D16E -n these circu)stances, o viously, ?uality and detail (ere of secondary i)portance, and even the na)es and ?uotations on the her)s could !et )i&ed up. But the )ost !rievous loss that results fro) this )ode of trans)ission is any secure infor)ation on the specific location of the ori!inal portrait, its settin!, and the occasion for (hich it (as put up. But - do not (ant to ela or this leak situation any further. <ather, - propose to sho(, in three detailed case studies, ho(, in spite of the unpro)isin! state of the evidence, (e can indeed reach so)e secure ans(ers to the ?uestion of conte&t posed earlier. 'hese e&a)ples elon! to the fifth and fourth centuries B.C. and thus are a)on! the earliest portraits that (e have. -n vie( of the )ea!re a)ount of )aterial preserved, (e can hardly co)e to any !eneral conclusions. But in each of these three instances (e shall encounter certain features that turn out to have a !eneral applica ility to the study of the portraiture of 2reek intellectuals.

2%s)o* an) No3%l%t', An Earl' Portra%t of /o*er

8f the earliest kno(n portrait type of 9o)er, a life:si0e statue created a out 6M# B.C. , only copies of the head are preserved.D15E 'he for) of % 15 %

4i!. 9 9o)er. >arly -)perial copy of a portrait of ca. 6M# B.C. .unich, 2lyptothek.

% 1M % the ody is unkno(n, as are location, patron, artist, and occasion. ;evertheless, (e can still reconstruct so)e sense of the conceptual fra)e(ork of this portrait type. , su tly carved head in the 2lyptothek in .unich Ffi!. 9G of the >arly -)perial period see)s to !ive a relia le copy of the ori!inal. -ts fidelity is confir)ed y t(o other, less finely (orked e&a)ples, (hich in turn ena le us to spot the diver!ences in the re)ainin! copies. 'he sculptor i)a!ined 9o)er as a lind old )an, turned sli!htly to one side and listenin! to his o(n inner voice. 8ld a!e does not carry ne!ative connotations here, as so often in 2reek poetry. *i!ns of decrepitude in the cheeks, te)ples, and the deeply sunken eyes are indicated (ith the ut)ost discretion. 'his 9o)er is a handso)e old )an3kalos geron 3full of di!nity. 'his is est e&pressed in the lon!, carefully arran!ed hair and lush, (ell:tended eard, as (ell as other features of the physio!no)y, such as the full lo(er lip. , ove all, the treat)ent of the locks of hair on the ro( contri utes to this i)pression of eauty and no ility. 'he hair is carefully arran!ed over the skull and held in place y a and or fillet, (hile on the sides and in ack it falls freely in thick locks. 'he ald pate that is typical of the icono!raphy of old )en is, in addition, concealed y a co)plicated arran!e)ent: t(o road strands are dra(n fro) the cro(n for(ard and knotted over the ro(. 'his oth calls attention to the su /ectCs aldness and at the sa)e ti)e artfully hides (hat )i!ht detract fro) his eauty. *i)ilarly, the lon! locks on the sides are intended to )iti!ate the sunken cheeks. 'hat this arran!e)ent of hair over the forehead is a realistic feature, a hairstyle that )en actually (ore, is confir)ed y a vase paintin! of ca. 51#55## B.C. , in (hich Pria) (ears strands of hair si)ilarly knotted over his ald head Ffi!. 1#G. 'his )ust e a fashion for old )en of the +ate ,rchaic period, (hich reflects in turn the ne!ative associations of old a!e and its effect on the ody. 'he aristocrat tries to conceal the less attractive features of the a!in! process.D1ME 'his particular +ate ,rchaic coiffure (as pro a ly out of fashion y the ti)e the portrait of 9o)er (as )ade, thus characteri0in! hi) as a distin!uished older )an of an earlier !eneration. 7e are re)inded of the no le old )en (ho advise their kin! in 2reek tra!edy. % 1J %

4i!. 1# 9ector ar)s for attleA at his left, his a!ed father, Pria). <ed:fi!ure a)phora y >uthy)ides, ca. 5## B.C. .unich, ,ntikensa))lun!en. 'he notion of 9o)erCs lindness is an old one, first attested y the si&th century F)ymn. )om. A'. 1JBG. 'he )odel for it is )ost likely the portrayal of the lind sin!er 1e)odokos in the *#yssey F$.MBff.G. >ven efore that, the fi!ure of the lind sin!er (as (idespread in >!ypt and the ;ear >ast. Perhaps this conception arose fro) a co))on e&perience of early civili0ations, that the lind often had unusually !ood )e)ories, a talent that )ade the) useful.D1JE -n the portrait, ho(ever, lindness is not presented so )uch as a io!raphical detail, ut as a prere?uisite for the poetCs e&traordinary )e)ory and (isdo). Iust as the closed eyes are char!ed (ith )eanin! and )ore than /ust a realistic touch, so too the lines in the ro( si!nify )ore than /ust a!e. 'heir strict parallelis) looks rather e) le)atic and

pro a ly alludes as (ell to the poetCs prodi!ious po(ers of )e)ory. -t is surely no coincidence that the sa)e lines appear on the ro( of the old seer lost in )editation fro) the east pedi)ent of the 'e)ple of Zeus at 8ly)pia.D1$E 'rue kno(led!e is ancient kno(led!e. 'he co)posin! of verse is conceived in this portrait as a !ift fro) the !ods, akin to that of the % 1$ % seer, a for) of revelation. 2reek )ytholo!y is full of seers and poets (hose po(ers are directly connected (ith their lindness. 'his is true, for e&a)ple, of 1e)odokos, the sin!er at the court in Phaeacia, (ho), the .use loved a ove all other )en, and !ave hi) oth !ood and evilA of his si!ht she deprived hi), ut !ave hi) the s(eet !ift of son!. F*#. $.M"5M5, trans. <. +atti)oreG 'he prophetic po(er of the lind is !enerally considered as a kind of co)pensation. 'he !reat seers like 'eiresias and Phineus (ent lind ecause they had seen the !ods, ecause they kne( too )uch and revealed their kno(led!e to )en. But lindness is )ore than a punish)ent or destiny. -t sharpens the other senses, especially the po(er of )e)ory, and thus for so)e authors eco)es a prere?uisite for particular transcendental !ifts. ,ccordin! to a sayin! of the 1elphic oracle, )e)ory is @the face of the lind.@D19E 'his apparently reflects a (idespread elief. 'he philosopher 1e)ocritus (as said to have linded hi)self so that his spirit (ould not e distracted y the outside (orld.DB#E By e)phasi0in! 9o)erCs lindness, the artist cele rates a ove all a (isdo) that derives fro) unsurpassed po(ers of )e)ory. But ho( should (e i)a!ine the lost ody that (ent (ith this headN 'he nearly upri!ht position of the head, on (hich all the est copies a!ree, su!!ests a standin! rather than a seated fi!ure. Based on the standard icono!raphy of old )en in this period, he )ust have een either leanin! on a staff, the attri ute of the elderly and especially the lind F*oph. *T 655G, or at least holdin! one in his hand.DB1E 'he +ate ,nti?ue poet Christodoros, ca. ,.1. 5##, see)s to have seen /ust such a statue of 9o)er in the Baths of Zeu&ippos in Constantinople: 9e stood there in the se) lance of an old )an, ut his old a!e (as s(eet, and shed )ore !race on hi). 9e (as endued (ith a reverend and kind earin!, and )a/esty shone forth fro) his for). . . . 7ith oth his hands he rested on a staff, even as (hen alive, and had ent his ri!ht ear to listen, it see)ed, to ,pollo or one of the .uses hard y. +Anth. Gr. B."11569GDBBE % 19 % , statue of this type is in fact kno(n, thou!h in a version of the fourth century B.C. , fro) a copy found in the !ardens of the Hilla dei Papiri, (hich )i!ht allo( us to associate the portrait of 9o)er (ith a si)ilar ody.DB"E Unsure of his step ecause of his lindness, he (ould have supported hi)self on the staff and, in so doin!, turned his head ever so sli!htly to the ri!ht, a(ay fro) the vie(er. 'his very e&pressive turn of the head is (ell preserved in several of the copies. 'hat is, the poet stands directly facin! the vie(er and yet re)ains fi&ed in his o(n (orld. 8n the ?uestion of (ho put up the ori!inal statue and (here, (e can only speculate. But as luck (ould

have it, the earliest attested statue of 9o)er elon!s to the sa)e period as our ori!inal, and Pausanias, (ho )entions it in his description of the sanctuary of Zeus at 8ly)pia F5.B6.M, 5.BM.5G, also provides so)e helpful infor)ation on its conte&t. , out 6M# B.C. .ikythos, a (ell:kno(n *icilian states)an (ho had served as re!ent for the children of the tyrant ,na&ilaos in <he!ion and .essana and su se?uently e)i!rated to 'e!ea in the Peloponnese, )ade dedications at 8ly)pia of unheard:of proportions, for the recovery of his son. 'his included a !roup of at least t(enty statues y the sculptor 1ionysios of ,r!os, displayed at a pro)inent spot north of the !reat te)ple.DB6E 'he poets 9o)er and 9esiod apparently stood alon!side the 8ly)pians and other !ods, includin! ,sklepios and 9y!ieia. 'heir location y the !ods can est e interpreted to )ean that 9o)er and 9esiod are the )essen!ers of the !ods, (ho )ediate et(een the) and )ankind, a senti)ent also e&pressed in a (ell:kno(n passa!e of 9erodotos: @-t (as 9o)er and 9esiod (ho created a !enealo!y for the !ods, (ho !ave the !ods their epithets, allotted the) their honors and responsi ilities, and put their )ark on their for)s@ FB.5"G. 'his interpretation is also supported y the fact that .ikythosC dedication included a statue of the )ythical sin!er 8rpheus as (ell. 9e stood like a prophet eside the statue of his divine patron 1ionysus, (hose )ysteries had een associated (ith the so:called 8rphic 9y)ns since the si&th century.DB5E >ven thou!h our portrait type is certainly not to e identified (ith the 9o)er in .ikythosC dedication, (hich (as under:life:si0e, at % B# % least it provides us so)e notion of (here and in (hat conte&t a statue of 9o)er could e set up in the fifth century, that is, in a sanctuary, alon! (ith other statues, as part of a dedication that e&pressed certain concerns and intentions of the dedicator. -n the case of .ikythos, his sonCs illness )ay not have een the only )otive. ;o dou t this recent K)i!rK to )ainland 2reece )ana!ed to call attention to hi)self in spectacular fashion y )akin! a dedication of such outsi0ed proportions. 'he very fact that the t(o poets (ere so pro)inent in the !roup says so)ethin! a out the i)portance of such fi!ures in 2reek society of the ti)e. -n this connection, the @realis)@ of the 9o)er portrait also takes on so)e si!nificance. 9e is not like those i)a!es of )ythical old )en in vase paintin! or even the seer fro) 8ly)pia, (ho, despite ald head and (hite hair, have an a!eless and ideali0ed face. <ather, 9o)erCs face is )arked y a ne( kind of physical i))ediacy, not so )uch in its individual traits, ut as the face of a typical old )an (ho is at the sa)e ti)e an individual, (ith protrudin! cheek ones, sharply arched ro(s, sa!!in! flesh, furro(s, and (rinkles. ,lon! (ith conte)porary likenesses of 'he)istocles and Pindar, he is a)on! the very earliest 2reek portraits.DBME 'his ne( kind of portraiture rin!s 9o)er out of the distant past and into the present. -n this li!ht, (e )i!ht i)a!ine that such a portrait, especially one displayed in a conspicuous pu lic place like the dedication of .ikythos, (as )eant as a conservative response to the enli!htened criticis) of )en like Penophanes, (ho spoke out not only a!ainst the a!onistic values of the aristocracy, ut a!ainst traditional reli!ious piety associated (ith 9o)er.DBJE -n any case, a portrait like this surely i)plies the reco!nition accorded the so'hia that poets and thinkers had clai)ed for the)selves. -n this sa)e period, in ,thens, ,eschylusC (umeni#es rou!ht hi) the status of political and reli!ious co))entator, even a kind of theolo!ian of the city.DB$E -t is astonishin! that a society like that of the 2reeks in the si&th and fifth centuries, (hich so !lorified youthful vi!or, should have accorded the ulti)ate spiritual and reli!ious authority to the fi!ure of a

decrepit old )an. 7e should keep in )ind that in a sanctuary like 8ly)pia such a portrait statue (ould have stood not far fro) divine and heroic statues like the <iace Bron0es Ffi!. 11G. 'he /u&taposition % B1 %

4i!. 11 Bron0e statue of a hero found in the sea at <iace. 2reek ori!inal ca. 65# B.C. <e!!io Cala ria, .useo ;a0ionale. of t(o such antithetical statues )ust have intensified the contrast, the un ounded !lorification of youth and stren!th in a (arrior or athlete set a!ainst the (isdo) of a!e and corporeal frailty. 'he polarity of these i)a!es e&e)plifies the diversity and vitality of 2reek culture. 4inally, in this 9o)er are the roots of the e&traordinary portraiture of a!in! philosophers of the 9ellenistic period. 'he reconstruction of the statue of 9o)er and its possi le conte&t are of course too va!ue and speculative to e conclusive. 'he ?uestion of (here the actual statue stood si)ply cannot e ans(ered. DB9E But this e&a)ple has at least de)onstrated that even a sin!le relatively faithful copy can offer ne( insi!hts, (hen (e focus on the ?uestion of con: % BB % te&t. ,nd that it is often etter to ask unans(era le ?uestions than to ask none at all. -n the 2reek i)a!ination, all !reat intellectuals (ere old. 'he portrait of 9o)er stands at the e!innin! of a lon! tradition that reaches to the end of anti?uity. 'here e&ists no portrait of a truly youn! poet, and certainly not of a youn! philosopher.

Anacreon an) Per%cles

8ur second e&a)ple also involves the statue of a poet, ut of a very different kind. -n his description of the ,thenian ,cropolis, (hich he visited in the 1J#s ,.1. , Pausanias )entions a statue of the poet ,nacreon east of the Parthenon: 8n the ,thenian ,cropolis is a statue of Pericles, the son of Panthippus, and one of Panthippus hi)self, (ho (as in co))and a!ainst the Persians at the naval attle of .ycale. But that of Pericles stands apart, (hile near D'lesion E Panthippus stands ,nacreon of 'eos, the first poet after *appho of +es os to devote hi)self to love son!s, and his posture is as it (ere that of a )an sin!in! (hen he is drunk. F1.B5.1GD"#E 'he statue of Pericles stood near the Propylaea and not far fro) the ,thena +e)nia, a location intended to re)ind the vie(er of PericlesC acco)plish)ents as a states)an. 'onio 9Qlscher has ri!htly supposed that father and son (ere deli erately not placed to!ether in order to avoid the i)pression of an unde)ocratic concentration of po(er in one fa)ily. 'he pro&i)ity of the statues of Panthippus and ,nacreon has een e&plained on the asis of a friendship et(een the t(o, thou!h the evidence for this is uncertain.D"1E 8f the statue of Pericles only copies of the head are preserved, (hile (e kno( nothin! (hatever of the

statue of Panthippus. 'hanks to one of those rare strokes of archaeolo!ical fortune, ho(ever, a statue found in the ruins of a <o)an villa near <ieti !ives an al)ost co)plete copy of the statue of ,nacreon Ffi!. 1BG.D"BE ,n inscri ed her) copy of the sa)e type secures the identification. 'hat this is indeed % B" %

4i!. 1B ,nacreon. <o)an copy of a ron0e statue ca. 66# B.C. Copenha!en, ;y Carls er! 2lyptotek. % B6 % the portrait seen y Pausanias is very likely, thou!h, as often, incapa le of definite proof. PausaniasC e)phasis on the pro&i)ity of ,nacreonCs statue and that of PericlesC father su!!ests that the t(o (ere so)eho( connected. 'he statue of ,nacreon can indeed e dated stylistically to the period (hen Pericles (as in po(er, and pro a ly ori!inated in the circle of Phidias, (ho played such a )a/or role in PericlesC ,cropolis uildin! pro!ra). -t is only lo!ical to assu)e that (e are dealin! (ith a dedication of Pericles or his i))ediate circle, as has often een thou!ht. But (hy (ould Pericles, of all people, at the hei!ht of his po(er, have (anted to honor posthu)ously this friend of aristocrats and tyrants, (ho first ca)e to ,thens and the court of the Peisistratids a oard an official trire)e sent for hi) y the tyrant 9ipparchus on the death of Polykrates of *a)os, and had died at ,thens a full t(o !enerations earlier at the ripe old a!e of ei!hty:fiveN 7hy should de)ocratic ,thens, on the eve of the Peloponnesian 7ar, honor a poet associated a ove all (ith e&trava!ant an?uets and drunkenness Fcf. ,r. Thesm. 1M"A =ritias, in ,th. 1".M##>G, the very e) odi)ent of the soft and un)anly -onian (ay of lifeND""E ,ny ans(er to these ?uestions )ust co)e fro) the statue itself. 'he poet is sin!in! and playin! a strin!ed instru)ent, the ,ar,iton . 9is enthousiasmos is est e&pressed y the (ay the head is sli!htly thro(n ack and turned to the side. 'he drunkenness, ho(ever, is indicated only very discreetly. 8nly (hen (e set hi) eside other statues of the ti)e, (ith their fir) stance, are (e a(are of a sli!ht insta ility of ,nacreon, especially in a side vie(.D"6E 'he poet is presented as a participant at a )erry sy)posiu), rather than as a poet as such. 9ence also his nudity, the short )antle thro(n over the shoulders, and the fillet in his hair, all ele)ents of the icono!raphy of ,thenian )ale citi0ens, as (e see the) on countless red:fi!ure vases, takin! part in the sy)posiu) and su se?uent komos . *in!in! and playin! the ,ar,iton are also characteristic of these drunken revelers. ,nacreonCs conte)poraries a out 5## B.C. had in fact depicted hi) on vases as an older, earded )an in a lon! ro e, dancin!, and playin!, surrounded y e&u erant youn! revelers. *o)eti)es he (ears a flo(in! )antle and the -onian head!ear that (ould later e )ocked as % B5 %

4i!. 1" 'hree revelers in ele!ant +ydian dress. Colu)n krater, ca. 6J#56M# B.C. Cleveland, .useu) of ,rt. ,. 7. >llen er!er *r. >ndo()ent 4und, BM. 599. effe)inate3in the co)pany of older revelers also clad in this e&otic @+ydian@ costu)e, includin! parasol, earrin!s, and pointy shoes. -n the early fifth century, older ,thenians did evidently still (ear such outfits at komos and sy)posiu) Ffi!. 1"G, as a !ay re)inder of the !ood old days of their youth under the tyrant Peisistratus and his sons.D"5E -n any event, to /ud!e fro) these vases, ,nacreon (as already durin! his lifeti)e a representative of the soft -onian (ay of life and the uninhi ited drinkin! party. 'he i)a!e of the drunken sin!er is also the asis for the statue of ,nacreon, thou!h (ith a si!nificant alteration. Unlike the vase painters, the sculptor sho(s the poet nude, (ith a handso)e, a!eless physi?ue. 8nly the unusual len!th of the eard and fullness of the fra)e )i!ht e su tle hints of advancin! a!e.D"ME , co)parison (ith the (ell:kno(n vase paintin! of *appho and ,lcaeus confir)s that ,nacreon is indeed depicted in the !uise of a % BM %

4i!. 16 *appho and ,lcaeus on a krater or (ine cooler y the Bry!os Painter, ca. 6J# B.C. .unich, ,ntikensa))lun!en. sy)posiast and not as poet or professional sin!er Ffi!. 16G. ,lcaeus (ears the lon!, flo(in! ro e characteristic of sin!ers and flute players and looks intently at the !round as he sin!s. F'he painter has indicated the sin!in! (ith little u les issuin! fro) his )outh.G *appho turns to hi) in ad)iration, attestin! to the effect of his son!.D"JE 'his is, incidentally, one of our very fe( depictions of a fe)ale poet. ,nacreon is presented as the restrained and in every sense e&e)plary sy)posiast, ?uite unlike the uninhi ited revelers, ,nacreon hi)self a)on! the), of +ate ,rchaic vase paintin!. 1runkenness and ecstasy are hinted at (ith !reat discretion. 'he !ar)ent, is carefully arran!ed over the ack and in front arely )oves. 'he face sho(s no )ore e)otion than the (ell:kno(n conte)porary portrait of Pericles % BJ %

4i!. 15 Pericles. 9er) copy of a ron0e statue ca. 66# B.C. +ondon, British .useu).

4i!. 1M ,nacreon. >arly -)perial copy of the sa)e statue as fi!. 1B. Berlin, *taatliche .useen. Ffi!s. 15, 1MG. 'he point of this is clear: even on this /olly occasion the sin!er never loses his co)posure, and sho(s hi)self to e the very i)a!e of a )odel citi0en of 9i!h Classical ,thenian society, (hen it (as none other than Pericles hi)self (ho set the standard of ehavior. 7e )ay recall the stories of PericlesC conduct in pu lic, and especially the tradition a out his sole)n, i))o ile countenance, (hich never re!istered /oy or pain ut lost its )asklike co)posure only at the death of his youn!est son FPlut. Per. "MA cf. 5G.D"$E 'he head of a sli!htly earlier Fthou!h pro a ly not ,tticG statue of % B$ % Pindar )ay !ive so)e indication of the ran!e of possi ilities for facial characteri0ation in this period Fcf fi!. JG.D"9E Pindar is sho(n (ith the deeply (rinkled face of an older )an, his strained e&pression est understood as a si!n of intellectual activity. ,t the sa)e ti)e, as Iohannes Ber!e)ann has pointed out, the old:fashioned and carefully styli0ed eard could e )eant to associate the poet (ith the conservative and lu&ury:lovin! aristocratic circles for (ho) he co)posed his verse. *uch io!raphical traits are entirely possi le in this period, as (e can also see, for e&a)ple, in the statue of an elderly poet (ho rushes off (ith an ener!etic stride, evidently to(ard a specific !oal. >ven if this fi!ure has thus far resisted interpretation, it is nevertheless clear that (e are once a!ain dealin! (ith a specific io!raphical ele)ent.D6#E Iust as Pindar has a look of severity and concentration, so (e )i!ht (ell have e&pected for ,nacreon an e&pression of !aiety and deli!ht. -nstead, ,nacreonCs face is so fully devoid of e)otion that, in a copy that o)its the characteristic turn of the head, (e )i!ht easily have )istaken hi) for a kin! or hero.D61E *uch (as the deter)ination of the sculptor to e)phasi0e the su /ectCs e&e)plary ehavior, /ust as in the portrait of Pericles. 'he (ay the )antle is draped actually e)phasi0es the poetCs nudity and calls attention to a strikin! detail that has arely een noticed efore: he has tied up the penis and foreskin (ith a strin!, a practice kno(n as infi ulation For, in 2reek, kyno#esme G Fsee fi!. 1JG. 'he e&planations for this practice in ancient authors3as a protective )easure for athletes or a token of se&ual a stinence in a professional sin!er FPhryn. PS $5BA Poll. B.6.1J1G3all co)e fro) relatively late sources and are not satisfactory in the present instance.D6BE But )any e&a)ples of kyno#esme in conte)porary vase paintin! Ffi!. 1$G su!!est another e&planation. 9ere it is al)ost e&clusively sy)posiasts and ko)asts (ho have their phallus ound up in the sa)e )anner as ,nacreon, and as a rule they are older )en, or at least )ature and earded. *atyrs are also so depicted, evidently for co)ic effect.D6"E 'o e&pose a lon! penis, and especially the head, (as re!arded as sha)eless and dishonora le, so)ethin! (e see only in depictions of slaves and ar arians.D66E *ince in so)e )en the distended foreskin )ay no lon!er close property, allo(in! the lon! penis to han! out in unsi!htly fashion, a strin! could e % B9 %

4i!. 1J 1etail of the statue of ,nacreon in fi!. 1B sho(in! kyno#esme . used to avoid such an unattractive spectacle, at least to /ud!e fro) the evidence of vase paintin!. 'he vases also )ake it clear that this (as a (idely practiced custo). 7e )ay then consider it a si!n of the )odesty and decency e&pected in particular of the older participants in the sy)posiu). 8nce a!ain, in the ideolo!y of kalokagathia , aesthetic appearance eco)es an e&pression of )oral (orth. 'he orro(in! of this detail fro) the (orld of ,thenian daily life % "# %

4i!. 1$ *y)posiast (ith his penis ound up. *ta)nos y the =leophon Painter, ca. 66# B.C. .unich, ,ntikensa))lun!en. lends a realistic ele)ent to the nude fi!ure. 'his ,nacreon is no lon!er the representative of an e&trava!ant and decadent y!one (ay of life. 9e eco)es instead a conte)porary, (hose conduct at the sy)posiu) is a )odel of restrained and proper en/oy)ent. By underlinin! his nudity, the statue cele rates the perfection of the ody, /ust as those of youn!er )en. 'his ,nacreon is a handso)e and distin!uished )an, a kaloskagathos . -n the ,thens of this period, (hen the Parthenon (as !oin! up, it is hard to understand a statue like this as anythin! other than an e&e)plar of correct ehavior, e&pressin! precisely (hat 'hucydides puts in the )outh of Pericles in his fa)ous 4uneral 8ration FB."J, 61G, the praise of ,thens for its festivals and en/oy)ent of lifeA % "1 % thus the statue is a vision of the perfect citi0en. -n ,thens, physical e&ercise and )ilitary trainin! are not part of a hardened and /oyless (ay of life, as in *partaA rather, they are part of the pleasures of a free and open society.D65E 4or all the icono!raphical si)ilarities et(een ,nacreon and the ko)asts in vase paintin!, (e should not for!et that the sa)e i)a!e, (hen isolated and )a!nified to the scale of a life:si0e portrait statue, takes on a very different pu lic character and )eanin!. 8nly in this conte&t does it eco)e the e&e)plar of certain social values. -n fact in this period, the sy)posiu) (as eco)in! less popular as a su /ect for vase paintin!, and the sy)posiasts the)selves are )ostly depicted ehavin! rather )odestly and properly, as if follo(in! the )odel of ,nacreon.D6ME 7hen the ,thenians sa( ,nacreon, the poet of the cele ration, eside the !reat !eneral Panthippus, they had efore the) t(o prototypes, to!ether representin! the t(in ideals of ,thenian society that lend so har)oniously in PericlesC vision. 7e )i!ht note, ho(ever, that the Corinthian envoys at *parta accuse the ,thenians of ein! /ust the opposite F'huc. 1.J#G. Because of their fierce a) ition and nationalis), @they !o on (orkin! a(ay in dan!er and hardship all the days of their lives, seldo) en/oyin! their possessions ecause they are al(ays addin! to the). 'heir idea of a holiday is to do (hat needs doin!.@ 7hether or not such char!es (ere )ade in reality, and (hether /ustified or not, one

thin! is clear: the honorin! of ,nacreon, the poet of the sy)posiu), at this location, in this for), and at this point in ti)e )ust surely have had a pro!ra))atic character. 'he statue proclai)s that !aiety and en/oy)ent are as )uch a part of the superior ,thenian (ay of life as sports and (arfare, and that life (as as pleasura le and happy in this ne( a!e of Periclean de)ocracy as it had een in the old days of the tyrants and their @+ydian@ decadence.D6JE 7hether )y interpretation is entirely correct or not, this posthu)ous statue of ,nacreon stood for a very specific set of values. 'hat is, its purpose (as less to cele rate an individual fa)ous poet than to e the e) odi)ent of a certain social ideal: the poet as e&e)plar. -n principle this (ould still e the case if the statue had instead een put up y the opposition ca)p, the oli!archs.D6$E % "B %

Socrates an) the Mask of S%lenus

'his third case study is an e&a)ple not of the confir)ation of collective nor)s, ut of their denial, in payin! honors to *ocrates, (ho in life had so provoked and annoyed his fello( citi0ens (ith his ?uestionin! that they finally conde)ned hi) to death in "99 B.C. 'he earliest portrait of the philosopher ori!inated a out ten to t(enty years after his death and sho(s hi) in the !uise of *ilenus. -n floutin! the 9i!h Classical standard of eauty so latantly, this face )ust have distur ed *ocratesC conte)poraries no less than his penetratin! ?uestions.D69E *tartin! (ith the influential circle of intellectuals around Pericles and the enor)ous success of the *ophists, there arose in ,thens a tension et(een society at lar!e and this ne( reed of intellectual, (ho e&ercised such !reat influence on political, reli!ious, and )oral thou!ht.D5#E 7e find traces of this tension in the parodies of *ophists in 8ld Co)edy and even in vase paintin!. -n oth )edia, this ridicule tar!ets odily and aesthetic deficiencies. *uch parody (ould see) to e the ori!in of a strate!y, later e)ployed so effectively y certain philosophers, such as the Cynics, of havin! the)selves portrayed old and u!ly or (ith unconventional appearance as an act of provocation. ,s in )any cultures, the 2reeks tended to dis)iss the unpopular, the )ar!inali0ed, and the dissident as physically defective and u!ly. 'heir prototype is the u!ly, andy:le!!ed 'hersites FIl. B.B1Bff.G, in (ho) the Cynics (ould later, appropriately enou!h, take an interest. 4or the 2reeks, this kind of ridicule (as fro) the very e!innin! a for) of social discri)ination and )oral conde)nation, for in the ideolo!y of kalokagathia a )anCs virtues and his no le herita!e (ere e&pressed in the physical perfection of his ody. 'he earliest @portrait@ of *ocrates, in ,ristophanesC -lou#s of 6B" B.C. F1#1ff., "6$ff., 616A cf. "ir#s 1B$1f.G, )akes fun of his appearance.D51E +ike his pupils, he is pale and thin fro) strain and deprivation, dirty and hun!ry, (ith lon! hair. -ndifferent to his o(n appearance, he parades throu!h the city arefoot, starin! people do(n and tryin! out his corruptin! intellectual e&peri)ents on the). -t has lon! een reco!ni0ed that this description of *ocratesC physical appearance is as )uch a conventional topos as the caricature of his supposed teachin!s. % "" %

4i!. 19

*o:called ,esop on a red:fi!ure cup, ca. 66# B.C. <o)e, Hatican .useu)s.

4i!. B# Caricature of a *ophist de atin! FNG. <ed:fi!ure askos, ca. 66# B.C. Paris, +ouvre. -n any event, the starvin! thinker of the -lou#s has little in co))on (ith the fat: ellied teacher (ith the face like a *ilenus )ask descri ed y *ocratesC o(n pupils Plato and Penophon. <ather, it is a co))on stereotype, (hich (e find occasionally in caricatures of @intellectuals@ in vase paintin!. 8n a s)all red:fi!ure askos,D5BE for e&a)ple, of ca. 66# B.C. , a naked, e)aciated little )an (ith an enor)ous head leans far for(ard on his slender staff and see)s to e si)ply lost in conte)plation. Iust so, (e are told, *ocrates could stand still for hours, concentratin! on a pro le) Ffi!. B#G. 'he vase pro a ly caricatures one of the leadin! thinkers of the day. 'he creatureCs are skull, s(ellin! out in all directions, see)s a out to urst (ith all the profound thou!hts churnin! inside it. 9e is nevertheless an ,thenian citi0en, and not a )e) er of one of those cate!ories of inferiors like slaves or ar arians, as (e can infer fro) the characteristic pose of restin! on the staff and short )antle. 'he sa)e is true of another e&a)ple of a co)ical thinker, a!ain (ith e)aciated ody and oversi0ed head, (ho has al(ays een identified in the scholarship as the (riter of fa les, ,esop Ffi!. 19G.D5"E 7ith furro(ed ro( and open )outh, he listens carefully to the teachin!s of the fo& sittin! efore hi). 9e has pulled his )antle ti!htly around % "6 % his )ea!re ody, as if he (ere shiverin!. +ike ,ristophanesC *ocrates, he is u!ly, (ith lon! hair, ald head, and unke)pt, scra!!ly eard, and is clearly uncarin! of his appearance. 'hese )odest vase paintin!s pro a ly convey so)e idea of the !eneral antipathy that !reeted the ne( reed of intellectual !iants of Periclean ,thens, on (hich ,ristophanes could dra( for his caricatures. 'oo )uch thinkin! and intellectual e&ercise are not for !ood, upstandin! people: they )ake you stran!e and an o /ect of ridicule. 'he historical *ocrates, fro) all that the ancient sources report, )ust have een strikin!ly u!ly. But in this he (as surely not alone a)on! the ,thenians. 'hat his unfortunate appearance eca)e such a focus of attention )ust derive fro) the offensive nature of his intellectual activities. 'he likenin! of *ocrates to silens, satyrs, and .arsyas, as (e hear fro) Plato and Penophon, pro a ly ori!inated (ith his ene)ies and detractors, for the particular traits that are usually )entioned in the co)parison3the s?uat fi!ure (ith i! elly, road and flat face (ith ul!in! eyes, the lar!e )outh (ith protrudin! lips, and the ald head3(ere all considered, y the standards of kalokagathia, not only u!ly, ut tokens of a ase nature FCic. Tusc. 6.$1G.D56E 'he decision to adapt the co)parison (ith *ilenus for a portrait statue intended to cele rate the su /ect, ho(ever, presupposes a positive interpretation of the co)parison, such as (e do in fact find, in particular, in the speech of ,lci iades in PlatoCs Sym'osium . Perhaps *ocrates hi)self had already laid the !round(ork for this ne( interpretation y acceptin! the co)parison (ith his characteristic irony.

'he copies of the head fro) this portrait statue convey very different nuances, thou!h on all )a/or ele)ents of detail they are in a!ree)ent Ffi!. B1G. 'hat is, they all follo( the asic analo!y (ith *ilenus icono!raphy, especially in the flat, stran!ely constricted face, the very road, short, and deep:set nose, the hi!h:set ears and ald head, and the lon! hair descendin! fro) the te)ples over the ears and the nape of the neck Ffi!. BBG. But at the sa)e ti)e, a co)parison (ith i)a!es of the actual *ilenus leaves no dou t that in *ocrates the silen features have een at least partly )iti!ated.D55E 'his is particularly true of the eyes, the (ell:!roo)ed eard, the hair, (hich, thou!h lon!, is e&: % "5 %

4i!. B1 Bust of *ocrates Fas in fi!. 5G. ;aples, .useo ;a0ionale. % "M %

4i!. BB *ilenus on a silver coin fro) =atane in *icily, ca. 61# B.C. Berlin, *taatliche .Rn0sa))lun!. tre)ely carefully coiffed, and the full ut (ell:for)ed lips. 'here is in addition pro a ly a hint of introspection that can e detected in )ost of the copies. 'hese positive features are the )ore re)arka le in that literary descriptions e)phasi0e *ocratesC ul!in! eyes, s(ollen lips, and unke)pt hair. >vidently the intention of the statueCs patrons (as to tone do(n the *ilenus co)parison y co) inin! it (ith un)istaka le features of propriety, to )ake an una) i!uously positive state)ent. 4urther)ore, the *ilenus )ask of this portrait is a countenance artfully constructed of prescri ed icono!raphical for)ulas. -n real life, *ocratesC u!liness )i!ht have een of an entirely different nature. 7hat sort of ody could have een co) ined (ith this headN 'he loss of the ody is especially frustratin! in li!ht of the co)ple& associations of the head. -t see)s )ost unlikely that such a head could have sat on a perfectly handso)e and conventional ody, like that of the later portrait statue of *ocrates Fcf. fi!. ""G. ,n uni)pressive ron0e relief fro) Po)peii Ffi!. B"G, a out fifteen centi)eters in hei!ht, )ade as a furniture appli?uK, )ay !ive us a rou!h idea of the lost statue.D5ME 'he scene, kno(n in a nu) er of versions, is itself an eclectic pastiche of several prototypes, )ade y a +ate 9ellenistic artist, and pro a ly depictin! *ocratesC initiation into the )ysteries of love y 1ioti)a. 'he fi!ure of 1ioti)a is ased on the 'yche of ,ntioch. 4or the % "J %

4i!. B"

*ocrates and 1ioti)a. Bron0e relief fro) Po)peii, first century B.C. ;aples, .useo ;a0ionale. fi!ure of *ocrates, the artist has used a )otif, standard in vase paintin! fro) the late si&th century on, of a )an rela&in! on his staff (ith the other ar) casually propped on his hip. 'he )otif appears occasionally as late as on ,ttic !rave stelai of the fourth century, ut not in the 9ellenistic period. 'his (ould i)ply an early date for the prototype, unless (e prefer to think of a historici0in! invention. 'he )otif e&presses the ?ualities of leisure and deli!ht in conversation that (ere such i)portant ele)ents of the ethos of Classical ,thens. -t )arks the ,thenian citi0en (ho is not !ainfully e)ployed ut has lon! stretches of free ti)e in (hich to stand around discussin! all that is !oin! on in the city. >ven the >pony)ous 9eroes on the Parthenon 4rie0e are represented in this )anner.D5JE 'his i)a!e of *ocrates (ould thus e that of the properly ehaved citi0en, ut at the sa)e ti)e, as in the % "$ % portrait head, (ith un)istaka ly u!ly and deviant features3the s)all stature and ul!in! elly3/ust as descri ed in our literary sources. But (e have yet to ask (hy the statueCs patrons accepted in the first place an i)a!e of *ocratesC u!liness, one that likened hi) to the se)i:hu)an follo(ers of 1ionysus est kno(n for their indecent and drunken (ays. ,nd (hy a ove all in ,thens, (here all deviations fro) the ideal ody (ere apt to e eli)inated in art, as a !lance at the countless Classical ,ttic !ravestones (ill re)ind usN 'here is surely )ore than one aspect to the co)parison of *ocrates to *ilenus. -n ein! likened to a )ytholo!ical creature, he is presented as an e&traordinary hu)an ein!, transcendin! conventional nor)s. 'he old *ilenus, unlike the rest of his reed, (as considered the repository of ancient (isdo) and !oodness and for this reason appears in )ytholo!y as the teacher of divine and heroic children. ,s early as a out 65# B.C. a vase paintin! sho(s *ilenus (ith his citi0enCs staff in the role of the (atchful 'ai#agogos .D5$E 'he connotation as the (ise teacher (as thus an o vious one for the portrait of *ocrates:as:*ilenus. But the *ilenus analo!y does )ore than /ust pay ho)a!e to *ocrates as the re)arka le teacherA it presents a challen!e as (ell. 'he deli erate visuali0ation of u!liness represented, in the ,thens of the early fourth century, a clash (ith the standards of kalokagathia . 'hat is, a portrait like this ?uestioned one of the funda)ental values of the Classical polis. -f the )an (ho) the !od at 1elphi proclai)ed the (isest of all could e u!ly as *ilenus and still a !ood, upstandin! citi0en, then this )ust i)ply that the statueCs patron (as castin! dou t on that very syste) of values. 7e have to look at this statue of *ocrates, (ith its fat elly and *ilenus face, a!ainst the ack!round of a city filled (ith perfectly proportioned and ideali0ed hu)an fi!ures in )ar le and ron0e e) odyin! virtue and )oral authority. *uch dou ts can have ori!inated only in the circle of *ocratesC friends. -t (as lon! a!o su!!ested that the statue )i!ht have een intended to stand in the .ouseion of PlatoCs ,cade)y, founded in "$5, (here (e kno( a statue of Plato hi)self, put up y the Persian .ithridates and )ade y the sculptor *ilanion, later stood F1. +. ".B5G. 7e )ay perhaps !o even a step further and consider a possi le connection et(een the concept ehind the statue and an ele)ent of Platonic % "9 % thou!ht contained in the very passa!e of the Sym'osium that co)pares *ocrates to *ilenus. 'he discussion there revolves around the contrast et(een interior and e&terior. et(een appearance and reality. *ocrates hi)self, it is su!!ested, is like a fi!ure of a flute:playin! *ilenus Fevidently a fa)iliar

o /ect, perhaps of (oodG, (hich, (hen you open it, contains a divine i)a!e FSym'. B15BG. 'rue philosophy reco!ni0es the @see)in!ness@ of the e&ternal and leads instead to the perception of actual ein!. *ocratesC ody )ay e seen as an e&e)plar of these precepts, for the see)in!ly u!ly for) conceals the )ost perfect soul. 'his idea i)plies that the entire value syste) of ,thenian society is uilt upon )ere appearance and deception, )isled y its fi&ation on the e&ternal for) of the ody. *een in this li!ht, the portrait of *ocrates )akes a rather forceful and provocative state)ent and eco)es a kind of e&tension of *ocratic discourse into another )ediu). ,s the livin! *ocrates once did, the statue no( challen!es his society on a funda)ental principle of its identity.D59E 7e are (itnessin! here the discovery of a ne( di)ension in the portraiture of the intellectual, one that (ill not e e&ploited a!ain until the philosopher statues of the >arly 9ellenistic a!e.DM#E -n the ne&t chapter (e shall see ho( this ri!id value syste), founded upon the principles of kalokagathia and confor)ity, persisted for )ore than a full half century, at least in the pu lic sphere of the ,thenian city:state, and even )ana!ed to rin! a out a transfor)ation in the provocative i)a!e of *ocrates. % 6# %

II+ The Intellectual as 0oo) C%t%4en

We shoul# not imagine that %e are a,le to see such a hea# in the same %ay Plato s contem'oraries sa% it. 39ans:2eor! 2ada)er <ecently the 2lyptothek in .unich ac?uired a particularly fine <o)an copy of the portrait of Plato Ffi!. B6G. ,)on! those (ho tried to penetrate the stern countenance (as the philosopher 9ans:2eor! 2ada)er, (ho detected @,ttic (it . . . , so)ethin! of e&tre)e skepticis), a stracted and distant, al)ost )ockin!,@ especially in the )outh and eyes. ,t the sa)e ti)e, the distin!uished interpreter shre(dly called attention to PlatoCs dialo!ues, @the successor to ,ttic co)edy,@ to ?ualify the provisional nature of his o(n reaction.D1E ,rchaeolo!ists have also atte)pted, (ith a si)ilarly direct approach, to find in PlatoCs face a reflection of his character, fortunes, or intellect. *o, for e&a)ple, 7olf!an! 9el i! sa( an @ill:te)pered, even )alevolent ?uality,@ (hile >rnst Pfuhl found an @inner tension /oined (ith the painful resi!nation that co)es of itter disappoint)ent.@ 9el!a von 9eint0e discovered ho( @the inner)ost thou!hts and e&periences reveal the)selves in the earnest, kno(in!, and concentrated !a0e and the fir)ly closed )outh.@ Clearly, vie(ers find in this face (hat they look for, ased on their personal preconceptions of the su /ect, especially in this case, (here the different renderin!s of the e&pression in the various preserved copies see) at different ti)es to favor one or another interpretation.DBE But even archaeolo!ists had to (ork their (ay !radually into the Plato portrait efore they could arrive at such profound interpretations. @'he head occasioned )ainly !reat disappoint)ent (hen it first eca)e kno(n, for it did not correspond at all to the (ay people i)a!ined Plato. . . . 'hey sou!ht in vain a characteri0ation of the Cdivine Plato,C@ or they re!retted that the artist @rendered little or nothin! of

% 61 %

4i!. B6 Plato. Copy of the ti)e of the e)peror 'i erius of a portrait statue of the )id:fourth century B.C. .unich, 2lyptothek. % 6B % the su /ectCs true nature.@D"E 'his lack of e&pressiveness and individual characteri0ation in +ate Classical portraits )ust have een felt already in the 9ellenistic period, (hen the portrait of Plato (as reshaped into a )ore co))unicative one, in the style of conte)porary *toic notions of the physio!no)y of the thinker Fcf. pp. 9Bff.G.D6E 'he <o)ans had already tried this kind of psycholo!ical readin! of the imagines illustrium of the 2reeks, (hich (ere e&hi ited y the thousands in their ho)es, !ardens, and li raries, usually as her)s or usts (ith the na)e inscri ed. Iust like the )odern vie(er, they (anted to kno( @?ualis fuit ali?uis,@ as Pliny the >lder put it F). "5.1#f.G, in order to use the portraits in their o(n intellectual retreats. *ince they no lon!er understood the ody lan!ua!e of 2reek statuary, they usually had copies )ade only of the heads, assu)in!, ?uite naturally, that these (ere realistic, individual likenesses in the sa)e sense as their o(n portrait sculpture. >ven )odern vie(ers (ho are a(are that the 2reeks al(ays )ade full:len!th portrait statues nevertheless find the)selves confronted y dise) odied heads and re)ain, like the <o)ans, nolens /olens, fi&ated on the). -n so doin!, (e perhaps look too closely and ask too )uch of a face that (as intended to e seen in a very different conte&t. ;or are (e any etter a le than the <o)ans to free ourselves of deeply in!rained (ays of seein!, in our case especially shaped y our e&perience of photo!raphic likenesses. ,s a result, (e search for any indication of individual physio!no)y that (e can associate (ith the character and (ork of the su /ect. >ven (hen (e kno( that this (as not the ori!inal intention of a Classical portrait, (e can hardly escape our o(n conditionin!. 7e )ust ad)it, then, that (e have no direct access to an understandin! of PlatoCs physio!no)y. 7e can only try, y indirect )eans, to create the theoretical fra)e(ork for such an understandin!. 7hat is of interest for our in?uiry is not the often:asked ut unans(era le ?uestion of ho( true to life the portrait is, ut rather ho( specific intellectual traits are indicated. -n other (ords, does this portrait characteri0e Plato in any (ay (hatsoever as a philosopher, or si)ply as a )ature ,thenian citi0en confor)in! to the asic e&pectations of the polisN % 6" % -t is )y contention that in fourth:century ,thens there (as no such thin! as a portrait of an intellectual as such, and indeed that in the social cli)ate of the de)ocratic polis there could not have een. -n order to de)onstrate this, - should first like to deal (ith so)e retrospective portraits of fa)ous fifth:century ,thenians fro) the period of the Plato portrait. 'hese are statues for (hich (e can reconstruct the conte&t in (hich they (ere ori!inally displayed and (e can !ain a rou!h idea of their ori!inal content. 'hen - shall return to the ?uestion of PlatoCs )uch:interpreted e&pression. 4inally, at the end of this chapter, - shall consider t(o portraits that de)onstrate ho( the strict standards of ehavior of the Classical polis roke do(n in the >arly 9ellenistic period, !ivin! rise to ne( options, includin! the representation of intellectual ?ualities.

Statues /onor%n$ the 0reat Tra$e)%ans

, out the year ""# B.C. , +ycur!us, the leadin! politician in ,thens, (ho (as also in char!e of state finances, proposed in the ,sse) ly a decree for the erection of honorific ron0e statues of the three !reat Classical tra!edians, ,eschylus, *ophocles, and >uripides, (ho had een active rou!hly a century efore. 'he statues (ere to e set up in the 'heatre of 1ionysus, (here their plays had een perfor)ed and (here, in addition, the ,sse) ly itself )et Fps.:Plut. 0 orat., 1yc. 1# S Mor. $614A Paus. 1.B1.15BG. ,n authentic and definitive te&t of their (orks (as also to e esta lished and used as the asis for all future productions. 'his re)arka le pro/ect (as part of an a) itious pro!ra) of patriotic national rene(al.D5E

So.hocles, The Pol%t%cal Act%&e C%t%4en

'he statue of *ophocles elon!in! to the dedication see)s to e faithfully rendered in an al)ost fully preserved copy of the ,u!ustan period Ffi!. B5G.DME *ophocles stands in an artful pose that appears oth !raceful and effortless. 'he )antle carefully draped a out his ody enfolds oth ar)s ti!htly. 'he ri!ht ar) rests in a kind of loop, (hile the left, under % 66 %

4i!. B5 *ophocles. <o)an copy of a statue ca. ""# B.C. <o)e, Hatican .useu)s. % 65 % the !ar)ent, is propped on the hip. 'he drapery allo(s even the le!s little roo) for )ove)ent. Tet at the sa)e ti)e that he is so heavily (rapped, the position of the one advanced le! and the one ar) propped up conveys a sense of ener!y and a co))andin! presence. 'he head is turned to the side and sli!htly raised, the )outh open. 7e have the i)pression that the poet is )akin! a certain kind of pu lic appearance. ,)on! the ,ttic !rave stelai, (hich repeatedly display the narro( ran!e of accepta le poses and drapery styles that reflect standards of citi0en ehavior in this period, there is no )ale fi!ure (ho )atches this co) ination of ein! oth heavily (rapped and yet )akin! such an ele!ant and self: assured appearance. 'here is, ho(ever, a statue of the orator ,eschines, only sli!htly later in date, in a si)ilar pose Ffi!. BMG. 'his raises the possi ility that *ophocles, too, is depicted as a pu lic speaker.DJE 'he )odel orator (as e&pected to de)onstrate e&tre)e )odesty and self:control in his appearances efore the ,sse) ly, and particularly to avoid any kind of de)onstrative !estures. 'hus this particular pose, (ith very li)ited )o ility and oth ar)s co)pletely i))o ili0ed, alon! (ith the self:conscious sense of @)akin! an appearance,@ (ould e particularly appropriate for an orator. ,lan *hapiro has recently called attention to a red:fi!ure neck a)phora y the 9arro( Painter, dated ca. 6$# B.C. , on (hich a )an is depicted in the sa)e pose as *ophocles, standin! on a podiu), in front of hi) a listener leanin! on his staff in the typical citi0en stance Ffi!. BJG. .ost likely (e have here indeed a representation of an orator.D$E But (hy depict a tra!ic poet of the previous century in the !uise of an oratorN 'he issue of (hat constituted the proper earin! and conduct for pu lic speakers, the correct attitude to(ard the state and its citi0en virtues, (as the su /ect of a lively de ate in ,thens in the years /ust efore +ycur!us put up

his dedication. -f (e )ay elieve ,eschines, )ost politicians of his !eneration no lon!er o served the traditional rules of conduct ut !esticulated (ildly for dra)atic effect, /ust as the de)a!o!ue =leon had een accused of doin! in the late fifth century. ,eschinesC !reat rival 1e)osthenes see)s to e one of those (ho at least sy)pathi0ed (ith these supposedly undisciplined speakers.D9E % 6M %

4i!. BM *tatue of the orator ,eschines. >arly ,u!ustan copy of a statue ca. "B# B.C. ;aples, .useo ;a0ionale. -n his plea for speakers to display a cal) and self:controlled appearance, ,eschines invokes the e&a)ple of earlier !enerations and, in particular, cites a rule statin! that the speaker )ust keep his ri!ht ar) still and (rapped in his cloak throu!h the duration of his speech. ,eschines (ould naturally have e?uated this proper stance (ith ethical and )oral % 6J %

4i!. BJ ,n orator speaks fro) the podiu). ,ttic neck a)phora, ca. 6$# B.C. Paris, +ouvre. correctness Fso'hrosyne G. -n this connection he refers e&plicitly to a statue of the la(!iver *olon in the ,!ora of *ala)is: ,nd the speakers of old, )en like Pericles, 'he)istocles, and ,ristides, (ere so controlled Dso'hrones E that in those days it (as considered a )oral failin! to )ove the ar) freely, as is co))on no(adays, and for this reason speakers did their est to avoid it. ,nd - can !ive you definite proof of this. -C) sure you have all een across to *ala)is and seen the statue of *olon there. Tou can then verify for yourselves that, in this statue in the ,!ora of *ala)is, *olon keeps his ar) hidden eneath his )antle. 'his statue is not /ust a )e)orial, ut is an e&act renderin! of the pose in (hich *olon actually appeared efore the ,thenian ,sse) ly. FIn Tim. B5G ,eschinesC opponent, 1e)osthenes, ?uickly responded to this, also in the ,sse) ly, and )ade direct reference to the supposedly authentic statue of *olon: People (ho live in *ala)is tell )e that this statue is not even fifty years old. But since the ti)e of *olon a out B6# years have passed, so that not % 6$ % even the !randfather of the artist (ho invented the statueCs pose could have lived (hen *olon did. 9e D,eschinesE illustrated his o(n re)arks y appearin! in this pose efore the

/ury. But it (ould have een )uch etter for the city if he had also copied *olonCs attitude. But he didnCt do this, /ust the opposite. F!e falsa leg. B51G 'he controversy over the statue of *olon provides us not only proof of the i)portance of the pose (ith one ar) (rapped up in the )antle. -t also represents rare and valua le testi)ony to the function and popular understandin! of pu lic honorific )onu)ents in the Classical polis. 'hat is, in certain situations and in particular locations, a statue such as this one could eco)e a )odel and a topic of discussion and could take on a si!nificance far eyond the occasion of its erection. 'he statue (as thus incorporated into the functionin! of society in a )anner alto!ether different fro) (hat (e (ould e&pect fro) our o(n e&perience. ,eschines hi)self, of course, appeared e&actly in the pose of the speakers of old. ,nd in the vie( of oth his supporters and his detractors, he did so in a strikin!ly ele!ant and ad)ira le )anner. 'he statue in his honor, referred to earlier, does indeed sho( hi) in this very pose.D1#E 9is statue evidently led 1e)osthenes to )ake the ironic co))ent that in his speeches ,eschines stood like a handso)e statue Fkalos an#rias G efore the ,sse) ly, a pose for (hich his earlier career as an actor had prepared hi) (ell.D11E But this is apparently /ust (hat ,eschines intended, to stand as still as a statue. 'he de ate over ho( one should properly appear efore the ,sse) ly (as not, of course, si)ply a )atter of aesthetics. -n Classical ,thens, the appearance and ehavior in pu lic of all citi0ens (as !overned y strict rules. 'hese applied to ho( one should correctly (alk, stand, or sit, as (ell as to proper drapin! of oneCs !ar)ent, position and )ove)ent of ar)s and head, styles of hair and eard, eye )ove)ents, and the volu)e and )odulation of the voice: in short, every ele)ent of an individualCs ehavior and presentation, in accordance (ith his se&, a!e, and place in society. -t is difficult for us to i)a!ine this de!ree of re!i)entation. 'he necessity of )akin! sure their appearance and % 69 % ehavior (ere al(ays correct )ust have tyranni0ed people and taken up a !ood deal of their ti)e. ,l)ost every ti)e reference is )ade to these rules, they are linked to e)phatic )oral /ud!)ents, (hether positive or ne!ative. 'hey are part of a value syste) that could e defined in ter)s of such concepts as order, )easure, )odesty, alance, self:control, circu)spection, adherence to re!ulations, and the like. 'he )eanin! of this is clear: the physical appearance of the citi0enry should reflect the order of society and the )oral perfection of the individual in accord (ith the traditions of kalokagathia . 'hrou!h constant ad)onition to confor) to these standards of ehavior fro) childhood on, they eca)e to a !reat e&tent internali0ed. ;o one (ho (anted to elon! to the ri!ht circles could afford to thro( his )antle carelessly over his shoulders, to (alk too fast or talk too loud, to hold his head at the (ron! an!le. -t is no (onder that the individuals depicted on !ravestones, at least to the )odern vie(er, look so stereotyped and )onotonous. 'he statues of *ophocles and ,eschines are therefore )eant to represent not only the perfect pu lic speaker, ut also the !ood citi0en (ho proves hi)self particularly en!a!ed politically y )eans of his role as a speaker. 'he )otif of one ar) (rapped in the cloak had een a topos of the ,thenian citi0en since the fifth century and (ould continue into late anti?uity, oth in art and in life, as a visual sy) ol of so'hrosyne, here )eanin! so)ethin! like respecta ility. -ndeed, ri!id standards of ehavior as an e&pression of !enerali0ed ut rather va!ue )oral values are a (ell:kno(n feature of other societies. -n fourth:century ,thens, ho(ever, (e have the i)pression in other respects as (ell that the aesthetic re!i)entation and styli0ation of everyday life increased as the values e&pressed in the visual i)a!ery eca)e increasin!ly pro le)atic.

, !lance at earlier occurrences of the *ophocles )otif (ill help clarify its si!nificance (hen applied to the pu lic speaker. -n vase paintin! of the fifth century, it is pri)arily adolescent oys (ho (ear their )antle in the style of *ophocles, (ith oth ar)s (rapped up. 'hey appear in t(o conte&ts in (hich it (as essential for the) to display their )odesty Fai#os G: standin! efore a teacher and in scenes of erotic courtship.D1BE 'he avera!e citi0en, y contrast, is usually de: % 5# % picted in a )ore rela&ed pose. -n the fourth century (e occasionally find )en (ith oth ar)s concealed like *ophocles, usually as pious (orshippers on votive reliefs.D1"E 9ere a!ain the point is to display )odesty and a(e, in this case efore the divinity. 'he revival and spread of this lon!:anti?uated !esture of e&tre)e self:control for pu lic speakers in the fourth century also carry a deli erate )essa!e for the de)os and for the de)ocratic syste) then in a state of crisis. -t (as precisely this concern for the de)ocracy that (as the focus of +ycur!usC political pro!ra). But let us return to the statue of *ophocles. -t presents the fa)ous play(ri!ht not at all in that !uise, ut rather as a )odel of the politically concerned citi0en. 'he fillet in his hair pro a ly refers to his priestly office.D16E -t is of no conse?uence (hether the historical *ophocles did in fact take a particularly active role in politics or not. 8ne of his conte)poraries, -on of Chios, re)arks of hi) drily: @,s for politics, *ophocles (as not very skilled Dso'hos E, nor (as he especially interested or en!a!ed Drhekterios E, like )ost ,thenians of the aristocracy@ F,th. 1".M#61G. 'he poet did, ho(ever, serve as !eneral in the year 661/#.D15E -n any event, nothin! a out the statue of *ophocles alludes to his profession as a poet, neither the ody nor the head Fcf. fi!. 6#G, (hich, (ith its (ell:!roo)ed hair and carefully tri))ed eard, perfectly )atches the conventional portrait of the )ature ,thenian citi0en on !rave stelai and, like the portrait of Plato, has understanda ly often een perceived as lackin! in e&pression. But this (as /ust (hat those (ho co))issioned the statue intended: to sho( *ophocles as a citi0en (ho (as e&e)plary in every (ay, includin! in his political activity, no )ore and no less than an e?ual a)on! his fello( citi0ens, a )an (ho) +ycur!us and his friends (ould (ish to count as their conte)porary.D1ME

Aesch'lus, The Face of the Athen%an E&er'*an

-dentifyin! the portraits of the other t(o tra!edians in +ycur!usC dedication is unfortunately )ore pro le)atical, the evidence )ore fra!)entary. , head that has convincin!ly een associated (ith the lost % 51 %

4i!. B$ Portrait her) of the play(ri!ht ,eschylus. ,u!ustan copy of a statue ca. ""# B.C. ;aples, .useo ;a0ionale. statue of ,eschylus portrays a )an so)e(hat youn!er than *ophocles Ffi!. B$G.D1JE 'he su tly indicated lines in the ro( are a feature that he shares, as (e shall see, (ith )any i)a!es of conte)porary ,thenian citi0ens. 9e too is a conventional type, as is evident fro) a co)parison (ith the head of an ,thenian na)ed ,le&os, fro) a (ealthy fa)ily to) )onu)ent of the sa)e period Ffi!.

B9G.D1$E ,s (ith *ophocles, there is no hint of intellectual activity in the e&pression, nor anythin! of ,eschylusC o(n character, for e&a)ple, his severity F,ristophanes % 5B %

4i!. B9 9ead of ,le&os fro) an ,ttic !rave stele ca. ""# B.C. ,thens, ;ational .useu). Frogs $#6, $"#ff., $59G. <ather than as poet, he too see)s to have een depicted si)ply as a !ood ,thenian citi0en.D19E ,s for the ody type, (hich is thus far not preserved, (e can suppose, ased on his a!e Fin his )iddle yearsG, on the illo(in! )antle on the her) copy in ;aples, and on the typolo!y of such fi!ures on the !ravestones, that he )ust have een standin! erect.

Eur%.%)es, The 2%se Ol) Man

4or the portrait of >uripides in +ycur!usC dedication the only candidate, on stylistic !rounds, is, in )y vie(, the inscri ed copy kno(n as the 4arnese type Ffi!. "#G.DB#E -t sho(s the poet as an elderly )an (ith ald pate, a frin!e of lon! hair, and su tle indications of a!in! in the face. ;ot /ust an ordinary old )an, ho(ever, ut a kalos geron, like the % 5" %

4i!. "# Portrait her) of the play(ri!ht >uripides. <o)an copy of a statue ca. ""# B.C. ;aples, .useo ;a0ionale. earlier portrait of 9o)er. -n the hi!hly conventional voca ulary of ,ttic !ravestones, this type of old )an is often sho(n seated, especially (hen he is the principal person ein! co))e)orated. Ffi!. "1G. 'his is an allusion not /ust to physical (eakness, ut to the status and authority of the older )an (ithin the fa)ily Foikos G and the polis.DB1E 'he di!nified, seated position of the elderly paterfa)ilias is, further)ore, % 56 %

4i!. "1 ,ttic !ravestone of 9ippo)achos and =allias. Piraeus, .useu). an accurate reflection of the rituals of daily life. 7e )ay e re)inded of the di!nified fi!ure of old =ephalos, at the e!innin! of PlatoCs $e'u,lic, (ho receives his !uests seated on a #i'hros F$e'. "B$C, "B9>G.

'he portrait of >uripides of the 4arnese type actually appears once on a seated fi!ure, on a relief of the first century B.C. Ffi!. "BG, (hich, on the asis of other ele)ents, such as the chair and the overall style, could reflect an ori!inal of the late fourth century. 'he fi!ure is co): % 55 %

4i!. "B Hotive relief FNG of the seated >uripides, (ith the personification of the sta!e FSkene G and an archaistic statue of 1ionysus. -stan ul, ,rchaeolo!ical .useu). ined (ith t(o that are stylistically later in date, a personification of the sta!e FSkene G and an archai0in! statue of 1ionysus, an eclectic )i&ture in (hich, (e )ay (ell suspect, lurks a ?uotation of a (ell:kno(n Classical portrait statue of a poet. -ndeed, the classicistic artists of such reliefs as a rule did not @invent@ any ne( fi!ure types. 'he ook roll and the pillo( are already ele)ents in the icono!raphy of +ate Classical !rave stelai. ,nd the )antle dra(n up over the ack, a standard characteristic of old )en, as (e see it on the her) in ;aples, find a parallel on this relief.DBBE -n his raised ri!ht hand, >uripides takes a )ask proffered to hi) y Skene . -n the ori!inal portrait statue, to /ud!e fro) the icono!raphy of the !ravestones, that hand could have held the old )anCs staff. -f (e i)a!ine the >uripides statue in this (ay, then (e )ay (ell ask (hy he alone of the three tra!edians (as sho(n as an old )an. -t is % 5M % true, of course, that >uripides lived to e ei!hty, ut then *ophocles (as ninety, and ,eschylus did not die youn! either. >uripides in his lifeti)e (as clearly ranked ehind ,eschylus and *ophocles and (as even accused y his conte)porary ,ristophanes of lackin! any citi0en virtues. But in the course of the fourth century, his reputation under(ent an enor)ous transfor)ation, so that y the ti)e of +ycur!us he (as considered the )ost outstandin! of the !reat tra!edians F,ristotle calls hi) tragikotatos at Poetics 165"aB9fG. 4or Plato and ,eschines he (as si)ply the (ise poet, and later he (ould even e called y ,thenaeus the philosopher of the sta!e Fskenikos 'hiloso'hos G.DB"E 7isdo) and insi!ht are precisely the ?ualities that set the elderly apart fro) youn!er )enA this is (hy they en/oyed special privile!es oth in the life of the city and (ithin the fa)ily. *o, for e&a)ple, )en over fifty had the ri!ht to speak first in the ,sse) ly F,eschin. In Tim. B"G.DB6E ;ot y accident, the relatively fe( instances on ,ttic !ravestones of this period of a fi!ure holdin! a ook roll are al(ays seated older )en like >uripides. 'hat is, they are the only individuals in this hi!hly styli0ed )ediu) of the our!eois self: i)a!e (ho are cele rated for their education and kno(led!e. 'he a!ed >uripides (ould thus have een sho(n seated to e)phasi0e his e&traordinary (isdo) relative to the other t(o tra!edians. 7hen (e try to i)a!ine the three as a sin!le )onu)ent, rather than as separate statues, a !roupin! of t(o standin! fi!ures and one seated (ould, y the standards of the !ravestones, e a perfectly accepta le one. -f this (as indeed the principal )essa!e conveyed y >uripidesC portrait, (e )i!ht (ell e&pect in his facial physio!no)y a clear characteri0ation as an intellectual. *cholars have often seen in this face fra)ed y heavy locks of hair an e&pression of the supposed )elancholy and pessi)is) that (ere attri uted to >uripides even in anti?uity on the asis of his plays, or, at least, as +uca 2iuliani recently put it, a definite @1enker)i)ik.@DB5E But, once a!ain, )odern vie(ers, influenced y their o(n e&pectations, see )ore than the artist actually intended. >uripides is sho(n as an older )an, and, as on

so)e i)a!es of old )en on the !ravestones, the arely visi le (rinkles in the forehead and the eye ro(s !ently dra(n to!ether )ay su!!est a certain ele)ent of )ental effort or conte)plation, ut nothin! )ore. , co)parison (ith % 5J % the earlier portraits of intellectuals, such as those of Pindar Ffi!. JG, +ysias, and 'hucydides Ffi!. 6BG, DBME )akes it clear that the sculptor (as in no (ay tryin! to e&press a specific kind of )ental concentration. 8n the contrary, the very @nor)ality@ of >uripidesC old )anCs face presu)a ly once a!ain reflects the statueCs true intentions. +ike ,eschylus and *ophocles, >uripides is portrayed as an ,thenian citi0en, a venerated ancestor, /ust like those so pro)inently displayed on the !rave )onu)ents of (ealthy fa)ilies at the 1ipylon. -t see)s appropriate, in this conte&t, that in his one preserved oration +ycur!us praises >uripides not so )uch as a poet, ut rather as a patriot, ecause he presented to the citi0enry the deeds of their forefathers as 'ara#eigmata @so that throu!h the si!ht and the conte)plation of these a love of the fatherland (ould e a(akened in the).@DBJE 'hus in the )onu)ent proposed y +ycur!us in the very place (here the ,sse) ly )et, the three fa)ous poets (ere presented as e&e)plars of the )odel ,thenian citi0en, pro a ly in three different !uises: *ophocles as the citi0en (ho is politically en!a!K, ,eschylus as the ?uiet citi0en in the pri)e of life, and >uripides as the e&perienced and conte)plative old )an. 'heir authority, of course, !re( out of their fa)e as poets, yet they are cele rated not for this, ut instead as e) odi)ents of the )odel ,thenian citi0en. - should add that )ost of (hat - have een su!!estin! re)ains valid even if one ?uestions the identification of the portrait of ,eschylus or the association of the portrait of >uripides (ith +ycur!usC dedication. >ven if the conte&t (ere other(ise, as (e shall see, nothin! (ould chan!e in the asic conception of these portraits. 'he only loss (ould e in the pro!ra))atic interpretation (ithin the fra)e(ork of +ycur!usC political !oals.

A Re&%se) Portra%t of Socrates

'he +ycur!an pro!ra) for the patriotic rene(al of ,thens (as all:enco)passin!. Practical )easures for protectin! trade and re uildin! offensive and defensive )ilitary capa ility (ent hand in hand (ith an atte)pt at a )oral rene(al. <eli!ious festivals and rituals (ere revived % 5$ % and !iven added splendorA ne( te)ples (ere uilt, and old ones renovated. 'he political center of the city (as !iven a ne( pro)inence throu!h a deli erate ca)pai!n of eautification that turned the )ost sy) olically char!ed structures into a sta!e settin! for the city and its institutions. 'hus the 'heatre of 1ionysus, the Pyn&, and the !y)nasiu) in the +yceu) (ere all re uilt and e&panded, as (ere other uildin!s and co))e)orative )onu)ents such as the state urials of the fifth century. Iust as in the ti)e of Pericles, the cityCs physical appearance, its pu lic processions, and pu licly displayed statuary (ere all conceived as parts of an overall )anifestation of traditional institutions.DB$E But (hereas fifth:century ,thens had een a society oriented to(ard the future, no( the city (as essentially ack(ard:lookin! in its desire to preserve and protect. 'he re)inders of the past (ere intended to stren!then solidarity in the present and increase a(areness of the political and cultural values of the de)ocratic constitution no( under sie!e y the .acedonian kin! and his supporters in the city. 'he past (as to e rou!ht into the present, to )ake people conscious of their cultural and

political herita!e. -t is no coincidence that in these sa)e years a cult of 1e)okratia (as installed in the ,!ora and a ne( )onu)ent of the >pony)ous 9eroes (as erected in front of the Bouleuterion.DB9E -t (as in this political and cultural cli)ate that the statues of the !reat tra!edians (ere put up. 'hey too (ere intended to stren!then the sense of co))unal identity and to provide a )odel for the kind of !ood citi0ens that the city needed. 'he statues of the three play(ri!hts (ere not the only e&a)ples of retrospective honorific )onu)ents in this period. -t is possi le that the ne( statue of *ocrates (as created as part of the +ycur!an pro!ra) of rene(al. Unlike the portrait (ith the silenCs )ask set up shortly after the philosopherCs death, this (as a statue co))issioned y the popular ,sse) ly and erected in a pu lic uildin!. -t is reported that the co))ission to )ake the statue (ent to the )ost fa)ous sculptor of the day, +ysippus of *icyon F1. +. B.6"G.D"#E ,lon!side nu)erous copies of the head, (e are fortunate enou!h in this instance to have one renderin! of the ody, thou!h only in a s)all:scale statuette Ffi!. ""G. *ocrates is no( depicted no lon!er as the % 59 %

4i!. "" *ocrates. *)all:scale <o)an copy of an ori!inal of the late fourth century B.C. 9: BJ.5 c). +ondon, British .useu). % M# % outsider, ut rather once a!ain as the )odel citi0en. 9e (ears his hi)ation draped over the ody co))e il faut and holds fir)ly oth the overfold in his ri!ht hand and the e&cess fa ric draped over the shoulder in his left so that this artful arran!e)ent (ill not co)e undone (hen he (alks. 'hese !estures, (hich see) so natural and insi!nificant, are in fact, to /ud!e fro) the !ravestones and votive reliefs, part of the e&tensive code of re?uired ehavior that carried )oral connotations as (ell. Careful attention to the proper drapin! of the !ar)ent and a handso)e pattern of folds are an out(ard )anifestation of the @interior order@ e&pected of the !ood citi0en. -n the pictorial voca ulary, such traits eco)e sy) ols of )oral (orth, and, in the statue of *ocrates, this connotation is particularly e)phasi0ed y the si)ilar !esture of oth hands.D"1E 'he philosopher (ho (as once likened to a silen no( stands in the Classical contrapposto pose, his ody (ell proportioned, essentially no different fro) the ,thenian citi0ens on !rave stelai like that of =orallion Ffi!. "6G. 'he ody is devoid of any trace of the fa)ed u!liness that his friends occasionally evoked, the fat paunch, the short le!s, or the (addlin! !ait. -f (e assu)e for the earlier portrait of *ocrates, as - have previously su!!ested, a ody type to )atch the *ilenus:like physio!no)y of the face, then the process of eautification, or rather of assi)ilation to the nor), represented y +ysippusC statue (ould have een )ost strikin! in a co)parison of the earlier and later odies. 'he sa)e is true for the head and face, althou!h here the later type does take account of the earlier y adoptin! so)e of the supposedly u!ly features of the silen Ffi!. "5G. 'hese had y no( )ost likely eco)e fi&ed ele)ents of *ocratesC physio!no)y. -f (e suppose that +ysippus (as consciously reshapin! the older portrait of *ocrates, then the procedure he follo(ed in doin! so eco)es )uch clearer. 'he provocative ?uality of the silenCs )ask has disappeared, and the face is, as far as possi le, assi)ilated to that of a )ature citi0en. 9air and eard are the decisive ele)ents in this process of

eautification. 'hey set the face (ithin a har)onious fra)e. 'he lon! locks no( fall casually fro) the head and te)ples, and the fe( locks at the cro(n are )ade fluffy, so that the aldness looks rather like a hi!h forehead. 'he face itself is % M1 %

4i!. "6 2rave stele of =orallion. ,thens, =era)eikos. articulated (ith )ore traits of old a!e than (as the case (ith the silenCs )ask. *o)e of the copyists even hei!htened this tendency of the ori!inal portrait, turnin! *ocrates into a no le old )an. 'hus y the later fourth century, *ocrates is no lon!er the antiesta lish)ent, )ar!inali0ed fi!ure or the teacher of (isdo) (ith the face of a silen, ut si)ply a !ood ,thenian citi0en.D"BE 'he settin! of this statue is no less re)arka le than the )akeover of *ocratesC i)a!e. ,ccordin! to 1io!enes +aertius FB.6"G, the statue stood in the Po)peion. 'his (as a su stantial uildin! fitted into the % MB %

4i!. "5 Portrait of *ocrates F'ype BG. <o)an copy after the sa)e ori!inal as the statuette in fi!. "". Paris, +ouvre. space et(een the *acred 2ate and the 1ipylon. -ts purpose, as its na)e i)plies, (as to serve as a !atherin! place for the !reat reli!ious processions at the Panathenaea. ,nother of its functions see)s to have involved the trainin! of the ,thenian ephe es. Pinakes (ith portraits of -socrates and the co)ic poets, includin! .enander, su!!est that the uildin! played so)e role in the intellectual life of the city as (ell. -t is even possi le that the Po)peion (as restored y +ycur!us at the sa)e ti)e as the near y city (all.D""E -n any event, *ocrates (as to e honored at one of the key centers of reli!ious life and the education of the youn!. 'he )an once conde)ned for denyin! the !ods and corruptin! the youn! had eco)e the very sy) ol of ,ttic 'ai#eia, presented as the e) odi)ent of citi0en virtues, a )odel for the youthO % M" %

A 0eneral %n Muft%, Mo)els fro* the Past

-t (as not only the !reat intellectuals (ho received such )onu)ents as part of this collective act of re)e) rance, ut other fa)ous ,thenians fro) the cityCs !lorious past. , !ood e&a)ple is the posthu)ous statue of .iltiades, (ho had led the ,thenians to victory over the Persians at .arathon. Unfortunately, only three copies of )iddlin! ?uality preserve the head of the statue created a out the )iddle of the fourth century or a it later.D"6E 1espite the rather li)ited evidence at our disposal, (e

)ay )ake one i)portant inference on the asis of an inscri ed her) in <avenna Ffi!. "MG: the !reat !eneral (as not depicted in hel)et or nude, or in ar)or, as (ould e usual in the fifth century, ut rather in a civilianCs )antle, like *ocrates and the tra!edians. 'he pro!ra))atic )essa!e is un)istaka le: even the victor of .arathon, after his !reat triu)ph over the Persians, had returned to civilian life, an e&e)plary )e) er of the de)ocracy in the spirit of e!alitarianis) Fhis conviction for treason and su se?uent death in prison conveniently for!ottenG. 'his )essa!e is here underlined y the particularly e&pressionless face, (hich, (hen put alon!side portraits such as those of Pericles and ,nacreon, can si!nify only a co)plete self:control. 'he transfor)ation of .iltiades into an avera!e citi0en is all the )ore e&traordinary in as )uch as the ,thenians had lon! een fa)iliar (ith portraits of strategoi (ho (ere depicted as such, and, as the e&a)ple of ,rchida)us )akes clear, kne( (ell (hat the face of a )an ent on po(er could look like.D"5E 'he statue of .ilitiades (ill )ost likely also have een set up y the polis. -ndeed Pausanias F1.1$."G sa( in the Prytaneion statues of oth .ilitiades and the other victor over the Persians, 'he)istocles. ,nd oth had een reused y the ,thenians in the -)perial period to honor conte)porary enefactors, one a <o)an, the other a 'hracian3a not:unco))on fru!ality. PausaniasC co))ent on the @rededication@ of the statues is a stron! ar!u)ent for identifyin! the ori!inal .ilitiades (ith the type preserved in the her) copy. ,ssu)in! the statue (as a standard fi!ure in lon! )antle, the reuse (ould si)ply have een a )atter of replacin! or re(orkin! the head, (hereas a nude or ar)ed % M6 %

4i!. "M 9er) of the !eneral .iltiades. ,ntonine copy of a portrait statue ca. ""# B.C. <avenna, .useo ;a0ionale. statue of the strategos (ould have presented )uch !reater pro le)s.D"ME 7hen (e consider all the traditional political associations of the Prytaneion, it see)s a reasona le supposition that these t(o statues of !reat co))anders also elon! to the ti)e of +ycur!us. 'his cannot, ho(ever, e confir)ed y stylistic ar!u)ents, since the portrait of .iltiades could date as early as ca. "M# B.C. % M5 % Uuite apart fro) the ?uestion of its date, the portrait of .iltiades once )ore lends support to our interpretation of the statues of the tra!edians in the 'heatre of 1ionysus, as (ell as that of *ocrates in the Po)peion, as paradi!)s of the !ood ,thenian citi0en. -n these honorific )onu)ents, the intellectual ?ualities of the !reat (riters and philosophers of old (ere of as little concern as the )artial valor of the !enerals. <ather, y representin! the !reat ,thenians of the previous century as if they (ere outstandin! conte)poraries instead of !iants of a y!one era, the i)pression (as created of a sea)less continuity et(een past and present. 7e are dealin! here (ith a self:conscious act of collective )e)ory, not (ith a nostal!ic reverence for re)ote and ini)ita le fi!ures, as (ill e the case later on. 'his atte)pt to recall and incorporate the !reat )en of ,thensCs past in the present had not, ho(ever, started (ith +ycur!us. Portraits honorin! +ysias and 'hucydides, (hose furro(ed ro(s (e shall return to shortly, had een put up a !eneration or t(o efore +ycur!usC dedication of the tra!edians.D"JE

*o)e ti)e after +ycur!us, apparently, statues of the *even 7ise .en (ere put up, a!ain in the !uise of distin!uished conte)poraries: even Periander, tyrant of Corinth, (as converted into a !ood citi0en Ffi!. "JGOD"$E -ndeed, (e )ay suppose that al)ost all portrait statues of the !reat )en of the fifth century that (ere put up in ,thens in the fourth century had the sa)e kind of e&e)plary function. But under +ycur!us this for) of didactic retrospection, (hen coupled (ith other )easures, first took on a particularly pro!ra))atic character. 'hus it )akes little difference for our understandin! of the) (hether the statues of *ocrates or .iltiades actually elon! ten or t(enty years earlier or later. 'he ,thenians al(ays felt that their loss of pri)acy in the political and )ilitary sphere (as co)pensated y a cultural superiority to other 2reeks, evidenced in their de)ocratic constitution and the ,ttic (ay of life that they considered uni?ue, as (ell as in specific acco)plish)ents such as the sta!in! of !reat festivals, the Periclean uildin!s on the ,cropolis, and even the (orks of the !reat play(ri!hts. 'he strate!ies e)ployed to sustain this notion included the elevation of daily life to the level of aesthetic e&perience, alon! (ith the continual cultivation of the )e)ory of the !reat events and fi!ures of the past. -n the % MM %

4i!. "J 9er) of Periander, tyrant of Corinth, as one of the *even 7ise .en. ,ntonine copy of a portrait statue of the late fourth century B.C. <o)e, Hatican .useu)s. % MJ % visual arts of the fourth century (e can already detect conscious evocations of 9i!h Classical style, so that the act of )e)ory is cloaked in the appropriate artistic for).D"9E 'he pro!ra))atic idea of a co)prehensive 'ai#eia, as propa!ated y -socrates, and the notion of ,thens as the @school of 9ellas@ are oth slo!ans that attest to the re)arka le success of these efforts. ,fter the collapse of their i)perial aspirations, the ,thenians succeeded in esta lishin! a clai) to cultural pree)inence that they kept intact virtually to the end of anti?uity. +ater on (e shall see ho( this pheno)enon influenced the (ay )any intellectuals sa( the)selves, even under the <o)an >)pire.

Plato5s Ser%ous E6.ress%on, Conte*.lat%on as a C%&%c V%rtue7

'hus far (e have dealt only (ith retrospective portraits and )ust no( ask, ho( did conte)porary intellectuals in fourth:century ,thens have the)selves portrayedN 7hat (as the relation et(een their o(n self:i)a!e and the (ay they presented the)selvesN Certainly Plato and -socrates (ere no )ore lackin! in self:assurance than the *ophists. By a out 6B#561# B.C. , 2or!ias had dedicated a !ilded statue of hi)self in 1elphi, pro)inently displayed on a tall colu)n FPliny ). "".$"A Paus. 1#.1$.JG. D6#E Both the separation of the intellectual fro) society at lar!e and at the sa)e ti)e the clai) to a position of leadership in the state had, if anythin!, increased since the days of the *ophists. 'he for)ation of lar!e circles of disciples in the rhetorical schools and around the philosophers, as (ell as the partial (ithdra(al of these schools fro) pu lic life, their rivalries and their vi!orous criticis) of the status ?uo, had in the course of the fourth century led to a situation in (hich oth teachers and

pupils attracted the attention of the pu lic even )ore than in the ti)e of ,ristophanes. 'he !reat interest that the co)ic poets took in conte)porary philosophers attests to their vivid presence in the pu lic consciousness.D61E By coincidence, (e hear in our sources of t(o i)pressive funerary )onu)ents in the decade "5#5"6#, in oth of (hich the intellectual activity of the deceased (as e&plicitly co))e)orated. 8ne (as a % M$ % )onu)ent for 'heodectes, the poet fro) Phaselis, (ith statues of the )ost fa)ous poets of the past, startin! (ith 9o)er. 'he other (as the fa)ily to) )onu)ent of -socrates, (hich had portraits in relief of his teachers, includin! 2or!ias instructin! the youn! -socrates at an astrono)ical !lo e3a )otif kno(n to us fro) later (orks. 'hus the !reat orator continued even in death to roadcast his plea for a universal 'ai#eia . 1id these )enCs conte)poraries perceive such to) s as ein! at odds (ith the social ideal of e?ualityN -s it /ust accidental that oth to) s are private )onu)ents for )en (ith (ell: kno(n royalist sy)pathiesN -socrates (as said to have con!ratulated Philip of .acedon on his victory at Chaeronea, and 'heodectes see)s to have een a favorite of ,le&anderCs.D6BE -n these circu)stances, (e )i!ht have e&pected that the portraiture of such self:assured individuals (ould )ake direct reference to their intellectual clai)s and a ilities, (hether in dress and pose or facial e&pression, eard, or hairstyle. Unfortunately the pitiful state of our evidence does not per)it any definite ans(ers, especially (ith re!ard to ody types. 7hile (e have a (hole series of head types, (e have not one ody that can e identified as elon!in! to a portrait of a conte)porary intellectual of the fourth century. 7e )ay, ho(ever, suppose that their odies looked little different fro) those of the retrospective portraits of the fa)ous poets or of *ocrates or, for that )atter, of the )ale citi0en on the !ravestones. 'his is, at least, (hat (e (ould e&pect fro) (hat (e kno( of their heads. 'his rin!s us ack to the difficult ?uestion of ho( to interpret PlatoCs e&pression in his fa)ous portrait type Ffi!s. B6, "$G.D6"E , s)all ron0e ust, only fifteen centi)eters hi!h, that recently appeared on the art )arket has considera ly enriched our understandin! of the ori!inal Plato portrait Ffi!. "9a, G.D66E 'his version has an a?uiline nose, erect head, and the )antle fallin! over the nape of the neck and the shoulders. Plato is portrayed as a )ature )an, ut not elderly. 9is hair does not fall in lon! strands, like that of >uripides, ut rather is tri))ed into even, fairly short locks. 9is eard is lon! and carefully tended, si)ilar to .iltiadesC Fsee fi!. "MG. 'he only clear si!ns of a!e are the sharp creases radiatin! fro) the nose and the loose, fleshy % M9 %

4i!. "$ Portrait of Plato, as in fi!. B6. .unich, 2lyptothek. cheeks. Both style and characteri0ation su!!est that the portrait could (ell have een created durin! PlatoCs o(n lifeti)e and not, as usually assu)ed, after his death in "6$/J.D65E Perhaps the ori!inal is to e identified (ith a statue set up in the ,cade)y y one .ithridates, presu)a ly a pupil of PlatoCs, (hose inscription is recorded y 1io!enes +aertius: @'he Persian .ithridates, son of <hodo atos, dedicates this likeness of Plato to the .uses. -t is a (ork of *ilanion@ F".B5G. -t (as,

% J# %

4i!. "9 a5 *)all ron0e ust of Plato, fro) the sa)e ori!inal as fi!. "$. =assel, *taatliche =unstsa))lun!en Ffro) a castG. then, a votive to the .uses, like the portrait of ,ristotle F1. +. 5.51G, and (ould have stood in the shrine of the .uses in the ,cade)y, thou!h it is not clear (hether this shrine (as the one in the pu lic !y)nasiu) of that na)e or in PlatoCs !ardens near y. 'he serious e&pression of the face is created pri)arily y the t(o hori0ontal lines across the ro( and the dra(in! to!ether of the eye ro(s, for)in! t(o short vertical lines a ove the rid!e of the nose. 'his net(ork of (rinkles, ho(ever, (hich is only hinted at in so)e copies, as in .unich, ut )ore deeply en!raved in others, is a (idespread for)ula. -t occurs in )ost intellectual portraits of the fourth % J1 %

4i!. 6# Portrait of *ophocles. 1etail of the statue in fi!. B5.

4i!. 61 Portrait of ,ristotle F"$65"BBG. <o)an copy of a statue of the late fourth century B.C. Hienna, =unsthistorisches .useu). century, )ore or less pronounced, (hether for ,ristotle Ffi!. 61G or 'hucydides Ffi!. 6BG. 'heophrastus Ffi!. 6"G, the tra!edians dedicated y +ycur!us, or *ocrates. 8ne could even think ack to the )id:fifth: century portrait of Pindar. ,t that ti)e, ho(ever, it had een standard practice, at least in ,thens, not to include any indications of effort or e)otion in citi0en portraits, as (e sa( attested in the i)a!es of ,nacreon and Pericles. 'he serious e&pression of Plato is therefore an innovation of the fourth century, a departure fro), or rather a rela&ation of, the earlier convention. ;evertheless, for the conte)porary o server, this trait cannot have een a s'ecific and e2clusi/e indicator of intellectual activity, for the e&pressions of )ature )ale citi0ens on ,ttic !rave stelai often have a si)ilar character, and it is hardly possi le in each individual case to % JB %

4i!. 6B

Portrait of the historian 'hucydides Fca. 6M#56##G. <o)an copy of a statue of the )id:fourth century B.C. 9olkha) 9all.

4i!. 6" Portrait her) of 'heophrastus Fca. "JB5B$$G. <o)an copy of a statue ca. "## B.C. <o)e, Hilla ,l ani. e certain if it is really )eant to convey an air of introspection Ffi!. 66a5dG.D6ME ,s 2iuliani has sho(n, such a serious e&pression, (ith the ro(s dra(n to!ether, could have een understood at this ti)e as si!nifyin! intelli!ence and thou!htfulness. -n our sources, even a youn! )an is counseled to appear in pu lic (ith such a countenance.D6JE But this particular ?uality is never )entioned in isolation y conte)porary authors, rather al(ays in the conte&t of other traditional e&pressions of the (ell: red ,thenian citi0en, such as a )easured !ait, )odest de)eanor in pu lic, and )odulated voice. ,nd these are the very standards of ehavior, as (e have seen, y (hich the )orally correct citi0en, the kaloskagathos, (as )easured. -n other (ords, the canon of citi0en virtues, already (ell attested in the ti)e of Pericles, (as % J" %

4i!. 66 a5d 4our portraits of )ature ,thenian citi0ens fro) !rave stelai of the later fourth century B.C. : a, Copenha!en, ;y Carls er! 2lyptotekA ,, ,thens, ;ational .useu)A c and #, Copenha!en, ;y Carls er! 2lyptotek. % J6 % enhanced in the course of the fourth century (ith an additional intellectual ?uality e) odied in the ne( facial e&pression. 7e )ay (ell i)a!ine that so)e (ell:kno(n intellectuals in ,thens, and even )ore likely their pupils, did indeed cultivate such a serious de)eanor in their pu lic appearances, for (hich they (ere ridiculed y the co)ic poets.D6$E But this did not stop the ad)irers of the !reat )asters fro) havin! the) portrayed (ith an introspective look, even if, as in PlatoCs case, so su tly that the asic citi0en i)a!e is arely altered. 7e )ust once a!ain re)ind ourselves that (e tend to see these portraits too close up. ;o conte)porary vie(er (ould have perceived the facial e&pression in the disconnected fashion (e do, (hen (e stare at a photo!raph and look for the (rinkles. 9e al(ays sa( the face as ut one ele)ent of the (hole statue. ,s (riters of the ti)e attest, the serious e&pression (as not the pri)ary co)ponent, rather an e&tra touch in the traditional citi0en i)a!e. Unfortunately, no copy of the ody elon!in! to the statue of Plato has yet co)e to li!ht, thou!h (e )ay assu)e that it (as so)e(hat si)ilar to that of *ocrates Fsee fi!. ""G. *ince Plato is not portrayed as an old )an, the !ravestones (ould lead us to think that he could hardly have een sho(n seated in the )anner that, as (e shall see, first appears (ith the )ost authoritative 9ellenistic thinkers. +ike that

of ,ristotle and other philosophers of the Classical period, PlatoCs teachin! style involved )uch physical )ove)ent F1. +. ".BJG. 'he dialo!ue (as )ore than /ust a literary !enre.D69E But the )ost interestin! aspect of this (hole issue is the (ay in (hich the serious e&pression of the philosophers is transferred to the nonspecific citi0en i)a!e. 'hat this could occur at all presu)es that, in spite of the )ockin! of the co)ic poets, the ne( visual for)ula carried asically positive associations. 'he fact, ho(ever, that the lined forehead and dra(n:to!ether ro(s occur on the !rave stelai pri)arily for elderly and even older )en )akes the for)ula even less specific. 'hat is, even if this trait (as ori!inally intended for the portraits of intellectuals as the )ark of the thinker, this cannot apply e?ually to all the faces of older citi0ens that no( display it. 4or the), it inevita ly eco)es a va!ue and a) i!uous for)ula, (hich can e&press strain as (ell as introspection, perhaps so)eti)es even !rief or pain. 4or the % J5 % ancient vie(er (hose eye (as accusto)ed to these i)a!es, PlatoCs e&pression (ould lose any specific si!nificance and could hardly convey @a considera le de!ree of speciali0ed )ental activity as the !eneral characteristic of the intellectual.@D5#E 'he !reat i)pression )ade y the pu licly kno(n intellectuals of the fourth century on their fello( ,thenians can perhaps e inferred fro) yet another re)arka le pheno)enon. ,)on! the portraits of anony)ous older )en on the !rave stelai can e found a nu) er of faces that are strikin!ly si)ilar to those of fa)ous intellectuals. , portrait of an old )an in Copenha!en, for e&a)ple, once part of a !rave stele, recalls the portrait of Plato so closely that one could al)ost ask if this (ere the philosopherCs o(n to) )onu)ent Ffi!. 66dG.D51E But this is unlikely on typolo!ical !rounds alone, since older )en like this one (ith the sa)e e&pression are usually su sidiary fi!ures in the ack!round. 4urther)ore, this is not a uni?ue instance. 8ther heads on !ravestones recall the portraits of ,ristotle Ffi!. 66 G, 'heophrastus, and 1e)osthenes, (hile at the sa)e ti)e the unsurpassed artistic di)ension of these portraits, co)pared (ith the !rave reliefs, (ith their ne( )eans of e&pressin! personality, is o vious.D5BE *uch si)ilarities et(een the portraits of intellectuals and those of ordinary ,thenians su!!est that not only their )editative e&pressions ut also certain individual physio!no)ic features of the fa)ous philosophers and rhetoricians (ere so fa)iliar and (idely ad)ired that so)e of their conte)poraries affected si)ilar styles of hair, dress, and earin!. 7e hear in the literary sources, for e&a)ple, that PlatoCs follo(ers (ere )ade fun of for i)itatin! his hunched stance, and in the +yceu) so)e of ,ristotleCs distin!uished students adopted the )asterCs lisp FPlut. Mor. BMB, 5"CG. 'heophrastus is a !ood e&a)ple of /ust ho( popular an intellectual fi!ure could eco)e in ,thens: people ca)e in droves to his lectures, and half the city took part in his funeral F1. +. 5."J, 61G. -f (hat - have een su!!estin! is true, it (ould i)ply that Classical portraits, (hile adherin! closely to a standard typolo!y, do nevertheless occasionally reproduce actual features of the su /ectCs physio!no)y3in PlatoCs case, the road forehead and the strai!ht line of the ro(, in ,ristotleCsA the s)all eyes F(hich are also )entioned in the % JM % literary sourcesG. ,thenian citi0ens (ill have si)ilarly i)itated even )ore ea!erly the faces of influential states)en and other (ell:kno(n and (ell:liked personalities. 'he fact, ho(ever, that such assi)ilation is attested only in the portraiture of intellectuals is pro a ly to e e&plained y the choices

)ade y the proprietors of <o)an villas for their collections of portrait usts Fcf. pp. B#"ffG. Hie(ed as a (hole, ,thenian portraiture of the fourth century e&perienced a continual and pervasive process of differentiation in facial types. 'he drivin! force ehind this )ay (ell have een the ur!e to assi)ilate to the likeness of fa)ous individuals. 7e )ay, then, reaffir) that Plato (as depicted not as a philosopher, ut si)ply as a !ood ,thenian citi0en Fin the sense of an e&e)plary e) odi)ent of the nor)sG, and this is true of all other intellectuals of fourth:century ,thens for (ho) (e have preserved portraits. ;or (as PlatoCs e&pression likely to have een read y his conte)poraries as a reference to particular intellectual a ilities. 4urther)ore, PlatoCs eard (as, at the ti)e, not yet the @philosopherCs eard,@ ut the nor)al style (orn y all citi0en )en. -t (as only y the <o)ans that it (as first interpreted as a philosopherCs eard, a point seldo) reco!ni0ed in archaeolo!ical scholarship Fcf. pp. 1#$ff.G. ;evertheless, the len!th of PlatoCs eard has ri!htly caused so)e pu00le)ent.D5"E 8n the !ravestones, it is pri)arily the old )en (ho (ear such a lon! eard, (hile those (ho, like Plato, have not yet reached old a!e tend to (ear it tri))ed shorter.D56E 2iven the e&traordinarily hi!h de!ree of confor)ity in ,thenian society, such deviations could certainly e )eanin!ful. 'he key )ay e contained in an often:adduced fra!)ent of the co)ic poet >phippus, a conte)porary of PlatoCs, (ho )akes fun of one of PlatoCs )ore po)pous pupils, (ho) he descri es as h'o'latonikos Ffra!. 16 S ,th. 9.5#9BG.D55E 9is chief characteristics include an ele!ant posture, e&pensive clothin!, sandals (ith fancy laces, carefully tri))ed hair, and a eard !ro(n @to its natural len!th.@ >ven this, ho(ever, does not i)ply a specifically self:styled philosopher, ut rather a noticea ly ele!ant and soi!nK appearance characteristic of so)e of PlatoCs pupils. ,s (ould later e true of the Peripatetics, the )e) ers of the ,cade)y evidently valued a % JJ % distin!uished, not to say @aristocratic,@ appearance. 'he portrait of Plato )akes the sa)e state)ent, (hen one considers especially ho( carefully cut and arran!ed the hair is across the forehead, as (ell as the eard, (hich is, strictly speakin!, too lon! for a )an of his a!e. if, then, there is anythin! a out the portrait of Plato that su!!ests a su tle differentiation fro) the nor), it (ould e in the real) of aristocratic distinction. 'he search for the portraiture of intellectuals in fourth:century ,thens leads finally to a kind of dead end. 7e find an e&traordinary situation, in (hich oth ,thenian citi0ens and outsiders, ?uite independently of their profession or social status, and even includin! critics of the state and its institutions such as Plato and his pupils, identified (ith a hi!hly confor)ist citi0en i)a!e. 'his identification (as entirely voluntary and is e?ually applica le to pu licly and privately displayed )onu)ents. 'here )ust have e&isted a !eneral consensus on the )oral standards e) odied in this citi0en i)a!e. 'he pheno)enon )ay e likened to that of the standard houses of unifor) si0e that (e find in ne(ly planned 2reek cities.D5ME -n oth instances, aesthetic sy) ols e&press a notion of the proper social order that has een fully internali0ed, independently of the current political situation at any !iven ti)e. >ven for the fa)ous teachers of rhetoric and philosophy, (ith their hi!h opinions of their o(n (orth, the )essa!e @- a) a !ood citi0en@ (as evidently )ore i)portant than any reference to their a ilities or self:perception as intellectuals. -n fact, as the votive and funerary reliefs attest, they (ere no different in this respect fro) the crafts)en and other fello( citi0ens (ho follo(ed a specific profession or en/oyed a particular status.D5JE

Pol%t%cal U.hea&al an) the En) of the Class%cal C%t%4en I*a$e, Menan)er an) 1e*osthenes
,fter the death of ,le&ander, ,thensCs political sta ility (as shaken y a see)in!ly endless series of reversals. 4or several !enerations, oli!archic and tyrannical re!i)es alternated (ith de)ocratic ones, oth )oderate and radical, each often lastin! no )ore than a fe( years. % J$ % ;early every chan!e of !overn)ent rou!ht (ith it the e&ile or return fro) e&ile of then )ain prota!onists.D5$E -t is only natural to suppose that these constant political volte:faces had a desta ili0in! effect on the !eneral )ood and the acceptance of traditional standards of ehavior in the de)ocratic state. 'his insecurity (ould especially have infected the relationship et(een the individual and the co))unity, creatin! an ur!ent need for a ne( spiritual orientation independent of political values. -n these circu)stances, the traditional i)a!e of the ,thenian citi0en also e&perienced a kind of crisis. should like to de)onstrate this (ith t(o e&e)plary cases, the statues of the co)ic poet .enander and the orator 1e)osthenes, oth pu lic honorary )onu)ents for (hich (e can reconstruct reasona ly (ell the ori!inal location and the historical circu)stances. Both statues are ri!htly re!arded as cornerstones of >arly 9ellenistic art. - (ish to place the) here alon!side the +ate Classical portraits of *ophocles and ,eschines pri)arily to illustrate once a!ain, y )eans of the contrast, the peculiarly self:contained nature of the Classical citi0en i)a!e. 'he values and desires e&pressed in these ne( )onu)ents (ere not in the)selves ne(, ut they could, it see)s, find pu lic reco!nition only in the chan!ed political circu)stances. -n retrospect, this only confir)s the suspicion that the )oral standards e) odied in the i)a!ery of the Classical citi0en (ere a direct conco)itant of the de)ocratic political consciousness. 'he statue of the co)ic poet .enander (as put up )ost pro a ly soon after his death in B9"/B, in the 'heatre of 1ionysus in ,thens, in a pro)inent spot at one of the principal entrances. ,ccordin! to the preserved inscription, it (as the (ork of t(o sons of the reno(ned Pra&iteles, =ephisodotus the Toun!er and 'i)archus. - (ill pass over the co)plicated history of the trans)ission of this portrait type and instead take as )y startin! point the results of the recent reconstruction y =laus 4ittschen, i)a!inatively reali0ed (ith the help of plaster casts Ffi!. 65G.D59E Because, ho(ever, the reconstruction still does not !ive the co)plete picture Fsince it is i)possi le to take account of all the copies at onceG, a )ore e&tensive description (ill e necessary, to % J9 %

4i!. 65 9onorific statue of the poet .enander F"6B5B9"G. <econstruction y =. 4ittschen (ith the help of plaster casts. 2Qttin!en University, ,rchVolo!isches -nstitut. !ive an idea of the full state of our evidence as trans)itted y the copies.

>verythin! a out this statue runs contrary to the old ideals. 'he poet, (ho died at fifty:t(o, is sho(n as appro&i)ately that a!e, yet he is seated on a hi!h: acked chair that, on Classical !rave stelai, had een reserved for (o)en and elderly )en. 'he seated )otif has no( taken on an entirely ne( set of connotations. 'he poet is presented to us as a private individual (ho cultivates a rela&ed and lu&urious (ay of life. % $# % 'he chair is a handso)e piece of furniture, (ith delicate orna)ent. 'he do)estic a) ience is underlined y the footstool, slid in at an an!le, and the overstuffed cushion that overlaps the sides. +ater on (e shall see (hat an i)portant role these cushions play in the icono!raphy of the poet. .enander sits upri!ht, his !ar)ent carefully draped, yet his posture fully rela&ed. 9is le!s are positioned co)forta ly, one for(ard, the other ack, the ri!ht ar) restin! in his lap, and the left descendin! to the pillo(. 9is shoulders are dra(n to!ether, and the head is lo(ered and, in an involuntary )ove)ent, turned to the side. 'he poet !a0es out, as if lost in thou!ht, unacco)panied and uno served. 7hy, then, has the artist attached such i)portance to his handso)e appearance and to portrayin! his cal) and idyllic e&istenceN 9is outfit is also very different fro) that of earlier portrait statues. 'he under!ar)ent that he (ears (ould have een considered effe)inate in the ti)e of +ycur!us. -n addition, the hi)ation is )uch )ore volu)inous than efore, the e&cess fa ric arran!ed so casually and yet artfully and ele!antly as to !ive the play of folds their full effect. 8n his feet are handso)e sandals (ith a protective strap over the toes. 'he hairstyle, @casually ele!ant,@ in the (ords of 4ran0 *tudnic0ka, etrays a deli erate concern for careful !roo)in!, (hile the clean:shaven face takes up the fashion introduced y ,le&ander and the .acedonians, and )ust e understood as the si!n of a soft and lu&urious life:style Fcf. p. 1#$G. 7e have already noted ho( varia le the face of .enander is in the different copies. 8f the seventy:one copies recently co)piled y 4ittschen, there is not one that can si)ply e assu)ed to e )ost faithful to the ori!inal. -t )ust so)eho( have conveyed youthful eauty as (ell as e&ertion, have een oth distanced and introspective. '(o usts, in Henice Ffi!. 6MG and Copenha!en Ffi!. 6JG, )ay provide the t(o poles et(een (hich (e should i)a!ine the ori!inal. 'he face is, in any event, e&pressive and personal in an utterly ne( (ay.DM#E 'he artist allo(s the vie(er a !li)pse into the private real) of the su /ect. 'he pu lic and i)personal character of the statue of *ophocles Ffi!. B5G eco)es in retrospect even clearer. % $1 % 'he (hole portrait )atches rather (ell (hat (e hear in our sources a out the poetCs )anner and personal style. 'he )ost revealin! anecdote relates .enanderCs appearance efore 1e)etrius Poliorcetes, (hen he hurried to (elco)e the ne( ruler. @<eekin! of perfu)e,@ as Phaedrus (rites, he pranced efore the ne( overlord of ,thens in lon!, flo(in! ro es, s(ivelin! his hips, so that the .acedonian at first took hi) for a pederast, efore he heard (ho he (as. But then he too (as i)pressed y .enanderCs e&traordinary eauty FPhaedr. 5. 1G. -ncidentally the conte)porary source fro) (hich this ?uotation )ust derive specifically )entioned that .enander entered the kin!Cs presence (ith a !roup of @private individuals@ Fsequentes otium G, (hich i)plies that they (ere already reco!ni0ed as a particular se!)ent of society. 'he statue of .enander, in its appearance and the (ay of life it reflects, e) odies the very type so repu!nant to the radical de)ocrats: the (ealthy and ele!ant connoisseur (ho (ithdra(s entirely fro)

pu lic life. ,s is (ell kno(n, .enanderCs co)edies are essentially apolitical renderin!s of everyday life. -f (e can trust later sources, this i)a!e see)s to e an accurate reflection of his o(n life. >vidently he did not even live in the city ut deli erately (ithdre( to the Piraeus (ith his lover, to en/oy a nonconfor)ist (ay of life.DM1E ,nd in this respect .enander (as not alone. >arlier on, in the Peripatos, the philosophical school (ith royalist leanin!s (here .enander studied to!ether (ith his friend 1e)etrius of Phaleron, an ele!ant and lu&urious style (as hi!hly pri0ed. >ven ,ristotle (as said to have called attention to hi)self y (earin! )any rin!s F,el. 3) ". 19G. 7hen 1e)etrius of Phaleron ruled ,thens as re!ent of the .acedonian =assander F"1J5"#J B.C. G, he (as accused of leadin! a decadent life filled (ith lavish an?uets, eautiful courtesans, and e&pensive racehorses. ,nd it is uni)a!ina le that the e&trava!ant life:style of 1e)etrius Poliorcetes did not )ake a deep i)pression on the ,thenians. *urely so)e of this (ill have ru ed off on the (ealthier ,thenians durin! his lon! stays in the city. 'hus arose the cult of try'he, a !ay /oie de vivre associated (ith this particular circle, a style that (ould soon eco)e e) le)atic of the royal i)a!e of the Ptole)ies in >!ypt.DMBE % $B %

4i!. 6M Bust of .enander. Henice, *e)inario Patriarchale. FCast.G But the )onu)ent to .enander (as set up y the ,thenian people, at a conspicuous location, and even stood on a tall ase that e)phasi0ed its official character. -f the fi!ure cele rates ele)ents of a particular (ay of life, (e cannot dis)iss these as the traits of one fa)ous individual (ho (as looked on as an outsider in ,thens. <ather, the oli!archy no( in po(er, installed y 1e)etrius Poliorcetes, chose to cele rate a (ay of life that had al(ays een cultivated at the courts of kin!s and tyrants ut (as anathe)a to the de)ocratic polis. Certainly +ycur!an ,thens (ould not have put up a statue to a )an like this or at least (ould never have cele rated in hi) these particular ?ualities. % $" %

4i!. 6J ,u!ustan copy of the portrait of .enander. Copenha!en, ;y Carls er! 2lyptotek. 'he occasion for the statue (as once a!ain, as in the case of +ycur!usC honors for the tra!ic poets, the !reat fa)e and popularity of .enanderCs (ork, yet he is not portrayed as a poet. 7hat his friends ad)ired )ost a out hi) (as rather his (ay of life. 'hus .enanderCs statue can also e seen as a kind of role )odel, not, ho(ever, for a polis oriented to(ard the ideal of civil e!alitarianis), ut only for a s)all se!)ent of (ealthy oli!archs and their sy)pathi0ers. 8r (ere these no( perhaps in the )a/orityN 'he statue of 1e)osthenes, y the other(ise unkno(n sculptor Polyeuktos, put up a out a decade later, )ay e seen as a counterpoint to the .enander portrait, e)anatin! fro) the ca)p of the de)ocrats Ffi!. 6$G.DM"E 'he si)ple !ar)ent and eard reflect once

% $6 %

4i!. 6$ *tatue of 1e)osthenes Fca. "$65"BBG. <o)an copy of the honorific statue set up in B$#/J9 B.C. F(ith the hands correctly restoredG. Copenha!en, ;y Carls er! 2lyptotek. % $5 % a!ain traditional values. But oth pose and e&pression no( proclai) for the first ti)e the e&traordinary intellectual capacity re?uired for political achieve)ent. 'he political situation had once a!ain chan!ed soon after the death of .enander. ,fter B$J the city itself (as a!ain free, the old de)ocratic constitution reinstated. Tet there (as less roo) for political )aneuverin!, so lon! as a .acedonian !arrison re)ained in the Piraeus. 'he reha ilitation of 1e)osthenes, s(orn ene)y of the .acedonians and defender of freedo), (as co))issioned y his !randson 1e)ochares, hi)self a leadin! de)ocratic politician (ho had een in e&ile for seventeen years ecause he refused to colla orate (ith the oli!archic re!i)e. 'he honorific statue of 1e)osthenes (as a clear si!n of the rene(ed ,thenian resolve to e independent. 'he statueCs location underlines its political si!nificance. -t stood in the )iddle of the ,!ora, near the ,ltar of the '(elve 2ods, the fa)ous )onu)ent to the !oddess Peace, and the statues of +ycur!us and =allias FPaus. 1.$.BG. Unlike *ophocles and ,eschines, 1e)osthenes see)s to e entirely a sor ed in hi)self. 9is hands are clasped efore hi), the head turned to the side, and the !a0e directed do(n(ard. 1espite (hat looks at first like a ?uiet pose, the orator is actually sho(n in a state of e&tre)e )ental tension. 'he ro(s are al)ost painfully dra(n to!ether, and the position of the ar)s and le!s is not at all rela&ed. >verythin! a out the statue is severe and an!ular, at ti)es even u!ly. -t has none of the !enial ?uality or self: assured presentation in pu lic of *ophocles or ,eschines Ffi!s. B5, BMG. -n such a state of concentration, one does not pay attention to the proper fall of the )antle or a !raceful posture. Tet 1e)osthenesC pose cannot e e&plained si)ply as a neutral characteristic of the statueCs styleA rather it e&presses a specific )essa!e. ,s so often in portrait studies, co))entators have tried to find io!raphical clues to the statueCs interpretation. 'he clasped hands are supposed to e a !esture of )ournin!, to su!!est that the failed states)an la)ents the loss of freedo), a (arnin! to future !enerations.DM6E Tet neither the epi!ra) eneath the statue nor the lon! acco)panyin! decree !ives any hint of failure. 'he epi!ra) reads: @8 1e)osthenes, had your po(er Drhome E een e?ual to your foresi!ht Dgnome E, then % $M % (ould the .acedonian ,res never have enslaved the 2reeks.@ 'he contrast is et(een gnome and rhome, and 1e)osthenes is cele rated as a )an of deter)ination and insi!ht. Both notions are contained in the (ord gnome . *ince the epi!ra) ori!inated in the circle of the radical de)ocrats, it cannot e taken to i)ply any criticis) of 1e)osthenesC failure. -t )erely la)ents the fact that he did not have access to the necessary )ilitary )i!ht to i)ple)ent his political !oals. 'he statue also cele rates 1e)osthenesC gnome y renderin! the activity in (hich he (on his

reputation, as a pu lic speaker.DM5E Plutarch reports ho( e&cita le 1e)osthenes eca)e (hen speakin! e&te)poraneously Fas opposed to (hen he delivered a rehearsed speechG. 9is e)otional speakin! style (as critici0ed y his opponents as too populist, and >ratosthenes Fa'u# PlutarchG refers conte)ptuously to the @Bacchic fren0y@ in (hich the orator ca)e efore the ,sse) ly. 1e)etrius of Phaleron is even )ore specific: @'he )asses deli!hted in his lively presentation, (hile the etter class of people found his !estures vul!ar and affected@ FPlut. !em. 9.6A see also 11."G. - elieve this passa!e su!!ests the correct interpretation of the clasped hands. 'he statue revives these old accusations of theatrical !estures ut refutes the) and at the sa)e ti)e praises 1e)osthenes for his passionate co))it)ent. 'hat is, it asserts, in spite of the e&tre)e effort and concentration of the !reat patriotic speeches, the speaker never lost his self:control. 9e !rasps his hands fir)ly efore hi) to sho( that he has )astered his e)otions. 'hou!h e&tre)ely tense, he does not )ove his ar)s, and the )antle re)ains properly draped. But he is no actor, like his rival ,eschines, (ho (ould assu)e a rehearsed and artificial pose. <ather than sho(in! hi)self off, he is concerned only (ith the )atter at hand. 'he !esture of the clasped hands has, like )ost others, )ultiple )eanin!s in 2reek art. -t can indicate a hi!h e)otional state, as .edea efore the )urder of her children, ut also a state of cal) and self: control, as on the !ravestones. -ts specific )eanin! )ust e read fro) the conte&t. - elieve )y interpretation is confir)ed y the occasional reappearance of the clasped hands )otif3and an even stron!er version in (hich the t(o hands !rasp each other ti!htly3on 9ellenistic !rave stelai, alon!side other for)ulas for depictin! a pu lic appear: % $J %

4i!. 69 Bust of 1e)osthenes. Cyrene, .useu). ance.DMME 'he !esture can also e found in so)e later portrait statues that have already een taken to e those of orators, includin! t(o torsos of the 9i!h 9ellenistic period, (here it is so dra)atically e&a!!erated as to su!!est the @,siatic@ school of rhetoric: the passionate speaker literally (rin!s his hands.DMJE 'he @unprecedented pathos@ of 1e)osthenesC facial e&pression Ffi!. 69G, as 2iuliani o serves, is indeed to e understood as @a si!nal for urnin! political co))it)ent.@DM$E 'his is not the e&pression of a )an in )ournin!. 'he contracted ro(s reflect the stru!!le to find % $$ %

4i!. 5# Portrait of the !eneral 8ly)piodorus. <o)an copy of a portrait ca. B$# B.C. 8slo, ;ational 2allery. the )ot /uste. 7e are (itnessin! here a ne( paradi!) for e&pressin! intellectual activity, one that (e shall soon encounter a!ain in the portraits of the *toics. , co)parison (ith the very different

e&pression of 8ly)piodorus Ffi!. 5#G, in the portrait of this conte)porary !eneral (ho drove the .acedonians fro) the .ouseion in B$J, )akes clear that, after the !enerali0ed citi0en faces of the fourth century, (e are no( dealin! (ith a ne( )ode of e&pression that conveys specific talents and situations. 8ly)piodorusC e&pression e) odies rhome4 1e)osthenesC, gnome . ,lon!side the ener!y and concentration of 1e)osthenes, his rival ,eschinesC appearance3fla(less ut utterly lackin! in e)otion3 % $9 % looks in retrospect rather insincere, )ere surface eauty. -t is ?uite conceiva le that the statue of 1e)osthenes (as intended as a kind of counter)onu)ent to that of ,eschines Ffi!. BMG. Beside the realis) of 1e)osthenes, ,eschinesC pose looks rather theatrical, the under!ar)ent and hairstyle effe)inate. 'he portrait of 1e)osthenes proclai)s instead that !enuine achieve)ent is !ained throu!h e&tre)e effort, that is Fand this is the part that is ne(G, intellectual effort. , )essa!e of this sort presupposes a very different set of values. 'he statueCs purpose is no lon!er to present a prescri ed )odel of citi0en virtue, ut rather to cele rate e&traordinary a ilities and acco)plish)ents. 7ith this )onu)ent, de)ocratic ,thens distances itself fro) its o(n earlier ideal of an e)otionless kalokagathia . 4or the first ti)e, an honorific statue of pri)e political si!nificance cele rates superior intellectual po(er as the ?uality of decisive i)portance. 'his )eans, ho(ever, that in the representation of ,thenian citi0ens a previously unkno(n hierarchy eco)es apparent. -n spite of the )any references to earlier tradition, 1e)osthenes is no lon!er the e&e)plary citi0en, si)ply one a)on! e?uals, like *ophocles and other fourth:century intellectuals. -nstead, he is presented as a to(erin!, even heroic fi!ure. -ronically, it (as the de)ocratic faction of 1e)ochares that (as responsi le for this first )a/or reak (ith its o(n lon!:cherished i)a!e. ,nd this reak is ut a foretaste of the (holesale shift in values that (ill reshape the society of the >arly 9ellenistic a!e. % 9# %

III+ The R%$ors of Th%nk%n$

"ut you #eny that any,o#y e2ce't the %ise man kno%s anything4 an# this 5eno use# to #emonstrate ,y gesture: for he %oul# #is'lay his han# in front of someone %ith the fingers stretche# out an# say 6A /isual a''earance Dvisu)E is like this64 ne2t he close# his fingers a little an# sai#, 6An act of assent DadsensusE is like this6, then he 'resse# his fingers closely together an# ma#e a fist, an# sai# that that %as com'rehension +an#7from this illustration he ga/e to that 'rocess the actual name of katalepsis, %hich it ha# not ha# ,efore84 ,ut then he use# to a''ly his left han# to his right fist an# squee9e it tightly, an# forci,ly, an# then say that such %as kno%le#ge DscientiaE, %hich %as %ithin the 'o%er of no,o#y sa/e the %ise man:,ut %ho is a %ise man or e/er has ,een e/en they themsel/es ;the Stoics< #o not usually say. 3Cicero Aca#emica B.165

,)on! the terra:cotta fi!urines of the early third century are t(o ne( types depictin! youn! )en for (hich there are no parallels in earlier 2reek art Ffi!s. 51, 5BG. Both are seated, a(k(ardly hunched over, in conte)plation. *o lost in thou!ht are they that they for!et to sit up strai!ht, even thou!h the 2reeks earlier attached !reat i)portance to correct posture. 8ne of the t(o lifts his ri!ht hand to his cheek and looks (istfully to one side. 'he other props a heavy head on his chin, his (hole ody lookin! tensed fro) the strain of conte)plation.D1E 'he contrast et(een these and the typical i)a!e of the ephe e on Classical !rave stelai is strikin!. -nstead of allusions to athletic pro(ess or the handso)e ody in the perfect contrapposto pose, the ?uality no( cele rated as a praise(orthy virtue of the (ell: red youth is intense conte)plation. 'he hi!h social status of these youn! )en is indicated y their clothin! and the (ay in (hich they keep the left ar) % 91 %

4i!. 51 , conte)plative youn! )an. 'erra:cotta statuette. Paris, +ouvre.

4i!. 5B Conte)plative youn! )an, 'erra:cotta statuette. .unich, ,ntikensa))lun!en. (rapped up in the !ar)ent. 'he later statuette, (ith the head propped on the chin, in particular )akes it clear that thinkin! is re!arded as hard (ork, re?uirin! tre)endous concentration and effort. *uch a departure fro) traditional icono!raphy is usually not the invention of a coroplast, ut rather inspired y the )a/or arts. ,nd indeed, an i)pressive statue of a philosopher in the Pala00o *pada in <o)e, (hich derives fro) an ori!inal of the )id:third century, preserves al)ost the identical )otif Ffi!. 5JG. .ost likely the terra:cottas, (hich have een found in various parts of the 2reek )ainland, are a half century earlier than the prototype of the statue in the Pala00o *pada and are in turn dependent on another statue of a thinker of % 9B % (hich no lar!e:scale copies have survived. 'he )ore i)portant point, ho(ever, is that the terra:cottas de)onstrate (hat a po(erful i)pact the ne( statue types of the intellectual had on 2reek society of the >arly 9ellenistic period. ,nd, )ost interestin!ly, they sho( that the very act of intense conte)plation (as already considered a sou!ht:after ?uality in the early third century. 8ther(ise i)a!es of this type (ould not have een adapted to the repertoire of the coroplasts, (ho speciali0ed in such popular types as fashiona ly ele!ant (o)en and adora le children. -n contrast to the citi0en i)a!e of ,thenian intellectuals of the fourth century, the portraits of third: century philosophers and poets present us for the first ti)e (ith a series of i)a!es conceived specifically as those of intellectuals. 'hese portraits do at last cele rate intellectual capacity or actually

sho( the thinker at (ork. 7hat is )ore, they differentiate et(een different kinds of )ental activity. 'hus poets are represented differently fro) philosophers, (ho in turn are distin!uished accordin! to their )anner and te)pera)ent. -t is in these portraits of the third century that the ancient philosopher first ac?uired his un)istaka le countenance.DBE -ndeed, the third century )ust e considered in !eneral the )ost creative era in the portraiture of the ancient intellectual. ,s al(ays, the statueCs )essa!e (as e&pressed y the entire ody. >ven )ore so than (ith the for)ulaic citi0en i)a!e, it is essential to kno( (hat kinds of odies (ent (ith the i)pressive and innovative ne( portrait heads. Unfortunately, the state of our evidence is a!ain e&tre)ely fra!)entary. ;evertheless, (e can !ain a fairly co)plete picture for at least so)e of the )a/or (orks. ,nd a!ain (e )ust in?uire into the specific conte&t and function of each individual statue. 7ho (as honorin! each particular philosopher3the city or his o(n pupils, (here did the statue stand, and to (ho) (as its )essa!e principally directedN

Zeno5s Furro(e) 8ro(

+et us look first at the *toics. 'heir founder, Zeno of =ition in Cyprus, (as apparently, like *ocrates, far fro) a perfect physical speci: % 9" % )en. 'he sharp:ton!ued ,thenians nickna)ed the ha!!ard and fee le Zeno @the >!yptian Hine@ F1. +. J.1G. 1io!enes (rites: @9e looked serious and severe, and his ro( (as al(ays furro(ed@ FJ.1MA cf. *id. ,poll. ('ist. 9.9.16G. .odern archaeolo!ists, like the <o)ans efore the), have naturally treated the survivin! portrait, preserved in nu)erous copies Ffi!. 5"G,D"E as a shre(d character study of the supposedly sullen and inaccessi le philosopher. But since this too (as an honorific statue3and pro a ly )ade at pu lic e&pense3this is very i)pro a le. <ather, the literary characteri0ation of the frons contracta see)s to e invented first in the <o)an period, on the asis of the y then (ell:kno(n statue, to reflect current interest in io!raphical and psycholo!ical traits. -n an honorary decree fro) ,thens, passed on the initiative of the .acedonian kin! ,nti!onus 2onatas i))ediately after ZenoCs death in BMB/1, he is cele rated as a teacher of philosophy and educator of the youth. 'he ,thenians here, interestin!ly, e)phasi0e the fact that he actually lived y his o(n )oral teachin!s3a revealin! indication of /ust ho( skeptically they continued to vie( their philosophers: 7hereas Zeno of Citiu), son of .naseas, has for )any years een devoted to philosophy in the city and has continued to e a )an of (orth in all other respects, e&hortin! to virtue and te)perance those of the youth (ho co)e to hi) to e tau!ht, directin! the) to (hat is est, affordin! to all in his o(n conduct a pattern for i)itation in perfect consistency (ith his teachin!, it has see)ed !ood to the people3and )ay it turn out (ell3to esto( praise upon Zeno of Citiu), the son of .naseas, and to cro(n hi) (ith a !olden cro(n accordin! to the la(, for his !oodness and te)perance, and to uild hi) a to) in the Cera)icus at the pu lic cost. ,nd that for the )akin! of the cro(n and the uildin! of the to) , the people shall no( elect five co))issioners fro) all ,thenians, and the *ecretary of *tate shall inscri e this decree on t(o stone pillars and it shall e la(ful for hi) to set up one in the ,cade)y and the other in the +yceu). ,nd that the )a!istrate presidin! over the ad)inistration shall apportion the e&pense incurred upon the pillars, that all )ay kno( that the ,thenian people honour the !ood oth in their life and after their death. F1. +. J.1#51B, trans. <. 1. 9icksG

% 96 %

4i!. 5" a5 Zeno of =ition Fca. """5MBG. -nscri ed ust. <o)an copy of a statue presu)a ly set up after his death. ;aples, .useo ;a0ionale. 'here follo( the na)es of the )e) ers of the co))ission. -n other (ords, the polis in this (ay clearly reco!ni0es and defines oth the achieve)ent of the *toic (ho tau!ht pu licly, in the ,!ora and the !y)nasia, and his o(n role in society. 'he conte)porary desi!nation of his school as the @*toa@ clearly e&pressed its pu lic nature. 'he *toa % 95 %

Poikile, fa)ed for its fifth:century paintin!s, (as a colu)ned portico frontin! directly on the ,!ora, in (hich Zeno and his successors often tau!ht, in plain vie( and accessi le to all. 'his pu lic instruction is also recorded in the erection of the t(o stelai carryin! the decree in the +yceu) and the ,cade)y, the t(o )ost i)portant !y)nasia in ,thens. 'he portrait statue of Zeno )entioned y 1io!enes +aertius FJ.MG could have stood in one of these places as (ell, thou!h this is not a part of the popular decree. Perhaps the statue (as an initiative of ,nti!onus 2onatas hi)self, (ho had heard Zeno lecture, tried to lure hi) to his court, and surely considered hi)self a pupil.D6E 'he portrait preserved in the copies could reflect this very statue. -n the conte&t of such a portrait, intended to honor the su /ect, the po(erful contraction of the )uscles in the ro( can carry only a positive connotation, that is, it )ust si!nify effortful and concentrated thinkin!. 'he sculptor has )ade this all the )ore o vious y leavin! the rest of the face, (ith the conventional features of old a!e, rather % 9M % land, there y focusin! all our attention on the ro(. 7ith its lon! a?uiline nose, the stron!ly )odeled face pro/ects for(ard, like a shipCs pro(, !ivin! the i)pression of tre)endous ener!y. 'he i)a!e pro/ected is that of a )i!hty and ori!inal thinker (hose ener!y is irresisti le. 'he reason for the po(erful visuali0ation of the ri!ors of thinkin! should pro a ly e sou!ht in ZenoCs insistence on the i)portance of strenuous effort in the process of reco!nition and on the scientific evaluation of sensory i)pressions. 'he ri!or of the characteri0ation stands in strikin! contrast to the )anner of such +ate Classical portraits as that of 'heophrastus Fsee fi!. 6"G and !oes even eyond 1e)osthenesC e&pression of )ental concentration Fsee fi!. 69G. 7hereas the latter represents a )o)entary concentration in a particular situation, ZenoCs ro( see)s to stand as a ti)eless sy) ol for the thinkin! process. 8ne (ould like to kno( ho( this conception ca)e a out3(hether, for e&a)ple, the sculptor (as advised y ZenoCs friends and pupils. But unfortunately (e do not even kno( (ho co))issioned the statue. -n co)parison (ith the later portrait of Chrysippus Ffi!s. 5655MG and the *toic i)a!e of the anticiti0en, displayin! his poverty and disre!ard for his o(n ody, ZenoCs appearance is re)arka le for the proper stylin! of his traditional coiffure, (ith locks co) ed for(ard and evenly over the cro(n to cover his

aldness. 9e )ust have intended, throu!h his appearance, to distance hi)self clearly fro) the Cynics. D5E 'he severe and sharply contoured eard, ho(ever, could e a particular idiosyncrasy, as (e shall later see. Unfortunately, no copy of the ody that (ent (ith this portrait has yet turned up. But (hen (e recall the statue of 1e)osthenes, (e (ill surely (ant to co)plete ZenoCs face, deep in concentration, (ith an e?ually tensed ody. But (hether it (as a seated or a standin! statue is not clear fro) the contradictory indications provided y the preserved usts. ;evertheless, a seated fi!ure see)s to )e prefera le, on the asis of the ron0e ust in ;aples sho(in! the head pro/ectin! for(ard and part of the drapery.DME Zeno referred to his pupil =leanthes as a second 9erakles F1. +. J.1J#G. 'he hero (ho had to stru!!le throu!h all his la ors, as the % 9J % post:Classical a!e i)a!ined hi), (as a favorite fi!ure (ith the *toics. =leanthes, (ho learned only (ith difficulty, (as in turn a favorite of ZenoCs, even thou!h others )ade fun of hi) for ein! slo( to catch on, ecause he @held fast (hat he had (on throu!h a !reat effort in an iron )e)ory.@ 9e had earlier co)peted as a o&er Fhis pupil Chrysippus (as said to have een a runnerG and, (hile a student of ZenoCs, (orked ni!hts fetchin! (ater fro) the fountains in the 2ardens. 'he e) ellish)ent of *toic io!raphies (ith such anecdotes affords us a !li)pse into the style and self:i)a!e of ZenoCs school. 'he notion that thinkin! al(ays re?uires !reat effort and constant stru!!le (as evidently understood in a )ost positive sense and thus e&pressed itself oth in the )etaphorical use of lan!ua!e and in visual analo!ies e)ployed y the *toics. 7e need only recall ZenoCs (ell:kno(n and later on still:popular i)a!e of the clenched fist, (hich holds the la oriously !ained truth in an iron !rip FCic. Aca#. B.165G, or of =leanthesC fin!ers (orn to the one fro) nervously ru in! the) to!ether (hile thinkin! F*id. ,poll. ('ist. 9.9.16G.DJE

Chr's%..us- 9The :n%fe That Cuts Throu$h the Aca)e*%cs5 :nots9

-t is in the portrait of the *toic philosopher Chrysippus that the notion of thinkin! as hard (ork found its )ost e&traordinary e&pression. 'he seated statue Ffi!. 56a, G is preserved in one !ood copy of the ody and )any of the head and (as pro a ly put up i))ediately after the death of Chrysippus Fca. B$15B#$ B.C. G.D$E ,n elderly )an, his ack ent over (ith a!e, he sits on a si)ple stone lock, that is, in a pu lic place, the ,!ora or one of the !y)nasia. +ike an old )an, he has dra(n up his fee le le!s and is tryin! to pull the !ar)ent ti!hter around his are shoulders a!ainst the cold. >ven in old a!e, the hardened *toic, (antin! nothin!, refuses any co)forts, such as a acked chair or an under!ar)ent. But inside this frail, al)ost pitiful ody3notice especially the sunken chest3resides an invinci le, feisty spirit. 'he artistCs intention is to sho( ho( the po(er of the spirit triu)phs over the (eaknesses of the ody. % 9$ %

4i!. 56 a5 Chrysippus Fca. B$15B#6G. <econstruction of a

statue presu)a ly set up after his death. .unich, .useu) fRr , !Rsse =lassischer Bild(erke. 'he philosopherCs pro/ectin! head collides (ith an i)a!inary opponent Ffi!. 5MG. 'he left hand, under the )antle, is clenched in a fist, (hile the ri!ht is e&tended in ar!u)ent, the fin!ers perhaps tickin! off in order his (innin! points. -n a )anner characteristic of )ost >arly 9ellenistic art, the vie(er is dra(n into the pictorial space and eco)es, as it (ere, the philosopherCs interlocutor.D9E 'he !esture of the outstretched ri!ht hand, to (hich Cicero specifically refers, acco)panyin! the ener!etic thrust of the head, see)s to e an individual characteristic of Chrysippus. .ore than /ust an a!!ressive speakin! style, it represents a particular for) of thinkin!, that is, ar!u)entation and lo!ical deduction. -t (as in this sphere that Chrysippus, the !reat dialectician, (as considered superior to all his conte)poraries. ,n epi!ra) co)posed y his nephe( ,ristokreon cele rates hi) as the knife that cuts throu!h the ,cade)icsC knots.@ 'he epi!ra) (as % 99 %

carved eneath one of the several statues of Chrysippus in ,thens that are attested in our sources FPlut. Mor. 1#"">G.D1#E 'his is not a rhetorical !esture of the )aster teacher, ut rather the effort of direct confrontation (ith an interlocutor (ho has to e (on over. 8nly the ar!u)ents count, and the old )an )ust e&pend his last % 1## %

4i!. 55 Bust of Chrysippus. ;aples, .useo ;a0ionale. ounce of stren!th to put his (innin! point across. -n contrast to the !enerali0ed for)ula for thinkin! e&pressed in ZenoCs )i!hty ro(, the face of Chrysippus reflects the i))ediacy of a )o)entary )ental effort. +ike the (hole ody, the )uscles of the ro( are sho(n in a po(erful and spontaneous )otion Ffi!. 55G. 7e are )eant to see ho( ideas and ar!u)ents are rou!ht forth y the old )anCs strenuous efforts. 7hen (e co)e to co)pare the detached portraits of the >picureans Ffi!. MBG, it (ill eco)e even clearer that for the conte)porary vie(er (ho fre?uented )ore than one philosophical school this *toic i)a!e )ust have e) odied a hi!hly pole)ical stance to(ard the rival schools.D11E 'he statue of Chrysippus (as also )ost likely a pu lic honorary )onu)ent, and, like Zeno, he (as honored (ith a pu lic urial FPaus. % 1#1 %

4i!. 5M Bust of Chrysippus. +ondon, British .useu).

1.B9.15G. 9e had, after all, !iven instruction tirelessly in pu lic for decades. ;o fe(er than three statues are attested in ,thens, t(o of the) in or near the ,!ora. Pausanias )entions one @in the 2y)nasiu) of Ptole)y at the ,!ora@ F1.1J.BG, and Cicero sa( the other, a seated statue, @in Cera)ico . . . porrecta )anu@ FFin. 1."9G, pro a ly at the northern entrance to the ,!ora, (hich (as thick (ith honorific )onu)ents. 1io!enes +aertius FJ.1$BG kne( the sa)e statue, (hich, ased on the descriptions, is pro a ly the one preserved in the copies. 'he statue, like the honorary decree for Zeno, thus cele rates Chrysippus as a teacher, as a )an fro) (ho) one could learn to think and to ar!ue. ,t the sa)e ti)e, the statueCs ethical clai)s, the )essa!e concernin! attitudes to(ard the ody, also has a didactic intent. 'he statue called to )ind a )an (ho, into old a!e, (as still active in the ,!ora and the !y)nasia. @9e (as the first (ho had the coura!e to % 1#B % hold his lectures in open air in the +yceu)@ F1. +. J.1$5G. -n so doin!, he )ade his ar!u)ents not only in (ords, ut (ith the e&a)ple of his o(n (ay of life, especially his tou!hness and freedo) fro) odily necessities. 9e had turned his o(n ody into a paradi!), to paraphrase the te&t of the decree for Zeno. ;aturally the avera!e youn! ,thenian could no lon!er see in such a fi!ure an actual role )odel, ut only those (ho eca)e his disciples and devoted the)selves to philosophy. 7e are presented here (ith a leadin! thinker, a po(erful )ind and a stron! conscience, ut no lon!er a )odel citi0en upholdin! the nor)s of the de)ocratic state, as had een the case (ith the )antle:clad poets and philosophers of the fourth century.

The Th%nker5s Torture) 8o)'

'he portrait of Zeno and the statue of Chrysippus are the only i)a!es of *toic philosophers of the third century that can e identified (ith certainty. But there e&ist other portraits ased upon the concept of thinkin! as a strenuous and la orious undertakin!. 4or our purposes, it is not so crucial (hether these actually represent *toics, philosophers related to the *toics, or even scholars of other kinds. <ather, (e are concerned (ith particular paradi!)s for intellectual activity, as they developed at particular periods in ti)e and (ere then translated into visual i)a!ery. 'he adly da)a!ed statue of a philosopher no( in the Pala00o *pada, found (ithout its head, (as skillfully restored in the seventeenth century and co)pleted (ith an ancient head that did not ori!inally elon! to it Ffi!. 5JG.D1BE 'he aro?ue sculptor chose a portrait head (ith a pronounced @thinkerCs ro(@ to co)ple)ent the pose of the statue, ut unfortunately it elon!s to the >arly -)perial period. 'he )otif of a )an co)pletely lost in his o(n thou!hts, endin! over and starin! out, (hich (e have already encountered in >arly 9ellenistic terra:cottas, has here taken on a ne(, )ore dra)atic ?uality. 'he philosopher sits uno served on a stone ench (ith carved, t(o:stepped ase. 'o the ancient vie(er this (ould si!nal an association (ith the !y)nasiu). 'he su /ect has dra(n the crude )antle carelessly across his ody. 9is le!s are placed far apart in an al)ost unsee)ly pose, % 1#" %

4i!. 5J *tatue of a seated philosopher. 'he <o)an portrait

head does not elon!. Copy of a statue ca. B5# B.C. <o)e, Pala00o *pada. FCast.G especially (hen co)pared (ith the di!nified )anner of the seated >picurus Ffi!. MBG. 'his is further e)phasi0ed y settin! the ri!ht foot on the upper profile curve of the ench. -n the ron0e ori!inal, this foot pro a ly rested only on the heel, to convey a restless, s(in!in! )otion of the le!, the psycho: )otor e&pression of the inner tension of the thou!ht process. F'he copyist, (ho (as understanda ly concerned to protect the front part of the foot, has added a stone led!e that serves no other purpose and so spoils the co)position.G 'he ri!ht ar) is dra(n to(ard the head, (ith the el o( restin! s?uarely on the a!itated le!. ;or is the left ar) propped cal)ly on the thi!hA it is cau!ht in an involuntary )ove)ent, (ith the hand clenched in a fist underneath the !ar)ent, like that of Chrysippus. 'ension per)eates % 1#6 %

4i!. 5$ a5 *o:called =leanthes. Bron0e statuette after a portrait of an unidentified philosopher ca. B5# B.C. +ondon, British .useu). FCast.G the entire ody. 'he hand and the head have pro a ly een correctly restored y the aro?ue sculptor. ,t any rate, the head )ust, like those of Zeno and Chrysippus, have e&pressed a ove all the strenuous effort of thinkin!. 'he asic conception re)inds one of the fa)ous and u i?uitous Thinker of <odin. 'he difference is that the ancient philosopher does % 1#5 %

not in desperation look upon the a yss of 9ell or the void. 8n the contrary, his )ental efforts are presented as so)ethin! praise(orthy, as a nearly 9erculean la or. -t is strikin! that this old )an (ith the (rinkled elly has such po(erful shoulders and ar)s. Harious identifications have een proposed, on the asis of a fra!)entary inscri ed na)e, of (hich only ,<-*' . . . can e )ade out. *o far no solution to the pu00le is possi le. 'he )otif of )ental effort (ould indeed suit a *toic, yet (e should note another aspect. 'his is evidently a solitary thinker, a ne( kind of paradi!), (hich hardly see)s appropriate for a teacher. , related (ork of the sa)e period, unfortunately preserved only in s)all:scale copies, is a seated statue Ffi!. 5$aG that *chefold (anted, on % 1#M % the asis of the !esture, to identify Fthou!h (ithout conclusive ar!u)entsG as =leanthes of ,ssos F""15 B"B B.C. G, the favorite pupil and successor to Zeno, of (ho) (e have already heard.D1"E 'he artist

(ho created this statue (as once a!ain pri)arily interested in a careful o servation of certain psycho: )otor reactions of the hu)an ody in a state of e&tre)e )ental concentration. 8nly a ron0e statuette in the British .useu) !ives so)e idea of the lost ori!inal. -t renders the po(erful and fleshy ody and the full face of a )an (ho has not yet reached old a!e Ffi!. 5$ G. ,t first !lance, this thinker see)s to e co)forta ly seated (ith his le!s crossed. But in reality, he too is co)pletely cau!ht up in his intellectual effort. +ike the *pada philosopher Ffi!. 5JG, he is o livious of his surroundin!s, and the act of thinkin! has tensed his entire ody, re)ovin! hi) fro) the (orld around hi). Both ar)s are cau!ht in spontaneous and unconscious )otion. 'he left pushes and pulls the !ar)ent to the side, (hile the ri!ht see)s not so )uch to support the head as to push it to one side. 'he fa ric of the )antle, (hich had een properly draped, has as a result slipped to the side. Both hands )ake a fist, and the feet are nervously ent(ined and pressed a!ainst each other. ,s in the case of the *pada philosopher, this uncontrolled )otion is e)phasi0ed y a particular detail, the left foot restin! in an e&tre)ely precarious )anner, (ith only the ed!e of the sandalCs sole touchin! the !round. -n other (ords, the ri!ht foot has een )oved up and do(n y the a!itation of the left foot. -f (e recall the pose of >uripides and of the elderly )en on +ate Classical !rave reliefs Ffi!s. "1, "BG, it (ill e clear /ust ho( fla!rantly these t(o seated statues flout the conventions of proper civilian dress. -n oth instances, the artist e)ploys a carefully o served ody lan!ua!e in order to visuali0e an inner tension and a!itation. -n the face of the ron0e statuette, )ental concentration is e&pressed not only y the contraction of the eye ro(s and forehead, ut in addition y the open )outh. 8ne )i!ht e te)pted to take the short and closely tri))ed eard, si)ilar to that of Chrysippus, as an ar!u)ent for identifyin! the su /ect as a *toic, ut there are too fe( relia le copies to per)it a specific identification. -t (as only natural that this ne( i)a!e of thinkin! as a la orious % 1#J %

4i!. 59 <elief (ith the fi!ure of the )athe)atician and astrono)er >udo&us Fca. 6#$5"55G, his ody ent over. Budapest, ;ational .useu). FCast.G process that )anifests itself in the entire ody also affected the visual i)a!ery of fa)ous intellectuals of the past. 7hen, in the follo(in! chapter, (e consider the e)otional, so)eti)es al)ost violent facial e&pressions of these portraits of thinkers, (e shall have to i)a!ine the) co) ined (ith correspondin!ly a!itated odies. Unfortunately, there are very fe( copies of the odies that (ent (ith such portraits preserved in <o)an decorative art. 8ne e&ception is a statuette of ,ntisthenes fro) Po)peii, (ho sits (ith the le!s tensed and, like 1e)osthenes, holds his ar)s still (ith hands clasped. But this type is pro a ly not derived fro) a pu lic honorific statue.D16E , particularly i)pressive e&a)ple is the fa)ous )athe)atician and astrono)er >udo&us of Cnidus Ffourth century B.C. G, (ho roods on his e?uations on a relief fra!)ent of >arly -)perial date Ffi!. 59G.D15E 9is ar)s clasped and le!s crossed, he sits leanin! far for(ard on a si)ple lock of stone, like the statue of Chrysippus. 9is ri!ht hand reachin! out could have % 1#$ %

held a staff (ith (hich he dre( in the sand. 'he co)pact and so)e(hat cra)ped co)position see)s to e derived fro) a statue of the .iddle 9ellenistic period. .odest (orks like this one are particularly valua le, ecause they !ive us at least so)e idea of the variety of ody types and poses that could e e)ployed to e&press the notion of concentrated and strenuous )ental effort.

Chr's%..us5 8ear)
- should like to return once )ore to the *toics, and in particular to ChrysippusC eard. But first, a (ord a out philosophersC eards in !eneral. ,s (e have seen, ,thenian intellectuals of the fourth century, like all other adult )en, (ore a eard. *havin! first ca)e into fashion (ith ,le&ander the 2reat. -n ,thens, it (as thus pro a ly the pro:.acedonians (ho (ere the first to adopt the fashion, (hile traditionalists and de)ocrats did not. By the early third century, (hen ein! clean:shaven had eco)e the nor), a eard )ust of necessity have taken on connotations such as @conservative@ and @political outsider.@ 'he 9ellenistic kin!s and their courts, - elieve, all adopted the ne( fashion.D1ME But the philosophers had an additional reason for (earin! a eard. -t is a la( of nature that hair !ro(s on a )anCs chin, and to shave it off is a denial of the natural order of thin!s. , )an (ho shaved, so they elieved, also !ave hi)self a soft and un)anly appearance. 'he clean:shaven look (as effe)inate and raised suspicions of se&ual lust and a (eakness for lu&ury. *i!nificantly, ,lci iades had een one of the first to shave and also (ore his hair in lon! locks.D1JE By chance, (e kno( ver ati) ChrysippusC o(n ar!u)ent on this point, fro) his treatise *n the Goo# an# Pleasure: @'he custo) of shavin! the eard increased under ,le&ander, althou!h the fore)ost )en did not follo( it. 7hy, even the flute:player 'i)otheRs (ore a lon! eard (hen he played the flute. ,nd at ,thens they )aintain that it is not so very lon! a!o that the first )an shaved his face all round, and had the nickna)e *haver.@ @4or really, (hat har) do our hairs do us, in the !odsC na)eN By the) each one of us sho(s hi)self a real )an, % 1#9 % unless you secretly intend to do so)ethin! (hich conflicts (ith the).@3@,!ain, 1io!enes, seein! a )an (ith a chin in that condition, said: C-t cannot e, can it, that you have any fault to find (ith nature ecause she )ade you a )an instead of a (o)anNC ,nd seein! another person on horse: ack in nearly the sa)e condition, reekin! (ith perfu)e and dressed in a style of clothin! to )atch these practices, he said that he had often efore asked (hat the (ord horse: a(d )eant, ut no( he had found out. ,t <hodes, althou!h there is a la( (hich for ids shavin!, there is not so )uch as a sin!le prosecutor (ho (ill try to stop it, ecause every ody shaves. ,nd in By0antiu), althou!h a fine is i)posed on the ar er (ho has a ra0or, every ody )akes use of one /ust the sa)e.@ 'hese, then, are the re)arks of the ad)ira le Chrysippus. F,th. 1".5M5, trans. C. B. 2ulickG -n the face of the ne( fashion for shavin!, (hich the visual evidence su!!ests ?uickly spread throu!hout the .editerranean,D1$E the philosophers clun! to their no( old:fashioned eards, as far as (e can tell, (ithout e&ception. -n the early years of the third century, a poet of ;e( Co)edy, Phoinikides, already speaks of @the philosophers (ho (ear eards D'ogon echontes E@ Ffra!. 6G,D19E i)plyin! that the )a/ority of )en (ere y this ti)e clean:shaven. -t (as in these circu)stances that the (earin! of a eard, co) ined (ith certain hairstyles, clothin!, and )odes of ehavior, first ca)e to sy) oli0e the @otherness@ of the philosophers. 'heir appearance clearly defined the) as a conservative !roup, standin! in opposition to their o(n a!e and le!iti)atin!

their stance (ith an appeal to the @custo)s of old.@ 'hey )ake clai) to a hi!her F ecause olderG for) of (isdo) and use this to challen!e their conte)poraries. 'his appeal to the past (as to eco)e a consistent ele)ent in the i)a!ery of ancient philosophers, reachin! all the (ay to late anti?uity. ,t the sa)e ti)e, the eard eco)es the favorite o /ect of ridicule. -n principle society reco!ni0es the role of the philosopher as )oral authority, yet in ti)es of dou t or crisis that authority is al(ays ?uestioned. 1oes the eard really suit the philosopherN -n other (ords, does he really practice (hat he preachesN 'he decree for Zeno had e&plicitly asserted this con!ruity et(een the clai)s of the educator, % 11# % on the one hand, and a )oral (ay of life, on the other. 1urin! the <o)an >)pire, the eard eca)e the sy) ol of the philosopherCs )oral inte!rity. -n the ti)e of .arcus ,urelius, the ,thenians had reservations a out a(ardin! a chair in philosophy endo(ed y the e)peror, to an other(ise e)inently ?ualified Peripatetic, si)ply ecause he had difficulty !ro(in! a eard. 'he situation (as considered so !rave that the decision had to e left to the e)peror in <o)e F+ucian (un. $ff.G.DB#E 'hou!h all philosophers (ore eards, they (ore the) in different styles: tri))ed or notA full len!th, half, or shortA carefully tended or unke)pt. ,lready in the third century, it see)s, one could reco!ni0e (hat school a philosopher elon!ed to, and his (ay of thinkin!, y the state of his eard and hair. 4ro) here on, oneCs eard and hairstyle eca)e a state)ent of the philosophical teachin!s one accepted and, as a rule, y e&tension, of a certain (ay of life. 'he sy) olic values of hair and eard that arose in the third century B.C. re)ained in effect (ell into the -)perial period. ,lciphron, a (riter of the second century ,.C. , descri es the appearance of a !roup of ,ttic philosophers at a irthday party, at (hich they (ould later ehave rather adly: *o there (as present, a)on! the fore)ost, our friend >teocles the *toic, the oldster, (ith a eard that needed tri))in!, the dirty fello(, (ith head unke)pt, the a!ed sire, his ro( )ore (rinkled than his leathern purse. Present also (as 'he)ista!oras of the Peripatetic school, a )an (hose appearance did not lack char) and (ho prided hi)self upon his curly (hiskers. ,nd there (as the >picurean Zenocrates, not indifferent to his curls, he also proud of his full eard, and ,rchi ius the Pytha!orean, @the fa)ed in son!@ Ffor so every ody called hi)G, his countenance overcast (ith a deep pallor, his locks fallin! fro) the top of his head clear do(n to his chest, his eard pointed and very lon!, his nose hooked, his lips dra(n in and y their very co)pression and fir) closure hintin! at the Pytha!orean silence. ,ll of a sudden Pancrates too, the Cynic, pushin! the cro(d aside, urst in (ith a rushA he (as supportin! his steps (ith a clu of hol):oak3the cane (as studded (ith so)e rass nails (here the thick knots (ere, and his (allet (as e)pty and hun! handy for the scraps. F,lciphron 19.B55, trans. ,. <. Benner and 4. 9. 4or esGDB1E % 111 % 'he preserved portraits in !eneral ear out ,lciphronCs (itty characteri0ations, thou!h (e )ust ear in )ind that the particular features of each individual school )ay have chan!ed in the course of ti)e. 'he *toics are re!ularly descri ed as ein! unke)pt, (ith short and unco) ed hair. -t is not, ho(ever, e&plicitly attested that they (ore their eards close cropped, like Chrysippus. But this is easily e&plained y the sa)e reasonin! that the *toic .usonius !ives for croppin! the hair as a @pure

functionality.@ 'hat is, one interferes (ith a natural process only (hen, for (hatever reason, it eco)es a hindrance F!iatr. B1G. -n contrast to the Peripatetics, (ho (ore carefully tri))ed eards, the *toics re/ected the very idea of such attentionA like(ise any other kind of care for the ody, as in the tradition of the Cynics, ecause this represented a distraction fro) thinkin! and e&alted the ody. -t is etter to cultivate oneCs understandin! than oneCs hair, accordin! to >pictetus, (ho cites *ocrates in this conte&t F!iss. ".1.BMA 6BG. *ince neatly styled hair and tri))ed eard (ere of !reat concern to the Peripatetics, the ,cade)ics, and the >picureans, the close:cropped and unco) ed hair and unke)pt eard of the *toics (ere a pole)ical state)ent and )ade clear that they despised as un)anly any kind of atte)pt to eautify the ody. 'his )ay indeed e the )eanin! of ZenoCs untended and /a!!ed eard (ith its e&a!!erated an!les Fcf. p. 9MG. -n the case of Chrysippus, ho(ever, the eard has a )ore particular ethical )essa!e that see)s to allude to a specific ele)ent of *toic teachin!. 7hat - have in )ind is a see)in!ly incidental detail that (as overlooked y so)e ancient copyists, as (ell as y )odern scholarship. 'he close:cropped eard not only !ives the i)pression of ein! unke)pt, like his hair, ut it see)s to !ro( rather irre!ularly. -n so)e places it is ?uite sparse, yet u!ly ushy patches !ro( in other places (here one (ould not e&pect any !ro(th Ffi!. M#G.DBBE 'his peculiar pattern had a set of ?uite specific connotations and associations a)on! ChrysippusC conte)poraries that are distinctly ne!ative. Pseudo:,ristotelian physio!no)ic (riters co)pared )en (hose eards !re( like this (ith apes, @dis!ustin!, ridiculous, and evil ani)als.@ 4or this reason, as 9. P. +au scher has pointed out, fisher)en, peasant far)ers, and slaves3in short, all those (ho (ere looked do(n % 11B %

4i!. M# Chrysippus. <o)e, Hatican .useu)s. on y a society of free orn citi0ens3are depicted (ith such irre!ular !ro(th of eard Ffi!. M1G, as also, in the )ytholo!ical sphere, the (ild and uncivili0ed satyrs.DB"E -n this (ay they are characteri0ed as )orally inferior. 'hus for Chrysippus to e)phasi0e his irre!ular !ro(th of eard y cuttin! it short, instead of tryin! to conceal it, and for his friends to have hi) portrayed after his death (ith such a )orally loaded i)perfection, in the conte&t of these (ell:esta lished physio!no)ic conventions, could i)ply only a deli erate response to the pre/udices of society. *laves and peasants are hu)an ein!s too, the eard proclai)sA social cate!ories are purely rando) and do not e&ist for the philosopher. 4urther)ore, nature )akes a )anCs eard !ro( one (ay or anotherA ho(ever it !ro(s is ri!ht and has nothin! to do (ith his character or )orals. 'he first portrait of *ocrates had si)ilarly represented an opposition to the nor)s of kalokagathia Fp. "$G. ChrysippusC attitude assi!ns hair and eard and everythin! associated (ith the) to the a#ia'hora, that is, thin!s that in *toic doctrine are neither !ood nor ad in and of the)selves. % 11" %

4i!. M1

9ead of the @8ld 4isher)an.@ <o)an copy of a third:century B.C. statue. Paris, +ouvre. 'he very fact that (ell:kno(n *toic teachin!s and (ays of life (ere incorporated, in such detail, into the portrait itself )ust )ean that kno(led!ea le people had so)e say in deter)inin! the conception of this statue. >vidently ChrysippusC pupils used the portrait as a vehicle for propa!atin! the )issionary (ork of their teacher.

The 9Throne9 of E.%curus

'he situation is entirely different (hen (e co)e to the portraits of the >picureans. 'hey never tau!ht pu licly ut instead (ithdre( to >picurusC !arden outside the city the =epos, to live to!ether3)ore like a !atherin! of friends, a co))une, or a sect than a school3seek: % 116 % in! the path to happiness and pleasure (ithout distur ance and fear, under the !uidance of a teacher of surpassin! insi!ht. 'he !oal (as a life of @/oy and pleasure@ y reachin! a state of @painlessness of the ody@ and @lack of e&cite)ent of the soul.@ -n ,thens the disciples of >picurus (ere so closely identified (ith a life outside the co))unity of the polis that they (ere often referred to si)ply as @those fro) the 2arden@ F*e&t. >)p. Math. 9.M6G. -t is therefore hi!hly i)pro a le that any pu lic statues (ere put up in the third century in honor of these )en (ho so ostentatiously (ithdre( fro) the civic and political life of the city. .ore likely, the portraits stood in the =epos itself, at least in the early period, and served there to recall >picurus and his friends .etrodorus, 9er)archus, and Polyaenus, (ho (ere also kno(n as @!uides@ or @leaders@ Fkathegemones G and en/oyed the particular devotion of pupils (ho (ere referred to as kataskeua9omenoi .DB6E 'he e&istence of a (ell:kno(n @mnema of the >picureans@ in the =epos is e&plicitly attested F9eliod. Aeth. 1.1M.5G. 7e are fortunate to possess copies that !ive a !ood idea not only of the statue of >picurus, ut of those of his friend .etrodorus and his successor 9er)archus. Pro a ly all three (ere put up soon after the su /ectCs death, in BJJ F.etrodorusG, BJ# F>picurusG, and B5# F9er)archusG.DB5E -f (e take a look at these three >picurean statues Ffi!s. MB5M6G, on the one hand Fthey are all )ore or less fully preserved in copies or can e reconstructedG, and the statue of Chrysippus Fcf. fi!. 56G, on the other, it is i))ediately clear oth ho( closely all the >picureans adhere to the sa)e )anner of pose and appearance and ho( funda)entally different these are fro) the i)a!e of the *toic. -nstead of the *toic e&pression of )ental strain and the hunched:over ody, all three >picureans sit cal)ly and ?uietly in classically alanced poses, the )antle carefully draped a out the). >ven (hen seated they )aintain a kind of contrapposto et(een the rear le! actively thrust ack and the for(ard le! rela&ed, as (ell as a co)para le chiastic positionin! of the ar)s. 4or the), evidently, thinkin! is not such hard (ork that it (ould e reflected in the ody. 'he display of conventionali0ed standards of ehavior, as in the citi0en i)a!e of the fifth and fourth centuries, co)es naturally and effortlessly. 'his is particularly noticea le in the statues of >picurus and % 115 %

4i!. MB

>picurus Fca. "6B5BJ#G. <econstruction y =. 4ittschen of the statue presu)a ly set up after his death. 2Qttin!en University, , !uWsa))lun!. 9er)archus in the prescri ed (rappin! up of the left ar). 'his correct, thou!h rather @pu lic,@ posture hardly see)s to suit the private i)a!e of a )an ?uietly seated in conte)plation and presents in any event a strikin! contrast to ChrysippusC intense concentration on intellectual pursuits or the psycho: )otor tension and )ove)ent of statues related to that of Chrysippus. 'his un)istaka le !esture of the >picureans can e understood only as an e&plicit and self:conscious indication of a desire to hold to the old traditions, a token of virtue and )odesty, at a ti)e (hen these very values (ere ein! called into ?uestion y other )e) ers of ,thenian society. >picurus and his friends ?uite ostentatiously attach !reat i)portance to the proper ehavior. ,nyone (ho (ithdre( fro) the % 11M %

4i!. M" .etrodorus Fca. ""15BJJG. <econstruction of a statue set up after his death. 8nce Copenha!en, ;y Carls er! 2lyptotek. city, like @those fro) the 2arden,@ (as (ell advised to insure that in spite of this he appeared to e an irreproacha le citi0en. -ndeed, >picurus y no )eans re/ected the rules of society ut rather understood the) as the prere?uisite to a philosophical life of inner happiness. 'he )aintenance of the proper citi0en eti?uette (as taken for !ranted in the =epos.DBME 'he ele!ant (avy hair of >picureans, the locks carefully arran!ed on the forehead, and especially the strikin!ly @classical@ styli0ation of their eards Ffi!s. MM5M$G all de)onstrate ho( i)portant they considered a cultivated appearance that (as ased on the ideals of the past. 'he (earin! of a eard3 even a carefully tended eard like those of % 11J %

4i!. M6 9er)archus F orn ca. "6#G. Underlife:si0e <o)an copy of a statue ca. B5# B.C. 4lorence, .useo ,rcheolo!ico. respecta le ,thenian citi0ens of an earlier a!e3had y no( eco)e a token of otherness. ,nd yet the handso)e >picurean eard conveys a very different set of values fro) the unke)pt or crudely tri))ed eard of the *toics, not to )ention that of the Cynics. 4or the >picureans, the eard i)plies not only an acceptance of the traditions of the polis, ut also an identification (ith the upper class. % 11$ %

7hile at first !lance the three statues of >picureans look very si)ilar, there are in fact i)portant differences, (hich reflect the strict hierarchy that o tained in the =epos. >picurus sits on an i)pressive @throne,@ .etrodorus on a acked chair, and 9er)archus on a si)ple stone lock.DBJE *o)e have likened >picurusC chair, (ith its orna)ental lion:pa( feet, to the thrones of the !ods, and there y linked it to the hero cult that (as esta lished for the founder of the =epos after his death. 'his see)s to )e, ho(ever, unlikely, since >picurus hi)self is not depicted as a hero, ut in every respect as an ,thenian citi0en. 4or a conte)porary vie(er, a )ore o vious co)parison (ould e (ith the 'rohe#ria Fthe front: ro( seatsG in the 'heatre of 1ionysus, reserved for priests and outstandin! citi0ens, as (ell as for enefactors of the city. 'he association (ould have su!!ested itself on account of the shape of the seat Ffi!. M5G, especially since the ela orate seat of the priest of 1ionysus, (ith its lion:pa( feet, in the )iddle of the front ro(, stood in the sa)e relation to the other seats of honor as >picurusC throne to the acked chair of .etrodorus. 'he =epos has thus usurped this sy) ol of si!nal pu lic honor for officials and di!nitaries, in order to )ark >picurusC achieve)ents and his position (ithin the school. -n this (ay the !reat (ise )an, (ho sho(ed the (ay to a happy life, (as sin!led out y his pupils as the hi!hest spiritual authority.DB$E ,nother conceiva le association (ould e that of an acade)ic @chair.@ ,s early as the ti)e of the *ophists, an especially i)pressive seat see)s to e a si!n of the instructorCs special authority and di!nity. Plato portrays the *ophist 9ippias of >lis !ivin! instruction fro) a thronos, (hile his pupils sat around hi) on stone enches FPrt. "15G. But, as (e shall see, >picurus is in fact not sho(n as a teacher !ivin! instruction, so that the connotation of the acade)ic chair is unlikely. ,!ainst the ack!round of the Classical i)a!e of the ,thenian citi0en, this kind of honor represents so)ethin! ne(. 'he sin!lin! out of >picurus fro) the other t(o kathe!e)ones )akes it clear that the >picureans (ere not concerned (ith a search for truth throu!h persuasive ar!u)entation and passionate discussion, like the follo(ers of Chrysippus, ut rather (ith devotion to and perpetuation of a uni?ue spiritual !uide and teacher. % 119 %

4i!. M5 9onorary seats in the 'heatre of 1ionysus in ,thens. 'he sa)e hierarchy can also e clearly detected in the faces of the three portraits. >picurusC is )arked y a curious contrast et(een the restless and po(erfully )uscled philosopherCs ro( and the other(ise placid e&pression of the face Ffi!. MMG. Tet the ro( is still different fro), say, ZenoCs or ChrysippusC, (here the )ental effort looks forced and strained. >picurusC eye ro(s are raised, ut hardly in )otion. 'he raised ro(s are a token of superiority, reflectin! his a solute authority. 'he po(erful )uscles a ove the ro(s can therefore not e understood as an e&pression of a )o)entary )ental stru!!le, especially (hen the ody is so rela&ed. ,pparently the sculptor (anted to e&press the idea of tre)endous intellectual capacity, a state of ein! rather than a sudden action.DB9E .etrodorusC ro(, on the other hand, does not etray even a trace % 1B# %

4i!. MM >picurus on a dou le her) (ith .etrodorus. <o)e, Capitoline .useu). FCast.G % 1B1 %

4i!. MJ Bust of .etrodorus. <o)e, Capitoline .useu). FCast.G

4i!. M$ *)all ron0e ust of 9er)archus. 9: B# c). ;aples, .useo ;a0ionale. of intellectual effort Ffi!. MJG. <ather, its serenity, lack of e&pression, and perfect alance strike us )ore as an echo of Classical citi0en portraits. 'his (as, it (ould see), precisely the intention. 'he Classical for)ula for characteri0in! a distin!uished )an in )iddle a!e is taken up and ?uoted, in order to )ake visi le certain !oals of >picurusC teachin!s, such as inner tran?uility and a life of en/oy)ent. -n this (ay, the carefully tended hair and eard, as (ell as the ele!ant )anner of dress and seated posture for!e an association (ith the polis values of the past.D"#E 7ith 9er)archus, ho(ever, (e do see) to sense a )easure of )ental strain, or perhaps, concern Ffi!. M$G. -n the etter copies, the ro(s are !ently dra(n to!ether, and the (ide frin!e of hair e)phasi0es the severity of this portrait of old a!e. +ike >picurus, 9er)archus (as a native of .ytilene on +es os, and they had co)e to!ether to ,thens % 1BB % and there lived and philosophi0ed to!ether for )ore than forty years. 9er)archus (as thus already an old )an (hen, after >picurusC death, he eca)e head of the =epos and devoted hi)self to preservin! his friendCs herita!e as faithfully as possi le.D"1E 9er)archusC dress and pose Fcf. fi!. M6G, as (e have seen, deli erately i)itate those of >picurus, ut (ith an i)portant difference in the pose of the head and pro a ly also of the ri!ht ar). 9er)archusC raised ar) is a !esture of teachin!, and his head is raised and turned to the side, as if to(ard an interlocutor. >picurus, y contrast, ent his head and looked out in front of hi), as 4ittschenCs reconstruction (ith casts has confir)ed Ffi!. MBG. 'he lo(er ri!ht ar), like .etrodorusC left, (as !ently dra(n ack to(ard the ody and turned in(ard. 'he droopin! shoulder also su!!ests a ?uietly rela&ed positionin! of the ar).D"BE 7e )ay infer fro) this difference that 9er)archus (as sho(n )ore as the teacher, >picurus as the tran?uil thinker )arked y inner concentration. 'his in turn reflects the different roles that they played: >picurus is the !reat pioneerin! thinker, re)ote and unattaina le on his seat of honorA 9er)archus, the loyal disciple (ho preserves and propa!ates the inheritance of the )aster.

8o)%es- /ealth' an) Unhealth'

'he portrait of >picurus displays yet another @individual@ characteristic. 9is ody, especially those parts of it that are e&posed, is rendered as e&tre)ely fee le. 'his is particularly e&a!!erated in a s)all statuette in the Pala00o dei Conservatori in <o)e Ffi!. M9G.D""E But even in the fine copy of the statue in ;aples, the ody is fla y and unarticulated in a )anner unkno(n in any other statue type. -f the statues of the three philosophers did indeed stand alon!side one another in the =epos, this trait of >picurus )ust have een especially noticea le. -t is pro a ly )eant as a reference to the lon!, de ilitatin! illness of >picurusC later years. But a!ain, it is not intended so )uch as a io!raphical trait, ut rather as a si!n of the e&e)plary and virtuous (ay of life. 'he e?uani)ity (ith (hich the )aster not only endured his pain to the end ut overca)e it throu!h the )e)ory of his earlier happiness % 1B" %

4i!. M9 *)all:scale copy of the portrait of >picurus. 9: B".5 c). <o)e, Pala00o dei Conservatori. (as )uch ad)ired y his friends and pupils, (ho sa( hi) as proof that the truly (ise )an (ho follo(s >picurusC teachin!s can attain atara2ia and eu#aimonia Fpeace of )ind and happinessG even in the )ost difficult circu)stances F1. +. 1#.BBG. .etrodorusC rela&ed and a)ple ody Ffi!. M"G, on the other hand, looks like the e) odi)ent of a life of pleasure. ,s (e have already o served of the head and )asklike face, his ody also represents a )asculine ideal of Classical art, here e&pressin! (ell: ein!, serenity, and conviviality (ith oneCs fello( )an. 'he co)forta le acked chair on (hich he sits, like that of .enander and Poseidippus, su!!ests a pleas: % 1B6 % ant do)estic a) ience. .etrodorus is co)pletely at ease, leanin! ack co)forta ly and placidly lookin! out. 9e holds a ook roll in his left hand, and the ri!ht, dra(n ack to the ody, could have held the ed!e of his !ar)ent. 8nce a!ain (e encounter here the old polis ideal at a ti)e (hen the polis (as lon! !one. 7hat is particularly si!nificant, ho(ever, is that this ideal is no( evoked y people (hose fulfill)ent in life can e conceived only in the private sphere. 8ne of .etrodorusC (ritin!s ore this revealin! title: *n the -ircumstance That Pri/ate 1ife 1ea#s to )a''iness Sooner Than Pu,lic FCle). ,l. Strom. B.B1 S --.1$5 *tahlinG. Iust as in >picurusC o(n teachin!s, the statues of his friends and disciples focus on the central !oal, the condition of spiritual peace and inner /oy. 8nly the )aster hi)self is presented as the pioneerin! spirit, in fact )ore as a kind of prophet than as one (ho teaches his students ho( to think. -n the =epos, !reat i)portance (as attached to internali0in! the teachin!s of the )aster. >picurus had his pupils learn certain key sayin!s y heart and )e)ori0e the) so that they (ould have the) ready to hand at any )o)ent. 'hese sayin!s of the )aster, the kyriai #o2ai, functioned as a kind of catechis) F1. +. 1#."5,$5G. Perhaps there is an allusion to this constant )e)ori0ation in the ook rolls in the hands of all three statues, or to pastoral letters of >picurus, (hich served the sa)e purpose. >picurus and 9er)archus pause in their readin!, the ook roll open, (hile .etrodorus holds his untied in the ri!ht

hand, as if he (ere a out to start readin!.D"6E -t is rather strikin! that it should e the statues of >picureans that hold the ook roll. -t cannot e )eant si)ply as a sy) ol of education, as it (ill e in later 9ellenistic portraiture, since >picurus e&plicitly re/ected the notion of education for its o(n sake. -n retrospect, a co)parison of the portraits of >picurus and his t(o kathe!e)ones (ith those of Chrysippus and the other )i!hty thinkers reveals that the for)er )ust have had a different purpose. 'he !reat teachers are presented as e&e)plars (ho have already attained the !oal. 'hey are oth a re)inder and an ad)onition to succeedin! !enerations. 'his portrayal is in accord (ith (hat (e )ay con/ecture a out the statuesC function in the =epos, (here friends and pupils re!ularly !athered for cere)onies in )e)ory of >picurus, .etrodorus, and % 1B5 % )e) ers of >picurusC fa)ily perhaps in front of the mnema )entioned earlier. 'he (hole calendar of the >picurean year (as or!ani0ed around these )e)orial services, at (hich they (ould read fro) the (orks of the !reat teachers. -n later ti)es, (e have evidence for an actual cult of the >picureans, co)plete (ith icons:D"5E @'hey carry around DpaintedE portraits D/ultus E of >picurus and even take the) into their edroo)s. 8n his irthday they )ake sacrifices and al(ays cele rate on the t(entieth of the )onth, (hich they call eikas 3those sa)e people (ho, so lon! as they are alive, insist that they do not (ant to e noticed@ FPliny ). "5.5G. -n the conte&t of such rituals, the portraits served as a )e)orial and an honor, as (ell as an inspiration to follo( in their path. , statuette of the first century B.C. confronts us (ith a very different i)a!e of an >picurean Ffi!. J#G. -f only the head (ere preserved, (ith its carefully tended hair and eard, and the contented e&pression si)ilar to that of .etrodorus, (e )i!ht (ell e te)pted to identify hi) as one of the third:century >picureans. But the proudly displayed fat elly and the uninhi ited self:satisfied de)eanor, recallin! the statue of the Cynic in the Capitoline Fcf. fi!. JBG, su!!est that this is not a portrait statue at all, ut rather a !enre fi!ure, a typical >picurean. 7e )ay e re)inded of the type that 9orace had in )ind, in his ironic characteri0ation of hi)self: ,s for )e, (hen you (ant a lau!h, you (ill find )e in fine fettle, fat and sleek, a ho! fro) >picurusC herd. F('ist. -.6.15fG 'his is evidently the i)a!e that )any people outside the =epos had of the typical >picurean: a prosperous on vivant, al(ays carryin! (ith hi) the sayin!s of the )aster. ,t least this (as the case y the ti)e of 9orace, after the popular stereotype had esta lished itself, thanks )ainly to ;e( Co)edy, that the >picurean principle of pleasure applied )ostly to eatin! and drinkin! Ffi!. J#G.D"ME 'he statuetteCs portrayal of the old hedonist is not )arked y !enuine )ockery, only !entle e)use)ent, 9e is indeed a sy)pathetic fi!ure. 'his interpre: % 1BM %

4i!. J# 4urniture attach)ent (ith statuette of a @typical@ >picurean. 4irst century B.C. 9: B5.5 c). ;e( Tork, .etropolitan .useu) of ,rt.

tation is also i)plied in the statuetteCs ori!inal function, for it (as the cro(nin! ele)ent of a candela ru) that took the for) of a colu)n, like those used as ta le supports. 'he -onic capital has t(o hooks fro) (hich la)ps could e hun!. 'hus the /olly old )an (as visi le )ainly at sy)posia. 'his is a (ork of e&ceptional char), in oth style and % 1BJ % icono!raphy, that succeeds in an eclectic co) ination of contradictory ele)ents in the i)a!ery of the philosopher.D"JE 'his statuette is a re)inder that al)ost all preserved portraits of the Classical and 9ellenistic periods are (itnesses to the )anner in (hich the su /ect understood and (ished to present hi)self. 7e learn fro) the) a !reat deal a out the i)a!e that these intellectuals (anted to pro/ect, ut as a rule little a out ho( their conte)poraries outside their o(n circle sa( the), or to (hat e&tent the popular i)a!e )atched the self:conscious one e&pressed in the official portraits. 8ne (ould like to suppose that there had een earlier i)a!es that )ade fun of the all:too:serious thinkers. 'he statue types that happen to e preserved in <o)an copies )ost likely represent only a s)all sa)plin! of the variety of i)a!es of intellectuals of the >arly 9ellenistic a!e. 7e have, for e&a)ple, no certainly identified portrait of a third:century ,cade)ic or Peripatetic. *urely there continued to e philosophers (ho clun! to the traditional citi0en style, such as the lon!: earded philosopher on the fa)iliar frescoes fro) Boscoreale, leanin! on a knotty staff in the Classical )anner.D"$E 4urther)ore, not all the fa)ous teachers and thinkers (ere depicted seated, as one )i!ht think. 4or e&a)ple, the (ell:kno(n ron0e head of an intense philosopher fro) the ,ntikythera ship(reck, (hose e&pression and )anner recall the portrait of Chrysippus, elon!ed to a standin! statue (ith the ri!ht hand raised in a rhetorical !esture.D"9E *tance and pose (ere presu)a ly no less varied than facial e&pression. ,nother type that see)s to have een particularly i)portant (as that of the reader, (hich (e have already )et in the statue of .etrodorus Ffi!. M"G. >ven outside the =epos, this (as already a standard part of the repertoire for representin! the intellectual in >arly 9ellenistic art. *chefold has called attention to t(o statuettes and su!!ested identifications for these t(o as the ,cade)ic philosophers =rantor of *oloi and ,rkesilaos, pro a ly ecause the ,cade)ics early on turned to the interpretation of PlatoCs (orks, and ecause they (ere !enerally reputed to e !reat readers F1. +. 6.BM, 5."1f.G.D6#E F'he story is told of ,rkesilaos that he could not !o to ed at ni!ht (ithout havin! first read a fe( pa!es of 9o)er, @and in the early )ornin!, (hen he % 1B$ %

4i!. J1 Portrait of a )an readin!. Bron0e statuette after an ori!inal of the third century B.C. 9: BJ.5 c). Paris, Ca inet des .Kdailles. (anted to read 9o)er, he used to say that he (as !oin! to see his lover@ D1. +. 6."1E. Unfortunately, this is not sufficient !rounds for an identificationOG 'he intellectual depicted in the statuette fro) .ontorio Ffi!. J1G !estures (ith his left hand to(ard the

ook roll that he holds in his ri!ht, like one (ho is a out to e!in readin!. 'he left ar) is enveloped in the cloak, like that of other seated statues, yet it is captured in % 1B9 % a )o)entary )ove)ent. 'his is pro a ly )eant to su!!est the start of a session of readin!, @reachin! for a ook.@ 'he head, turned to the side in a conte)plative !esture and lookin! up, (ould also suit this conte&t. 9e could scarcely e a philosopher !ivin! instruction, for that entails a !esture of the ri!ht hand. Perhaps he is )eant to represent a philolo!ist. ,n interestin! life:si0e seated statue in the +ouvre, also derived fro) an ori!inal of the third century, )ust also have depicted a reader, to /ud!e fro) the ent:for(ard position of the upper ody and the ar)s.D61E Particularly noticea le is the casual pose, recallin! that of Poseidippus Fcf. fi!. J5G: yet another (ay of e&pressin! concentration. -n the (ell: kno(n philosopher statue fro) the +udovisi Collection, no( in Copenha!en,D6BE at one ti)e associated (ith a portrait of *ocrates, the fi!ure of the reader ac?uires an al)ost e&e)plary ?uality throu!h its very hi!h place)ent and deli erate frontality. 'he ori!inal fro) (hich this statue derives pro a ly elon!s to the )id:second century, a period in (hich the )otif of readin! (as of interest not as a process to e physically rendered, ut rather as a paradi!) for the educated )an.

2ho 2oul) /onor a C'n%c7

'he statue of a Cynic of the )id:third century B.C. , preserved in a super copy of the >arly ,ntonine period, see)s to satiri0e the ne( reed of pioneerin! thinkers Ffi!. JBG. 'hat this old )an is indeed a Cynic has lon! een supposed, on the asis of his appearance, (hich is the antithesis of the !ood citi0enCs: he is slovenly, (ears a short )antle )ade of coarse, dense )aterial, and is arefoot. 'hese are all characteristics of the Cynics, ori!inally inspired y *ocrates FPen. Mem. 1.M.BA 1. +. B.B$, 61G.D6"E 'he only ele)ent inappropriate for the Cynics, (ho (ere @practical philosophers@ opposed in principle to any kind of for)al education, is the ook roll in the ri!ht hand. 'his is, ho(ever, an addition of the ei!hteenth:century restorer, (ho apparently could not i)a!ine a philosopher (ithout such an attri ute of the intellectual. 'he (hole fi!ure is practically an assault on the vie(er. ,n u!ly, % 1"# %

4i!. JB a5 *tatue of an unidentified Cynic philosopher. <o)e, Capitoline .useu). elli!erent old )an and social outcast, he looks us strai!ht in the face. -n his ri!ht hand (as ori!inally a staff, (hich perhaps (as even pointed at the vie(er. >verythin! a out his appearance e&presses conte)pt for our!eois )anners and values: the clu)sy, flat:footed stance, droopin! shoulders and elly stickin! out, the !ar)ent sloppily (ound around the ody and a(k(ardly held to!ether in the fist, the unco) ed, )atted hair fallin! in his face, the untended clu)p of eard, and, finally, the (rinkled face (ith its vacuous, s?uintin! look. 9ere (e have the co)plete antithesis not only of the ideal of the

% 1"1 %

% 1"B % proper citi0en, ut of the ne( i)a!e of the serious philosopher as (ell. -nstead of presentin! an e&pression of concentrated thou!ht, he s?uints like so)eone (ho is either nearsi!hted or linded y the sun. 7e need only co)pare the stylistically closely related countenance of Chrysippus Ffi!. 5MG to see that the Cynic is not )eant to e&press the concentration of serious thou!ht or, for that )atter, the rava!es of old a!e or )anCs )ortality ut rather the self:satisfaction of a social dissident. 'he pu lic display of such a statue (as itself a cele ration of the provocative and antisocial ehavior of the Cynics, callin! into ?uestion every traditional value, a kind of fire:and: ri)stone ser)on decryin! the pretensions and hypocrisy of our!eois society. 'he si)ple, self:sufficient life has evidently not done this old )an any har). 9e see)s (ell fed, and despite his lifelon! avoidance of the !y)nasiu), he is sho(n as still tou!h and stron!. 9is appearance has een likened to the icono!raphy of poor people such as fisher)en and peasants. But unlike these, he sho(s none of the physio!no)ic characteri0ation that in this period (ould carry connotations of inferiority. 7ho could have co))issioned such a statueN -t is hard to elieve that a polis (ould have chosen to honor such a su versive provocateur (ith a pu lic )onu)ent. -t is e?ually unlikely that a )an like this had a (ealthy follo(in! of students and friends. But it is entirely possi le that one individual, even a 9ellenistic kin!, could have dedicated such a statue in a sanctuary or !y)nasiu), as a (ay of assertin! that this (as the only kind of @practical philosophy@ that he truly found credi le as a (ay of life. 'hou!h it is true that the Cynics elieved in !oin! @ ack to nature,@ to a si)ple life free of the @unnatural@ constraints of social convention, this does not )ean that they re/ected the social order in principle. 'hey too elieved that virtue can e tau!ht and sa( the)selves in the role of educators F1. +. M.1#5G. =rates of 'he es, for e&a)ple, 1io!enesC eldest pupil and the first teacher of Zeno, (as very popular (ith his fello( citi0ens, ecause he actually discussed their pro le)s (ith the). People opened their doors to hi), en/oyed his visits, and revered hi) as a kind of lar familiaris .D66E 'he face of the old )an in the Capitoline .useu) is uni?ue in the corpus of preserved 9ellenistic portraiture. Undou tedly there (ere % 1"" %

4i!. J" 9ead of a Cynic FNG. <o)an copy of a statue ca. B## B.C. Paris, +ouvre. other @character studies@ of this kind, in (hich sculptors co))e)orated the ehavior and appearance of those (ho practiced a kind of antiphilosophy and a defiant alternative life:style. 'his is, at least, the i)pression (e !et fro) several copies of anony)ous philosopher portraits of the late third or early second century, (hose hostile e&pression and slovenly appearance evoke thou!hts of the Cynics and related !roups. , particularly i)pressive e&a)ple is a head in the +ouvre (ith dis!runtled countenance, (ild eard, and )atted hair over the ro( Ffi!. J"G. 'he ori!inal (as pro a ly an i)portant (ork of the

9i!h 9ellenistic period.D65E % 1"6 %

The Ph%loso.her an) the :%n$

'he philosopher statues of the third century are thus the first true portraits of the intellectual in 2reek art, for they are the first that atte)pt to render the thinkin! process itself, its !oals and achieve)ents. 7hereas the portraits of thinkers and philosophers in the fifth and fourth centuries had depicted conte)plation3(hen at all3as )erely one ele)ent of the ideal citi0en, (ithin a ri!idly structured art for), the purpose no( is to convey e&clusively and as concretely as possi le, different conceptions of intellectual activity. 'he sharp differences in appearance et(een the representatives of the different philosophical schools sho( that the pri)ary concern (as still not (ith the individual thinker, ut rather (ith depictin! the intellectual process3ho(ever defined y the various schools3as a special achieve)ent. 'he philosopher represented a challen!e to pupil and fello( citi0en alike, (hether y the force of ar!u)entation or throu!h his ethical stance. 'he portraiture )akes a specific clai), as does the philosophy itself. 'he fact that each of the different )essa!es reached only a portion of the population is a conco)itant of the chan!ed social constraints. 4or the *toics, thinkin! )eans a ove all )ental stru!!le, the triu)ph of the active )ind over the frailty of the ody. >ver since the ,rchaic kouroi, 2reek artists had cele rated the )ale ody as the out(ard )anifestation of the su /ectCs physical and spiritual perfection, his kalokagathia . -n statues like that of Chrysippus, the ody loses its pree)inence and no( functions only as a foil for e&pressin! the triu)ph of )ind over )atter. But thinkin! and intellectual activity are not si)ply praised as an end in the)selves. <ather, they stand in the service of a )oral and rational (ay of life. ,s had al(ays een the case, the ody e&presses oneCs ethical stance: in a ne!ative sense for the *toics and Cynics, in a positive sense for the >picureans, (hose @classical@ earin! and re!ular physical features convey an inner cal) and self:assurance ased on a sense of intellectual superiority. -n the ur!e to instruct, these philosopher statues accord perfectly (ith the old traditions of the polis. But the (ay in (hich they heroi0e % 1"5 % their su /ects is ne(: Chrysippus (ith his irresisti le ar!u)entation, the intellectual superiority of >picurus and Zeno. 'hey elon! to an entirely different cate!ory fro) the )onu)ents in honor of leadin! citi0ens of the past or present a!e. <ather, they de)and a special position, /ust as their su /ects, (hile alive, occupied a special position (ithin the city. 'hese statues set alon!side the civilian )a!istrates, enefactors, and leadin! citi0ens a ne(, self:desi!nated authority co)para le only to the i)a!es of kin!s. 'he painfully distorted posture of the *toics should not o scure the fact that these portraits intended, in their o(n (ay, to stand alon!side those of kin!s, in spite of For perhaps ecause ofG the apparently ludicrous nature of this clai). 4or e&a)ple, the statue of Chrysippus stood near an e?uestrian )onu)ent, pro a ly for one of the kin!s, ehind (hich he )ust have see)ed to e hidin!. 'he peculiar con/unction of these t(o statues inspired =arneades to an ironic parody of ChrysippusC na)e: @9e DChrysippusE had an inconspicuous little ody Dsomation euteles E, as one can see fro) his statue in the =era)eikos, (hich hides ehind the near y e?uestrian )onu)ent, (hich is (hy =arneades na)ed hi) C=ryphippos,C on account of his horse:hidin!@ F1. +. J.1$BG. =arneades is here )akin! fun of his

chief philosophical opponent, the )an (hose dialectics kept hi) occupied his entire life. But eyond that, the anecdote contains for us an i)portant hint as to (hat effect such a statue had in the conte&t of nei!h orin! )onu)ents. -t sho(s ho( a philosopher statue (as perceived alon!side an e?uestrian statue of a kin!, pro a ly over:life:si0e and certainly in a dra)atic pose. 'he frailty of the ent:over old )an achieved its full effect only (hen placed eside the )onu)ents of the )i!hty. ,s >rnst Buschor put it, the @pathos of tran?uility@ (as consciously set eside the @pathos of po(er.@ 'he intention (as to cast a shado( on the rilliance of the royal epiphany, to e&pose it as transient and hence superficial. 'he philosopherCs thou!hts (ill in the end outlive kin!do)s and i)perial po(ers. 'he >arly 9ellenistic a!e (as evidently (ell a(are of this special relationship et(een intellectuals and the )en in po(er. -t is reflected in a (hole series of stories and anecdotes of the third century, startin! % 1"M % (ith the fa)ous visit of ,le&ander the 2reat to 1io!enes in his arrel.D6ME =arneadesC /oke does, ad)ittedly, su!!est that, after t(o or three !enerations, the proud clai) of the philosopher (ith the fee le ody (as no lon!er fully understood. ,nd the statue that (as put up for =arneades hi)self is a different )atter alto!ether Fsee p. 1$1G.

Pose%)%..us, The /ar) 2ork of 2r%t%n$ Poetr'

,n a!e that (as a le to e&press such su tle distinctions a)on! the various schools of philosophical thou!ht )ust also have sou!ht (ays to e&press visually the very different activity of the poet. But in fact, in co)parison (ith the rich repertoire of philosophers, the fe( securely identified portraits of conte)porary >arly 9ellenistic poets see) at first rather a disappoint)ent3at least for the student e&pectin! to find i)a!es of poetic inspiration and art. .enander, as (e have seen, (as portrayed as a )an of fashiona le appearance (ho loved the life of lu&ury, one considered soft and ostentatious co)pared to the old polis ideal, ut in this (ay eca)e the )odel for a ne( !eneration in ,thens at the e!innin! of the third century. Tet nothin! a out his statue refers to his ein! a poet. 'he sa)e is true of another seated statue of a poet of si)ilar date, the so: called pseudo:.enander in the Hatican. -n its rela&ed pose, this statue too e&presses the private values of try'he .D6JE -t is only on +ate 9ellenistic copies of the .enander portrait that (e )ay perhaps see an atte)pt to ad/ust the facial e&pression to )ake it )ore dra)atic.D6$E 'he actual sense of poetic inspiration, ho(ever, is first achieved on a !roup of reliefs that portray a heroi0ed .enander, nude to the (aist, in the act of (ritin!, acco)panied y his t(o sources of inspiration, the .use and the )ask Ffi!. J6G.D69E But the ori!inal that lay ehind these reliefs is a creation of the +ate 9ellenistic a!e, pro a ly intended for display in <o)an villas. >vidently y this ti)e the stylish .enander of the >arly 9ellenistic statue (as perceived as too our!eoisA (hat (as (anted instead (as a )ore i)posin! i)a!e. 'his is acco)plished a ove all in the are chest and the elevated poise of the head. % 1"J %

4i!. J6 .enander (ith his .use. 4irst:century B.C. relief. <o)e, Hatican .useu)s.

-t (ould e )ost interestin! to kno( (hether this kind of i)a!e of the inspired poet ever carried over into honorific statuary of the >arly and 9i!h 9ellenistic periods, or if it occurs only in the retrospective portraits (ith (hich (e shall deal in a later chapter. 'he only (ork that )i!ht e relevant here is the statue of the ,ttic co)ic poet Poseidippus F"1M5ca. B5# B.C. G, of the )id:third century Ffi!. J5G.D5#E ,t first !lance, he )ay e even )ore disappointin! than the .enander, if it is inspiration and spirituality (e are after. 'he head of the inscri ed copy in the Hatican, ho(ever, (ith its !loo)y countenance, is not that of the 2reek poet, ut of a <o)an of the late first century B.C. (ho has usurped the statue of a poet to try to pass hi)self off as a cultivated !entle)an. But thanks to a re)arka le discovery y 4ittschen, (e no( kno( the authentic portrait type of Poseidippus in a fine copy of the head. 'he careless sculptor (ho re(orked the poetCs head into that of % 1"$ %

4i!. J5 *tatue of the co)ic poet Poseidippus F"1M5ca. B5#G. <econstruction y =. 4ittschen. 2Qttin!en University, , !uWsa))lun!. the <o)an left a fe( locks of PoseidippusC hair on the nape of the neck, and these locks ena led 4ittschen to reco!ni0e the true Poseidippus in a previously anony)ous portrait type Ffi!. JMG. -t is a )assive head, (ith road, full face, and had previously een taken to e the portrait of a +ate <epu lican politician, althou!h the e&istence of a % 1"9 %

4i!. JM Portrait of Poseidippus. 2eneva, .usKe dC,rt et dC9istoire. FCast.G her) in the Uffi0i (ith the sa)e portrait type should have su!!ested other(ise. -n short, it is a triu)ph for !ood old:fashioned detective (ork, ased on countin! locks of hair and a thorou!h docu)entation, and, at the sa)e ti)e, a (arnin! not to put too )uch confidence in a stylistic chronolo!y, especially in 9ellenistic artO Uuite unlike .enander, Poseidippus sits (ith his feet far apart, in a rather inele!ant pose, on a chair (ith an e&tre)ely heavy, curved ackrest. 9is le!s are a(k(ardly positioned, the ody sli!htly ent over as if a out to cave in. 7e need only co)pare the rou!hly conte)porary statues of >picurus and his circle to reali0e the full effect of this heavy and pedestrian pose. 9e is a ponderous, (ell:nourished !entle)an (ith noticea le paunch. 7e have already o served in )any phi: % 16# % losopher portraits ho( realistically oth the physio!no)y of the face and the anato)y of the ody could e rendered. <ealis) in the depiction of old a!e (as in those instances not si)ply a )atter of o servation or of sculptural style, ut the )ediu) of philosophical instruction. 'hus (e should not assu)e that the sculptor (anted )erely to convey the idea that Poseidippus (as a )an of a)ple

proportions. <ather, it is )ore likely that the e)phasis on the plu)p ody and )assive head carries a )ore !eneral )essa!e. Pro a ly it alludes to the ideal of 1ionysiac e&trava!ance and try'he that (as especially favored at the court of the Ptole)ies. Certainly the cooks play i)portant roles in the plays of Poseidippus, and in ;e( Co)edy in !eneral, and this too is not unrelated to the notion of try'he as a (ay of life.D51E -t see)s that in the third century, the (ell:fed ody and full face (ere considered attractive, especially once the Ptole)ies, as the prota!onists in this ne( 1ionysiac ethos, had the)selves so depicted.D5BE -ndeed, the chan!in! preference for thinner or heavier odies in different ti)e periods is, in the end, also a sy) olic e&pression of particular social values. 'his is not the only respect in (hich the portrait of Poseidippus see)s to confor) to the fashion of his a!e. +ike .enander, he is also clean:shaven, and the sa)e is true of the relatively fe( portraits of other 9ellenistic poets that can e reco!ni0ed as such a)on! preserved <o)an copies. -n the li!ht of our earlier discussion of eards and their connotations, this could hardly e an insi!nificant detail. >vidently, poets tended to follo( conte)porary fashion, unlike the philosophers, and did not perceive the)selves in the sa)e (ay as distanced fro) society at lar!e or as the !uardians of traditional values. PoseidippusC fleshy face has, in addition, a peculiar e&pression Ffi!. JMG. ,lthou!h the ro(s are a!ain dra(n to!ether, the nervous and a!itated play of the features does not convey a sense of strain and intellectual effort, as in the *toic philosophers. -nstead, the )outh is rela&ed and sli!htly open, (hile the eyes do not look strai!ht at us ut are directed so)e(hat do(n(ard. -t see)s that the artist (as indeed tryin! to convey so)ethin! of the la orious process of co)posin! verse. 'he unusual pose of the raised ar) (ith rela&ed, open hand could su!!est that he is keepin! ti)e, unconsciously rehearsin! the % 161 % )eter as he searches for /ust the ri!ht (ord. 'he closest parallel for the raised ar) is on a copy of the .enander relief that .ar!arete Bie er reco!ni0ed as the ori!inal, +ate 9ellenistic version. 8ne )ay also e re)inded of the depiction of a youn! poet on a <o)an funerary altar of 'ra/anic date.D5"E -f this is indeed the key to the correct interpretation, then (e )i!ht !o further and see the loose and !a(ky seated posture as an e&pression of @a stractedness,@ a conse?uence of his concentration on the poetic process. , co))ent of Pliny the >lder F). "5.1#MG su!!ests that in other )edia of >arly 9ellenistic art as (ell there (ere indeed i)a!es of poets (ith their o(n particular e&pression. -n descri in! a (ork y the painter Proto!enes, he )entions the ,le&andrian tra!ic poet Philiskos, a conte)porary of Ptole)y --, represented @in a )editative pose@ Fme#itans G. 'his description recalls a fine caricature in terra:cotta of the late third century B.C. that (as found in 8ly)pia ut (as )ade in ,le&andria Ffi!. JJG.D56E -t represents a poet deep in )editation, his )assive head (ei!hed do(n y heavy thou!hts. 'he pose of the ody could (ell e inspired y an honorific statue, as a co)parison (ith the thinker in the Pala00o *pada su!!ests Ffi!. 5JG. 4ootstool and pillo( once a!ain allude to the private sphere, (hile the contrast et(een the si)ple chair and the elevation of the fi!ure, as if on a throne, is evidently an ele)ent of caricature. -t co)es as no surprise that this testi)oniu) to the )ockery of intellectuals should have ori!inated in ,le&andria. Poetry, then, is characteri0ed in the statue of Poseidippus not as a stroke of ecstatic inspiration, ut as a lon! and strenuous and not especially en/oya le process. 8ne (ould e te)pted to speak of the @for!in! of verses@ if this did not con/ure up an unfortunate association (ith 7a!nerCs Meistersinger . 'he parallel (ith the statues of *toic philosophers is o vious, thou!h the difference is also clear. 'he poetCs (ork is not strictly a )atter of a po(erful act of (ill, ut )ore of searchin!, of listenin! to his inner voice, of feelin! his (ay. 'he pu lic aspect is here fully suppressed. 'hou!h the for) of the statue is a conventional one, the poet ehaves ?uite differently fro) .enander. +ike the statues of the

readin! philosopher, this one also !ives the vie(er the i)pression of peerin! uno served into a private and inti)ate (orld, al)ost of ein! a voyeur. % 16B %

4i!. JJ Caricature of a tra!ic poet FNG. ,le&andrian terra:cotta statuette, late third century B.C. 8ly)pia, .useu). 'he )ove)ent of the ri!ht ar), as (ell as the introverted facial e&pression, is strikin!ly re)iniscent of Ioshua <eynoldsCs portrait of 1JM9 of the (riter 1r. *a)uel Iohnson.D55E 8ne (onders (hether <eynolds )i!ht have dra(n inspiration fro) the statue in the Hatican, already (ell kno(n then, or if the ancient and )odern artists arrived independently at the sa)e psycholo!ical insi!hts.

Soft P%llo(s an) Softer Poets

Iust as .enander Ffi!. 65G had done, Poseidippus also sits on a noticea ly plush cushion. -t is possi le that this is a specific visual sy) ol in % 16" % the icono!raphy of the poet, ased on the idea of a co)forta le do)estic a) ience as the prere?uisite to poetic inspiration. 'his interpretation su!!ests itself in spite of the )ea!re state of our evidence. 'he statue of the so: called pseudo:.enander, (hich (as found to!ether (ith that of Poseidippus, like(ise sho(s the poet in a rela&ed pose on a acked chair (ith thick cushion.D5ME 'he sa)e )otif is also found in the reliefs depictin! .enander )entioned earlier, as (ell as the fa)ous (all paintin! in the Casa di .enandro in Po)peii. 'hat the cushion is not restricted to co)ic poets can e inferred fro) the statue of the tra!ic poet .oschion Ffourth5third centuryG, thou!h in this case, unlike .enander, Poseidippus, and the pseudo:.enander, he (ears a si)ple )antle (ithout the under!ar)ent, and his chair does not have the ackrest.D5JE 'he )ost i)pressive e&a)ple, ho(ever, is on the +ate ,nti?ue diptych in .on0a (ith a poet and .use. 'he poet (ith shaven head Fperhaps of the +ate <epu licG is seated (ith le!s crossed upon a throne (ith a particularly lu&urious cushion. 'he ook rolls and diptychs stre(n on the floor, to!ether (ith the poetCs e&pression, lookin! out drea)ily into the void, can e taken to e&press poetic activity.D5$E 'he notion that ein! a poet is (ell suited to a co)forta le, @private@ life:style could (ell have een (idespread even efore the >arly 9ellenistic statues. 8n a painted !rave stele of the )id: fourth century, a certain 9er)on sits casually leanin! ack on a splendid chair (ith a hi!h ack and thick cushion.D59E 9is literary association is )ade clear y the lar!e ca inet of ook rolls eside hi), a rather rare )otif at this period.DM#E -f this o servation is correct, then the pillo( in the statue of .enander )ay already e understood as a specific @poetCs cushion.@ ;evertheless, in the fe( survivin! 9ellenistic portraits of poets, at least those (hose ody is unkno(n, it is not possi le to discern a particular facial e&pression of a poet, as it is, say, for )ost third:century philosophers. -f, for e&a)ple, the portrait for)erly identified as Her!il did not occur as part of a dou le her) to!ether (ith the so:called 9esiod, in one copy (earin! an ivy (reath, (e (ould not even e a le

to reco!ni0e hi) as a poet Ffi!. J$G,DM1E for )any civilian portraits of the 9ellenistic period are )arked y a decidedly conte)plative ?uality. -n the case of @Her!il,@ the su!!ested datin! and interpretation % 166 %

4i!. J$ Portrait of a 9ellenistic poet, not yet identified. <o)an copy of a statue of the second century B.C. Copenha!en, ;y Carls er! 2lyptotek. % 165 % fluctuate et(een the late third and the first centuries B.C. , et(een 2reek and <o)an poets. *tylistic ar!u)ents (ould support a 9i!h 9ellenistic datin!, in the early second century B.C. , ut even then (ill not deter)ine (ith certainty (hether a 2reek or a <o)an poet is depicted here. 'he sculpture (as a ove all tryin! to convey, as in the case of Poseidippus, intellectual activity in the sense of a restless searchin! ?uality, in the po(erful ut sudden )ove)ent of the ro(. 'he e&pression, (hich constitutes only one ele)ent of the face, is, like that of Poseidippus, al)ost one of sufferin!. 'here is, at any rate, nothin! strained or convulsive a out it. .i!hty )ental effort, as (e have o served in the *toics and their associates, is apparently not part of the i)a!e of the 9ellenistic poet. 9is (ork is )ore dependent on inspiration than on !ri) perseverance. , strikin! feature is the full and lu&uriant hair, on a )an of rather advanced a!e, perhaps a!ain an allusion to the ele!ant life:style of the poet. % 16M %

IV+ In the Sha)o( of the Anc%ents

Stan# here still an# look on Archilochus, the Singer from ancient times ; ton palai poietan<. 3'heocritus of *yracuse Anthologia Graeca 5.MM6 'here are funda)ental differences et(een the statue of the co)ic poet Poseidippus Ffi!. J5G, the last )onu)ent (e considered in chapter ", and that of an old lyric poet in Copenha!en Ffi!. J9G. 'he for)er is a portrait of a conte)porary poet la orin! )i!htily to find /ust the ri!ht (ords, (hile the latter is an e&traordinary vision of the poetic force e) odied in a @sin!er fro) ancient ti)es@ Fton 'alai 'oietan G. 'he statue of Poseidippus )ust have een created a out the )iddle of the third century, that of the lyric poet perhaps a half century later. Tet the differences cannot e attri uted to chan!es in style or varieties of sculptural schools alone. <ather, as the 9ellenistic period (ore on, a !ulf arose et(een the portraiture of conte)porary intellectuals and the visual i)a!ery of the !reat )inds of the past. 'his contrast has arely een reco!ni0ed in previous scholarship, and - should like to )ake it the focus of this chapter. <etrospective portraits as such (ere, of course, nothin! ne(. 7hat, then, is the difference et(een such i)a!ined portraits of the fifth and fourth centuries as the ,nacreon on the ,cropolis Ffi!. 1BG or the *ophocles in the 'heatre of 1ionysus Ffi!. B5G and (orks like the sin!er in Copenha!enN

7hat (as the purpose of this ne( kind of portraitureN

The Ol) S%n$er

'he sin!er is kno(n fro) a super copy of the first century B.C. , al)ost co)pletely preserved Ffi!. J9G.D1E 9e held a lyre in his left hand % 16J % and the plectru) in the ri!ht, /ust like the statue of ,nacreon, (hich, incidentally (as found in the sa)e <o)an villa at <ieti. But (hile the Classical statueCs physi?ue and contrapposto stance confor) fully to the standard citi0en i)a!e of the Periclean a!e, the old sin!er is presented to us as an a(e: inspirin! fi!ure fro) the distant past. 9e sits on a tall throne (ith )i!hty lion:pa( feet and has a thick, old:fashioned cloak of )atted (ool draped a out his hips. 9e (ears a lu&uriant eard that is utterly different fro) the conte)porary fashion. 9is po(erful uild i)plies that in his youth he (as a tou!h opponent, (hile the slack li) s and the creases in the chest and elly are strikin! re)inders of his advanced a!e. But old a!e has not stilled the sin!erCs ener!y and passion. 9e has sun! hi)self into a state of ecstasy, his entire ody sei0ed y the enthusias) (ith (hich he strikes his strin!ed instru)ent. 9is feet are intert(ined, as if they had to race the)selves a!ainst the sur!e of ener!y and prevent the old )an fro) leapin! up. 'he upper ody, (ith the instru)ent, curves like a spiral to the ri!ht, ut the head, in its passionate )ove)ent, is turned a(ay fro) the vie(er. 'he sin!er is co)pletely cau!ht up in his son!, enthralled y the instru)ent and o livious of the (orld around hi). 'o /ud!e y the e&cited e&pression of his face, the verses he recites have a contentious tone. 9is inlaid eyes, no( !one, )ust have considera ly hei!htened the pathos of the e&pression. , certain identification of the sin!er is not possi leA Pindar and ,rchilochus have een su!!ested. 7hat is certain is that the artist )eant to represent a specific poet. 'he detailed characteri0ation presupposes a vie(er (ho (as a le to infer an association et(een the portrait and the poetry or the life of the poet. 'he vie(er (ould have )ade such o servations as these: it )ust e a lyric poet of the distant past (hose (ork is hi!hly pri0ed in the present, as indicated y the eard, cloak, and throneA this is a poet of stron! te)pera)ent (ho san! contentious son!s, lived into old a!e, and had een very stron! as a youn! )an. 9e )ust have co)posed not only hy)ns and attle son!s, ut also drinkin! son!s for the sy)posiu). 'he ancient vie(er (ould have inferred this last ele)ent fro) the ivy (reath, a rare attri ute, (hich is preserved in )ost of the copies Fcf. fi!. 6G. % 16$ %

4i!. J9 a5 *tatue of an old sin!er. <o)an copy of a statue ca. B## B.C. Copenha!en, ;y Carls er! 2lyptotek. FJ9a restoredG. % 169 %

8f all the reno(ned ,rchaic poets, the one (ho fits this description est is ,lcaeus of +es os Fca. M## B.C. G. 9e hi)self speaks in one poe) of his @!reyin! reast,@ and (e kno( ho( passionate and contentious he re)ained (ell into old a!e.DBE 'he severe and serious Pindar, (ith his )i!hty kithara, (as i)a!ined very differently in this sa)e period, as (e can see in the )a/estic enthroned statue that stood in an e&edra in the sanctuary of *erapis in .e)phis.D"E -t follo(s fro) these o servations that (e have here )ost likely a @character portrait@ reconstructed fro) the su /ectCs poetry and (hat (as kno(n of his io!raphy. , retrospective portrait of this kind can have een created only in an environ)ent (here there (ere people fa)iliar (ith poetic traditions (ho felt a need for such an i)a!e and (ere a le to advise the sculptor accordin!ly. 'he statue presupposes a vie(er (ho is also a cultivated reader. % 15# %

A Peasant;Poet
'he portrait of the old sin!er is not a uni?ue pheno)enon. 'here is a (hole series of these retrospective i)a!es of !reat )en of the past a)on! the <o)an copies of 9ellenistic intellectual portraits. But unfortunately, as is so often the case, for al)ost all of the) only the head is preserved, there y severely li)itin! our a ility to interpret the). 'his is true, for e&a)ple, of the )ost pro le)atic case, a portrait that (as once taken to e *eneca and has thus ac?uired in the archaeolo!ical literature the rather odd nickna)e of Pseudo:*eneca. 7e are fortunate that the super copy in a ron0e ust fro) the Hilla dei Papiri in 9erculaneu) Ffi!. $#a5cG !ives at least a hint of the ody type.D6E 'he head represents a co)plete reak (ith the traditional aesthetic of Classical art. ,)on! 9ellenistic portraits, apart fro) the statue of the Cynic in the Capitoline Fcf. fi!. JBG, there is no other even re)otely co)para le to this one in its unrestrained renderin! of passion, old a!e, and dishevel)ent. <ather, the closest co)parison )i!ht e (ith the rou!hly conte)porary statue of the pitiful old fisher)an, (hich )ay !ive us so)e idea of the realis) (ith (hich the poetCs desiccated ody )ust have een depicted.D5E Peter Paul <u ens already co) ined the portrait (ith the fisher)anCs ody, even thou!h he (as a(are of the head that (ent (ith it. -f the lar!e nu) er of copies of the Pseudo:*eneca, one of the) a dou le her) to!ether (ith .enander, did not !uarantee that he )ust represent one of the )ost fa)ous 2reek poets, (e )i!ht have suspected that the type is not a portrait at all, ut rather a !enre fi!ure. 'he hair falls over the ro( in stra!!ly locks. 'his is not, ho(ever, )eant to e&press poetic inspiration or enthusias), as in other instances, ut evidently the unke)pt appearance of the peasant. 'his is particularly o vious at the nape of the neck, (here the locks are caked (ith dirt and s(eat, as (ell as in the crudely tri))ed and irre!ularly !ro(in! eard. 'his last detail is a clear allusion to the icono!raphy of the peasant, as (e have seen in our discussion of the portrait of Chrysippus Fp. 11BG. -n pseudo:,ristotelian physio!no)ic theory, peasants and fisher)en (ere )arked y their irre!ular eards Falon! (ith other ne!ative traitsG as ridiculous and even as )orally inferior ein!s. -n the % 151 % ron0e ust of the Pseudo:*eneca, this trait is only hinted at, ut enou!h to evoke the i)a!ery of fisher)en and peasants, (ith their ne!ative connotations, (hen contrasted (ith the eards of conte)porary philosopher portraits Fe&ceptin! Chrysippus, of courseG. 'his i)pression is reinforced y

the leathery skin, dried out y the sun, for)in! u!ly furro(s on the neck and shoulder, as (ell as y the shriveled ody (ith ones protrudin! in face and neck. But this old )an is in no (ay characteri0ed as sick or dispirited. -nstead, he is filled (ith a passionate ener!y. 'he tension in the forehead and eye ro(s su!!ests e&tre)e concentration, as he searches for /ust the ri!ht (ord. 'here is so)ethin! co)pellin! in his e&pression, as if he /ust has to e&press hi)self, as if so)ethin! is drivin! hi) that is stron!er than he is. But (ho (ould listen to this unke)pt old )an, an outsider in polite societyN ,s in the case of the seated sin!er, this portrait see)s to ai) at capturin! a specific set of io!raphical data, at renderin! in its particular pathos a specific and un)istaka le spiritual physio!no)y co)prisin! these ele)ents: )anual la or, poverty, a disre!ard for personal appearance, and a reathless, al)ost fanatical )anner of speech. ,ll this see)s to point to the peasant:poet 9esiod, (ho (as called to poetry y the .uses (hile he (as tendin! his !oats on .ount 9elikon and (ho lived and, in his verses, descri ed a life of ine&ora le toil, (orry, and disappoint)ent. 'hat later a!es did indeed i)a!ine 9esiod as an old )an is confir)ed y Her!il, (ho evokes hi) as the @old )an fro) ,scra@ F(cl. M.J#: Ascreus sene2 G. But - a) less concerned here (ith the identification of the portrait, (hich )ust re)ain a con/ecture until an inscri ed copy is discovered, than (ith the oldly rendered @ io!raphical physio!no)y@ of this old )an. 8ne of the !reat poets of the past is presented (ith the physio!no)ic traits of the peasants and fisher)en (ho had al(ays een despised y our!eois society and had to stru!!le to eke out a livin!. 'his is )ore than /ust a retrospective, literary portrait of a poet. <ather, like the silenCs )ask of *ocrates and, later, the portrait of Chrysippus, it is a pole)ical state)ent of the independence of intellectual talent fro) no le irth or societal convention. >ven a )an (ho stood on the )ar!ins of society, (ho did not have the enefits of 'ai#eia, could % 15B %

4i!. $# a5c 9esiod FNG. ,u!ustan ron0e ust after an ori!inal ca. B## B.C. ;aples, .useo ;a0ionale. % 15" %

% 156 % eco)e a !reat poet. ,nd a!ain, a ody (orn out y toil and privation could still har or a !reat spirit. ;either hu) le irth nor )anual la or could ro this )an of the po(er of the poetic (ord. ,n i)a!e like this i)plies a funda)ental challen!e to prevailin! nor)s and values, even if only retro/ected into the distant past. 7e shall return to this point presently.

In&ente) Faces
9ellenistic artists, confronted (ith the ne( task of creatin! retrospective literary portraits, )ust have developed an astonishin! ran!e of su tly differentiated types. ,lthou!h (e are )ainly dependent on ust and her) copies often of du ious ?uality, the varied facial e&pressions of these portraits alone illustrate ho( the sculptors strived to translate each su /ectCs intellectual, personal, and io!raphical traits into a @spiritual physio!no)y.@ , fe( specific e&a)ples )ay )ake this clear. - have chosen four retrospective portraits that represent different kinds of intellectuals, t(o poets and t(o philosophers or scholars, all of the) derived fro) prototypes that can e dated y stylistic criteria to the .iddle 9ellenistic period, that is, the years ca. BB# to 15# B.C. , portrait fro) the Hilla del Papiri is identified y a painted inscription as that of the epic poet Panyassis of 9alicarnassus Ffi!. $1G.DME 9e (as said to have een put to death y the tyrant +y!da)os a out 65# and (as the author of a 9erakles epic that (as hi!hly estee)ed y 9ellenistic philolo!ists and poets. 9is countenance is tense, al)ost sufferin!, the e&pression ?uite different, say, fro) that of a !ri) old )an (hose (reath has een thou!ht to )ark hi) as a poet as (ell Ffi!. $BG, even thou!h oth heads sho( a co)para le contraction of the forehead. 'he piercin! look of the latter poet and @the e&pression of a decrepit and u!ly face, filled (ith hate and sarcastic ile,@ have su!!ested the na)e of 9ippona&, the si&th:century poet kno(n for his vicious invective verse.DJE >?ually strikin! is the contrast et(een PanyassisC facial e&pression and the e&pression of detached o servation in the face of a portrait that has, on convincin! !rounds, een taken as that of the )ost % 155 %

4i!. $1 Portrait of the epic poet Panyassis Fdied ca. )id:fifth century B.C. G, after an ori!inal of the 9i!h 9ellenistic period. ;aples, .useo ;a0ionale.

4i!. $B *o:called 9ippona&. 9ellenistic ori!inal of the second century B.C. ,thens, ;ational .useu). fa)ous physician of anti?uity, 9ippocrates of Cos Ffi!. $"G. 'he seated statue fro) (hich this head derives depicted the old )an (ith (hat )ust have een his characteristic inclination of the head, and therefore pro a ly (ith the ody tensed as (ell.D$E 'he cal) o /ectivity of the so:called 9ippocrates is in turn utterly different fro) the severe and penetratin!, al)ost fanatical intensity of a portrait for (hich a relief in the 'er)e .useu) has recently su!!ested an identification as the pre:*ocratic philosopher ,na&i)ander Ffi!. $6G.D9E .y deli erately su /ective readin!s of these portraits, ased on !ut feelin! and psycholo!i0in! interpretation, are of course not indin! ut only )eant to provoke a response. ,nd even if )y reactions are not at all those intended y the artists, the i)portant thin! is the pheno)enon itself, a co)pletely different conception of the notion of portraiture. ;o lon!er, as in the retrospective portraits

of the fifth % 15M %

4i!. $" 9ippocrates. Bust fro) the !rave of a physician, after an ori!inal of the 9i!h 9ellenistic period. 8stia .useu).

4i!. $6 Portrait of the pre:*ocratic philosopher ,na&i)ander FNG. <o)an copy of a 9ellenistic ori!inal. <o)e, Capitoline .useu). and fourth centuries, is the !oal a paradi!)atic display of virtues accepted y the entire society and there y a didactic and hortatory effect. 8n the contrary, these ne( retrospective creations, (ith their vivid e&pressions, (ould e unthinka le in the conte&t of pu licly displayed )onu)ents in the 9ellenistic cities, as honorific or votive statues. 'hose statues as a rule continued the fourth:century traditions of the !ar)ent correctly draped a out the ody and the controlled pose ased on Classical draped fi!ures. 'heir e&pressions )ay have occasionally conveyed a sense of ener!y or conte)plation, ut violent or dra)atic ele)ents (ere avoided Fpp. 1$$f.G.D1#E 4or these portraits strivin! to capture a literary i)a!e, in contrast, there (as o viously no need to adhere to such conventions, since the su /ects elon!ed in any case to the far:distant past. 'hus in their dress, in their physical characteristics, in the lan!ua!e of !esture and % 15J % facial e&pression, they stand intentionally apart fro) conte)porary conventions of the citi0en i)a!e. 'his separation in turn i)plies that these portraits )ust have fulfilled ne( and different functions. ,s (e have noted, the retrospective portraits presuppose an educated vie(er, (ho (ould understand the io!raphical and literary allusions, (ho (as fa)iliar (ith the literary /ud!)ents and characteri0ations applied to each fi!ure, and (ho )i!ht even have taken part in the on!oin! discussion of the !reat thinkers of the past. -t see)s only reasona le to associate the ori!ins of this ne( kind of portraiture (ith the rise of 9ellenistic philolo!y and of the ne( reed of scholar (ho flourished in particular at the royal courts.D11E 'he .useu) in ,le&andria, founded y Ptole)y -, in (hose li rary @the kin! had asse) led the (ritin!s of all )ankind, all those that deserved serious attention@ F>us. )ist. eccl. 5.$.11G, eca)e a )odel, and not /ust for other rulers. 'he !reat philosophical schools and !y)nasia in 2reek cities e!an to collect the (ritin!s of earlier authors, since the readin! and interpretation of te&ts had eco)e the focal point of a ne( for) of education that !radually en!a!ed the (hole of 9ellenistic society. 4ro) the e!innin!, ,le&andrian scholars (ere conscious of a sharp reak et(een past and present. 'he (riters of the past elon!ed to a !lorious ut re)ote epoch, and their (ritin!s (ere a precious le!acy that had to e conserved and used as a source of (isdo) and !uidance. Conte)porary poetry elon!ed to a different !enre that could not e co)pared to that of the

past. 'his is the sa)e !ulf that separates the portrait statues of a .enander or Poseidippus fro) those of the old sin!er or the so:called 9esiod. 'he professional scholar and 'oeta #octus under royal patrona!e (as a ne( reed of intellectual, livin! in splendid isolation fro) ur an society, freed fro) the nor)al citi0en responsi ilities and a le to devote hi)self fully to his scholarly (ork. @'he )eltin! pot of >!ypt nourishes )any )en, ookish scri lers forever ?uarrelin! in the ird ca!e of the .uses@: thus the sharp:ton!ued *keptic 'i)on of Phlius Ffra!. 1B 1ielsG, (ho passes /ud!)ent fro) the perspective of an intellectual still fully inte!rated in the society of the polis. But it (as this very isolation, the clusterin! of scholars in acade)ies and philosophical cli?ues, that !ave rise to a ne( pursuit, the study of earlier (riters as a purely literary and aesthetic pasti)e, alon! (ith an interest in every io!raphical an: % 15$ % ecdote, the sa)e interest (e see infor)in! the retrospective portraits. -f (e (ish to !ain so)e idea of the ran!e of associations that the ancient vie(er )i!ht have )ade, (e )i!ht take a rief look at t(o literary !enres of the period, the ,ioi, ori!inatin! )ainly in the tradition of the ,ristotelian school, and the epi!ra)s on poets. -t )ay e no accident that, in /ust the period (hen the retrospective portrait (as at its hei!ht, the late third and early second centuries, (e hear of a (riter of ,ioi na)ed *atyros. 4ra!)ents of his 1ife of (uri'i#es survive, and they etray an intention to de)onstrate, in Ulrich von 7ila)o(it0Cs (ords, @die 9ar)onie 0(ischen 7esen, +e en, und 1ichtun!.@ *atyrosC reconstruction of >uripidesC life is derived )ainly fro) the poetCs (ork, and this is /ust ho( (e )ust suppose the sculptor For his adviserG proceeded. Bio!raphy and portrait, oth inspired y the ne( philolo!ical ent, had the sa)e !oal: to !ather i)pressions fro) the !reat )anCs (ork and then translate these into a specific i)a!e, a uni?uely individual presence. But (hile the intellectual level of )ost of the ,ioi, as they are kno(n to us, is rather )odest, the portraiture3to /ud!e fro) certain <o)an copies3)ust have included so)e true )asterpieces. *atyros, incidentally, is kno(n to have (ritten lives not only of poets, ut of !reat )en of all sorts, includin! ,lci iades, Philip of .acedon, and even philosophers such as 1io!enes.D1BE 7e )ay therefore assu)e that the retrospective portrait statues also included philosophers, states)en, and other historical (orthies. >ven )ore infor)ative, and certainly )ore en/oya le to read, are so)e of the )ore artful epi!ra)s. 'hese i)a!ine the reader at the to) or even efore a statue of one of the poets of old and try to evoke re)iniscences of his life and (ork. 'he process of ideali0ation !oes to!ether (ith a distancin! of the readerCs present fro) the @once upon a ti)e@ of the past.D1"E

The Cult of Poets

'hou!h literary and intellectual in conception, these retrospective portraits, in the purposes they served, (ent far eyond the interests of a s)all circle of scholars. 'he readin! and interpretation of literary )asters (as not restricted to the @ ird ca!es@ at the royal courts. 'he % 159 % !reat li rary at ,le&andria itself (as open to all (ho (ished to study and read. -ndeed, the preoccupation (ith literature see)s to have eco)e a kind of all:e) racin! social dialo!ue in 9ellenistic 2reek cities of the third and second centuries. 7hile the youth (ere educated in the classics and )ade to learn the) y heart, their elders (ould con!re!ate at the !y)nasia to hear an itinerant scholar, poet, or philosopher, or other speakers e)ployed y the city. 'hese pu lic lectures often

focused on the interpretation of !reat (riters of the past. -n this (ay, the poets of old and the philosophers (ere elevated to the status of authorities (ho provided !uidance in all of lifeCs i)portant )atters. Cities (ould institute !enuine hero cults for their o(n intellectual heroes, co)plete (ith appropriate sacrificial rituals. 'he esta lish)ent of such cults is in itself of less interest for us Fkin!s and enefactors also en/oyed this hi!hest for) of pu lic honorG than the artistic ela oration that they occasioned and inspired. ,t the very top of the hierarchy, of course, stood 9o)er, the font of all (isdo), reli!ion, and culture. 'he relief of the sculptor ,rchelaos of Priene Ffi!. $5a, G translates into visual ter)s a co)plete vision of 9o)er as the ancestor of 9ellenic culture.D16E 'he )onu)ent (as pro a ly the votive relief of a conte)porary poet (ho had (on a tripod in a poetic contest Fperhaps in honor of 9o)er hi)selfG and dedicated it, alon! (ith a statue of hi)self, to ,pollo and the .uses. 9is si)ple draped statue stands at the ri!ht, /ust at the foot of the hill of the .uses. Belo(, (e are lookin! into a sanctuary of 9o)er. 9e is enthroned, like Zeus, a tall scepter in his ri!ht hand and a ook roll in the left, (hile the personifications of the various literary !enres, arran!ed in a careful hierarchy F9istoria, Poiesis, 'ra!odia, =o)odiaG, sacrifice a ull in his honor. 'he sacrificial attendant is a oy called .ythos. 'he )asterCs t(in (orks, -liad and 8dyssey, kneel eside the throne. -n front of the footstool, t(o )ice ni le on a roll, pro a ly an allusion to the "atrachomyomachia, (hich (as then considered a !enuine (ork of 9o)er. 4ro) ehind the throne, the standin! fi!ures of Chronos and 8ikou)ene cro(n the poet. Unlike the other fi!ures, these t(o ear un)istaka le portrait features, pro a ly a discreet ho)a!e to a royal couple (ho) (e can no lon!er identify. 'hey )ay have een responsi le for the splendid 9o)ereion depicted here or another one like it. 4our fe)ale fi!ures % 1M# %

4i!. $5 a Hotive relief of a poet in honor of 9o)er, y the sculptor ,rchelaos of Priene. Ca. 15# B.C. +ondon, British .useu). on a s)aller scale (atch the sacrifice fro) a corner: ,rete and .ne)e F.e)oryG, (ith their youn!er sisters Pistis F4aithG and *ophia. , little !irl, Physis, turns to Pistis (ith a look of supplication and tu!s at the he) of her sister, (ho ids her e silent. 'he (hole is an e&trava!ant pane!yric, cele ratin! the central i): % 1M1 %

4i!. $5 1etail of an etchin!. 4ro) (2 calcogra'hia !omenici #e $u,eis F<o)e, 1M9"G. portance of 9o)er and, throu!h hi), of literature and poetry in education. Particularly strikin! is the !reat value attached to certain skills. ,)on! all the .uses, their )other, .ne)osyne, is sin!led out and stands closest to Zeus. 'he )essa!e of this relief is clear: the standards for the education of the youn! )ust e derived fro) the !reat literary (orks of the past, for these are the source of cultural

)e)ory. But those (riters the)selves are all nourished y a sin!le source, 9o)er. 'his is truly an i)a!e to (ar) the heart of a classical philolo!ist. 'he ,rchelaos <elief not only presents us (ith an all:enco)passin! vision of learnin! ut also !ives so)e idea of ho( statues of 9o)er )ay have een set up in the nu)erous sanctuaries of the poet in 9ellenistic cities that are attested in the literary sources. 'he 9o)ereion in ,le&andria is descri ed as follo(s y ,elian: @Ptole)y Philopator erected a te)ple to 9o)er and placed (ithin it a )a!nificent seated statue of the poet and, in a se)icircle around hi), all the cities that laid clai) to 9o)er@ F3) 1".BBG. 7e )ay suppose that these various cities, personified in statues in the 9o)ereion at ,le&andria, also had richly outfitted sanctuaries of 9o)er. 8ne that is (ell attested (as in *)yrna, (here *tra o sa( a te)ple (ith cult statue F2oanon G, surrounded y colu)ned porticoes. 9is use of the (ord 2oanon i)plies a particularly ancient:lookin! cult statue, perhaps of (ood. 'his (as no dou t intended to le!iti)i0e the cityCs clai) to ein! 9o)erCs irth: % 1MB % place. @'he people of *)yrna have a special clai) to 9o)er, and they even call a ron0e coin the 9o)ereion,@ o served *tra o F1#.1."JG. But cities of the 2reek )ainland also accorded the father of poets cultic honors. 7e hear, for e&a)ple, of sacrifices conducted y the ,r!ives at a ron0e statue of 9o)er F-ert. )om. et )es. 1$G. -n addition to 9o)er, )any other intellectual heroes en/oyed cult (orship. -n Priene, for e&a)ple, stood a heroon of Bias, (ho had for centuries een nu) ered a)on! the *even 7ise .en. 'his s)all city even issued silver coins a out the )iddle of the second century B.C. (ith a full:len!th fi!ure of Bias, pro a ly a renderin! of the statue that stood in the @Bianteion@ Ffi!. $M G. 'he coin depicts a tripod alon!side the statue, an allusion to an often:told story. 8ne day in Priene, so)e people found a !olden tripod at the shore earin! the inscription @4or the (isest.@ 'he city a(arded the tripod to Bias, ut he in turn, in pious )odesty, dedicated it to ,pollo F1. +. 1.$BG.D15E 7e see here ho( such a heroon attracted cult le!ends, /ust as did the sanctuaries of the traditional !ods and heroes, and ho( cities (ould strive to propa!ate these le!ends, like that of BiasC tripod, throu!hout the 2reek (orld. 'he ,rchilocheion on Paros, (hich pro a ly dated ack to the ,rchaic period, (as, like other heroa, associated (ith the poetCs !rave and a !y)nasiu).D1ME -n the third century, a Parian na)ed .nesiepes F@Collector of >pics@G had a te)ple in honor of ,rchilochus either uilt or renovated, y order of the 1elphic oracle. , lon!, partially preserved inscription tells le!ends fro) the life of the poet that the dedicator clai)s to have collected fro) ancient tales. -n reality these stories are paraphrases of ,rchilochusC poetry, includin! the story, )odeled on 9esiod, of ho( he (as called y the .uses, (ho )ade hi) a !ift of a lyre as he (as drivin! a co( to )arket. , later inscription, of the first century B.C. , contains a list of the poetCs (ritin!s and deeds in chronolo!ical order. 'hese dedications, (ith their detailed reports of the life and (ork of ,rchilochus, @testify to the poetCs continued i)portance to the people of Paros, (ho (ould visit the shrine and read the inscriptions. -t is si!nificant that (hat interested the) a out ,rchilochus (as not so )uch his poetry as the relationship of his poetry to his life.@D1JE -n this instance, the sanction of 1elphi (as particularly i)portant, not only for the cult on Paros, ut for its fa)e eyond the island. Paros % 1M" %

4i!. $M a5d 4our 9ellenistic coins of 2reek cities, representin! local intellectual heroes of the past: a, ,rchilochus of Paros: ,, Bias of PrieneA c, ,na&a!oras of Cla0o)enaeA #, *tesichorus of 9i)era Fphotos enlar!edG. issued coins in the first century B.C. (ith a portrait of the poet as a youthful fi!ure nude to the (aist, holdin! a lyre in his left hand and a ook roll in the ri!ht Ffi!. $MaG.D1$E 9is one:ti)e reputation for slander and du ious citi0en conduct (as lon! for!otten, and all that re)ained (as his fa)e as a !reat poet. 'here (ere other cities as (ell that (ere puttin! their intellectual heroes on coins y the second and first centuries B.C. Cla0o)enae, for % 1M6 %

4i!. $J 9o)er. Coin fro) the island of -os F":1G. Berlin, *taatliche .Rn0sa))lun!. e&a)ple, )inted coins sho(in! the philosopher ,na&a!oras Ffi!. $McG, and *icilian 9i)era the poet *tesichorus Ffi!. $MdG, oth represented as vi!orously active fi!ures. *tesichorus sin!s and plays a strin!ed instru)ent, (hile ,na&a!oras is sho(n as a teacher, in the sa)e pose as 9er)archus. 'he )a/ority of such coins, ho(ever, appear first under the <o)an >)pire. Tet such early e&a)ples as those /ust )entioned su!!est ho( i)portant these fi!ures (ere to the 2reek cities already in the 9ellenistic period, oth for their i)a!e of the)selves and for their understandin! of their o(n traditions.D19E .ost nu)erous, ho(ever, are the coin portraits of 9o)er,DB#E )inted in several of the cities of ,sia .inor. 'he little island of -os, for e&a)ple, (hich clai)ed to possess the to) of 9o)er, had already in the fourth century B.C. circulated splendid silver coins (ith a head of 9o)er that, (ithout the inscription, could easily e )istaken for an i)a!e of Zeus (ith flo(in! locks Ffi!. $JG. 'he die cutter pro a ly did in fact si)ply use a Zeus type (ith (hich he (as already fa)iliar. 7e see fro) this ho( early 9o)er (as turned into a )ythical fi!ure, and ho( the assi)ilation of his i)a!e to that of Zeus derived fro) an earlier notion of 9o)erCs uni?ue si!nificance. 'he fi!ure of the sin!er is assi)ilated to that of the !ods and heroes of (ho) he san!. % 1M5 %

4i!. $$ a5c 9o)er on coins of the cities of *)yrna Fa=, G and Chios Fc G. 'he city of *)yrna )inted several different portrait types, startin! in the first half of the second century B.C. , so)e of the) si)ultaneously. ;ot all of these i)a!es could e ased on e&istin! statues, )uch less @cult statues.@ 'his variety sho(s clearly the intense fascination of 9o)er in this period,

ho( the popular i)a!ination constantly reshaped his i)a!e, (hile at the sa)e ti)e i)a!ery of the 8ly)pian !ods could only i)itate fi&ed ,rchaic and Classical prototypes. 'he )ost popular coin type of 9o)er in *)yrna sho(s a Zeus:like enthroned fi!ure, as on the ,rchelaos <elief, holdin! a scepter and Fin place of the thunder oltOG a ook roll. -n one of the earliest issues, he is even )ore closely assi)ilated to Zeus, (ith are chest and the ri!ht hand, (ith the ook roll, outstretched in a co))andin! !esture Ffi!. $$aG. ,t the sa)e ti)e, ho(ever, e!innin! in the decade 1$# % 1MM % to 1J#, *)yrna also issued a conte)plative 9o)er, (ith the head propped on one hand Ffi!. $$ G. +ater ca)e other i)a!es, the poet recitin! dra)atically fro) his (ork and, on near y Chios, the poet ?uietly readin! in his Ilia# Ffi!. $$cG. 'his incon!ruous notion of the ?uietly readin! 9o)er (as also a 9ellenistic innovation, in so)e other )ediu) Fcf. fi!. 1#6G. 'he activities of 9o)eric scholars and connoisseurs are, as it (ere, retro/ected onto the poet hi)self. 'he act of readin!, of )editatin! on and i))ersin! oneself in his verse, ac?uires an al)ost reli!ious aura.

The 1%&%ne /o*er

'here can e little dou t that oneCs e&pectations and attitude to(ard such a statue as that of 9o)er on the ,rchelaos <elief, al)ost )ore of a cult i)a!e, are ?uite different fro) ho( one )i!ht approach the traditional honorific statue for a poet or philosopher. 'he ancient vie(er (as invited to discern and reflect upon the io!raphical and literary ele)ents present in the i)a!e, to )editate piously upon the) in the spiritual settin! of a shrine. -t (as this aura of the su li)e that (as evidently the very effect ai)ed at in a nu) er of the retrospective portraits. -t is this particular aspect - should like to focus on in considerin! the fa)ous portrait of the lind 9o)er.DB1E ,!ain (e have copies of only the head, ut so)e idea of the ody )ay e supplied y the ,rchelaos <elief and the coin types Ffi!s. $5, $MG that depict 9o)er as e&tre)ely old and lind. 'he tradition of 9o)erCs lindness is an old one, as (e have seen, perhaps derived ori!inally fro) the lind sin!er 1e)odokos in the *#yssey . -n any case, it is certainly present in the (ell:kno(n portrait of the elderly 9o)er created a out 6M#, (ith (hich (e have dealt in chapter 1 Ffi!. 9G. 'he lind 9o)er (as, nevertheless, al(ays only one of several (ays of portrayin! the poet, as the other versions on coins attest. But (hereas the early portrait, created at the ti)e of the @*evere *tyle,@ conveys a sense of profound cal), the 9ellenistic sculptor has rendered his vision of 9o)er in hi!hly dra)atic ter)s Ffi!. $9G. -f the earlier portrait )erely hinted at the % 1MJ %

4i!. $9 9o)er. <o)an copy of a 9i!h 9ellenistic statue ca. B## B.C. Boston, .useu) of 4ine ,rts. % 1M$ % lindness in the closed eyes, here it is rendered (ith al)ost clinical accuracy, (ith the eves half:closed

and the )uscle de!eneration around the). ,nd if the early portrait presented a fi!ure that, for all its loftiness, )i!ht still e likened to i)a!es of conte)porary older )en, this is no( out of the ?uestion. 'he 9ellenistic portrait elon!s to another cate!ory. 'he heavy, archai0in! locks fra)in! the face, the fillet containin! the hair rolled up in the ack3also an archai0in! trait3and the full, heavy eard all con/ure up the )a/estic aura of a !od. 'he deep:set, lifeless eyes and the (hole e&pression of the facial features are in certain (ays rendered very variously y the <o)an copyists. ,s in the case of .enander, it see)s to )e hardly possi le to reconstruct an authentic version of the prototype out of the )ore than t(enty:five survivin! copies. 8nce a!ain it is precisely the copies of hi!hest ?uality that )ay turn out to e instead interpretations of the ori!inal, pursuin! their o(n interests and intentions. <ou!hly speakin!, the copies )ay e divided into t(o !roups. *o)e sculptors e)phasi0e the active features of the face, others the passive. 8ne !roup of copies e)phasi0es the intricate for)s of the coiffure, especially the archai0in! rounded locks at the te)ples, (hile the other confuses these, so)eti)es in an apparently intentional atte)pt to render a (ild and unke)pt )ass of hair. 7e )ay est illustrate the difference in a /u&taposition of t(o of the )ost i)pressive copies, thou!h earin! in )ind that ecause the t(o are so outstandin! in (ork)anship, they (ill have a sor ed )uch of the <o)an taste of the period in (hich they (ere carved. , head in Boston, pro a ly of 4lavian date, stresses )ore the active features Ffi!. $9G.DBBE Bro(s and forehead are overlaid (ith little ripplin! )uscles that see) to e in continual irre!ular )otion. 8ur i)pression is of a fervid i)a!ination in hi!h !ear, and (e arely notice the ele)ents of decrepit old a!e. -n the fa)ous head in ;aples, on the other hand, a +ate ,ntonine copy, the do)inant i)pression is of the frailty of old a!e Ffi!. 9#G.DB"E 'he visionary aspect is linked to a sense of a!oni0in! stru!!le. 'he forehead is al)ost painfully dra(n up, and the eyes and face have a kind of dead look. -t (as this head that the youn! % 1M9 %

4i!. 9# 9o)er. <o)an copy of the second century ,.1. after the sa)e statue as fi!. $9. ;aples, .useo ;a0ionale. % 1J# % 2oethe had in )ind in his i)passioned description for +avaterCs Physiognomische Fragmente: - enter the presence of this fi!ure uninfor)ed. - say to )yself: the )an sees nothin!, hears nothin!, doesnCt )ove, doesnCt react. -n this head, the )idpoint of all the senses is in the hi!h, !ently archin! hollo( of the ro(, the seat of )e)ory. >very i)a!e is stored hereA all the )uscles rise up, to conduct the fi!ures of the livin! do(n to the cheeks that (ill !ive the) voice. . . . 'his sunken lindness, the vision turned in(ards, ener!i0es his inner life all the )ore, and )akes the father of poets co)plete. 'hese cheeks have een )olded y never:endin! speech, these )uscles of speech the (ell:(orn paths do(n (hich !ods and heroes have )ade their (ay to )ankindA the (illin! )outh, only the !ate(ay to such i)a!es, see)s to a le like a childCs, has all the naXvetK of youthful innocenceA and the enclosure of hair and eard contains and enno les the readth of the head.DB6E

-n the Boston head, in contrast, the po(er of the (ill (ins out, especially in the )outh and eyes: the )outh holds fir), tryin! to shape into (ords the vision of the )indCs eye. >ven if none of the copies can e proved to e the )ost @relia le,@ (e )ust nevertheless once a!ain assu)e that the ori!inal so)eho( co) ined the different and so)eti)es contradictory traits captured in the varyin! interpretations of the copyists: physical frailty and e&tre)e old a!e, on the one handA a !od:like loftiness and da00lin! inspiration, on the other. 'he head in Boston and others of its type, (ith the co)plicated treat)ent of the hair and facial features, co)e closer, in )y vie(, to the 9i!h 9ellenistic ori!inal than the !roup to (hich the head in ;aples elon!s. 8ne could i)a!ine the Boston head /oined to an i)posin! seated statue of the type on the ,rchelaos <elief, ut not the head in ;aples. Perhaps the 9i!h 9ellenistic prototype (as adapted y a +ate 9ellenistic sculptor (ho stressed such ele)ents as the frailty of a!e and the unke)pt hair and eard of the old )an. But since these later copies do not share any features that clearly distin!uish the) typolo!ically fro) the version to (hich the Boston head elon!s, it is pro a ly )ore likely that the ;aples head and others like it are independent % 1J1 % variants (hose only co))on ele)ent is a reflection of the style of the ,ntonine period.DB5E ;evertheless, the i)portant point for our interest is that the reinterpretation of 9o)erCs face continued uninterrupted into the -)perial period and that the copyists (ere neither a le nor (illin! to conceal their o(n conceptions of the !reat poet. 7e should also re)e) er that the <o)an patron had, at least theoretically, not only a choice a)on! the different versions of this particular type, ut a choice of several types as (ell. F-n addition to the t(o versions of the lind 9o)er /ust discussed, there (as yet another popular type, pro a ly +ate Classical in ori!in, sho(in! 9o)er (ith the (ide:open eyes of the seer and lon! hair at the nape of the neck, the so:called ,pollonios type.G 'he various portraits, (ith their diverse e)phases, (ere of course )eant to evoke in the vie(er a (hole ran!e of associations. ,lon!side the enthroned prince of poets, the seer heraldin! the !ods and heroes, there )ay e another conception, e&e)plified y the pseudo:9erodotean ,ios, of 9o)er as a poor sin!er (anderin! fro) city to city. 'his i)a!e, ho(ever, first eca)e (idespread only in -)perial ti)es.DBME -t could e the inspiration for the head in ;aples and others like it.

/ellen%st%c :%n$s an) Archa%c Poets

'he presentation of this type of literary portrait as a kind of cult i)a!e, on the one hand, and the )ore detailed, io!raphical approach that appealed to the vie(erCs o(n literary trainin!, on the other, are not )utually e&clusive. <ather, the spiritual aura only intensified the appreciation of the portrait as a (ork of art and erudition. 2enerally speakin!, in 9ellenistic art the o /ect (as e&pected to offer a (hole spectru) of associations. 'his is (hy, for e&a)ple, a)on! freestandin! sculpture in the round, it (as the statue !roups that (ere particularly popular. , )ultiplicity of fi!ures allo(ed the )essa!e to e enriched (ith several layers of )eanin!, and the 9ellenistic (orld, as the inscriptions also reveal, (as an e&traordinarily co))unicative place. % 1JB %

4i!. 91 >&edra (ith portraits of fa)ous poets and philosophers. 'hird century B.C.

.e)phis, *erapeion. -n the area of literary portraiture as (ell, the statue !roup see)s to have een of central i)portance. 7e have already seen one e&a)ple of a )eanin!ful !roupin! of fi!ures, replete (ith learned allusions, on the ,rchelaos <elief. , !roup of fa)ous poets, ori!inal (orks )ost likely of the later third or early second century, has een found in the sanctuary of *erapis at .e)phis Ffi!. 91G.DBJE '(elve over:life: si0e statues of @ancient@ poets and thinkers (ere arran!ed here in a se)icircle around the seated fi!ure of 9o)er. 'heir display, ho(ever, represents a renovation of the )onu)ent in late anti?uity. 8nce a!ain, the sculptor see)s to have used innovative physio!no)ic characteri0ation to differentiate the various literary !enres. 'he e&edra (as placed for )a&i)u) effect at the e!ress of a !rand processional street. -n earlier ti)es, such an a) itious !roup (ould have een conceiva le only for )ytholo!ical heroes or as a !allery of ancestor portraits of a royal house. ,stonishin!ly, a)on! the fra!)ents found at .e)phis (ere t(o fra!)entary heads (earin! the royal diade), one of the) a youth. ,pparently )e) ers of the ruler fa)ily responsi le for the )onu)ent (ere also depicted a)on! or alon!side their intellectual heroes. -n other (ords, the intellectual !iants of the past (ould have een presented as !ood counselors to the kin!, as the source of his (isdo) and authority. Beyond the i))ediate historical % 1J" % or political circu)stances, this is clearly a cele ration of universal learnin! as a ?uality of the !ood ruler. 'he cult of learnin! that )anifested itself in the hero shrines of 9ellenistic cities finds a close parallel in the pu lic i)a!e cultivated y the Ptole)aic kin!s. 'he )ea!re state of the survivin! evidence does not allo( us, unfortunately to reconstruct the )anner in (hich retrospective portraits (ere displayed in other conte&ts, such as the ur an heroon, like the ,rchilocheion on Paros, or the !y)nasia. 7e )ay suppose, ho(ever, that the association of local literary heroes (ith their native city (ould )ost likely have provided the ackdrop for the display of the correspondin! portraits, and that cult le!ends of the type (e have preserved for Bias and ,rchilochus played a central role in this conte&t as (ell.

The Retros.ect%&e Ph%loso.her Portra%t, Socrates- Ant%sthenes- an) 1%o$enes

,nother, even )ore particular function of the retrospective portrait can e inferred fro) so)e of the philosopher statues. , .iddle or +ate 9ellenistic *ocrates is perhaps the )ost fascinatin! of the ne( interpretations of older philosopher portraits Ffi!. 9BG.DB$E 'he artist incorporates ele)ents of oth fourth:century portrait types Fcf. fi!s. B1, "5G ut creates a ne( interpretation of the silenCs )ask. -t is for hi) no lon!er a )etaphor for (isdo), ut si)ply a for)ula to e&press e&tre)e u!liness. 'his ne( *ocrates also has a hideously road and unattractively shaped nose, a co)pletely ald pate, and sunken cheeks, all of (hich espeak an individuali0ed physio!no)y. Tet at the sa)e ti)e he is characteri0ed as a )i!hty thinker in the po(erfully archin! craniu). 'he co) ination of the dra)atically tensed ro( and the di!nified locks of the archai0in! eard (ith the u!ly little pu! nose has an al)ost co)ic effect for the )odern vie(er. *ocrates has een turned into an intellectual pioneer in the *toic )old, recallin! the )i!hty strain in the face of a Zeno or Chrysippus Ffi!s. 5", 55G. 8ne )i!ht easily i)a!ine the co))ission for this i)a!e co)in! fro) a *toic school that (anted to honor its spiritual ancestor (ith a )onu)ent that captured

% 1J6 %

4i!. 9B *ocrates. <o)an copy of a 9ellenistic statue. <o)e, Hilla ,l ani. his )ental po(ers in a co)pellin! and conte)porary fashion, unlike the Classical portrait type. 'his vision (ould of course have een co)pleted (ith an appropriate ody, )ost likely seated in a vi!orous pose of co!itatin! or instructin!. 'here are several types of seated fi!ures of *ocrates that survive in various )edia, ut unfortunately none can e associated (ith certainty (ith the type of the portrait head in the Hilla ,l ani.DB9E , si)ilar situation )i!ht o tain for the i)pressive portrait of *ocratesC pupil ,ntisthenes, (ho (as revered as a spiritual ancestor y oth Cynics and *toics Ffi!. 9"G. 'he datin! of the portrait type, (hich is preserved in an inscri ed her) copy, has een an unusually thorny pro le) for scholars.D"#E 'he asic icono!raphical type is that of the % 1J5 %

4i!. 9" ,ntisthenes Fca. 65#5"J#G. 9er) copy of a 9ellenistic portrait. <o)e, Hatican .useu)s. Classical old )an of fourth:century !rave stelai, (ith lon! and so)eti)es disorderly hair, ut here co) ined (ith a dra)atically rendered ro( of the deep thinker, an ele)ent that does not occur in Classical portraits. 'here are physio!no)ic traits as (ell, (hich see) to e linked to the character and intellectual ?ualities of this particular thinker. ,ll this su!!ests that the type elon!s to that of the retrospective portraits, (hich in turn supports a datin! first su!!ested lon! a!o, in the early second century B.C. , clue to the interpretation of the head is su!!ested y the strikin! % 1JM % contrast et(een the carefully tended eard and the vi!orous )ove)ent of the lon! and unco) ed hair, so)ethin! uni?ue to this head a)on! philosopher portraits. 'he contrast see)s to e deli erate, and eard and hair )ay not necessarily convey the sa)e )essa!e. 'he locks risin! fro) a ove the forehead had een a popular sy) ol of stren!th and ener!y ever since the portraits of ,le&ander the 2reatA and centaurs, silens, and !iants (ere all characteri0ed as @(ild@ creatures y a si)ilar treat)ent of the hair. -t is te)ptin! to see here a reference, a!ain recallin! the ,ioi, to ,ntisthenesC vi!orous and a rasively contentious character or to his )uch:ad)ired )oral ri!or. 7e )ay even re)e) er ho( the chauvinistic ,thenians never for!ot ,ntisthenesC half: ar arian ori!ins as the son of a 'hracian )other. -t is ?uite conceiva le that such a reference could e intended in a io!raphical portrait of this typeA 1io!enes +aertiusC io!raphy, at least, e!ins (ith a )ention of this circu)stance of the philosopherCs

irth. 'he vi!orous )ove)ent of the forehead, the eye ro(s raised (ith an al)ost ferocious intensity, proclai) the intellectual ener!y of this toothless old )an. 'he (ell:tended eard, on the other hand, )ay e interpreted si)ply as a classical @philosopherCs eard,@ if the second:century date is correct. 'hat is, the eard (as )eant to la el hi) as @one of the philosophers of old.@ 'his handso)e and old: fashioned eard alances the individuali0ed characteri0ation e) odied in the (idly unke)pt hair and underlines the seriousness of ,ntisthenesC philosophy, irrespective of his @character.@ 'he pose of the head and the unchin! of the drapery at the ack of the neck su!!est a seated statue. 9e (as evidently depicted as a teacher, unlike the Cynic in the Capitoline Ffi!. JBG. ;or does ,ntisthenes etray any other Cynic features, and the portrait (as surely not conceived as that of the founder of this philosophical @sect.@ 7e could, ho(ever, i)a!ine a *toic conte&t for this portrait, as for the 9ellenistic *ocrates.D"1E 'he (ell:kno(n statuette of 1io!enes )ay also e est interpreted (ithin the fra)e(ork of specific io!raphical and philosophical/didactic interests Ffi!. 96G.D"BE 'he co)pletely naked ody is uni?ue in the icono!raphy of 2reek philosophers and )i!ht lead one to (onder if this could e an innovation of the -)perial period, reflectin! the % 1JJ %

4i!. 96 1io!enes F6165"B"G. *tatuette of the -)perial period after a 9ellenistic ori!inal. 9: 56.M c). <o)e, Hilla ,l ani. FCast.G popular )ockery of the philosopher or an interest in the purely anecdotal. 8n the other hand, the keenly o served realis), especially in the startlin!ly )isshapen and u!ly ody, is in the direct tradition of (orks of the third century B.C. , tired old )an, he (alks slo(ly, ent over a staff that he holds in his left hand. 'he ri!ht hand (as pro a ly outstretched and )i!ht (ell have )ade a !esture of e!!in!, as in the ei!hteenth:century restoration. 'he ody is stiff and un!ainlyA neither standin! still nor )ovin! is easy for the old )an. 'he sa!!in! elly sho(s that this old )an, (ho % 1J$ % had nothin! ut conte)pt for e&ercise and trainin! in the !y)nasiu), never did anythin! to stave off the out(ard si!ns of a!in!. Tet his e!!in! )ana!ed to keep hi) (ell fed, and the contrast (ith, say, the e)aciated @8ld 4isher)an@ Ffi!. M1G is o vious. 'hou!h these traits could e taken in the anecdotal spirit of later <o)an )ockery of the intellectual, the i)pressive ald head of the philosopher, the thou!htful e&pression, and lon!, di!nified eard F est preserved in the copy in ,i&:en:ProvenceG nevertheless su!!est that this 1io!enes and his teachin!s are to e taken seriously. 'his is surely not the kind of head one (ould have e&pected to !o (ith this ody, ut the sculptor kne( (hat he (as doin! in this strikin! contrast. 8nce a!ain the ruthless depiction of a decrepit ody )ust e understood in the conte&t of conte)porary

ne!atively char!ed i)a!ery of fisher)en and peasants. But, as in the case of the supposed Cynic in the Capitoline Ffi!. JBG and the Pseudo:*eneca, our reaction is )eant to e one of ad)iration. 1io!enes tau!ht his pupils to despise societal convention, includin! the care of the ody, and to renounce all )aterial possessions as a prere?uisite to a true independence and spiritual freedo). 'he naked ody is evidently )eant to e&press visually the unco)pro)isin! (ay of life and defiant protest of the founder of the Cynics, truly philosophy in action. 7hereas the realistic appearance of the Cynic in the Capitoline re)inds the vie(er of the appallin! and irritatin! pu lic ehavior of such )en and thus presupposes oneCs e&perience of the), 1io!enesC nudity has a very different si!nificance. >ven thou!h the depiction of the ody is hi!hly realistic, the fi!ure does not represent an actual encounter. 'he artist is not strivin! for the directly provocative effect of the Capitoline Cynic. >ven the Cynics did not really (alk naked throu!h the streets ut (ore the tri,on )ade of coarse )aterial F1. +. M.BBG. 'he nudity has rather a didactic )eanin! and e) odies a )oral challen!e. 'he sculptor assu)es a fa)iliarity (ith Cynic (ritin!s on the part of the vie(er, and the statue calls these teachin!s to )ind and @preaches@ the), as 1io!enes hi)self once did y )eans of his appearance: freedo) fro) (ant and conte)pt for the ody, for physical eauty and our!eois conventions. 8ur encounter (ith the naked 1io!enes is, as it (ere, literaryA it takes place not in pu lic, ut at ho)e or in % 1J9 % the philosophical school, (hich is to say in our head. 7hen later <o)an (riters speak of the nu#i cynici FIuv. 16."#9A *en. "en. 5.6."G, they have in )ind /ust such a portrait. 'he icono!raphy of the head, on the other hand, stands in the tradition of +ate Classical portrait types, as does that of ,ntisthenes. *o)e scholars have even thou!ht they detected si)ilarities to the portrait of *ocrates, (hich escape )e.D""E 7e )ay once a!ain suspect that the co))ission for the ori!inal ca)e fro) the 9ellenistic *toics, (ho are kno(n to have een the first to collect anecdotes a out 1io!enes. -n spite of his pro)otion to the status of a serious philosopher, this 1io!enes has nothin! to do (ith the popular hero of the >nli!hten)ent, !oin! a out (ith his lantern and searchin! for the truth, literally rin!in! it into the li!ht. 'he 1io!enes of this statuette re)ains purely a fi!ure of dissent. 9e has no pro!ra) to offer and no interest in @pro!ress.@ ,t )ost he stands at the threshold of a philosophical school, y e&hortin! the vie(er to conte)plation and e&posin! the superficiality and @unnaturalness@ of conventional life:styles throu!h his o(n unorthodo& ehavior. 7hen (e find hi) a!ain, on si)ple !ravestones of the >arly >)pire, reclinin! in his cask, he has eco)e nothin! )ore than a )e)ento )ori, a sy) ol of conte)pt for the (orld, since death is inescapa le.D"6E ,s (e have seen, the retrospective portraits of intellectual heroes of the past arose out of a particular need: they functioned as icons in a uni?ue cult of 'ai#eia, even to the point of ein! actual cult statues in hero shrines. 2radually it see)ed the (hole of society in ur an centers (as readin! and interpretin! the !reat (riters of the past, scholars and orators as (ell as poets and philosophers. -n an a!e (hen the structure of individual identity (as chan!in! and the ine&ora le po(er of <o)e loo)ed on the hori0on, these portraits (ere for the 2reeks the principal !uardians of their cultural identity. 8ne could see the) as a kind of e&ercise in collective )e)ory in the ?uest for sta ility and proper orientation in life. 'he ne( cult )anifested itself not only in the heroa, ut in )any ranches of education that took in a (hole spectru) of oth private and collective for)s of veneration of the poets and philosophers of the past. D"5E ,lon!side pu lic lectures and

% 1$# % poetic and )usical co)petitions in the !y)nasia, there is evidence fro) the private sphere as (ell. 'he appearance of i)a!es of the poets and illustrations fro) their (ork fro) the first century on, not only on !e)stones and silver vessels, ut also on the painted (alls of 1elian houses and even on hu) le terra:cotta o(ls, !ives so)e idea of the u i?uitous presence of this literary culture in the cultivated ho)e.D"ME , !ood e&a)ple of this is a silver cup fro) 9erculaneu), pro a ly of ,u!ustan date ut e)ployin! an earlier )otif. 'he scene is the apotheosis of 9o)er. 'he poet is carried aloft y a )i!hty ea!le Fas <o)an e)perors later (ill eG. 8n either side sit fe)ale personifications of the Ilia# and *#yssey , (ho assu)e a re)arka le pose, lost in conte)plation, that anticipates the proper attitude of the educated reader.D"JE 'he attitude to(ard the intellectual !iants of the past is no( )arked y pious )editation, reverence, and the distance inspired y !reat a(e, in contrast to the pu lic )onu)ents honorin! the tra!edians in +ycur!an ,thens. 'hese ne( i)a!es are old visions, freed fro) the our!eois conventions of conte)porary life and retro/ected onto an ideali0ed past. ,t first !lance the situation )ay see) to parallel the !lorification of the intellectual hero y the educated our!eoisie of the late nineteenth century Fcf. pp. Mff.G. But 9ellenistic readers and devotees (ere different in !enuinely and ?uite actively seekin! !uidance for their o(n lives in the (riters of the past. Culture (as not so)e ideal (orld rele!ated to a fe( leisure hours spared fro) the @real (orld@ of co))erce and social interaction. <ather it (as the focal point of life as it (as lived and the foundation of oth personal and collective identity.

The 90entr%f%cat%on9 of the Ph%loso.her Portra%t, Carnea)es an) Pose%)on%us

'his ne( state of affairs )ust naturally have had so)e i)pact on ho( conte)porary intellectuals sa( and presented the)selves, especially in the philosophical schools of the +ate 9ellenistic period. 7hereas philosopher statues of the third century had posed a challen!e to society % 1$1 %

4i!. 95 Carneades Fca. B1651B$G. Bust Fno( lostG after an honorific statue ca. 15# B.C. Copenha!en, .useu) of ,rt. FCast.G in their old indifference to conventional nor)s and their clai) to spiritual leadership, those of later philosophers !radually adapt the)selves to these very standards of the our!eois i)a!e. 7ith the !ro(in! rivalry et(een the philosophical schools, the stark contrast in i)a!e of earlier ti)es eventually disappears. 7hen a statue of the cele rated philosopher Carneades (as dedicated in the ,!ora y t(o ,thenian citi0ens a out the )iddle of the second century or /ust after Ffi!. 95G, the sculptor took as his )odel the statue of Chrysippus not far a(ay Ffi!. 56G.D"$E Both (ere depicted seated and !ivin! instruction, turnin! their concentrated attention to an i)a!inary interlocutor. 'he si)ilarity is ?uite surprisin!, for Carneades (as the head of the revived Platonic ,cade)y, and his o(n

% 1$B % fa)e (as due not least to his lifelon! stru!!le (ith the dialectic of Chrysippus. 9e (as supposed to have said of hi)self. @7ithout Chrysippus there (ould have een no Carneades@ F1. +. 6.MBG. 9o(ever strikin! the si)ilarities to the older portrait, there are also differences. +ike the standard honorary statues of the day, Carneades (ears a chiton under his hi)ation. 'ou!hness and the refusal to succu) to the needs of the ody and oneCs o(n )ortality are no lon!er a part of the philosopherCs )essa!e. -n place of the careless e&ternal appearance and passionately a!!ressive ener!y of Chrysippus, (e see an ele!ant fi!ure, (ith (ell:!roo)ed eard and a countenance of fine proportions derived fro) +ate Classical art. Tet the strenuously raised furro(s of the ro( recall at first !lance the e&pressions of the *toics. -f (e co)pare this, ho(ever, (ith the portraits of Zeno, or even Chrysippus Fcf. fi!s. 5", M#G, it eco)es clear that in Carneades a different kind of thinkin! is )eant: not the vi!orous and direct attack on an opponent, ut rather a distanced scrutiny and (ei!hin! of ar!u)ents. -nterestin!ly the contraction of the ro(s that (as so characteristic of third:century portraits is no lon!er present. -nstead, the deep furro(s runnin! in @orderly@ parallel lines do)inate the facial e&pression. 'his is a )an of conte)plation, (ho listens carefully and cal)ly for)ulates his ar!u)ent. 'he portrait )akes no particular ethical clai)s. 'he fact that the statue ?uotes fro) an earlier 9ellenistic philosopher portrait see)s to e not a special case, ut rather sy)pto)atic of a roader trend. By the )id:second century, the !reat poets and philosophers of the previous century already en/oyed the status of classics. 'his retrospective tendency, (hich had infor)ed so )uch of 9ellenistic culture y the )iddle of the second century, is particularly tan!i le here. 'his ack(ard:lookin! stance is acco)panied y a kind of eclecticis), (hich had the effect of s)oothin! over any unco)forta le disa!ree)ents et(een philosophical schools. Under these circu)stances, it is not so astoundin! after all if the i)a!e of a *toic is taken as the )odel for that of the leader of the ,cade)ics. 'here is yet another (ay in (hich the portrait of Carneades differs fro) that of his predecessor. 'he lon! hooked nose and crooked % 1$" %

4i!. 9M Carneades. <o)an copy of the period of the e)peror 'ra/an. .unich, 2lyptothek. )outh, (hich are (ell preserved in a ne( copy in .unich Ffi!. 9MG, are strikin! features of an un)istaka le, individual physio!no)y. 4or the first ti)e, a 9ellenistic portrait of a philosopher clearly reveals the )an hi)self, as an individual, not )erely in his role as the representative of a particular school. ;ot surprisin!ly, of all the philosopher statues in ,thens, this one )ade the !reatest i)pression on the youn! Cicero FFin. 5.6G. -n the course of the second century, philosophers of every stripe (ere steadily inte!rated into ur an social and political life. , typical e&a)ple is ,thens, (hich in the year 155 B.C. sent the heads of three philosophical schools, the *toa, the Peripatos, and the ,cade)y, as envoys to <o)e F(here Carneades

held his fa)ous speeches for and a!ainst /usticeG. -n 1B6/", the polls officially reco!ni0ed these sa)e three schools as centers of education, and at the funeral of the !reat % 1$6 %

4i!. 9J *toic philosopher of the late second century B.C. , perhaps Panaitios Fdied 1#9 B.C. G. <o)an copy. <o)e, Hatican .useu)s. *toic Panaitios all the philosophers in ,thens took part as a corporate entity. 'here (as a reconciliation et(een >picureans and *toics, and so)e >picureans even a!reed to serve as pu lic )a!istrates.D"9E ,lon! (ith this rapproche)ent of the philosophical schools, it appears that the differentiation of the portraits accordin! to school that had een the nor) in the third century, e&pressed in particular )i)etic and physio!no)ic for)ulas, !radually disappeared, to )ake (ay for a )ore !eneral look of conte)plation. 'his is the sa)e look, as (e shall soon see, to (hich )any citi0en portraits of the period also adapt. 'here are, unfortunately, no securely identified philosopher portraits of the later second century. 'he portrait of a )an (ith unusually lar!e eyes )i!ht e that of a *toic Ffi!. 9JG. 'he closely shorn ut untended eard recalls Chrysippus, (hile the forehead raised in a !esture of skepticis) is closer to Carneades. 'he portrait is preserver in three % 1$5 % copies found in <o)e and )ust represent a popular fi!ure in +ate 9ellenistic philosophy. , possi le candidate (ould e Panaitios, (ho )olded out of the classical tradition a strai!htfor(ard and pra!)atic ethical theory (ell suited to the needs of <o)an aristocrats. 'he style of the portrait (ould e consistent (ith a datin! to(ard the end of his life in 1#9.D6#E 'he end of this develop)ent )ay e represented y the portrait of Poseidonius of ,pa)ea in *yria Fca. 1"555# B.C. G, created a out J# B.C. Ffi!. 9$G. Poseidonius (as a pupil of Panaitios and, like hi), tau!ht on the island of <hodes. 'he portrait is kno(n fro) only a sin!le copy of super ?uality, a ust of early ,u!ustan date.D61E 4ro) the preserved portion of the chest (e can infer that the fi!ure (as standin! and clad in chiton and hi)ation, thus no different fro) standard portrait statues of conte)porary 2reeks and essentially the sa)e as those of the fourth century B.C. 'he )odest e&pression no lon!er etrays hi) as a philosopher, and certainly not as a *toic stru!!lin! (ith his thou!hts. -n fact only the eard si!nals the philosopher, and it is so closely tri))ed as to e arely noticea le. ;evertheless, unlike the eard of the so:called Panaitios, this one has een carefully tri))ed. , nu) er of conte)porary portraits are kno(n fro) <hodes featurin! this kind of closely tri))ed eard, ut it is unlikely that all of the) are philosophers. <ather, it )ust e a kind of @philosopher look@ that (as fashiona le in this university to(n. 'he typical citi0en i)a!e and the (ould: e philosopher see), at least on <hodes, to have eco)e virtually indistin!uisha le. .ost strikin!, ho(ever, in the portrait of Poseidonius is the self:consciously classici0in! ?uality, (hich eco)es al)ost oppressive in the @Polyclitan@ locks of hair. 'his is the hall)ark of a )an (ho sa( it as his pri)ary responsi ility to !ather the spiritual herita!e of the 2reeks and pass it on to the <o)ans

(ho flocked to his lectures. 4or a )an of his eclectic philosophy, there (ould have een no point in )odelin! his i)a!e after that of Chrysippus. 'here is nothin! left in this portrait of intellectual passion. 'he ?uiet, serious features are those of a tenured professor, self:satisfied oth (ith his o(n )ethods % 1$M %

4i!. 9$ Poseidonius Fca. 1"555# B.C. G. <o)an ust after an ori!inal of the philosopherCs lifeti)e. ;aples, .useo ;a0ionale. % 1$J % and research and (ith the reco!nition accorded hi) y his pupils and y society, a )an (ho identifies fully (ith the values of that society and has no )ore interest in chan!in! it. Tet in spite of these chan!in! circu)stances, the philosopher re)ained a fi!ure of !reat authority in the +ate 9ellenistic a!e. 9is reputation no( rested pri)arily on his role as interpreter of the classical tradition. 4or e&a)ple, a certain 9ierony)os, active on <hodes in the second century B.C. , had hi)self depicted, on the door(ay of his funerary naiskos, readin! and lecturin! to a circle of his pupils. Characteristically, he holds an open ook roll fro) (hich he reads and interprets the te&t.D6BE 'he role of interpreter is in turn closely linked to that of the educator and counselor. 'his association is (ell e&pressed y a relief of the first century B.C. Ffi!. 99G that has provoked a !reat deal of interest on account of a )ysterious psi:shaped sy) ol.D6"E Underneath the lar!e fra)ed picture For (indo(NG earin! the eni!)atic si!n, a philosopher is seated (ith his fa)ily. 9is portrait, like that of Poseidonius, is patterned after +ate Classical )odels. ,lthou!h he has no other heroic traits and sits co)forta ly in a chair, he is sho(n on a )uch lar!er scale than all the other, standin! fi!ures. 'his is presu)a ly a !rave )onu)ent that a father co))issioned for the resident philosopher to (ho) he had entrusted the education of his three children. 'he difference in scale is supposed to convey the !reat a(e in (hich the teacher is held, and the success of his teachin! is e&pressed in the (ell: red )anners and poses of the children, a youn! )an, a youth, and a !irl. 'he father is characteri0ed y his ald head and realistically rendered face as an un)istaka le individual and (ears the sa)e outfit as the philosopher and elder son, a hi)ation (ithout a !ar)ent eneath it. 'his is not the current fashion and )arks hi) as an adherent of the philosophical (ay of life. -f (e interpret the curious sy) ol a ove the philosopher as a psi, it could e a reference to the concern for the peace and security of the soul co))on to all those depicted here. 'he inti)ate a) ience of the scene rin!s to )ind the 2reek philosophers e)ployed in the households of conte)porary <o)an aristocrats. But there, no )atter ho( )uch the <o)ans valued the co)pany of the philosopher and % 1$$ %

4i!. 99 2rave relief FNG of an in:house philosopher (ith his host fa)ily.

4irst century B.C. Berlin, *taatliche .useen. relied on his advice in ti)es of spiritual crisis, they (ould not have accorded hi) such a position of honor (ithin the fa)ily. 'he relief is thus a particularly i)pressive testi)ony to the hi!h status accorded philosophical teachin! in the +ate 9ellenistic (orld.D66E

The 9Intellectual%4at%on9 of the C%t%4en Portra%t

, rief look at the i)a!ery of the ordinary citi0en in +ate 9ellenistic art (ill )ake clear that (e are dealin! here (ith a reciprocal process. ,t the sa)e ti)e that the distin!uishin! characteristics of the philosopher portrait eco)e less pronounced, citi0ens of the 2reek cities put the e)phasis on learnin! and a conte)plative nature in their o(n self:i)a!e. 4ro) the second century on, readin! and conte)plation are % 1$9 %

4i!. 1## Portrait of a conte)plative citi0en, fro) a +ate 9ellenistic funerary or votive )onu)ent. ,thens, ;ational .useu). seen as outstandin! values and appropriate )otifs for the representation of a )ale citi0en on his to) )onu)ent. -t is only a!ainst the ack!round of this intellectuali0ation of everyday life that (e can understand the place of the retrospective portraits (ithin this cultural syste).D65E , nu) er of portraits of the later second century fro) 1elos, ,thens, and else(here have a )arkedly conte)plative e&pression. 8ccasionally a raised ro( see)s to allude directly to the appearance of Carneades or another philosopher Ffi!. 1##G.D6ME 7e have already o served the e!innin!s of this process of assi)ilation in the portraiture and !rave reliefs of the +ate Classical period Fcf. pp. MJff.G. ;o(, ho(ever, it eco)es )uch )ore apparent and is no lon!er li)ited to older citi0ens. 'he conte)plative e&pression is, ho(ever, often co) ined (ith a dra)atic turn of the head and other for)ulas that denote ener!y % 19# % and deter)ination, derived fro) the repertoire of conte)porary ruler portraits. 'he citi0en )ale evidently sou!ht to portray hi)self as a co) ination of philosophical )editation and ener!etic vitality, or, in )ore personal ter)s, a co) ination of the ne( intellectual hero of the polis and the dyna)ic and eneficent )onarch. 'he resultin! a) i!uity is perhaps reflected in the oddly contradictory appearance of certain heads.D6JE 'he description of this physio!no)y as @conte)plative@ (ould e no )ore than a su /ective i)pression if (e did not have other evidence of the central i)portance of philosophy scholarship, and learnin! that helps !ive voice to these @conte)plative@ )en. 7e have already noted the si!nificance of the !y)nasia, as (ell as the appearance of learned )otifs on o /ects of daily use and even in the painted decoration on the (alls of private ho)es. , particularly valua le testi)ony is the (idespread adoption of the i)a!ery of 'ai#eia on the funerary reliefs. 'hese are preserved in lar!e nu) ers, especially fro) the cities of -onia, and provide direct evidence of the (ay in (hich a road stratu) of

the our!eoisie (ished to see itself represented.D6$E 'he first thin! (e notice on these reliefs is the lar!e nu) er of ook rolls and (ritin! ta lets and i)ple)ents. 'hese )eanin!ful attri utes are displayed on shelves, presented y slaves, and of course also held y the deceased and others. 'hey )ay elon! to youths of school a!e, to )en in the pri)e of life, or to old )en, and even so)e (o)en are also cele rated in this )anner for their 'ai#eia . 'he epi!ra)s acco)panyin! the reliefs confir) that such attri utes do refer specifically to the notion of learnin! and education. 'he virtues of a @universal@ learnin! are su!!ested in the plethora of volu)es, often depicted in undles or stored in a case. -n addition to this !eneral praise of learnin! throu!h the use of attri utes, there are also )ore e&plicit i)a!es, particularly fro) those cities that have left us the lar!est nu) er of !rave stelai. 4or e&a)ple, in *)yrna, Cy0icus, and 1elos, it is not unusual for an older )an to e depicted as a seated @thinker.@ 9is authority )ay e e&pressed in his elevated position or in the lavish and di!nified chair on (hich he sits. 8n a fine stele no( in 7inchester Ffi!. 1#1G, a citi0en of *)yrna !ives instruction lookin! do(n fro) his elevated seat, the fin!ers of his ri!ht hand tickin! off the ar!u)ents. 9is face, (ith its look of % 191 %

4i!. 1#1 2rave stele fro) *)yrna. *econd century B.C. 7inchester Colle!e. concentration, is turned not to his (ife, ut to the vie(er. ,s in the portrait of Chrysippus, the i)a!e speaks directly to the vie(er. 'he fe)ale fi!ure, as on )any of these stelai, stands in casual pro&i)ity to the @philosopher,@ her appearance recallin! that of a priestess of 1e)eter. 'his su!!ests that in her role as (ife, she is cele rated a ove all for her piety.D69E -t is no accident that the i)a!e of the seated )an calls to )ind that % 19B %

4i!. 1#B 2rave stele of an elderly citi0en fro) *)yrna. *econd century B.C. +eiden, <i/ks)useu). of Chrysippus Ffi!. 56G. 8ther stelai as (ell etray a visual association (ith (ell:kno(n statues of poets and philosophers of the third century. -nterestin!ly, the )ost popular )otif is that of )editation (ith the head propped up on one hand, in the )anner of the philosopher in the Pala00o *pada and the ron0e statuette of =leanthes Fcf. fi!. 5$G, (hich has the effect of distancin! the thinker fro) the (orld outside. , particularly fine e&a)ple, a!ain fro) *)yrna, sho(s an old )an (ith )arkedly individuali0ed features and the un)istaka le e&pression of a thinker Ffi!. 1#BG.D5#E *uch instance are not, ho(ever, deli erate ?uotations of fa)ous )onu)ents. <ather, the fa)iliar i)a!es of )ental and intellectual activity created in >arly 9ellenistic art had si)ply eco)e in!rained in the popular consciousness, alon! (ith their connotations of di!nity and authority. 'hat these i)a!es

(ere indeed understood as si!ns of % 19" %

4i!. 1#" 2rave stele fro) By0antiu). 4irst century B.C. -stan ul, ,rchaeolo!ical .useu). outstandin! intellectual a ility or achieve)ent is confir)ed y the fact that the )en so depicted can in )any instances e sho(n to have held an office in the !y)nasiu).D51E -n the course of the later second and first centuries B.C. , the i)a!ery of 'ai#eia eco)es (idespread in the funerary art of 9ellenistic cities. -n By0antiu), for e&a)ple, the venera le i)a!e of the @'oten)ahl@ Ffunerary an?uetG relief is transfor)ed into (hat (e )i!ht call a @Bildun!s)ahl.@ 'a les and shelves are filled not (ith food, ut rather food for thou!ht: ook rolls and (ritin! i)ple)ents. Cultivated !entle)en hold open ook rolls instead of drinkin! vessels, and one even see)s to e playin! the part of one of the *even 7ise .en, the scholar and astrono)er e&poundin! on the !lo e (ith his pointer Ffi!. 1#"G.D5BE 'he fa)iliar look of conte)plation here !ives hi) a rather self:satisfied appearance. -t is (orth notin! that this )otif of the @Bildun!s)ahl@ see)s to appear in By0antiu) on the lar!est and artistically )ost a) itious !rave stelai. -t is, in other (ords, the upper class that so insistently lays clai) to the value of learnin!, even in a city that % 196 % at this ti)e (as still on the )ar!ins of 2reek cultural life. ,t one ti)e, in the third century B.C. , such i)a!es, attached to pioneerin! thinkers, (ere seen as a challen!e to society and to traditional political and social ideas, a har in!er of a ne( (ay of thinkin!. ;o( the i)a!e looks )erely lasK, the very essence of accepta le ehavior a)on! the esta lished our!eoisie.

Man the Rea)er, Para)%$* for a Ne( A$e

<udolf Pfeiffer christened the 9ellenistic (orld the @,!e of the Book.@D5"E 4or ,le&andrian philolo!ists and scholars, the ne( a!e e!an under Ptole)y -, ut as a road cultural pheno)enon it took ti)e to evolve. By the second century, as (e have /ust o served on the !ravestones, ooks and readin! occupied a place of central i)portance in the life of the avera!e city d(eller. Unfortunately (e kno( very little a out the actual production and distri ution of ooks in the 9ellenistic a!e. 8n the asis of papyri found in >!ypt, (e can say that the nu) er of volu)es in circulation (as increasin! in the +ate 9ellenistic period ut (as still far fe(er than under the <o)an >)pire. 'he uyin! of ooks )ust, ho(ever, have een an i)portant part of the (hole enterprise of education, for a out 1## B.C. the !ra))arian ,rte)on of Cassandreia could pu lish t(o volu)es ai)ed at an already e&istin! clientele, *n the -ollecting of "ooks and *n the >se of "ooks . 'his )arked the foundin! of a ne( !enre of literature that (as to eco)e very popular under the >)pire.D56E 'he i)a!e of the reader (as already a part of intellectual icono!raphy in >arly 9ellenistic art Fcf. fi!. J1G. But at that ti)e readin! (as only one of )any possi ilities for e&pressin! a particular for) of intellectual activity. By +ate 9ellenistic ti)es, ho(ever, readin! see)s to have eco)e the very essence of the intellectual process in !eneral. 4ro) no( on it (as no lon!er possi le to i)a!ine an intellectual other than (ith a ook in his hand or sittin! near y. 'he i)a!e (as evidently so appealin!

that it (as eventually adopted for the !reat fi!ures of the past, oth poets and philosophers. Plato and *ophocles are oth turned into avid readers, and even 9o)er3apparently undeterred y his lindness 3is sho(n as a ent old )an readin! fro) his Ilia# % 195 %

4i!. 1#6 9o)er seated on an altar, readin!. 4ra!)ent of a 'a ula -liaca. ,u!ustan FNG. Berlin, *taatliche .useen. on a fra!)ent of a 'a ula -liaca Ffi!. 1#6G. >ven the Cynics, (ho once despised readin!, as also every other for) of learnin!, are turned into readers. 1io!enes hi)self e)er!es fro) his arrel ook in hand, thou!h first on en!raved rin!s of the >arly <o)an period. -n such instances, the )otif does not carry a specific )essa!e a out the su /ect ut serves only as a !eneral sy) ol of intellectual activity. 'he (riters of old, it su!!ests, (ere also learned )en.D55E Co)pared to the portraits created in the later third and second centuries, these i)a!es of the poet or philosopher as reader represent a surprisin! standardi0ation and i)poverish)ent of the icono!raphy of the intellectual. 'hat said, (e should e careful to ear in )ind that (e are al)ost entirely dependent on copies in the )inor arts. ;evertheless, the coins that (e noted (ith the type of 9o)er readin! % 19M %

4i!. 1#5 *o:called ,rundel 9o)er. Bron0e head, pro a ly fro) the seated statue of a readin! fi!ure. 4irst century B.C. +ondon, British .useu). Ffi!. $$cG su!!est that (e cannot dis)iss the reader type as an incidental or occasional pheno)enon. -t )ust have een used for )a/or pu lic )onu)ents as (ell. 8ne such )ay e represented y the i)pressive life:si0e ron0e head of a poet readin!, a +ate 9ellenistic (ork said to co)e fro) -stan ul and kno(n as the ,rundel 9o)er Ffi!. 1#5G.D5ME % 19J % , s)all )ar le relief provides at least so)e idea of the ody. 'he poet sits in a si)ple chair, ent over and holdin! in oth hands an unrolled ook. 'he )ature, handso)e face is placid and patrician. 'he unifor), classici0in! arran!e)ent of hair and eard concentrates our attention on the su tle )ove)ents of the lively ro( and the deep:set eyes. 'he effect is not one of ener!y or )ental strainA rather the artist (anted to convey the passive concentration of the reader in the portrait of a poet. 'he )outh is open ut fully rela&ed, as he reads aloud to hi)self. -t is not enou!h to say that this is /ust an e&a)ple of classicistic style and the )odulation of e&pressionis). 'his is rather the ne( )odel of the intellectual. 'he poet is so lost in his readin! that he is o livious of the (orld around hi). 'he ?uiet eauty of his physical features reflects a sense of inner

perfection, achieved throu!h total dedication to the classics. 7hen vie(ed in this li!ht, this (ork too reveals a didactic aspect. 'he reader has eco)e the e&e)plar of an isolated intellectual e&istence. <eadin! is a solitary process that re)oves the reader fro) the (orld around hi). 9e lives instead in the (orld of the author and co))unicates only (ith hi) instead of in open discussion. -n so doin!, the reader creates his o(n private (orld, distant fro) the pu lic life of his society. -n the follo(in! chapter (e shall o serve ho( this paradi!) ca)e to fruition in <o)e and its e)pire. % 19$ %

V+ /a)r%an5s 8ear)
For myself, %hen I hear 'eo'le s'eaking of the 6ancients6 Danti?uesE, I take it that they are referring to 'ersons remote from us, %ho li/e# long ago Dveteres, oli) natiE: I ha/e in my min# s eye heroes like >lysses an# .estor, %hose e'och ante#ates our o%n times ,y a,out ?,@AA years. Bou on the other han# ,ring forth !emosthenes an# )y'eri#es, %hose #ate is %ell authenticate#. They flourishe# in the #ays of Phili' an# Ale2an#er, an# in#ee# sur/i/e# ,oth these 'rinces. This makes it 'lain that ,et%een our era an# that of !emosthenes there is an inter/al of not much more than @AA years: a 'erio# %hich may 'erha's seem long if measure# ,y the stan#ar# of our fee,le frames, ,ut %hich, if consi#ere# in relation to the 'rocess of the ages ;saeculum< an# the en#less la'se of time ;ae/um<, is altogether short an# ,ut as yester#ay. 3'acitus !ialogus 1M Ftrans. 7. PetersonG -n <o)e, the pursuit of intellectual activities (as at first a strictly private )atter, unlike the situation in the 9ellenistic cities of the 2reek (orld. 4or the <o)ans, these (ere the leisure pasti)es of the Klite, )anifestations of otium confined to the ho)e. 'hey (ere kept separate, oth spatially and te)porally, fro) negotium, the sphere of political, le!al, and social responsi ilities that occupied the senator and 'atronus in <o)e. 'he professional intellectual, (ho played such a conspicuous role in 2reek society, had al(ays een a rather )ar!inal fi!ure in <o)e. 'he ori!ins of this pheno)enon are clear: fro) the third century B.C. , 2reek teachers had co)e to <o)e as slaves and entered the ho)es of the no ility. +ater, )any stayed on as in:house philosophers, poets, li rarians, schoolteachers, and doctors, all dependent on the favor of a 'atronus or other payin! custo)ers, even thou!h they )i!ht often en/oy a special position as amici . -n their confronta: % 199 % tion (ith the 2reeks, as is (ell kno(n, the <o)ans had co)e to see the)selves principally as states)en and soldiers orn to rule. 'hey i)a!ined all their chief virtues and ideals )ost perfectly e) odied in the fi!ure of the pious, fiercely decent, and coura!eous peasant far)er of ancient <o)e. 'his para!on (as created, of course, at a ti)e (hen he no lon!er e&isted3if indeed he ever had. -t is not hard to see ho( in these circu)stances the pu lic ackno(led!)ent of intellectual activities (as rather pro le)atical. 'he <o)an attitude to(ard intellectual pursuits re)ained a) ivalent (ell into the period of the >)pire, fluctuatin! et(een passionate devotion in private and restraint, if not

actual distrust, in pu lic, for everythin! that concerned culture and learnin! (as clearly the do)ain of the con?uered 2reeks. >ven thou!h this ideolo!ical clai) eventually eca)e little )ore than a (ell:(orn topos, a certain (ariness re)ained.D1E Under these circu)stances, it is o vious (hy no <o)an of the upper class (ould have displayed his intellectual interests, )uch less a) itions, as part of his pu lic i)a!e. -t (ould never have occurred to a Cicero or a *eneca to appear in pu lic dressed like a poet or philosopher or to have hi)self portrayed in a (ay that cele rated his intellectual a ilities or pretensions. <ather, their portraits are realistic and present us (ith )en (hose faces radiate a sense of ener!y and concentration Ffi!s. 1#M, 1#JG. 'hey (ish to e seen as active states)en, not as distracted thinkers rackin! their rains over theoretical pro le)s.DBE +ike(ise, the professional intellectuals, usually fro) a 2reek:speakin! and servile ack!round and dependent on <o)an patrons, tried to assi)ilate to the !eneral citi0en i)a!e and had the)selves depicted in the to!a of the <o)an citi0en, (ith appropriate hairstyle and facial e&pression3insofar as they ever received honorary statues in the first place or could afford their o(n funerary )onu)ent. 'he rare e&ceptions only confir) the rule. 'he pu lic i)a!e of the philosopher (as )olded lar!ely y the filthy and lo(er:class itinerant Cynics. 'he <o)an citi0en had an a) ivalent relationship (ith the), co)para le to the popular attitude to(ard )endicant )onks in the .iddle ,!es. 'hey (ere, on the one hand, held in conte)pt ecause of their parasitic nature, their outra: % B## %

4i!. 1#M Cicero F1#M56"G. ,u!ustan copy of a portrait )ade in his lifeti)e. <o)e, Capitoline .useu). !eous appearance, and their arro!ance and pushiness. Tet, at the sa)e ti)e, they (ere ad)ired for the (ay they adhered entirely (ithout co)pro)ise to their @alternative life:style.@ ;evertheless, the distaste (ith (hich *eneca reacts to their )oral insistence sho(s ho( irritatin! they could e, even to a socially assi)ilated <o)an intellectual F('. 5.15BG. 7e shall see ho( a certain fascination for the )an in the street later e)anated fro) this i)a!e of otherness.D"E But for no( *enecaCs reaction to their vul!ar appearance only confir)s the !eneral ias a!ainst 2reek philosophers. % B#1 %

4i!. 1#J *eneca Fca. 65M5G. *)all:scale dou le her) F(ith *ocratesG of the third century ,.1. , after a portrait )ade in *enecaCs lifeti)e. Berlin, *taatliche .useen. - do not )ean to su!!est, ho(ever, that no positive i)a!e of the intellectual e&isted at all. <ather, as (e have already seen in chapter 1, the houses and villas of the rich often contained (hole series of portraits of poets and thinkers. But these (ere al)ost e&clusively i)a!es of cele rated 2reeks of the

distant past.D6E Copied fro) Classical and 9ellenistic portrait statues, only reduced to usts, they shaped the <o)ansC i)a!e of the )an of intellectual pursuits, as so)eone (ho en/oyed a position of !reat authority ut elon!ed to a very different a!e. 'heir unfa)iliar eards and hairstyles alone i))ediately separated the) fro) the out(ard appearance of conte)porary <o)ans. ,s (e shall see, every su se?uent atte)pt y the <o)ans to visuali0e their o(n intellectual strivin!s re)ained inde ted to these icons of classical culture, not only in <o)e itself ut throu!hout the >)pire. 'he picture - have /ust sketched (as not, ho(ever, an unchan!in! one. -n the course of the first and second centuries ,.1. , the funda: % B#B % )ental values of <o)an society under(ent a profound transfor)ation. 7ith the advent of a )onarchy. political concerns eca)e !radually secondary, (hile culture and learnin! )oved into the very center of the social discourse. F-n the cities of the 2reek >ast, this process had e!un already in the 9ellenistic period.G 'he introspective preoccupation (ith all for)s of 2reek culture3)yth, art, literature, philosophy, as (ell as history and custo)s3!radually created its o(n dyna)ic and evolved into various kinds of intense devotion that are re)iniscent of reli!ious ritual. -n the process the very identity of the <o)ans under(ent a thorou!h!oin! chan!e. 'he dichoto)y of 2reek and <o)an tradition lar!ely disappeared as @classical@ culture eca)e the co))on culture of the entire im'erium $omanum . -n vie( of this - elieve it is ?uite le!iti)ate to speak of a @cult of learnin!.@ 'he o /ect of this cult (as the (hole of classical culture. 'o <o)an society it appeared in the for) of a self:contained entity, an a solute and un?uestioned reli!ious do!)a in (hich one could take part throu!h particular cultural pasti)es and fro) (hich one could derive a )odel for proper ehavior and self:fulfill)ent. 'he rituals in the cult of learnin! consist essentially of various for)s of co))e)oration and assi)ilation. 'he o /ective (as to adapt the (hole of society to the ideals and e&a)ple of classical culture. -n this process, each individual had to strive to eco)e, as far as possi le, a perfectly @classical@ )an. 'his )eant not only @the care of the self,@ as .ichel 4oucault put it, a philosophical (ay of life e) racin! oth ody and soul, ut also the shapin! of the physical environ)ent accordin! to 2reek )odels, includin! the out(ard appearance of the individual. 'hus it is that in the course of the second century ,.C. )uch of the )ale population took on a @classical face,@ or at least the eard of the learned )an. -t is 9adrianCs eard that )arks the turnin! point. Because of the e&traordinary @classicis)@ that per)eated all of <o)an culture under the >)pire, this chapter and the ne&t (ill e concerned less (ith the representation of particularly i)portant individuals than (ith societyCs attitude to(ard intellectual activity and the i)plications of this for the (ay the <o)ans sa( the)selves and chose to have the)selves portrayed. 4or )ore than three hundred years the intellectual lay)an (ill e the prota!onist of our story, (hich e!ins % B#" % (ith the aristocracy of the +ate <epu lic, (ho played at 2reek culture in their !reat villas and surrounded the)selves (ith !alleries of portrait usts representin! the fa)ous 2reeks of the past.

The 2orl) of Otium an) the 0entle*an Scholar

Portraits of (ell:kno(n 2reeks have een found al)ost e&clusively in lavish villas and private houses. Hery rarely (ere they set up in pu lic uildin!s, even theatres, as had een the case in the 2reek cities. D5E 'his is in keepin! (ith the al)ost e&clusively private nature of the <o)an e&perience of 2reek culture at the e!innin!, and (ith the peculiar separation of the t(o spheres, otium and negotium, that resulted fro) the dra)atic process of acculturation of <o)an society after the incorporation of the 2reek city:states into the >)pire. 'he feelin! that the <o)an senator could a andon hi)self to the pursuit of 2reek culture only (hile on vacation, and prefera ly outside the city of <o)e, (as directly related to the senatorial aristocracyCs concern for the preservation of its o(n traditions. ,!ain and a!ain it passed lar!ely sy) olic le!islation, such as su)ptuary la(s, the annin! of private cults of 1ionysus, or the persecution of 2reek intellectuals, in an atte)pt to define a <o)an @national identity@ in the face of the 9ellenistic (orld. 7hat passed for <o)an traditions (ere of course reco!ni0ed as such only in the process of defendin! the) fro) any intrusions fro) the 9ellenistic culture of the 2reek cities.DME 'he reality (as naturally often very different fro) (hat the ideolo!y of the mores maiorum (ould lead one to e&pect. 'he !reat <o)an fa)ilies had lon! een @9elleni0ed,@ oth in the conduct of their daily lives and in their interest in 2reek literature and art. By the second half of the second century B.C. parts of <o)e already looked like a 9ellenistic city, and <o)e (as un?uestiona ly one of the centers of the 9ellenistic (orld. 'his transfor)ation necessarily included an intellectual life played out in pu lic, thou!h (ithin definite li)its. 'heatrical productions at the !reat festivals of the !ods (ere copied fro) 2reek )odels, and 2reek rhetoricians and philosophers !ave pu lic lectures. 'he latter pheno)enon )ust have !otten so out of hand after % B#6 % the 'hird .acedonian 7ar F1J151M$ B.C. G that the *enate felt co)pelled to set an e&a)ple y i)posin! a !eneral an on the itinerant 2reek intellectuals. 7hen. a fe( years later in 15M B.C. , the /eunesse dorKe of <o)e ca)e to hear CarneadesC lectures in droves, Cato sa( to it that the philosophers eat a hasty, retreat fro) the city @so that such )en !o ack to their o(n schools and de ate (ith 2reek oys, (hile the <o)an youth turn their attention to their la(s and their leaders@ FPlut. -at. mai. BBG. 'he *enateCs conservatis) and resistance to the pu lic display of 2reek lu2uria continued for another hundred years after the first (ave of ,ttic philosophers and (as so stron! that these sa)e senators, in )any respects already )en of the 9ellenistic (orld, had to construct their o(n private (orld in (hich they could una ashedly and (ithout re!ard for pu lic opinion in <o)e act the part of 2reeks, that is, of sophisticated )en of the (orld. 'he lar!e country estates of the no ility and of local aristocracies (ere transfor)ed into islands of 2reek culture, co)plete (ith s)aller:scale and co)pact versions of the pu lic cultural institutions of 9ellenistic cities. 'his pheno)enon is reflected not only in the architectural for)s e)ployed ut in the voca ulary used to desi!nate the). 'hus particular residential areas of the villa )i!ht e !iven na)es like !y)nasiu), palaestra, and &ystus, or, even )ore specifically acade)ia, lyceu), and i lioteca, pinacoteca, or )ouseion. 'he decoration of such roo)s (as intended as an invitation to the (orld of 2reek culture. ,!ainst this sta!e set, (hich could include real 2reek philosophers, teachers, scholars, or poets as part of the @props,@ (ere played out carefully contrived rituals of hi!h culture that ran!ed fro) readin!s of ancient authors to literary and philosophical discourse, to creative literary endeavors. 'he need to inha it fully this (orld of 2reek 'ai#eia see)s to have een so !reat that its devotees even dressed the part, e&chan!in! their to!a for the 2reek hi)ation and sandals Fe.!., Cic. $a,. 'ost. BMG.DJE -n this (ay, (hile still <o)ans, they assu)ed a secondary identity as cultivated 2reeks, )uch as they )i!ht uild a lar!e 2reek peristyle

onto their <o)an atriu):style houses, a pheno)enon (e encounter fro) the second century B.C. -n the 9ellenistic (orld, )ost intellectual activity had een an in: % B#5 % te!ral part of the pu lic life of the city, conducted in such places as the stoas in the a!ora, the !y)nasia, and the ouleuterion. But the <o)an aristocrat at first could e&perience the life of the intellectual only in an e&clusive and private (orld of leisure re)oved fro) pu lic space. -t is particularly revealin!, as (ell as appropriate, that all the for)s of 2reek culture ein! adopted in <o)e (ere re!ularly lu)ped to!ether under the headin! lu2uria, not only in su)ptuary le!islation, ut in conte)porary social criticis). 'he notion that arose out of this, of culture as an appealin! ut not strictly necessary e) ellish)ent of real life, is one that clearly to this day shapes the popular understandin! of hi!h culture. ,t the e!innin! of the "rutus, Cicero invites his friends ,tticus, then livin! privately in ,thens, and Brutus, the future assassin of Iulius Caesar, to !ather at his villa and, seated on the la(n around a statue of Plato, to en!a!e in learned conversation F"rut. B6G. 'he three pro a ly (ore the 2reek hi)ation on such occasions. 'he scenario presents us (ith t(o i)a!es of the intellectual at once: the statue of Plato in the !arden and the sta!ed !atherin! of Cicero and his friends around it. '(o centuries later the Platonic philosopher ;i!rinus (ould receive his friend +ucian @(ith a ook in his hand and surrounded y )any usts of ancient philosophers standin! in a circle@ F+ucian .igr. BG. 'he portrait of Plato takes on particular si!nificance in CiceroCs villa, for (e kno( that Cicero revered Plato a ove all others as the intellectual authority.D$E -n ,tticusC villa this position (as occupied y ,ristotle. Beside his portrait stood a ench that Cicero re)e) ered fondly as the spot (here the t(o )en had philosophi0ed to!ether FAtt. 6.1#.1G. 4or Brutus, (hose passion (as pu lic speakin!, it (as 1e)osthenes, and he even set up a portrait @a)on! his ancestors@ Finter imagines: Cic. *rat. 11#G. @8ne )ust ackno(led!e oneCs spiritual ancestors and honor the) as !ods. 7hy should - not possess the i)a!es of !reat )en to inspire )y )ind and cele rate their irthdaysN - (orship the) and )odel )yself after these !reat na)es,@ re)arked *eneca F('. M6.951#G. Brutus and *eneca are not isolated instances. @*piritual ancestors@ often % B#M % played the role of personal protectors and patrons. , nu) er of ron0e statuettes survive fro) the >arly >)pire, such as that of the reader Ffi!. J1G, (hich stood in a do)estic shrine of the +ares, as did BrutusC portrait of 1e)osthenes.D9E +ucian )entions a physician (ho particularly treasured a s)all ron0e ust of 9ippocrates FPhilo's. B1G, and the fine ust of 9ippocrates discussed earlier Ffi!. $"G (as found in the !rave of another physician in 8stia.D1#E 'he )any rin!s that (ere (orn and used as seals, earin! portraits of 2reek poets and philosophers, )ay also perhaps e seen as less de)onstrative )eans of ackno(led!in! a particular intellectual @patron saint@ FCic. Fin. 5."A Pliny ). "5.BG.D11E <ichard ;eudecker has dra(n a funda)ental distinction et(een portraits of intellectuals that (ere o /ects of reverence or even cult (orship and those that (ere purely decorative ele)ents in the furnishin! of a villa. -n practice, ho(ever, there (as pro a ly considera le overlap et(een the t(o functions, since intellectual pursuits (ere not as a rule restricted to special roo)s (ithin the house. 8ne

)i!ht study and converse in a s)all roo) for rela&ation Fcu,iculum G or at )eals, /ust as (ell as in the portico or !arden. 'hus portraits of fa)ous 2reeks could e found in all these places, in the (idest variety of )aterials and si0es, fro) over:life:si0e statues to her)s to little statuettes and usts in )ar le, ron0e, silver, or plaster. 'here (ere also i)a!es painted on (ood Foften attested in li rariesG, in (all paintin!s, and in floor )osaics, as (ell as on drinkin! vessels and e&pensive furniture. But the pri)ary purpose of the portrait !alleries of cele rated 2reeks in <o)an houses and villas (as undou tedly to con/ure up an i)pression of learnin!. -n the overly co)petitive cli)ate of the +ate <epu lic and >arly -)perial period, cultural pretensions ?uickly eca)e a vehicle for (innin! distinction. *oon Iuvenal (ould co)plain that you could not !o to the ho)e of the )ost uneducated )an (ithout seein! plaster casts of the !reat philosophers and (ise )en FB.15JG. 'ri)alchio oasts of never havin! heard a sin!le philosopher, even thou!h he o(ned t(o li raries, one 2reek and one +atin FPetron. Sat. 6$.6G, and *eneca co)plains that the uneducated nouveau& riches )is:use the )ost precious ooks as its of decoration F!ial. 9.9.6G.D1BE Particularly effective (ere the @!alleries@ of nu)erous her)s, % B#J %

4i!. 1#$ Hie( of the *tan0a dei 4ilosofi. <o)e, Capitoline .useu). (hich usually stood in a portico or the park, linin! the paths or eside fountains. -t is easy to picture the heads of !reat )en lined up in lon! ro(s (hen (e recall the ei!hteenth: and nineteenth:century !alleries of usts in the Hatican or Capitoline .useu) Ffi!. 1#$G. ,s a rule, ho(ever, these ro(s of usts in the villa !ardens did not e) ody any artfully conceived pro!ra), as (e )i!ht e led to e&pect fro) )odern e&perience. <ather, the sa)e types are repeated countless ti)es, in constantly chan!in! ut )ostly rando) co) inations. <epresentatives of the different philosophical schools could stand alon!side one another as cordially as states)en (ho had een )ortal ene)ies in life. .ost villa o(ners (ill not have !iven a !reat deal of serious thou!ht to the choice of decorative sculpture they ou!ht For had ou!ht for the)G, or have paid )uch attention to it later on. CiceroCs (orryin! a out /ust the ri!ht selection for the !y)nasiu) in his 'usculan villa is rather the e&ception. D1"E 'he point (as to evoke the leadin! li!hts of 9ellenic history and culture in all their rich variety, thou!h, interest: % B#$ % in!ly, the intellectuals account for at least three ?uarters of all the portraits found in <o)an villas and thus )ust have lar!ely deter)ined their character. 'he )an (ho purchased these statues and usts (anted in the first instance to sho( that he elon!ed to the educated class and therefore to the upper ranks of society.D16E Tet there is )ore to this practice than /ust the ele)ent of display. 'he i)a!ery of the <o)an house is per)eated y a funda)ental need to recall to )ind and con/ure up earlier 2reek culture. -ndeed, the <o)an villa of the +ate <epu lic )ay e considered the ori!in of the cult of learnin! that (ould co)e to characteri0e the Principate. +ike the )any )ytholo!ical scenes on (alls, ceilin!s, and floors, the

portraits of fa)ous 2reeks (ere )eant to evoke in encyclopedic fashion all of classical 2reek learnin!. 4or the sa)e reason, catch phrases or rief ?uotations attri uted to the su /ect (ere so)eti)es carved on the shafts of her) portraits. 'he intellectual level of these te&ts is as a rule rather )odest. *o, for e&a)ple, the her) of Bias carried a sayin! that )ay e authentic ut is still not particularly edifyin!: @,ll )en are evil.@ 8ther patrons, ho(ever, (ere )ore a) itious. 'hus one portrait of *ocrates has eneath it a ?uote fro) PlatoCs -rito, and a particularly 0ealous proprietor )i!ht have a rief io!raphy of each su /ect added to the stone, or even a catalo!ue of a poetCs (orks. ;eudecker has een a le to de)onstrate that second:century ,.C. !alleries of her)s (ere so)eti)es arran!ed in alpha etical order, )ar le encyclopedias of classical learnin! that the vie(er could co))it to )e)ory as he strolled ack and forth.D15E ,ll this is, of course, re)iniscent of the decoration y the cultivated our!eoisie of houses and other d(ellin!s in the nineteenth century (ith countless heads of +aokoon, contorted (ith pain, and stately heads of Zeus on heavy oak furniture. But then, the presence of such cultural icons in the <o)an house si!nified not only self:conscious pride in a hard:earned hu)anistic education and social standin!, ut also a kind of voluntary o li!ation on the part of the o(ner of such treasures, a re)inder, a)id the fashiona le trends, of a co))it)ent to a certain syste) of values.D1ME % B#9 %

4i!. 1#9 *ilver cup fro) a villa at Boscoreale. 4irst century B.C. 9: 1#.6 c). Paris, +ouvre. ,)id the u i?uitous presence of so )any serious portrait heads of lon!:dead 2reeks, surely so)e co)ic relief (as needed. '(o silver cups (ere found in the treasury of the villa at Boscoreale depictin! a (hole series of (ell:kno(n 2reek poets and philosophers3only as skeletons Ffi!. 1#9G.D1JE ;o a)ount of (isdo) can (ard off death. Tet the skeletons of the !reat still continue their de ate on the Boscoreale cups. >picurus reaches !reedily for a lar!e cake that the prover ial pi! eside hi) has also een sniffin!. To telos he#one F@Pleasure is the hi!hest !oal@G is inscri ed a ove the cake. 8n the other side, the skeleton of Zeno, (ith hand upraised, ar!ues passionately a!ainst this vie(. 8ther sayin!s (ritten in 2reek, as (ell as the pictures on the second % B1# % cup, all co)e do(n to the sa)e asic )essa!e: >n/oy life (hile you can. Tet the i)a!e of the ancient poets and philosophers as skeletons also re)inded the conte)porary vie(er of ho( 2reek philosophers had lon! een )ade fun of ecause of their apparent preoccupation (ith death. -f this see)s anal, the icono!raphy nevertheless i)plies a certain level of education and su!!ests that )akin! fun of philosophers (as a standard part of the cultivated anter at the sy)posiu). 'he skeletons on the Boscoreale cups are not the only i)a!es of this type. 'he !luttony of ancient (ise )en (as also a popular su /ect Fcf. fi!. J#G. -n the 'er)e del *apienti in 8stia, the *even 7ise .en are sho(n )a!isterially !ivin! instruction, includin! advice on di!estion and o(el )ove)ent.D1$E -n order to evaluate the role and si!nificance of 2reek intellectual portraiture (ithin the conte&t of the (hole pictorial voca ulary of <o)an -)perial art, (e )ust ear in )ind this u i?uity in every conceiva le si0e and )ediu). 9ardly a sin!le <o)an (ho lived in one of the lar!er cities could have failed to have these portraits fir)ly fi&ed in his )ind. ,nd this situation o tained e?ually in the 2reek

>ast of the >)pire and in the +atin 7est, for the classici0in! aspect of <o)an civili0ation eca)e one of the i)portant cornerstones of the unifor) culture that per)eated the (hole >)pire.

/u*3le Poets an) R%ch 1%lettantes

,!ainst this ack!round, t(o statues in the Hatican, (hich (e considered earlier in discussin! 9ellenistic portrait statues of poets, take on an added si!nificance as evidence of the <o)an preoccupation (ith otium Ffi!. 11#G. ,s (e have noted, so)eti)e after the )iddle of the first century B.C. the heads of the 2reek poets (ere re(orked into portraits of conte)porary <o)an aristocrats.D19E 'hat the patrons (ere indeed )e) ers of the senatorial aristocracy is revealed y their shoes. 'he indication of the calceii senatorii is indisputa le proof of their social rank. 'hus cultural pretensions and pride in oneCs social status !o hand in hand. 'he provenance su!!ests they ori!inally stood in the !arden of a city residence on the Hi)inal 9ill, that is, that they served to dis: % B11 %

4i!. 11# *tatue of the 9ellenistic co)ic poet Poseidippus. 'he portrait head (as re(orked into that of a <o)an senator after ca. 5# B.C. Cf. fi!. J5. <o)e, Hatican .useu)s. play the patronsC cultivated i)a!e (ithin the private sphere. 'he clai)s they )ake (ere directed at invited !uests of co)para le status. 'his case is typical of the (hole pheno)enon. Portraits of fa)ous 2reeks (ere so pervasive in their influence that y the first century B.C. the <o)ans could e&press their o(n intellectual aspirations only y allusion, assi)ilation, or y actual appropriation, as in this instance. *uch statues latantly transfor) the (ould: e intellectualCs ha it of affectin! 2reek dress, a out (hich (e have already heard, into a per)anent i)a!e.DB#E -t is no accident that these t(o <o)ans had the)selves depicted % B1B % not as philosophers, ut as poets. -n the <o)an i)a!ination, the cultivation of 2reek literature (as desira le, ut only as a )eans for perfectin! oneCs skills in pu lic speakin! or oneCs style in the (ritin! of history. 'he pursuit of philosophy especially (hen taken too seriously or for its o(n sake, re)ained suspect (ell into the 9i!h >)pire3even thou!h )ore than a fe( <o)an aristocrats did indeed practice serious philosophy fro) the first century B.C. on. 'he (ritin! of poetry, on the other hand, early on en/oyed reco!nition in society. >nnius (as already fre?uentin! the houses of the aristocracy, and ,n!ustus (ould later accord pu lic honors to his favorite patriotic poets. Tet the professional poets at <o)e, even the !reatest a)on! the), (ere not autono)ous and re)ained dependent on a 'atronus . DB1E 'his is all the )ore re)arka le (hen (e consider that literary dilettantis) (as virtually epide)ic in <o)e y the ti)e of ,u!ustus and involved the entire aristocracy, includin! the i)perial fa)ily. F;eroCs artistic career and pu lic appearances perfor)in! his o(n co)positions )ay e counted here as (ell.G -n his !arstellungen aus #er Sittengeschichte $oms of 19BB, +ud(i! 4riedlVnder already reco!ni0ed the cultural si!nificance of this dilettantis) and the cotta!e industries associated (ith it. 9e

also pointed out the connection et(een the old aristocracyCs loss of political influence and its ne( preoccupation (ith a)ateur versifyin!. 'his is not the place for a detailed account of the various for)s taken y such literary !a)es. *uffice it to say that the co) ination of a plethora of pu lic and private poetry readin!s, perfor)ances of son! and dance, poetry festivals and co)petitions instituted y ;ero and 1o)itian, (ith the e&pansion of oth pu lic li raries and the ook trade !radually created so)ethin! of a @literary pu lic.@ 'he di)ensions and spread of this self:propellin! literary /u!!ernaut see) to have een tre)endous. 'he volu)e of invitations that (ere not to e declined )ust have ?uickly eco)e too !reat, even for so)eone like Pliny the Toun!er, (ho hi)self (rote and recited poetry.DBBE ,lon! (ith the culture of otium, this passion for literature, e!innin! in the ti)e of ,u!ustus, represented another i)portant step to(ard the @cult of learnin!.@ -n oth instances, one (as transported throu!h literary and other pasti)es into a (orld of hi!h culture far % B1" %

4i!. 111 Portrait of a (o)an co)posin! verse. 4resco fro) Po)peii, ca. ,.1. 5#. ;aples, .useo ;a0ionale. re)oved fro) the reality of life. 'he poetry itself (as predo)inantly on apolitical the)es, cloaked in a veil of alle!ory and )ytholo!ical allusion. 'he intellectual culture of otium spread out fro) the villas and to so)e e&tent took over pu lic life as (ell. ;ot only recitations of poetry, ut also theatrical perfor)ances and panto)i)e, seduced the audience into a (orld of )yth. Iuvenal ironically conde)ns the resultin! loss of any sense of reality: @;o one kno(s his o(n house as (ell as - kno( the !rove of .ars, the cave of Hulcan, and the ,eolian rock@ F1.Jff.G. 'hese literary pasti)es (ere not li)ited to the city of <o)e, as one )i!ht suppose fro) the (ritten record alone. - (ould ar!ue that they are also reflected in the )any s)all:scale (all paintin!s in the houses of Po)peii sho(in! (ritin! utensils alon! (ith readers and (riters, i)a!es that have never een satisfactorily e&plained. 8n a (ell:kno(n portrait tondo Ffi!. 111G, a youn! (o)an (ith Claudian coiffure looks out at the vie(er (hile pressin! a stylus to her lip in a !esture of distracted conte)plation. 'he little ta lets in her hand also allude to her % B16 % interest in (ritin!. 'his distin!uished (o)an, adorned (ith earrin!s and a !olden hair net, is surely not a (riter y profession, nor (ould she need to de)onstrate that she is a le to (rite. Pro a ly she is the )istress of the house, or one of the dau!hters, sho(n co)posin! poetry. ,nother e?ually fa)ous tondo depicts a youn! )arried couple. 8nce a!ain the (o)an holds (ritin! utensils, ut her hus and is also characteri0ed as an educated )an y the pro)inently displayed ook roll. *i)ilar portrait tondi have een found in several other Po)peian houses. *o)e of these sho( a youth (ith ook roll and a laurel (reath in his hair, a reference perhaps to actual or anticipated victories in poetic co)petitions. 'he tondo for) su!!ests that the our!eoisie adopted this ne(ly fashiona le )anner of havin! the)selves portrayed fro) the pu lic li raries, (hich (e kno( displayed portraits of poets. -t is also strikin! that those sho(n as poets are al)ost invaria ly (o)en or youths. -n the private (orld of otium, (o)en

(ere e?ually ad)ired for their literary pursuits. -t is unlikely that the citi0ens of the once 8scan city of Po)peii (ere any )ore passionate a out learnin! than those of other -talian cities. <ather, these s)all pictures attest to an astonishin!ly pervasive enthusias) for the readin! and (ritin! of poetry throu!hout the -talic (orld.DB"E 'he flo(erin! of this e&traordinary preoccupation (ith learnin! )ust have enhanced the self:estee) of the professional poet, even if his )aterial circu)stances, as the e&a)ple of .artial indicates, had in fact (orsened et(een the ti)e of ,u!ustus and the end of the first century. 9e re)ained dependent on the favor of a patron, co)pelled to cele rate his patronCs villa or (ife or taste in the fine arts. , seated statue fro) <o)e, no( in the ,l ri!ht ,rt 2allery in Buffalo, so)e(hat under life:si0e, presents a poet in a )ood of re)arka le, if rather strained, self:assurance Ffi!. 11BG. 7e reco!ni0e hi) as a poet y the ook roll and 2reek )anner and clothin!, a )antle that leaves the entire torso e&posed. 'he )odels for this fi!ure are not the earlier 2reek statues of poets, in their citi0en dress and rela&ed pose, like .enander and Poseidippus, ut rather the e&a!!erated heroic i)a!ery of +ate 9ellenistic art that (e sa( e&e)plified in reliefs of .enander Ffi!. J6G. 'he pose is here even )ore e&alted. 'he poet sits strai!ht as an arro(, (ith his le!s apart, not unlike the type of Iupiter that inspired i)a!es of the enthroned e)peror. 'he sculptor of a sec: % B15 %

4i!. 11B 4unerary statue of an ,u!ustan poet, fro) <o)e. Buffalo, ,l ri!ht ,rt 2allery. ond statue of a poet in si)ilar pose, 'ra/anic in date and no( in the 'er)e, added the realistic features of advancin! a!e to the are torso, thus creatin! a link to the icono!raphy of the philosopher. Both statues pro a ly stood in !rave precincts and represent professional poets. , )e) er of the aristocracy could hardly have had hi)self so depicted, (ith none of the attri utes of his social status. 4urther)ore, the statue in Buffalo (as hollo(ed out inside, pro a ly to contain the ashes of the deceased. -t (ill )ost likely have stood in the funerary precinct of the patron, (ho )ay also have paid for this statue of his in:house poet.DB6E 7hereas in these statues the use of allusion to 2reek tradition to proclai) a particular virtue is so)e(hat heavy:handed, the parents of an aspirin! and !ifted poet (ho died in his youth, na)ed *ulpicius % B1M %

4i!. 11" Portrait of the oy poet U. *ulpicius .a&i)us. 1etail fro) his funerary )onu)ent, ca. ,.1. 96. <o)e, Pala00o dei Conservatori. .a&i)us, had their son depicted as the proper <o)an citi0en, in a to!a Ffi!. 11"G. 9e had co)peted a!ainst fifty:t(o 2reek:speakin! rivals in a poetry contest sponsored y the e)peror 1o)itian. 'he

proud and devastated parents spared no e&pense, includin! havin! the entire 2reek poe) that he recited inscri ed on the !ravestone. -nterestin!ly, the poe) portrays Zeus denouncin! 9elios for entrustin! the chariot of the sun to the youn! Phaethon. -t (as too )uch for the poor oy, like *ulpicius .a&i)us hi)self, (ho died of e&haustion @ ecause day and ni!ht he thou!ht of nothin! ut the .uses.@DB5E -t see)s as if the conte)porary poet in the early >)pire had a choice et(een only t(o radically different i)a!es (ith (hich he could identify: a seated statue in the 2reek )anner F ut (ith the stan: % B1J %

4i!. 116 Cuirassed ust of the e)peror 9adrian. ,fter ,.1. 11J. <o)e, Pala00o dei Conservatori. dard 5eitgesicht derived fro) the current fashion of the i)perial houseG or the asic type of the <o)an citi0en.

/a)r%an5s 8ear), Fash%on an) Mentalit

,fter the ulti)ate failure of 'ra/anCs (ars of con?uest, the e)peror 9adrian )ade cultural interests the focal point of his rei!n, and the <o)ansC ne( orientation in relation to 2reek culture no( found e&pression in the art of portraiture. ,t his accession to po(er in ,.1. 11J, the ne( e)perorCs official portraits presented hi) (ith artfully curled hair and a eard Ffi!. 116G. 'he contrast (ith his strai!ht: haired and % B1$ % clean:shaven predecessor could hardly have een )ore strikin!.DBME 'he (idespread a)a0e)ent occasioned y the e)perorCs ne( fashion can e detected in the )istoria Augusta, (hose author clai)s that 9adrian (ore a eard to cover facial (arts F)ist. Aug., *part. 9adr. BMG. - (ould not rule out that such an i)perfection did in fact i)pel 9adrian to let his eard !ro(. But this is hardly an e&planation for the (hole pheno)enon, and especially its ra)ifications. 'he <o)ans had een asically clean:shaven for centuries, althou!h there had, of course, al(ays een )en (ho !re( eards, especially soldiers. 'his is evident, for e&a)ple, on the Colu)n of 'ra/an. Tet in official portraiture, eards (ere !enerally avoided. 'his is pro a ly in lar!e part a reaction to the eards of the 2reeks of old. 'o (ear a eard (as considered si)ply @un:<o)an,@ even thou!h Harro (as a(are that the ancient <o)ans had (orn eards and that the first ar ers ca)e to <o)e fro) *icily a out "## B.C. F$ust. B.11.1#G. 9adrianCs (as not the lon! eard of the philosopher, to e sure, ut it (as full and carefully styled. 9e pro a ly did not see hi)self as )akin! a pro!ra))atic state)ent (ith his eard and hairstyle, and )ost likely he had (orn the eard efore eco)in! e)peror. 7avy hair and a tri))ed eard had e)er!ed as a fashion under 1o)itian and later, under 'ra/an, eca)e (idespread, especially a)on! youn!er )en, as an alternative to the austere look of the e)peror. But y retainin! the fashion as e)peror, 9adrian consciously or unconsciously turned it into a @)essa!e.@ -nevita ly it (as adopted as the nor) throu!hout the >)pire y )en oth youn! and old.

*ince, ho(ever, the sa)e e)peror elevated philhellenis) to the level of a political pro!ra), the eardCs connotation of ein! 9elleni0ed, or (hat - (ould call the @cultivated eard,@ (as unavoida le. Unlike 'ra/an, 9adrian conspicuously surrounded hi)self (ith 2reek intellectuals, da led in various learned pursuits, spoke a pure ,ttic dialect, and en/oyed appearin! at oth pu lic and private occasions dressed in the 2reek )anner. Cyrene (as surely not the only city that paid ho)a!e to hi) in this style Ffi!. 115G. 4urther)ore, his philhellenis) and dedication to the cause of hi!h culture (ere re!ularly cele rated.DBJE - elieve there are t(o principal pheno)ena that ar!ue in favor of this often asserted, ut occasionally ?uestioned thesis, that the ne( % B19 %

4i!. 115 *tatue of the e)peror 9adrian in 2reek:style citi0enCs dress Fcf. fi!. BMG, fro) the 'e)ple of ,pollo in Cyrene. +ondon, British .useu). fashion for eards did indeed connote learnin! and 2reek culture once the e)peror had set it in )otion. 4irst, in this sa)e period, at first in ,thens and soon in other cities of the 2reek >ast, )e) ers of the rulin! aristocracy e!an not only to !ro( eards, ut also in )any other (ays3hairstyle, dress, )anners3consciously to )odel the): % BB# % selves after the statues and portraits of (ell:kno(n 2reeks of the past. ,nd second, as (e shall presently o serve, eards eca)e steadily lon!er, until y the +ate ,ntonine period they had reached the len!th of any self:respectin! philosopherCs eard. 'he est e&a)ples of the self:styled classicis) of the 2reeks the)selves are the portraits of kosmetai in ,thens, (hich happen to survive in lar!e nu) ers.DB$E 'hese (ere annually chosen )a!istrates (ho (ere responsi le for the city !y)nasia. 'hey ca)e fro) pro)inent ,thenian fa)ilies and usually held other civic offices later in life. 'hey are therefore y no )eans professional intellectuals. Tet this ne( fashion a)on! the ,thenian aristocracy is only one of )any )anifestations of a )ove)ent to(ard an all:e) racin! cultural rene(al, (hose i)petus (as in turn an econo)ic revival in the 2reek cities and the !ro(in! influence of the 2reek Klite in the runnin! of the >)pire.DB9E 'he ostentatious ackno(led!)ent of their o(n cultural traditions, co) ined (ith (hat (as at first a departure fro) the >)pire:(ide fashion e)anatin! fro) <o)e, su!!ests that a ne( kind of self:consciousness (as suddenly co)in! to the fore. -n this (ay the 2reeks asserted that the era of their cultural !reatness (as not past ut lived on. 'his reversion to ein! @true 2reeks@ could also so)eti)es carry an anti:<o)an connotation, as 1io of Prusa attests (hen he descri es (ith ad)iration the 2reeks of Borysthenes, or 8l ia on the Black *ea, (ho have faithfully )aintained the custo)s of their ancestors: @'hey all (ore lon! hair and flo(in! eards, accordin! to the ancient custo), as 9o)er descri es the 2reeks. 8nly a sin!le )an (as shaven, and he (as despised and scorned y the rest. 'hey said he did this not for his o(n en/oy)ent, ut to flatter the <o)ans and to proclai) his sy)pathy for the)@ F"M.1JG. -n actual fact the eards of these Borysthenians (ere pro a ly those of *cythian ar arians, ut that is of no conse?uence. 7hat is i)portant is the nostal!ic search for ancient 2reece that colors 1ioCs vie(.

,)on! the kosmetai, (ho proudly identify (ith their fa)ous ancestors, so)e have lon! eards, so)e shorterA so)e ear a !eneral rese) lance to the 2reeks of old, (hile others see) to follo( a specific )odel. 'hus one conte)porary of 9adrian looks like a latter:day Plato Ffi!. 11MA cf. fi!. "$G, thou!h he has severely tri))ed his hair in co)parison (ith PlatoCs F(e shall see presently (hy he did thisG. % BB1 %

4i!. 11M ,thenian kosmetes assi)ilated to the likeness of Plato. Ca. ,.1. 16#. ,thens, ;ational .useu).

4i!. 11J ,thenian kosmetes . *econd half of the second century ,.1. ,thens, ;ational .useu). *ocrates, ,eschylus, 'heophrastus Ffi!. 11JG, and 1e)osthenes (ere all pressed into service as )odels. By the ,ntonine period, ,ntisthenes en/oyed a special popularity in ,thens, (hich, as (e shall see, also entailed the ri!orous pursuit of a philosophical (ay of life. 'he sa)e trend is evident in the nickna)es and ta!s that eca)e popular once a!ain. 'hus, for e&a)ple, ,rrian (as cele rated as @the ne( Penophon.@D"#E 9adrianCs ne( 9elleni0in! i)a!e is co)para le to these ,thenian @)e)oriali0in!@ portraits. 9is eard could e likened to those of such +ate Classical portraits as ,eschines Ffi!. BMG. 7hen (e consider that only si& years efore eco)in! e)peror, 9adrian had held the office of archon in ,thens, it is te)ptin! to associate his eard (ith the classici0in! fashion that (as /ust takin! hold there.D"1E Perhaps the youn! % BBB %

4i!. 11$ ,ntoninus Pius Fe)peror 1"$51M1G. <o)e, Capitoline .useu).

4i!. 119 .arcus ,urelius. ,fter ,.1. 1JM. 4rankfurt, +ie ie!haus .useu). aristocrat had occasion durin! his stay in ,thens to redefine (hat had een a eard connotin! <o)an lu2iria into an ,ttici0in! @cultivated eard.@ Be that as it )ay, for our in?uiry the )ost i)portant ?uestion is, ho( did the pu lic throu!hout the

>)pire react to 9adrianCs ne( eardN 4irst of all, (e )ust )ake a distinction et(een the !eneral spread of the ne( hair and eard style, on the one hand, and the assi)ilation to specific, earlier 2reek portraits, as y the kosmetai, on the other. 'he fact that the e)perorCs eard (as i))ediately i)itated throu!h the (hole >)pire, includin! the 7est, need not surprise us. 'he e)peror and his fa)ily had lon! een the ulti)ate ar iters of popular style, their portraits the decisive inspiration for chan!es in fashion.D"BE .ore i)portant, ho(ever, in this case is the fact, as (e have already noted, that in the course of the ne&t t(o !enerations, eards eca)e steadily lon!er, until y the late second century they reached the len!th of the e&tre)ely full philosopherCs eard. 'he portrait of 9adrian Ffi!. 116G and the three later heads /u&taposed here Ffi!s. 11$5 % BB" %

4i!. 1B# Portrait of the e)peror Pertina& F,.1. 19"G. +eiden, <i/ks)useu). B#G (ill illustrate this process. 'rends in fashion are al(ays in so)e (ay a reflection of collective values, and there is !ood evidence that the len!thenin! eard over a period of )ore than t(o !enerations is tied directly to a (idespread cult of learnin! in the ,ntonine a!e. 7hen an entire society, or at least those !roups that shape its character, devote all their spiritual and intellectual ener!ies to recreatin! a classical culture, (hen this is the standard for all approved entertain)ent, and the participants, dressed as 2reeks, play @Classical 2reece@ on the pu lic sta!e F(e shall hear )ore a out this laterG, then (e can hardly escape the conclusion that these steadily len!thenin! eards )ust carry a reference to classical learnin!. 'his is not to say that each individual )ade such a personal co))it)ent, as in the case of the kosmetai . <ather, this is a fashion that eco)es an inte!ral part of the social discourse. 'he individual (ho (ears a eard need not even e a(are of his role in all this. 'he portraits of the kosmetai and that of 9adrian elon! to the early % BB6 % sta!es of this process of the ever:!ro(in! eard. -n its latest phase, startin! rou!hly (ith the later portraits of .arcus ,urelius Fca. 1J5A fi!. 119G, (e find a (hole series of distin!uished earded )en, includin! the e)peror Pertina& Ffi!. 1B#G, (ith deeply furro(ed ro( and raised eye ro(s.D""E -n this conte&t such traits can hardly )ean anythin! other than introspection and an intellectual ent. ,nother ele)ent of the fashiona le @-ntellectual look@ is the recedin! hairline or ald head, suddenly popular in the later second and early third centuries. Prior to this, aldness had een very rarely sho(n, thou!h it can hardly have een any less co))on in real life. -f in the +ate ,ntonine period it first (as thou!ht (orthy of representation, then it (as pro a ly ecause the evocation of Classical portraits of intellectuals conferred on these individuals a )ark of spiritual distinction. *upport for this interpretation can est e found in the Praise of "al#ness FPhalakras enkomion G of *ynesius of Cyrene F"J#561"G, (ho refers specifically to the portraits of such @ancient (ise )en@ as *ocrates and 1io!enes in order to prove that the (isest )en had een ald. *ocrates, he clai)s, had identified (ith the silenCs )ask @to )ark his skull as the seat of (isdo)@ Fnou #ocheion G.D"6E 8ften aldness and the thinkerCs ro( are co) ined in the sa)e head and )utually reinforce one

another Ffi!s. 1B1, 1BBG. 8ne for)er athlete even had hi)self depicted in this )anner, in a portrait (hose intellectual forehead, (ith ro(s dra(n up and tensed furro(s, is especially pronounced Ffi!. 1BBcG.D"5E , (ell:kno(n portrait type of *everan date (ith a hi!hly spiritual effect, once identified as Plotinus y 9. P. +C8ran!e, )ay also e )entioned in this conte&t Ffi!. 1BBfG.D"ME 'he plethora of e&a)ples over a relatively short span of ti)e su!!ests that (e are dealin! here (ith the pheno)enon of the 5eitgesicht, analo!ous to the assi)ilation of civilian portraits in fashion and physio!no)y to the rei!nin! e)peror. But in this case it is not -)perial portraiture that set the trend, ut the reverse. 'here are individual % BB5 %

4i!. 1B1 a5f Portraits of the +ate ,ntonine and *everan periods in the !uise of intellectuals. *ources: see p. 1J$ n. "5. % BBM % replicas of the official portraiture of .arcus ,urelius and Pertina& that are assi)ilated to this popular 5eitgesicht of the intellectual. >ven )ore clearly than the !eneral pheno)enon of the ever:len!thenin! eard, this 5eitgesicht reflects a (idespread consensus, at least a)on! that class that co))issioned )ar le portraits, on the central i)portance of all aspects of education and learnin!. 8f course in so)e instances (rinkles or aldness could si)ply e a realistic renderin! of an individualCs appearance, and so)e scholars have ri!htly detected a stylistic tendency to(ard realis) in +ate ,ntonine art. 'his is not, ho(ever, at odds (ith (hat - like to call the @intellectual 5eitgesicht, @ since (hat )atters )ost is al(ays %hich ele)ents are realistically rendered. 'here can e no dou t, ho(ever, a out the )eanin! of (hat - (ould call the @learned usts@: portrait usts (earin! only the 2reek hi)ation and often leavin! )ost of the chest are. F'hese eco)e popular in the sa)e period (hen the eard is eco)in! lon!erG. 'hey are ?uite different fro) the co)pletely nude usts of athletes and )ust rather e understood as a kind of a reviated for) of the Classical 2reek draped statue, or perhaps of the ascetic 9ellenistic philosopher type. -t is difficult to decide fro) the usts alone (hether a particular e&a)ple is )eant to cele rate the su /ect )ore !enerally for his classical learnin! or for specific philosophical pursuits. 'his is a ?uestion to (hich (e shall return. 'hese @learned usts@ (ere e?ually popular in oth >ast and 7est.D"JE 'heir nu) ers and !eo!raphical distri ution alone prove that a 2reek education had eco)e a crucial ele)ent in the self: definition and pu lic i)a!e of the kind of )en (ho could afford such a ust, in all parts of the >)pire. 'o e sure, the <o)an citi0en ust or statue type in to!a, the ust (earin! cuirass or 'alu#amentum, oth e) odyin! the ideal of /irtus, have not een entirely replaced y the @learned ust,@ ut at least (e can say that this ne( sy) ol no( takes its place a)on! the others as a perfectly respecta le alternative.

% BBJ %

4i!. 1BB a5f Portraits of the +ate ,ntonine and *everan periods in the !uise of intellectuals. *ources: see p. 1J$ n. "5. % BB$ %

4i!. 1B" Bust of a <o)an citi0en in the !uise of a philosopher. ,ntonine period. 'hessaloniki, ,rchaeolo!ical .useu). -n those instances (here a portrait head sho(in! the features of the Classical intellectual is co) ined (ith a ust draped in the 2reek hi)ation, as is the case, for e&a)ple, (ith t(o splendid 2reek usts in 'hessaloniki Ffi!. 1B"G and Budapest, as (ell as a (hole series of others fro) <o)e and the 7estern and >astern provinces, )ost archaeolo!ists have not hesitated to identify the su /ects as professional philosophers or rhetoricians.D"$E But the considera le nu) er of these usts alone )akes this unlikely. <ather, as (ith the kosmetai, (e are pro a ly dealin! here (ith )e) ers of the ur an Klite (ho (ished to advertise their classical education ut, unlike the kosmetai, not necessarily (ith reference to a specific )odel. % BB9 % -n certain cases, especially a)on! e&a)ples fro) 2reece itself, the physio!no)y is assi)ilated so closely to that of a fa)ous 2reek fi!ure of the past that the su /ectCs individuality is all ut lost. 'his pheno)enon should not overly distur us, for other <o)ans had for so)e ti)e adapted their o(n faces to that of the rei!nin! e)peror. ;o(, ho(ever, there is another authority, alon!side the i)perial fa)ily, as a role )odel after (hich to pattern oneself and oneCs i)a!e. -n the 2reek >ast, the effects of this can also e read in funerary and honorific inscriptions. 'he epithet 'hiloso'hos is (idely used and )ay even take precedence over the )ore e&pected 'hilokaisar and 'hilo'atris .D"9E ;evertheless, - (ish to e)phasi0e that not every full eard si!nifies a passionate intellectual, nor (as there any shorta!e of co)petin! styles and values e&pressed in portraiture of the very period (hen the ,ntonine eard (as at its hei!ht, and especially the period that follo(ed. 7e need only think of the lush curly locks of a +ucius Herus, (ho (as said to have sprinkled !old dust in his hair F)ist. Aug., Capitol. Herus 1#.JG, or of the cre( cuts of the soldier:e)perors. But a)id this rivalry of sy) olic state)ents, and perhaps ecause of it, the intellectual i)a!e re)ained for ?uite so)e ti)e an influential standard in oth >ast and 7est. -t (as ?uite possi le, for e&a)ple, to co) ine the portrait type of the third:century soldier:e)peror, pro/ectin! tou!hness and ener!y, (ith a ust clad in the philosopherCs )antle or even a full statue in the pose of a classical philosopher. *uch co) inations indeed occur in t(o of four statues found recently in a (ealthy house at 1ion, adoptin! the pose of the seated >picurus Ffi!s. 1B6, 1B5G.D6#E 'he other t(o statues had portrait heads (ith lon! eards Fin one instance only partially preservedG of the +ate ,ntonine/*everan @intellectual@ type. -t is entirely possi le that the !roup does not represent

philosophers and their pupils, ut rather a fa)ily of the 2reek aristocracy (ho (ere devotees of philosophy and learnin! and (anted to sho( off their cultivated (ay of life in an ostentatious fa)ily portrait !allery. 'he older !eneration still (ears the @philosopherCs eard@ fashiona le in the +ate ,ntonine period Ffi!. 1B5aG, (hile the youn!er adopts the 5eitgesicht ased on the portrait types of Caracalla and su se?uent e)perors Ffi!. 1B5 G. 'he fact that all four had the)selves sho(n in the pose of >picurus % B"# %

4i!. 1B6 *tatue !roup fro) a (ealthy residence in 1ion F.acedoniaG. *everal period. 1ion, .useu). coul# i)ply that they (anted to ackno(led!e the)selves as follo(ers of >picurean philosophy, ut need not. ,s (e shall see, the icono!raphy of 9ellenistic philosopher portraits (as rather eclectically used, not al(ays adherin! strictly to the ori!inal connotations. 'he pose of the >picurus statue (as pro a ly favored ecause it !ives the appearance of the upstandin! citi0en (ith one ar) enveloped and the )antle properly draped. 'his (ould appeal especially to (ould: e intellectuals of the our!eoisie in the 2reek >ast, (here Classical drapery styles (ere still ein! (orn.D61E -f this proposition is correct, then (e )ust consider (hether other supposed philosopher statues of the sa)e period, such as the so: called ,elius ,ristides in the Hatican +i rary, )i!ht not also rather represent an intellectual lay)an. 8ne could easily i)a!ine a statue like this in the conte&t of a portrait !allery in (hich the honorand (as depicted in a variety of costu)es, each pro/ectin! different virtues Fcf. p. BJ9G.D6BE % B"1 %

4i!. 1B5 a5 '(o seated statues fro) the !roup in 1ion. 1ion, .useu). *uperficially, (e are dealin! here (ith the sa)e pheno)enon as the t(o re(orked statues of poets in the Hatican of ca. 5# B.C. Fcf. fi!. 11#G: a 2reek ody type taken over to stand for the idea of intellectual activity. But no( it is not a pheno)enon li)ited to an aristocratic and e&clusive culture of otium, conferrin! the notion of 2reek learnin! on an Klite stratu) in the +ate <epu lic. <ather, learnin! is no( a !en: % B"B % erally reco!ni0ed ideal in <o)e itself, one that is pu licly ackno(led!ed and leads to the ac?uisition of hi!h status and even political office. ,s (e (ould e&pect, under these conditions professional intellectuals of all types traded in their to!a for a 2reek hi)ation as the pu lic insi!ne of their career. ,t least this (as true in the 7estA in the >ast, such differentiation (as not possi le, since everyone (ore the hi)ation. -n Cartha!e around the year

,.1. B1#, if (e )ay elieve the testi)ony of 'ertullian, @si)ple ele)entary schoolteachers, teachers of fi!ures, !ra))ar, rhetoric, and dialectics, as (ell as doctors, poets, )usicians, astrolo!ers, au!urs, in short, everyone (ho cares a out scholarly pursuits, (ears the 2reek )antle@ F!e 'allio MG. -t (as pro a ly the ne( position of authority no( accorded the leadin! orators and philosophers )ore than anythin! else that in the +ate ,ntonine a!e induced ordinary teachers and doctors to identify (ith their i)a!e. , fine e&a)ple fro) <o)e itself is the under:life:si0e statue of the grammaticus graecus .. .ettius >paphroditus, a freed)an in <o)e (hose for)er slave 2er)anus set up the statue, )ost likely as a funerary )onu)ent. >paphroditus sits on a raised teacherCs chair, thou!h he is not actually sho(n !ivin! instruction, like the ele)entary schoolteacher on the fa)ous relief in 'rier. 9e holds in his left hand a ook roll, in (hich he has een readin! For perhaps readin! aloudG, and no( conte)plates (hat he has /ust read, turnin! his head to the side and lookin! up Ffi!. 1BMG.D6"E 'he fact that 2er)anus had his 'atronus sho(n in this )editative pose su!!ests that he (anted to co))e)orate hi) not si)ply as a teacher, ut as a )an (ho cultivated a philosophical (ay of life. 'ertullianCs inclusion of doctors in this !roup can also e corro orated y the archaeolo!ical evidence. , (ell:kno(n stri!ilated sarcopha!us of the late third or early fourth century, no( in ;e( Tork, sho(s a physician fro) 8stia. 9e, too, is a reader, sittin! at ho)e ne&t to a ca inet in (hich (e can )ake out )ore ook rolls and a dish Fperhaps for openin! veinsG, and, a ove, a set of sur!ical instru)ents, propped up so that (e can see the) etter. -n other (ords, the (isdo) and learnin! of the ancients are )ore i)portant to this individual than % B"" %

4i!. 1BM 4unerary, statue of the grammaticus Graecus .. .ettius >paphroditus. *everan period. <o)e, Pala00o ,ltieri. the tools of his trade.D66E Under the >arly >)pire, in contrast, physicians and teachers had )odeled the)selves on the !eneral i)a!e of the <o)an citi0en, clad in the to!a and (earin! a hairstyle derived fro) that of -)perial portraiture.D65E

A.ule%us an) the Case of the Unco*3e) /a%r

7hen the (riter ,puleius, (ho ca)e fro) .adaura in ;orth ,frica, )arried a (ealthy (ido( a out ,.1. 1M#, her fa)ily, fearin! the loss of their inheritance, ensnared hi) in a la(suit on char!es of )a!ic that % B"6 % could have had serious conse?uences.D6ME 9e (as also accused, a)on! other thin!s, of passin! hi)self off as a philosopher under false pretences. ,s evidence they cited his handso)e and carefully tended appearance, descri in! hi), ironically, as 'hiloso'hus formosus . -nstead of philosophy, they clai)ed, he (as really practicin! the )a!ical arts, that is, he had e(itched the (ido(. 'hus if a )an (anted to e ackno(led!ed pu licly as a philosopher, at least accordin! to ,puleiusC accusers and the people of *a ratha, (here the trial took place, the one thin! he could not appear (as handso)e. ,puleius at first

responded (ith a learned defense, in (hich he cited e&a)ples of handso)e 2reek philosophers, includin! Pytha!oras, ut then continued: ,nd yet this sort of defense does not suit a )an of )y hu) le appearance. 'he constant strain of study has drained all the char)s of )y ody, ent )y posture, dried out )y vital /uices, turned )y face pale, and crippled )y po(ers. ,nd as for )y hair, (hich these ra0en liars clai) to e (orthy of a seducer: /ust look at it, and see ho( ele!ant and seductive it isO '(isted and tan!led, stiff like stra(, strin!y, clotted in little lu)ps, it has een untended for so lon! that it could never e disentan!led, let alone co) ed or parted. FA'ol. 6.1G Undou tedly this is ho( ,puleius appeared in court, other(ise his elo?uent defense (ould have see)ed ludicrous. 'he learned proconsul Claudius .a&i)us (as (on over and declared hi) not !uilty. Tet his accusers (ere pro a ly not the @sha)eless liars@ he clai)ed the) to e. 4or as a cele rated rhetorician, priest in the i)perial cult, and suitor for the hand of the (ido(, he cannot have appeared in pu lic (ith un(ashed hair all the ti)e. 'he citi0ens of Cartha!e cele rated hi), in the inscription eneath his honorific statue, as 'hiloso'hus 'latonicus,D6JE and such a co)parison had al(ays con/ured up a (ell:tended appearance Fcf. p. B6#G. 7e can conclude only that ,puleius deli erately played a variety of roles, dependin! on the e&i!encies of a particular situation. ,nd this is pro a ly true of other fa)ous intellectuals of the second century as (ell, (ho )oved, as I. 9ahn put it, @in that shado(y 0one et(een philosophy and the *ophists.@ % B"5 % 'he case of ,puleius sho(s that there (as a certain pressure on the professional intellectual (ho (as also a pu lic fi!ure to define his o(n i)a!e, that is, to declare hi)self as either rhetorician/*ophist or philosopher. 7hen a (ell:kno(n fi!ure officially )ade the transition fro) one profession to the other, this )i!ht even e sta!ed as a kind of pu lic ritual. 4or e&a)ple, (hen one ,ristokles, a Per!a)ene aristocrat, !ave up his affiliation (ith the Peripatos and eca)e a rhetorician and pupil of 9erodes ,tticus, he also renounced his earlier disre!ard for his o(n appearance, (ith unco) ed hair and filthy clothes Fthese had evidently eco)e !enerally reco!ni0ed sy) ols of the philosophical (ay of life, irrespective of (hich school one elon!ed toG, and took on not only a soi!nK i)a!e ut also the appropriate friends. 4ro) no( on he (ould cultivate a life of lu&ury and pleasure, replete (ith )usic, theatre, and an?uets FPhilostr. 3S B.".5MJG. ,nd (hen Pere!rinus Proteus did the reverse, takin! the @vo(s@ of a strict philosophical life and, like a )edieval saint, !ivin! a(ay his inheritance to the city of Parion, this (as done in the for) of a pu lic spectacle, at (hich the people cheered his conversion, shoutin!: @Tea, thou art truly a philosopher, truly a patriot, a true follo(er of 1io!enes and =rates@ F+ucian Peregr. 15G.D6$E 'hese efforts at self:definition, and others like the), (ere @classical revivals,@ as it (ere, replayin! the old de ate et(een -socrates and Plato on (hat should take precedence in the education of the youn!. But the insistence upon a funda)ental distinction et(een the t(o (ays of life cannot have een )irrored in the actual practices of daily life, (hich (as )arked rather y continual co)pro)ise. -ndicative of this is the (ay that Philostratus speaks of @the philosophical oratory@ of the ancient *ophists F3S 1.6$#G. -t is a!ainst this ack!round, - elieve, that a (hole series of unusual portraits eco)es intelli!i le. , (ell:kno(n ust in Hienna has lon! een taken to e that of a ar arian, on account of the unke)pt, al)ost rava!ed appearance Ffi!. 1BJG.D69E -n fact, the head could e an illustration of ,puleiusC )as?uerade in court. 'he lon!, coarse, and irre!ularly tri))ed hair is presented as a hopelessly tan!led

)ass of thickly )atted strands a!ainst (hich no co) (ould stand a chance. 'he short eard !ro(s irre!ularly and is as (ild and unke)pt as the % B"M %

4i!. 1BJ Bust of a )an in the !uise of a serious philosopher. Ca. ,.1. 1M#. Hienna, =unsthistorisches .useu). hair. -n addition, u!ly traits like the scar and a (anderin! eye are e)phasi0ed. 'he lo(er part of the ust, (ith its 2reek hi)ation, (hich is not )odern restoration, confir)s that this individual is indeed a )an (ho (ishes to proclai) his adherence to a ri!orous philosophical (ay of life. ,n earlier, 9adrianic head of an old )an is no less unke)pt and like(ise lays clai) to the life:style of a Cynic philosopher, since his (ild hair is a virtual ?uotation fro) portraits like that of ,ntisthenes Ffi!. 1B$G. D5#E % B"J %

4i!. 1B$ Portrait of an ,thenian characteri0ed as a @ne( ,ntisthenes.@ ,ntonine period. ,thens, ;ational .useu). Both these heads co)e fro) ,thens, the )ecca of the cult of learnin! in the -)perial period, as also do the portraits of the kosmetai, (hich re)ain the )ost i)pressive e&a)ples of the revival of the @ancient 2reek@ i)a!e. But even in <o)e itself there (ere )en (ho valued an i)a!e of strict philosophical o servance. 'hus, for e&a)ple, a portrait in the Capitoline .useu) presents a ha!!ard old )an (ith ill:te)pered e&pression, his hair )atted in little clu)ps and a lon! @Pytha!orean@ eard that (ould defy any co) Ffi!. 1B9G.D51E *uch e&tre)e instances are, to e sure, not very nu)erous. -nterestin!ly, the types )ost co))only )et are co)pro)ises, unitin! varied icono!raphical ele)ents into an eclectic co) ination. >vidently the )a/ority of )en (ho pri0ed the philosophical i)a!e also (anted to appear at the sa)e ti)e cos)opolitan and thus co) ined features % B"$ %

4i!. 1B9 Bust of a philosopher, or of a <o)an citi0en leadin! a strict philosophical life. <o)e, Capitoline .useu).

of philosophical seriousness (ith those of a our!eois ur anity. -n another portrait fro) ,thens, for e&a)ple3this one found on the ,cropolis3the styli0ation of the hair across the forehead is clearly an allusion to ,ntisthenes, the ori!inal Cynic, (hile the eard and facial e&pression, in contrast, look carefully tended, and even the hair rela&es into !entle locks as it )oves to(ard the sides Ffi!. 1"#G.D5BE 'he fi!ure fro) the 1ion !roup discussed earlier, (ith the lon! eard and the >picurean ody, has a hairstyle that is rather in the tradition of ,ntisthenes and, strictly speakin!, does not suit at all the proper our!eois pose of the statue of >picurus Ffi!. 1B5aG. 8nce (e have eco)e attuned to this pheno)enon, it eco)es clear that there e&ists a (hole series of heads (ith noticea ly unke)pt hair, for (hich (e )ust consider the possi ility that the su /ect in: % B"9 %

4i!. 1"# @;e( ,ntisthenes@ fro) the ,cropolis. ,ntonine period. ,thens, ,cropolis .useu).

4i!. 1"1 Portrait of an anony)ous conte)porary of +ucius Herus, ca. ,.1. 1M#. <o)e, 'er)e .useu). tended in this (ay to call attention to his ascetic (ay of life. 'he )ost strikin! e&a)ples co)e once a!ain fro) ,thens, ut ?uite a fe( have een found in the 7est as (ell.D5"E 'he story of ,puleiusC day in court confir)s that this trait (as indeed !enerally understood as a sy) ol of asceticis). ,n even earlier e&a)ple of this pheno)enon )ay e seen in the splendid 9adrianic shoulder ust fro) <o)e, no( in Copenha!en Ffi!. 1"BG.D56E 'he carvin! of the locks of hair is a tour de force, ut the )ass of thick clu)ps could e )eant to look )atted and unco) ed, especially since the youn! )an has had hi)self depicted (ith no under!ar)ent and (ith a skeptical, al)ost !lo(erin! look. +ike(ise, the su /ect of a (ell:kno(n head in the 'er)e .useu) in <o)e Ffi!. 1"1G, once erroneously taken to e a portrait of +ucius % B6# %

4i!. 1"B Bust of a dandy (ith philosophical pretensions. 9adrianic period. Copenha!en, ;y Carls er! 2lyptotek. Herus, )i!ht have used the sa)e )eans to pro/ect a philosophical i)a!e.D55E 4or the )odern vie(er it is of course not al(ays easy Fparticularly (ith the state of preservation of so)e headsG to distin!uish et(een an artfully arran!ed (i! and naturally (ild hair. Tet the case of ,puleius )akes it clear that definin! oneself as an ascetic no lon!er entailed an

identification (ith a particular philosophical school. ,puleius, after all, (ho oasted in court of his CynicCs unke)pt hair, (as re!arded as a Platonist, (hile 'heon of *)yrna, a conte)porary of 9adrian, (ho is like(ise desi!nated as 'latonikos 'hiloso'hos on a ust fro) *)yrna no( in the Capitoline .useu) Ffi!. 1""G, has a (ell:tended appearance (ith the close:cropped hair that traditionally )arked the *toic Fcf p. 111G.D5ME 9e, too, apparently % B61 %

4i!. 1"" Bust of the Platonic philosopher 'heon. 9adrianic period. <o)e, Capitoline .useu). (ished to e considered a @)oderate@ ascetic. 'his (ould also e&plain (hy the conte)porary kosmetes in ,thens (ho is other(ise so re)iniscent of Plato (ears his hair cut very short Ffi!. 11MG. 7e do not kno( (here )ost of these usts (ere ori!inally displayed and (hether the )a/ority of the) represent a professional philosopher or a @lay)an.@ But the lar!e nu) er of usts earin! a @philosophical@ look in itself su!!ests that )ost are lay)en. 'he ori!inal vie(er pro a ly could not distin!uish either, in the a sence of an inscription or kno(led!e of the individual. But the visual evidence tends to confir) the ar!u)ent that in this period philosophy (as less concerned (ith the clear definition of specific schools of thou!ht than (ith pro)otin! a spiritually oriented attitude and (ay of life.D5JE 'hese % B6B % portraits, then, stand in sharp contrast to the ori!inal portraits of the !reat philosophers of the third century B.C. , (hich had dra(n clear distinctions a)on! the various life:styles and philosophical orientations. 'he conte)porary philosopher 1e)ona&, (ho (as so revered y +ucian For perhaps invented y hi)G, e&plicitly ad)its to a kind of eclecticis) in the )atter of acade)ic teachin!s and sees the philosophical (ay of life as the true essence of all philosophical thou!ht F+ucian !emon .G. ,sceticis), the renunciation of lu&ury, and continual )ental e&ercise had eco)e the asic co)ponents of philosophy in all the different schools. ;e!lect of oneCs out(ard appearance (as the visi le sy) ol of this (ay of life and proclai)ed a co))it)ent to a for) of self:fulfill)ent ased on strict )oral principles. 'hus (hen an other(ise ele!ant !entle)an like the Platonist 'heon had his hair cut short, this (as pro a ly a none:too:su tle indication that he (anted to e taken )ore seriously. 'hose individuals (ho had the)selves portrayed (ith unke)pt hair and !lo(erin! )ien )ay on occasion actually have appeared in pu lic this (ay, like ,puleius in court. 'his (ould in turn i)ply that pro/ectin! such an i)a!e did not necessarily do any har) to a )anCs reputation a)on! his social e?uals and the co))unity at lar!e. *elf:control (as no( the )ark of a )an of distinction and /ustified his social status. , re!i)en of daily )ental e&ercise (as indispensa le. 'he e)peror .arcus ,urelius is one a)on! )any (ho ai)ed to put into practice a philosophical (ay of life. 9is Me#itations (ere )eant to instill self:control and to e a re)inder of the philosophical principles that should !overn our lives. 'hese e&ercises (ere not practiced alone, ut as part of an interchan!e (ith like:)inded individuals under the !uidance of an instructor. 'hey (ere in turn co)ple)ented y the practice of a physical asceticis), as in the re!i)en of the )onastery, thou!h (e learn little of this in our sources. But (e )ay presu)e that .arcus ,urelius (as

/ust one of )any (ho slept on the floor as a token of his ascetic nature and to set an e&a)ple for others F)ist. Aug., .. ,nt. B.M5JG. <estraint in oth eatin! and se&ual activity reflect a concern for ody as (ell as spirit. 'he sa)e attention (as devoted to oth )aintainin! a certain diet and controllin! the di!estion. % B6" %

The Ele$ant Intellectual

'he leadin! orators of the day (ere the e&act opposite of the philosophers in their pu lic i)a!e. 'hey (ore e&trava!ant clothin!, reeked of precious scent, and e&pended enor)ous effort on the care of oth hair and ody. ,le&ander of *eleucia, for e&a)ple, (ho) so)e considered the son of ,pollonius of 'yana, possessed a eauty that (as like a @divine epiphany@ Fif (e )ay elieve PhilostratusG. 'he ,thenians (ere into&icated @ y the splendor of his lar!e eyes, the lush locks of his eard, the perfect line of his nose, his (hite teeth, and lon! slender fin!ers,@ even efore he opened his )outh to speak F3A B.5.5J#5J1G. ,nd yet their conte)poraries also attacked the *ophists, (hose lu&urious (ays they so ad)ired, for their !reed. 'his, too, of course, is a classici0in! topos. 'he pu lic appearances of these superstars (ho elicited such ad)iration (ere y no )eans li)ited to speech )akin!. Pole)on of +aodicea in ,sia .inor Fca. ,.1. $$5166G, one of the )ost rilliant @concert speakers@ of his day, traveled (ith @a lon! train of pack ani)als, )any horses, slaves and do!s of various reeds for different types of huntin!. But he hi)self traveled in a Phry!ian or Celtic (a!on (ith silver trappin!s@ FPhilostr. 3S B5.5""G. 9is o(n arro!ance (as a )atch for his appearance. 7e (ould e&pect to find portraits of such )en )arked y a strikin! ele!ance and fashiona le touches. Tet unlike the i)a!es of ascetic philosophers, those of the ele!ant *ophists cannot (ith certainty e identified a)on! the plethora of preserved portraiture of the ,ntonine and *everan periods. -f (e take the portrait of 9erodes ,tticus as our standard Ffi!. 1"6G, it is not all that different fro) those of other kosmetai derived fro) +ate Classical )odels.D5$E 'he sa)e is true of the portrait of a rhetorician and enefactor of the city of >phesus in *everan ti)es (hose identity is unfortunately unkno(n to us. 'he portrait stood in the i)perial hall of the !y)nasiu) of Hedius and reveals itself as that of an orator throu!h its ,eschines:like pose.D59E But this is not really so surprisin!, since these Classical faces sufficed to e&press the intellectual pretensions of the orator. -n addition, they can hardly have (anted their pu lic portraits to fuel even )ore the char!es of lu2uria constantly ein! )ade a!ainst the). 8n the con: % B66 %

4i!. 1"6 Bust of the rhetorician and states)an 9erodes ,tticus Fca. 1#151JJG. Paris, +ouvre. trary, (e )ay suppose that )ost of the) (ished to co) ine their )an:of:the:(orld ele!ance (ith a hint of philosophical seriousness, thou!h not !oin! as far as to !ive an i)pression of the severity of the Cynics or the tou!hness of the *toics. ,part fro) 9erodes ,tticus there are, unfortunately, no securely identified portraits of the cele rity

orators. Tet a statue like that of +. ,ntonius Claudius 1o)etinus 1io!enes, the patron and @la(!iver@ of ,phrodisias, @father and !randfather of <o)an senators,@ )ay !ive so)e idea of the splendid pu lic i)a!e of such )en. Ffi!. 1"5G.DM#E ,s a si!n of his priestly office he (ears a diade) adorned (ith portraits of the city !oddess and the i)perial fa)ily. 'he case (ith )any ook rolls alludes to his learnin!, (hile the epithet 1io!enes e&presses his !enuine co))it)ent to the philosophical life. 'his has not stopped % B65 %

4i!. 1"5 Portrait statue of +ucius ,ntonius Claudius 1o)etinus 1io!enes, fro) the @8deon@ at ,phrodisias. >arly third century ,.1. ,phrodisias, .useu). hi), ho(ever, fro) sportin! an ela orate coiffure that could hold its o(n a!ainst that of a +ucius Herus. 8ther portraits of this period, such as those of t(o )a!istrates fro) *)yrna, no( in Brussels, are re)arka le for their ele!antly styled eards and yet (ear their hair closely tri))ed, like 'heon the Plato: % B6M %

4i!. 1"M Bust of the !reat orator Pole)on Fca. 9#5165G, ,thens, ;ational .useu). nist. -n his case, (e took this *toic trait as a su tle su!!estion of a philosophical seriousness.DM1E ,nton 9ekler )ade the attractive, ut entirely hypothetical, su!!estion that a ust found in the 8ly)pieion at ,thens represents the a ove:)entioned Pole)on of +aodicea Ffi!. 1"MG. -t (as he (ho, in ,.1. 1"1 in the presence of the e)peror 9adrian, delivered the dedication speech for the 8ly)pieion. 9e spoke passionately and, in the ,siatic aro?ue tradition of oratory, did not shy a(ay fro) such dra)atic effects as leapin! up fro) his throne. 'he portraitCs dra)atic turn of the head and the )annered !a0e, uni?ue in the portraiture of the <o)an >)pire, (ould (ell suit such an occasion, particularly since it is reported of Pole)on that throu!hout the speech he kept his !a0e fi&ed on a sin!le spot.DMBE 'he search for a specific portrait type for the *ophists see)s to lead % B6J % to a dead end. 4or the ti)e ein!, at least, (e cannot detect one (ith certainty a)on! the preserved )aterial. ,nd yet the e&a)ples (e have /ust considered sho( that, alon!side the portraits of a)ateur intellectuals (ith Classical faces and the unke)pt hair of the true ascetic, there (ere others (ith an ele!antly soi!nK appearance steeped in lu&ury. -t see)s unlikely in these instances that the are chest under a philosopherCs )antle should e taken literally, (ith its ori!inal connotation of the tou!henin! of

the ody throu!h physical deprivation, as in the statues of Chrysippus and other 9ellenistic philosophers. ,s (e have seen, usts of this type are ?uite co))on startin! in the 9adrianic period. <ather, this feature has pro a ly eco)e si)ply a for)ula si!nifyin! 2reek:style 'ai#eia .

The Past %n the Present, R%tuals of Re*e*3rance

'o su))ari0e thus far, (e have seen ho( the upper echelons of society (ere steadily takin! on a ne( cultivated look. 7hether they did this si)ply y the unthinkin! adoption of a ne(ly fashiona le eard and 5eitgesicht or consciously )odeled the)selves on specific prototypes, (hether they looked this (ay in real life or only in their portraits, there can e no dou t that a )anCs i)a!e in society (as defined usin! stereotypes fro) the oneti)e icono!raphy of the intellectual. F'he fact that such stereotypes functioned as such only su se?uent to their creation )ade no difference.G 'he eard is the asic standard y (hich (e can )easure the pro!ress of this process of transfor)ation. 'he pheno)enon had its ori!ins in ,thens, and it (as there and in other cities of the 2reek >ast that this )as?uerade (ent to the !reatest e&tre)es. But in the 7est too, in the course of the ,ntonine period, conte)porary faces are !radually assi)ilated to those of the u i?uitous usts of an earlier a!e. 9o( are (e to understand this pheno)enonN 8r rather, is there really a pheno)enon here at allN 4irst of all, - cannot stress enou!h that this (as not si)ply a pheno)enon of the visual arts ut shaped the real (orld of daily life as (ell. 'he (earin! of a eard and the cultivation of an intellectual i)a!e (ere y no )eans restricted to Klite circles, a rarified social !a)e % B6$ % like playin! at ein! shepherds in the a!e of the rococo. 4or the <o)ans, the settin! (as the pu lic arena. ,s - have noted, there is no dou t ut that the portraits and their costu)es to so)e e&tent reflect the pu lic identity and appearance of the su /ect. F7hether this reverence for hi!h culture e&tended to (alkin! the streets half:naked in )id(inter as an e&ercise in asceticis) one )ay (ell ?uestion.G ;evertheless, (e )ust understand the @learned eard@ (orn y so )any )en (ithin its lar!er conte&t. -t is ut one of )any facets of the collective strivin! to evoke in the present the cultural achieve)ents of the past. 'he notion of a @<enaissance@ often used of this period carries the (ron! connotations. -t (as not a )atter of tryin! to rin! ack to life so)ethin! lon! dead, ut rather of clai)in! that this !lorious past (as not really past at all ut lived on in the present. 'o support this clai), a (hole series of cultural activities served to con/ure up the past, and a road cross section of society took part, so)e )ore actively than others. 'he scenario can e est o served in ,thens and else(here in 2reece. 4ittschen has recently called attention to a !roup of portraits of youths and youn! )en, )ostly found in 2reece, (hich, (ith their lon! flo(in! hair and heroic or ele!iac e&pressions, often )ake a distinctly ro)antic i)pression Ffi!. 1"JG.DM"E Usually the portrait is co) ined (ith a nude ust, intended to recall Classical statues of heroes and athletes, as opposed to the @intellectual ust@ partially draped in the hi)ation. 4ittschen has detected in this fashion an assi)ilation to ,le&ander the 2reat, and, indeed, so)e of the hairstyles are ?uite close to those of ,le&anderCs portraits. But in the case of a nu) er of these youn! )en, (ho occasionally (ear a short eard as (ell, identifyin! the source of the hairstyle in the portraiture of ,le&ander does not !ive the full story. 4or the conte)porary vie(er, the ran!e of associations of these portraits )ust have een )uch roader. 'he variety of hairstyles (orn y youn! )en startin! (ith ,ntinoos is particularly strikin!. - elieve the lon! hair represents rather a !eneral reference to the Classical i)a!e of the youn! hero. 'his does not, of course, rule out a specific reference in so)e instances to ,le&ander, (hose o(n portraits are in turn closely linked to i)a!es of ,chilles. .any ancient authors, fro) 9o)er on do(n, speak of ,chillesC lond hair and the eautiful

% B69 %

4i!. 1"J Portrait of a youn! ,thenian in the !uise of the epic heroes. ,ntonine period. ,thens, ;ational .useu). lon! locks of other heroes. @4ro) his head she )ade the thick locks descend like hyacinth,@ says 9o)er of 8dysseus, (hen ,thena has transfor)ed hi) into a da00lin! youth after his landin! on the island of the Phaeacians F*#. M.B"#G. 'his and other co)para le passa!es are cited y 1io of Prusa in his (ncomium of )air . *ynesius of Cyrene found 1ioCs treatise so char)in! that he ?uoted parts of it in his o(n Praise of "al#ness . Conte)porary <o)an vie(ers (ho (ere not so steeped in the poetic tradition (ould nevertheless have understood the connotations of lon! hair, thanks to the )any )ytholo!ical scenes in (all paintin! and on floor )osaics and carved sarcopha!i. % B5# % ,nd the ro)antic hero (as not to e found only in the visual arts. ,t .arathon 9erodes ,tticus encountered a real:life 9erakles, (ho) he invited ho)e Fhe did not, ho(ever, acceptG. 9erodes (ent huntin! (ith his @sons@ ,chilles, .e)non, and Polydeukion. ,fter their early deaths, he honored the) like heroes, (ith funerary !a)es and an?uets, and erected stelai, her)s, and altars to the) on his vast estates. 'he 9eroic ,!e of )yth should carry on ri!ht into the present.DM6E 'he story of 9erodes is not a uni?ue instance of the evocation of the )ythical past, only unusual in its di)ensions. 8nly recently there appeared on the art )arket a )a!nificent ust, pro a ly fro) 2reece, representin! a youn! )an as a ne( 1io)edes.DM5E 7o)enCs fashions also started to look ack at ti)es )ore or less directly to Classical )odels, to /ud!e fro) survivin! statues and sculpture in relief. 8n the hundreds of preserved ,ttic !ravestones of the >arly >)pire and later, the (o)en are al)ost e&clusively depicted in one of t(o +ate Classical statue types, kno(n in archaeolo!ical parlance as the @!rande 9erculanYse@ and the @petite 9erculanYse.@ -t is hard to i)a!ine that actual clothin!, especially (hat (as (orn on festival days, could have looked very different. 'he )en on the !ravestones and in honorific statuary are also portrayed in a Classical costu)e that !oes ack to the fourth century. ,t least in the )atter of clothin!, the past truly did live on in the present. 'his pheno)enon is not li)ited to ,thens. 7herever in the >)pire su stantial nu) ers of honorary fe)ale statues have een found, they inevita ly elon! to one of a very fe( Classical or 9ellenistic types. 'here are, of course, variations in individual preference, ut the asic dependence on a relatively s)all nu) er of )odels dra(n fro) earlier 2reek art re)ains unchan!ed throu!h the first t(o centuries of our era. 'he intellectual i)a!e (as thus only one of several @costu)es@ that conte)porary individuals could put on in order to turn the)selves into @ancient 2reeks@ and, in so doin!, de)onstrate the un roken continuity of classical culture.DMME -n ,thens and other 2reek cities of lon! standin!, at least the actors in this )as?uerade, these latter:day *ophists, heroes, philosophers, and ro)antic youths, had a !enuinely ancient sta!e settin! on (hich to appear. -n )any instances these

% B51 % places no( received a )a/or face:lift: (e need only think of 9adrianCs !reat uildin! pro!ra) in ,thens and especially of the 8ly)pieion, after so )any centuries and so )any patrons no( finally co)pleted thanks to the e)peror. 'hese )onu)ents of the past (ere real enou!h and encoura!ed people to elieve that they (ere not si)ply livin! in a drea) (orld. ,lon! (ith the costu)es and the sta!e sets ca)e a variety of retrospective rituals. 7e have already noted, in discussin! the literary dilettantes and the pu lic and private poetry readin!s of the >arly >)pire, ho( in !eneral nonpolitical activities and neutral for)s of e&clusive social intercourse steadily !re( under the Principate. By the ti)e of ;ero and the 4lavians, it is clear that education and intellectual pursuits have eco)e an i)portant )easure of social pro)inence. 4ro) the ti)e of 9adrian, poetry is !radually displaced y such prose !enres as learned rhetoric, alon! (ith philosophy. 'he curious pheno)enon of the *econd *ophistic, so)e of (hose ele)ents )ay e off:puttin! to us today3the fi&ation on the)es fro) the distant past, the rhetoriciansC spectacular feats of )e)ory, the pedantic strainin! to achieve the purest ,ttic dialect (ith the )ost arcane e&pressions3all this can e understood only (ithin the conte&t of an entire society stru!!lin! to revive the )e)ories of the past. 'he for)al speeches held at the !reat city festivals and Panhellenic !a)es are also part of these rituals of re)e) rance, ele)ents of an all:enco)passin! discourse in oth the pu lic and private spheres that provided the <o)ans (ith a co))unal assurance of the continuity and livin! presence of the past. ;o less than in pu lic, the private sphere and various for)s of daily social interaction (ere characteri0ed y the ack(ard:lookin! rituals of the cult of learnin!. Perhaps the )ost revealin! of these is the practice of learned conversation at the sy)posiu). 'he handy co)pendia of classical culture contained in the Attic .ights of ,ulus 2ellius and the fifteen volu)es of ,thenaeusC !ei'noso'histai, and even earlier in the nine ooks of PlutarchCs -on/ersations at Ta,le FCuaestiones con/i/iales G, offer a (ide spectru) of useful kno(led!e of all kinds, or!ani0ed the)atically: )ythical and historical, literary and philolo!ical, scientific and philosophical, anti?uarian, a struse, and fantastic. 4ro) these % B5B % (orks (e !ain an authentic Fand also ideali0edG picture of the topics, vie(s, and ar!u)ents that (ere likely to co)e up in learned conversation after a )eal. ,s in the rhetorical sho(pieces delivered in pu lic, here too in these evenin! conversations a !ood )e)ory and )ental alertness (ere all: i)portant. But the strenuous effort re?uired (as )iti!ated y the fact that no one e&pected ori!inality. <ather, intellectual pro(ess could e de)onstrated ti)e and a!ain y callin! up the sa)e topics, the sa)e e&e)pla dra(n fro) )yth and history. ,s odd as this sounds to us, it is not so lon! a!o that it (as still co))on practice in >urope to prepare in advance for a dinner party. -n so)e places the topics of conversation planned for the evenin! (ere indicated on the invitation so that one could prepare (ith the help of such conversation )anuals as -saac dC-sraeliCs -uriosities .DMJE ,t the ancient dinner ta le, (hatever the su /ect, (hether hetairai or philosophers, culinary delicacies or the intricacies of prose style, the e&a)ples cited al(ays ca)e fro) the distant past, the paradi!)s fro) the (orld of )yth, and any advice or precedent (as centuries old. -n short, this (as an a!e of, as it (ere, livin! classicis), (hich shaped )uch of oth art and life. 'he )ost cele rated intellectuals (ere co)petin! for )ore than /ust pu lic reco!nition. 2len Bo(ersock has sho(n ho( they often ca)e to rank a)on! the leadin! citi0ens of their respective cities and led the political and cultural rivalry (ith other cities, as (ell as co)petin! a)on! the)selves for the favor of the e)peror, (ho (ould a(ard the) hi!her and hi!her pu lic office.DM$E 'he e)perors

the)selves even fell under the s(ay of this cult of the intellect and its hi!h priests. 'he leadin! *ophists eca)e their closest advisers and friends, oversa( the 2reek ureaucracy, and educated the i)perial children. 'he e)perors (ere not /ust o servers and patrons of this cult ut took an active part in it, (hether it e the ro)antici0ed pederasty of 9adrian or the introverted )editations and philosophical e&ercises of .arcus ,urelius, co)posed in 2reek. 7hile for the Klite education and intellectual pro(ess (ere an avenue to success in the co)petition for status and influence, for road strata of the prosperous our!eoisie these inevita ly eca)e tokens of social accepta ility. 'he nu) ers of those actively involved in the !eneral cra0e for learned pursuits, like the a)ateur poets, see) to have % B5" %

4i!. 1"$ *arcopha!us of the youth .arcus Cornelius, (ith scenes fro) his childhood, fro) 8stia. Ca. ,.1. 15#. Paris, +ouvre. rapidly increased. 'his is seen )ost i)pressively in the )ytholo!ical i)a!ery so popular on sarcopha!i startin! in the ti)e of 9adrian. 'he Classical i)a!ery e)ployed eco)es a for) of da00lin! and recherchK funerary rhetoric, )ournin! the deceased and cele ratin! his or her virtues y )eans of so)eti)es rather a struse alle!ories and )ytholo!ical parallels.DM9E 'hese learned i)a!es eco)e )uch )ore than )ere orna)ent and directly involve oth patron and vie(er, since the scenes echo their o(n situation Fe.!., as )ournersG or delineate a set of shared ideals. -n this (ay even private e&perience (as e&pressed throu!h learned parallels, and the ordinary vie(er felt dra(n into the discourse of hi!h culture as an active participant. ;or (as the daily life of the our!eoisie unaffected y this pheno)enon. 8n a childCs sarcopha!us of a out ,.1. 15#, the life of a oy (ho died youn! is portrayed Ffi!. 1"$G.DJ#E 7e !li)pse the interior of a our!eois household, (ith the )other herself ?uietin! an infant. 'he father, standin! near y, also partakes of the shared fa)ilial liss, ut in a curiously distanced and intellectuali0ed )anner. 9e stands in the pose of the .use Polyhy)nia, leanin! a!ainst a pillar and lost in )editation, a ook roll in his hand testifyin! to his intellectual interests: a professor in the playroo)O 8n the other side of the scene he personally instructs his no( adolescent son. 'his is a )arked departure fro) oth the conventional icono!raphy and the actual circu)stances of the a!e, at least in )ore % B56 % prosperous fa)ilies. +ater sarcopha!i (ith such scenes of readin! invaria ly feature a 2reek teacher in this role. 7hile the father here (ears a to!a, the professional tutors are depicted (earin! only a hi)ation over a are torso, to indicate their strict adherence to the philosophical life. Tet this father is other(ise sho(n like a philosopher, in his conte)plative pose. 'he (ay he holds the child in his ar), a!ain (earin! a proper to!a, is also (ithout parallel. -t (ould see) that in this instance the patron had a direct influence in deter)inin! the i)a!ery and that he (anted to pro/ect si)ultaneously a cultivated life:style and the ancient ideal of the <o)an paterfa)ilias, like the elder Cato. -t (as said that Cato liked to (atch as his (ife ?uieted their s)all son

and, @later on, hi)self instructed the oy in readin! and (ritin!, even thou!h his slave Chilon (as an acco)plished teacher of !ra))ar@ FPlut. -at. Mai. B#.6G. ,t the sa)e ti)e, the patron of our sarcopha!us could have een influenced y a conte)porary *toic philosopher fro) the school of 4avorinus, (ho insisted that even a (o)an of distinction should cradle her o(n child, since this (as the (ay of nature F2ell. 1B.1G. 'his )odest sarcopha!us sho(s ho( intellectual pretensions (ere y no( al)ost taken for !ranted a)on! the )iddle class, and ho( they (ere entirely co)pati le (ith a sense of nostal!ia for the proud traditions of <o)eCs past.DJ1E 'he clai) to universal learnin! is )ade )uch )ore spectacularly in the richly decorated funerary cha) er of the freed)an C. Halerius 9er)ia in the ce)etery underneath *t. PeterCs. 8n the principal (all of the cha) er stand five stuccoed statues in relief, the three in the )iddle representin! patron deities of the fa)ily, includin! 9er)es for prosperity Fas (ell as ein! 9er)iaCs @na)esake@G and ,thena for education. 'o either side of these three, ho(ever, stand fi!ures of intellectuals Ffi!. 1"9G. *ince oth fi!ures ear different portrait features, and the patron hi)self is sho(n (ith his fa)ily on the left:hand (all, it see)s likely that these are the teachers of the deceased (ho are so honored. 'he up(ardly )o ile for)er slave evidently shared the ideals of his e)peror, .arcus ,urelius, and (as as !rateful to his teachers as .arcus, (ho set up their !olden imagines alon!side the +ares in his do)estic shrine F)ist. Aug. , .. ,urelius ".5G. 'he t(o intellectuals % B55 %

4i!. 1"9 Philosopher and rhetorician, pro a ly the teachers of 2aius Halerius. *tucco reliefs fro) the to) of the Halerii in the necropolis under *t. PeterCs. Ca ,.1. 1J#. % B5M % on 9er)iaCs )onu)ent. it should e noted, are clearly distin!uished fro) one another in )anner and appearance. 'he elder, on the ri!ht:hand side, is easily reco!ni0ed as a philosopher y his lon! and unke)pt hair. 'he other is )ost likely the teacher of rhetoric, /ud!in! y his carefully draped !ar)ent and ele!ant coiffure.DJBE 7hen a freed)an like 9er)ia honors an ascetic philosopher as his )entor, then (e are /ustified in thinkin! that the !eneral attitude in <o)e to(ard philosophy has decidedly chan!ed for the etter since the days of 'ri)alchio. 'o e sure, peopleCs e&pectations of philosophy had also radically chan!ed. ;o )ore contentious de ates, a struse definitions, or scientifically ar!ued theses3in short, all the thin!s the <o)ans had earlier )ade fun of. -nstead, philosophy (as no( called on, first and fore)ost, as a !uide to livin! oneCs life. 'his had, of course, al(ays een the role of the house philosopher. 7hen +ivia lost her son 1rusus, she asked for 'hiloso'hum /iri sui F*en. !ial. M.6G. 'his casual co))ent sho(s that philosophyCs role as consolation (as already (ell esta lished at this ti)e. *u se?uently, ho(ever, people turned to philosophy not only for learned conversation or in )o)ents of !reat need, ut as a funda)ental !uide to life. -t (as their !ro(in! @care of the self@ that rou!ht people under the >)pire to philosophy and to the philosophers Fas (ell as to )ystery reli!ions and others pro)isin! salvationG. ;either the state reli!ion nor the i)perial cult could offer anythin! here, ut a strict )ental and physical re!i)en )i!ht.

Physician and philosopher /oined forces, for oth tau!ht the principles and standards of ehavior, and oth counseled their @patients@ (ith advice, ad)onitions, and chastise)ent. 'he oneti)e scholar and learned partner in conversation eca)e durin! the >)pire a spiritual counselor, to (ho) people entrusted their (ell: ein!. ,s a result, the authority of the philosopher !radually increased once a!ain, ut it (as no( of a very different kind.

The Lon$ /a%r of the Char%s*at%cs

+et us return to the a!e of ;ero and the 4lavian e)perors, for it is in this period that (e hear for the first ti)e of a ne( reed of philoso: % B5J % pher, (ho is cele rated not only for his to(erin! (isdo), ut for his e&traordinary spiritual po(ers. Unlike the itinerant Cynics, these )en ca)e fro) (ealthy and distin!uished fa)ilies, and, as opposed to the house philosophers, they tau!ht pu licly and !ained access to the )ost e&clusive circles of society. 'hey had a special aura a out the), as if elevated a ove the rest. Pliny the Toun!er, in ,.1. 9J, descri es (ith !reat ad)iration one of these (ise )en, na)ed >uphrates, (ho ca)e fro) a pro)inent *yrian fa)ily. ,s a youn! )an Pliny had esta lished a close relationship of )utual trust (ith hi), and after the death of 1o)itian, >uphrates tau!ht pu licly in <o)e.DJ"E 9e is descri ed as follo(s: ,s far as - a) ?ualified to deter)ine, >uphrates is possessed of so )any shinin! talents, that he cannot fail to strike and en!a!e even the so)e(hat illiterate. 9e reasons (ith )uch force, penetration, and ele!ance, and fre?uently e) odies all the su li)e and lu&uriant elo?uence of Plato. 9is out(ard appearance is a!reea le to all the rest: he has a tall fi!ure, a co)ely aspect, lon! hair, and a lar!e (hite eard: circu)stances (hich thou!h they )ay pro a ly e thou!ht triflin! and accidental, contri ute ho(ever to !ain hi) )uch reverence D'lurimum /enerationis E. 'here is no uncouthness in his )anner, (hich is !rave, ut not austereA and his approach co))ands respect (ithout creatin! a(e. 1istin!uished as he is y the sanctity of his life Dsanctitas summa E, he is no less so y his polite and affa le address. 9e points his elo?uence a!ainst the vices, not the persons of )ankind, and (ithout chastisin! reclai)s the (anderer. 9is e&hortations so captivate your attention, that you han! as it (ere upon his lipsA and even after the heart is convinced, the ear still (ishes to listen to the har)onious reasoner. F('. 1.1#55J, trans. 7. .el)othG ,s (e sa( earlier, in the previous !eneration *eneca had (arned the upper:class <o)an (ho took an interest in philosophy in no uncertain ter)s not to affect the out(ard appearance of a philosopher, even if this had eco)e his principal occupation, as (as the case (ith *eneca hi)self after he (ithdre( fro) court. >ven >uphrates clai)s that he had lon! tried to conceal his pursuit of philosophy fro) the % B5$ % outside (orld F>pictet. !iss. 6.$.1JG. Tet in the course of the 4lavian era, the philosopher )ust have taken on a ne( authority, cul)inatin! in the i)a!e of the Charis)atic that >uphrates so i)pressively e) odies. >uphrates had studied (ith the *toic philosopher .usonius <ufus Fca. ,.1. "#51#$G, as did )any others (ho later eca)e fa)ous as professional philosophers, includin! 1io of Prusa, >pictetus,

'i)okrates, and ,thenodotus.DJ6E .usonius <ufus ca)e fro) a fa)ily of equites in Holsinii and achieved !reat success teachin! pu licly at <o)e. 'o /ud!e fro) (hat is kno(n of hi), his philosophy (as strictly in the pra!)atic tradition, his )ain concern for leadin! a thorou!hly correct and decent life, and to this end he offered specific instructions in proper ehavior. 7hen one reads his !iatri,es, recorded in 2reek y another hand, it is difficult to understand /ust (hy he en/oyed such tre)endous authority. 'he sa)e is true of 1e)etrius the Cynic, (ho (as so ad)ired y *eneca and other )e) ers of the aristocracy for his honesty and candor and his ascetic (ay of life.DJ5E 'he i)pact of these )en, as of >uphrates, )ust have derived a ove all fro) their personal charis)a. 7ith the advent of )onarchy, the old <o)an aristocracy lost its po(er, and )any a senator (ill have found little satisfaction in attendin! the )eetin!s of that ody. -n the search for a ne( orientation in life, they too turned in upon the)selves. Philosophers like .usonius <ufus or 1e)etrius helped the), not only to co)e to ter)s (ith the)selves, ut to understand their political role under the Principate in a ne( (ay. ,s the i)portance of their pupils !re(, so too did the status of the teachers. ,s had happened once efore, in the >arly 9ellenistic a!e, this )eant that philosophers inevita ly ca)e into inti)ate contact (ith those in po(er. 'here (ere close associations et(een the circles around .usonius and 1e)etrius. Both nu) ered a)on! their )e) ers leadin! senators, includin! the heads of the so:called *toic opposition. 1e)etrius supported the )ost fa)ous of these, 'hrasea, Paetus, (hen ;ero forced hi) to co))it suicide F'ac. Ann. 1M.""5"5G, and another, <u ellius Plautus, (as acco)panied y .usonius into e&ile. 'hese political confrontations et(een, on the one side, philosophically )inded senators and their teachers and, on the % B59 % other, the e)perors ;ero and, later, Hespasian and 1o)itian had nothin! to do (ith @<epu lican@ inclinations, ut rather (ith the deter)ination to sustain a philosophical stance. 'his entailed, a)on! other thin!s, takin! seriously oneCs duties as a senator and voicin! oneCs vie(s, even (hen this )i!ht have serious conse?uences for life and li) . 'he e)perors (ere ri!ht in thinkin! that the roots of senatorial opposition lay (ith the philosophers. 7ith sensational cases of e&ile, follo(ed y recall and reha ilitation like(ise ordered y the e)peror, the presti!e of this ne( reed of (ise )en rapidly !re(, for the persecution ena led the) to !ive proof of steadfast adherence to their o(n principles. '(o senators, 'hrasea and *eneca, had ended their lives y sta!in! a kind of @*ocratic@ suicide, and the )urder of 9elvidius Priscus turned hi) into a philosophical )artyr F>pictet. !iss. 6.1.1B"A *uet. 3es'. 15G. 'his too (as a ne( i)a!e of the intellectual, ut one that did not find visual e&pression until <u ensCs dyin! *eneca.DJME .usonius and 1e)etrius (ere e&iled to arren islands, and 1io, driven out of his native city of Prusa, (andered over the countries of the >ast like a Cynic, !ivin! philosophical ser)ons in )any cities. *urvivin! these kinds of e&ile only stren!thened the philosophersC personal conviction, as (ell as the pu lic reco!nition they en/oyed.DJJE 'he persecutions ended (ith the death of 1o)itian in ,.1. 9M, and for intellectuals it (as the da(nin! of a 2olden ,!e. 'hey eca)e the friends and political advisers of e)perors, pillars of the Principate. 1io spoke efore the e)peror 'ra/an on )onarchy and rode (ith hi) in his triu)phal car. *uch (as the respect that the e)peror accorded hi)3and even clai)ed, in the !ood old <o)an tradition, that he understood not a (ord of (hat the philosopher (as sayin!. 9adrian efriended such (ell:kno(n philosophers as >pictetus and 9eliodorus and (as said to attract grammaticos, rhetores, musicos, geometras, 'ictores, and astrologos F)ist. Aug. , *part. 9adr. 1M.1#G. *ophists and philosophers alike stru!!led to provide a theoretical /ustification of )onarchy and, in so doin!, dre( upon the (hole attery of classical ar!u)entation. -t is re)arka le ho( the philosophers of this period talk a out their clothin!, hair, and eards as never

efore, pro a ly ecause, in a society in (hich the visual i)a!e played such a do)inant role, they too % BM# % needed reco!ni0a le sy) ols to esta lish their identity and to reaffir) the considera le authority they had recently ac?uired. -n one e&tre)e instance, the *toic >pictetus Fca. ,.1. 5551"5G clai)ed he (ould sooner let his head e cut off than his eard, so essential (as the eard to his very identity F!iss. 1.B.B$G. 9is fears )ay not have een (ithout so)e /ustification: 1o)itian had ordered the eard and lon! hair of ,pollonius of 'yana, (ho later achieved such fa)e, to e re)oved FPhilostr. 3A J."6G. But their role as pu lic fi!ures necessitated for the Charis)atics )ore than a eard. 'hey needed an entire i)a!e that (ould rin! out their e&traordinary characteristics, and the traditional i)a!e of the philosopher (as evidently insufficient to the task. 'he strict differentiation a)on! philosophical schools (as no lon!er relevant to their ne( role, and a !enuinely un(ashed Cynic (as not accepta le in civili0ed society. >uphrates and others of his ilk (ere strictly correct in their dress, interestin!ly, and in every respect clearly distanced the)selves fro) the Cynics. 'hey had to do this, !iven the a) ivalent reputation of the itinerant philosophers and the lack of respect that they suffered Fcf. p. 199G. >uphratesC hieratic appearance and the stately )anner of his instruction are dra)atically different fro) the traditional, ori!inally 9ellenistic i)a!e of the philosopher en!a!ed in discourse. .ost of all, his pu lic appearances (ere cro(ned (ith an aura of /eneratio and summa sanctitas . , s)all relief of the late second century in 8stia )ay !ive us so)e idea of the lecture style of these Charis)atics Ffi!. 16#G.DJ$E 7hile t(o scri es in the fore!round try to capture every precious (ord, (e can )ake out other captivated listeners ehind the). 'he speaker stands on a podiu), elevated a ove his audience. , curtain hints at a uildin! that, like a portico or asilica, could e su divided into individual roo)s throu!h the use of such curtains. *ince the speaker (ears only the tunica and not a to!a, the scene cannot e set in the la( courts. <ather, his upturned !a0e and the sole)n !estures su!!est a philosopher. But it (as not /ust the !eneral appearance of these ne( philosophers that (as different, ut also their faces. >uphratesC e&pression (as @deep and serious@ ut not @dark@ FPliny has in )ind here the faces of the % BM1 %

4i!. 16# 2rave relief of a Charis)atic philosopher FNG deliverin! a lecture. 8stia, .useu). CynicsG. 'he face of the Charis)atic radiates a transcendent !oodnessA he is not tortured y )ental strain, for he kno(s the path and the conditions that (ill lead to a (ell:ordered spiritual e&istence. 'he e&ternal appearance provides the !uarantee of his internal, spiritual superiority. 'hat superiority, ho(ever, is not derived a ove all fro) an e&traordinary intellectual capacity, as (as the case (ith the !reat thinkers of the third century B.C. , ut fro) the nature of his very ein!. 7e encounter in hi) for the first ti)e the theios aner, or holy )an, a fi!ure (ho (ill take on )uch !reater si!nificance in the years to co)e. Pliny hi)self refers to the sanctitas of his friend >uphrates.DJ9E 7hat Pliny finds )ost i)pressive a out >uphrates is his no le countenance, the lon! (hite eard, and

the @ eautiful@ hair Fclearly (ashed and co) edG flo(in! to his shoulders. +on! hair, alon! (ith the eard, is constantly re)arked upon in connection (ith 1io of % BMB % Prusa and the other Charis)atics of the second century, such as ,elius ,ristides and Pere!rinus Proteus. Unfortunately, in )ost cases (e cannot tell fro) the conte&t if the lon! @ eautiful@ hair of a >uphrates is )eant, or the lon! unke)pt hair of the Cynic, as 1io see)s to have (orn it on his (anderin!s.D$#E 'he Pytha!oreans also served as a )odel for Charis)atics like >uphrates, or, rather, they too affected a si)ilar i)a!e, like the @holy@ ,ri!notus Fhieros #aimonios G, (ho is )ade fun of in the pa!es of +ucian, (ith his lon! hair and @sole)n face@ FPhilo's. B9."BG. ,lciphron descri es a !atherin! of philosophers at (hich the pale Pytha!orean (ears @lon! locks fallin! fro) the cro(n of the head to his chest and a very lon! and pointed eard@ Fsee p. 11#G. -n PhilostratusC account, ,pollonius of 'yana identifies hi)self, in )anner and (ay of life, as a disciple of Pytha!oras and refers to his lon! flo(in! hair as (ell as his !ar)ent of @pure linen@ F3A 1."BG.D$1E Pytha!oras (as in addition kno(n to have een a particularly handso)e )an Fcf p. B"6G. , century after the ti)e of >uphrates, (e find in Philostratus a /ustification for shoulder:len!th hair in rather dra)atic ter)s: @+et the head of a (ise )an e spared the clippers, for it is not fit that the iron should touch the place that is the source of all the )ental processes and intuitions, (hence all principles issue and the (ords that are the interpreters of his (isdo)@ F3A $.JG. PhilostratusC aversion to the shears is no dou t tied up (ith a elief in the )a!ical po(ers of unshorn hair, (hich is co))on to a !reat )any other(ise very different cultures. <ulers have (orn their hair lon! as (ell as prophets, and the !iant *a)son (as ro ed of his po(ers (hen 1elilah cut his hair. ,)on! Classical and 9ellenistic portraits of intellectuals, ho(ever, it is e&tre)ely rare to find shoulder:len!th hair, and then )ainly on 9o)er. -t is not entirely clear in these instances /ust (hat it )eans.D$BE Certain priests also (ore their hair lon! F1io "5.11G. -n their portraiture, they can e reco!ni0ed y the (reaths or fillets on their heads. , particularly fine e&a)ple is the ,ntonine portrait of a priest (ith )yrtle (reath, fro) ,pollonia in Cyrenaica Ffi!. 16BG.D$"E ;otice ho( the hair is distinctively parted in the )iddle, an icono!raphical feature that (ill later eco)e a standard part of the visual i)a!ery of Christ. % BM" %

4i!. 161 Portrait of a philosopher. *econd century ,.1. FNG. Copenha!en, ;y Carls er! 2lyptotek. -f (e take fi!ures like >uphrates or 1io as forerunners or early e&a)ples of the theios aner, (hose (isdo) far transcends ook learnin! and (ho clai)s access to deeper sources of insi!ht into the hu)an and divine, then the link to the icono!raphy of the priest (ould only further stren!then the connotation of the holy. 'hat the charis)atic effect of these @holy )en@ did indeed depend lar!ely on their physical appearance

is (ell illustrated y the case of ,le&ander , onuteichos, the false priest of ,sklepios. 8nly on his death ed (as it revealed that his lon! hair (as not natural, ut that the (hole ti)e he had een (earin! a (i! F+ucian Ale2. "A 1"G. Tet the (i! had (orked as (ell as if it had een his o(n hair. ,t least the oracular cult he founded survived this revelation and (ent on for several )ore !enerations.D$6E % BM6 %

4i!. 16B +ost portrait of a priest, fro) ,pollonia. *econd half of the second century ,.1. 'his ne( i)a!e of the philosopher (ith shoulder:len!th hair is unfortunately very seldo) attested in the art of the 9i!h >)pire. *ince, ho(ever, it (ill play a key role in the icono!raphy of oth the +ate ,nti?ue philosopher and of the earded fi!ure of Christ, - should like at least to )ention a fe( du ious instances. Chief a)on! these is a !roup of several )ar le portraits (ith lon! hair (hose authenticity has so)eti)es een ?uestioned, includin! heads in Copenha!en Ffi!. 161G and .unich. -n )y vie( oth of these are (orks of the early second century ,.1. that have su se?uently een heavily restored and re(orked. +ookin! ahead to +ate ,nti?ue portraits of Christ and the philosophers, it is interestin! to note that in several of these heads the hair parted in the )iddle accentuates the hi!h forehead.D$5E , nearly fully preserved statue of an itinerant philosopher that ca)e to li!ht durin! e&cavations of the ,!ora of 2ortyn on Crete can e dated to the +ate ,ntonine period Ffi!. 16"G.D$ME 'he usual identifica: % BM5 %

4i!. 16" *tatue of a philosopher, fro) 2ortyn. ,ntonine period. 9erakleion, .useu). tion has een ased on co)parisons (ith a coin portrait of 9eraclitus (ith (hich, ho(ever, it has little in co))on. - (ould like to see it instead as the portrait of a Charis)atic philosopher in the )anner of ,pollonius of 'yana. 'he raised ri!ht hand clearly )arks the philosopher as a teacher. -n his left hand he holds a staff in the for) of a clu , % BMM % (hich )ust contain a clue to his identity. 'he clu (as considered an attri ute of the Cynics, for t(o reasons: first, ecause it recalled 9erakles, the patron of the @sect,@ (hose stren!th and endurance durin! his lifeti)e of roa)in! the (orld offered a paradi!) for their o(n )oral stru!!leA and second, ecause in their o(n itinerant lives they )ade !ood use of a clu and so)eti)es needed it to save their skin.D$JE Tet no one (ould (ant to identify the fi!ure fro) 2ortyn as a typical Cynic. 9e (ears handso)e sandals, and his s)ooth Fi.e., cleanG hi)ation is carefully draped a out the ody in the Classical )anner. 4urther)ore, the undle of ook rolls hints at his !reat learnin!. 'he a sence of another !ar)ent under the )antle espeaks the ascetic lifestyle of the itinerant philosopher, (hile the portrait type, (ith the carefully styled shoulder:len!th hair, recalls the i)a!e of >uphrates. 'his feature,

alon! (ith the clu , supports the identification as a theios aner, since )any of these ne( Charis)atic philosophers spent part of their lives as itinerants, (hether (illin!ly or in e&ile.D$$E 7e shall see in the final chapter ho( the i)a!e of the earded Christ (ith lon! hair ulti)ately !oes ack to that of these @holy )en.@ -t is pro a ly no accident that the visual record for the second century is so spotty, for the theios aner had at first no clearly defined place in society, or a)on! the (ell: esta lished for)s of self:representation. -f honorific or votive statues (ere ever set up for such )en, these (ill have een sin!le statues in ron0e, unlike the )any copies of 2reek portraits, and (ill have lon! since een )elted do(n. % BMJ %

VI+ The Cult of Learn%n$ Transf%$ure)

This is %hat is ,est a,out the 'hiloso'her s mantle ;'allium<: the /ery act of immoral thought re##ens it. . . . "e gla# an# reDoice, o you 'allium, that you no% ser/e a ,etter 'hiloso'hy, since you clothe the -hristian. 3'ertullian !e 'allio M.B 7hen Caracalla eca)e sole e)peror in ,.1. B1B, his official portraiture depicted hi) (ith close: cropped hair, a crude, stu ly eard, and the fierce look of a stor) trooper. -t (as a rather a rupt reak (ith the no le and distin!uished appearance of his predecessors, especially in re/ectin! the @intellectual eard@ (orn y every e)peror since 9adrian, includin! his o(n father, *epti)ius *everus. 'his portrait si!nals a ne( conception of the e)peror, pro a ly directed pri)arily at the ar)y, an i)a!e of tou!hness and po(er e&pressed in the lan!ua!e of co))and and o edience.D1E 'he rapidity (ith (hich these ne( visual for)ulas re)odeled the i)a!e of the avera!e <o)an citi0en )i!ht lead us to suppose that in the a!e of the soldier:e)perors, learnin! and hi!h culture lost the hi!h status they had en/oyed as central values of ,ntonine society, (hile the ideolo!y of /irtus eca)e once a!ain do)inant. 'his is not, ho(ever, the case. <ather, the life of learnin! and philosophy see)s to have endured (ith e&traordinary vi!or in this ti)e of crisis. 'he archaeolo!ical evidence su!!ests that it attracted ever !reater nu) ers and (ider circles (ithin society. -n particular, the appeal of the (orld of the intellect see)s to have eco)e )ore and )ore sou!ht out for its practical assistance in livin! oneCs daily life. elieve this thesis finds its stron!est support in the !reat popularity of certain i)a!ery in the funerary )onu)ents of the )iddle class. .y discussion (ill therefore e ased pri)arily on the relief sarcopha!i that are so plentifully preserved. % BM$ % -n 9adrianic and ,ntonine portraiture, the self:styled intellectual had een strivin! a ove all for a place of distinction in society. -n this arena, ho(ever, the intellectual i)a!e (as eclipsed durin! the a!e of the soldier:e)perors y a ne( value syste). But in the sphere of private introspection, that i)a!e retained its si!nificance. 'hus the patrons (ho co))issioned the @philosopher sarcopha!i@ are in effect their o(n audience. 'he i)a!ery upon the sarcopha!i !ives the i)pression of stron! personal convictions, of a private ackno(led!)ent of a certain (ay of life. 'he chan!e of pictorial )ediu)

fro) portrait to sarcopha!us is surely not (ithout )eanin!. ,s in our discussion of ,ntonine portraiture, - should like to try to )ake inferences fro) the )onu)ents the)selves a out the !enerally accepted values of society. 9.:-. .arrou adopted this sa)e approach in his ook Mousikos Aner . 7e )ust of necessity focus al)ost e&clusively on the city of <o)e, since only here does the relevant i)a!ery survive on such an e&tensive series of sarcopha!i.DBE

Learne) Cou.les an) The%r Ch%l) Pro)%$%es

, (ell:kno(n fra!)ent of a sarcopha!us in the 'o(nley Collection of the British .useu) sho(s a seated, readin! fi!ure, dressed in 2reek citi0en attire, to!ether (ith 'halia, the .use of co)edy Ffi!. 166G.D"E ,s he reads, the ri!ht hand )akes a !esture of speakin!. -s he recitin! verses, or is this !esture directed at the .useN 'his is the sa)e sche)a that had earlier een used to depict the fa)ous poets and philosophers of the past en!a!ed in their intellectual la ors Fcf fi!. J6G. 9ere, ho(ever, the reader is evidently a conte)porary individual, as i)plied y the portrait features and the standard +ate ,ntonine style of lon! eard and conte)plative ro(. 'he deceased is thus cele rated for one particular ?uality: his learnin!, or, )ore precisely, literary learnin!. ,lthou!h found in <o)e, this sarcopha!us (as in fact produced at 1oki)eion, a s)all to(n in distant Phry!ia, (hich had a fa)ous (orkshop producin! colu)n sarcopha!i of the ,sia .inor type. 'he portrait of the deceased (as presu)a ly added only after the e&port and sale of the sarcopha!us in <o)e, a out ,.1. B##. 'he sa)e (ork: % BM9 %

4i!. 166 .an readin!, (ith his .use. 4ra!)ent of a sarcopha!us fro) ,sia .inor, ca. ,.1. B##. +ondon, British .useu). shop also had in its repertoire other scenes of the ordinary citi0en en!a!ed in intellectual pursuits. -n such scenes the spouse often sits opposite. 8n a )ore )odest sarcopha!us fro) a local (orkshop and no( in the )useu) at =onya in 'urkey, a )an holds a ook roll in his left hand and raises the ri!ht in a !esture of instruction Ffi!. 165G.D6E 8nce a!ain, as (ith the portraits in the ancient 2reek )anner, the sti)ulus for this i)a!ery on sarcopha!i ca)e to <o)e fro) the 2reek >ast. But the i)a!inative adaptation of the ne( icono!raphy y <o)an (orkshops, as (ell as the steady increase in popularity of sarcopha!i of this type into the late third century, especially the )ore )odest ones, sho(s ho( easily the <o)an patron (as a le to identify (ith the ne( visual i)a!ery.D5E % BJ# %

4i!. 165 *arcopha!us of a )arried couple, fro) ,sia .inor. Ca. ,.1. B##. =onya, .useu). 'he notion of @learnin!@ had already een a popular the)e on <o)an relief sarcopha!i of the ,ntonine

period. But there it (as a variety of )ytholo!ical )otifs, especially a !atherin! of the .uses, that e&pressed the idea in alle!orical ter)s. 'he !reat innovation in the i)a!ery of the colu)n sarcopha!i i)ported fro) ,sia .inor (as in the direct representation of the deceased as a )an of intellectual pursuits in the real (orld of his o(n ti)e. -t is ?uite revealin!, for e&a)ple, that a )otif like that of the =onya sarcopha!us found a particularly receptive audience in <o)e, cele ratin! as it does oth the i)portance of fa)ily values and the do)inant position of the pater:fa)ilias Fthou!h here in a ne( !uise, as the learned teacher of literature or philosophyA fi!. 16MG. But unlike the ,sia .inor colu)n sarcopha!i, those )ade in <o)e very seldo) e)ploy the )otif of the conte)plative )an lost in thou!ht. 'he <o)an a)ateur intellectual prefers to sho( off his learnin!. -n other (ords, in the <o)an vie(, readin! and study should e put to practical use. 'he (ritin!s of the ancients are an ever:present resource that can e pressed into service % BJ1 %

4i!. 16M *arcopha!us (ith a )arried couple efore a chorus of .uses. Ca. ,.1. BM#. <o)e, Hatican .useu)s. at any ti)e and trans)itted to the ne&t !eneration. 'his reflects the traditional <o)an attitude to(ard the uses of 2reek literature, thou!h it does not rule out the possi ility that the teacher (ith his ri!ht ar) raised is directin! the lesson to no one so )uch as hi)self. 8n <o)an @philosopher sarcopha!i,@ hus and and (ife often appear as a couple, a ro( of .uses in the ack!round, and, at least at first !lance, they see) to en/oy e?ual status. 4or the first ti)e, at lon! last, (e find (o)en accorded an inte!ral role in the co))e)oration of the intellect. 'here is, nevertheless, a clear division of roles y !ender, one that )ay e pro le)atical to )odern sensi ilities. 7hile the )an reads or reflects on his readin! Fin either case holdin! a ook rollG, his (ife usually plays a strin!ed instru)ent, thou!h she too )ay occasionally hold a ook. 'his is undou tedly )ore than /ust an ideali0ed i)a!e. -n the hi!hly rituali0ed practice of ho)e entertain)ent, (o)en surely did offer /ust such )usical diversion. 'he @fine arts@ (ere )ost appropriate to the ladies, /ust as in upper:class society in the fast century it (as the ladies (ho san! or played the piano for the evenin!Cs % BJB % entertain)ent.DME -n <o)e, ho(ever, a (o)anCs )usical talents are al(ays e&pressed y )eans of )ytholo!ical allusion. 'hat is, on the sarcopha!i, (o)en are included a)on! the .uses. 8n the sarcopha!i fro) ,sia .inor, y contrast, the (o)en appear in nor)al, everyday citi0en dress. 'he <o)an (o)an is thus differentiated fro) her )ythical counterparts, (ho often appear in the ack!round, only y her pro)inent position and her portrait. 'he analo!y has a lon! tradition, !oin! ack to Plato, (ho called the poet *appho the tenth .use FAnth. Gr. 9.5#MG.DJE 'his )ythical overlay )eans, ho(ever, that the (ife, unlike her hus and, is distanced fro) the real (orld. 'here is thus no i))ediate spiritual rapport et(een the )arried couple, as had een the case on the ,sia .inor sarcopha!i. 'he <o)an a)ateur intellectual is often acco)panied y professional philosophers, characteri0ed as such y their traditional 2reek dress and accoutre)ents. But unlike the relationship of the <o)an )atron to the .uses, these <o)an )en, (hile they )ay e readin! or teachin!, never really elon! to

the circle of philosophers that surrounds the), nor do they as a rule co))unicate directly. -ndeed, no )atter ho( deeply they i))erse the)selves in their readin! or ho( passionately they teach, they are still clearly )arked off fro) the professional philosophers around the) y their fashiona ly <o)an hair and eard styles and y their <o)an dress. 'hat is, the 2reek philosophers are understood as the advisers to the educated <o)an, and their constant presence underlines ho( seriously the deceased had cultivated a philosophical (ay of life. -t has een reco!ni0ed since the (ork of .arrou that the )en depicted in this intellectual !uise cannot actually e those (ho had devoted their professional lives to scholarship, teachin!, or philosophy, as so)e of the )ore i)pressive sarcopha!i had ori!inally led scholars to elieve. 'he considera le nu) er of the so:called philosopher sarcopha!i alone )akes this idea unlikely. But seldo) do (e learn (hat their actual profession (as, as (e do, for e&a)ple, in the case of the centurion +. Pullius Pere!rinus, (ho (as uried in an e&pensive sarcopha!us a out the year ,.1. B5# Ffi!. 16JG.D$E 'his co))ander, a )e) er of the equites (ho pro a ly served in the Praetorian 2uard in <o)e, is surrounded y a lively !roup of % BJ" %

4i!. 16J *arcopha!us of the centurion +. Pullius Pere!rinus and his (ife. 'he centurion is sho(n as a @(ise )an@ (ith philosophers, his (ife as a .use. Ca. ,.1. B5#. <o)e, .useo 'orlonia. philosophers en!a!ed in discussion or solitary conte)plation. 'hey are evidently intended to represent si& of the *even *a!es, (ith Pere!rinus, the scholar:officer, Ioinin! the) as the seventh. <e)arka ly, all the (ise )en are depicted as itinerant Cynic philosophers. 'heir asceticis) and self:sufficiency are evident in the coarse )antle, the only !ar)ent they (ear over odies tou!hened (ith a!e and hardship. 'he stra!!ly eards and hair, indicatin! a lack of concern for physical appearance, the knotty staffs, travelin! sacks, and the @CynicCs clu @ that (e have seen efore Ffi!. 16"G, as part of the statue of the so:called 9eraclitus, all contri ute to this i)pression. ,s (e sa( in the story of ,puleiusC day in court, this @costu)e@ (as considered proof of a ri!orously philosophical (ay of life. 8n our sarcopha!us too, the unusual presentation of the si& (ise )en )ust carry the sa)e connotation: the officer ad)ires these )en and considers the) his )oral e&e)plars. Perhaps this )ay even e&plain the si!nificance of his co!no)en, Pere!rinus F@7anderin! *tran!er@G. % BJ6 % 'his hardly )eans, of course, that Pere!rinus actually i)a!ined hi)self as an ascetic, conte)ptuous of the (orld, any )ore than the )en depicted in co)para le ,ntonine portraits. -ndeed, his o(n hair and eard reflect the fashions of the day, and his finely draped, volu)inous 2reek )antle, the chiton underneath, and the sandals co)prise a relatively su stantial outfit.D9E 'his rather co)forta le look )akes a !ood co)parison (ith that of the statue of Poseidippus that (as re(orked a out the )iddle of the first century B.C. Ffi!. 11#G. -f (e )ay trust 'ertullian, a conte)porary of Pere!rinus, the latterCs leisure outfit, as depicted here, is perfectly authentic. 7hile the to!a continued to e reserved for pu lic activities and o li!ations, the )antle F'allium G, as the Christian apolo!ist e&plains, )arks the rela&ed a) ience of the ho)e. ,t the sa)e ti)e, accordin! to 'ertullian, this (as the !ar)ent that )ade professional intellectuals of all kinds reco!ni0a le in pu lic F!e 'allio M.BG.

8n the surface, it see)s not )uch has chan!ed since the rituals of otium played out in the villas of the +ate <epu lic. 'he difference is that for Pere!rinus learnin! is no lon!er a casual occupation for his leisure hours, ut rather, as i)plied y the presence of his ascetic philosopher friends, a )eans to his !oal of a philosophically oriented lifestyle.D1#E 'he evocation of the *even *a!es need not surprise us. 'heir (ise sayin!s pro a ly served Pere!rinus as a valua le !uide to life, /ust as did the rules of ehavior tau!ht y the philosophers. Philosophy is here understood as the art of life, as (e find it also in the Me#itations of the e)peror .arcus ,urelius. 'his included the ideal of asceticis), ho(ever it )i!ht e practiced Fcf. p. B6BG. 'hus the )en surroundin! Pere!rinus, characteri0ed as (anderin! Cynic philosophers, )ay convey the sa)e asic idea as the unke)pt and filthy hair of an ,puleius and his cronies, that is, a declaration of loyalty to a ri!orously philosophical (ay of life. Borro(in! fro) an analo!ous Christian practice, one could speak here of a @philosophical succession.@D11E .ean(hile, Pere!rinusC (ife, in the conte&t of his !randiose funerary rhetoric, en/oys the accusto)ed likeness to a .use, ut in a carefully chosen )anner. *he is i))ortali0ed in the pose of Polyhy)nia, and, instead of /oinin! her sisters in the ack!round, she is positioned % BJ5 %

4i!. 16$ *arcopha!us (ith dual representation of the head of the fa)ily. Ca. ,.1. B6#. <o)e, Hatican .useu)s. directly opposite her hus and. 'his confers an added di)ension on the conventional .use co)parison, as the (ife takes on the role of her hus andCs personal .use. 'he traditional !roupin! of a poet or philosopher and the .use (ho inspires hi) Fcf. fi!s. J6, 166G is here assi)ilated to the notion of )arital concor#ia in the shared service of the .uses. 4ollo(in! her o(n death, the (ife (ould have her portrait carved in the style of the period, so the sculptor has left her head inco)pletely (orked. 'he intellectual and )usical activities portrayed on these sarcopha!i are !enerally tied to a fa)ilial settin!. 8n one of the i!, i)pressive sarcopha!i in the Belvedere of the Hatican, a fa)ily )an, (hose portrait could easily e )istaken for that of the e)peror Pupienus F,.1. B"$G, is sho(n alon! (ith his (ife and several dau!hters Fthe scene continues onto the short sidesG, (ho constitute the chorus of .uses.D1BE <e)arka ly, the father appears t(ice, oth ti)es in the !uise of the intellectual Ffi!. 16$G. -t is unlikely that such a strikin! % BJM % repetition (as done only for the sake of sy))etry. Presu)a ly the t(o sli!htly different i)a!es are intended to divide the praise of learnin! into t(o cate!ories, the philosophical and the rhetorical, as (e have already noted in the case of the urial cha) er of C. Halerius 9er)ia under *t. PeterCs Fcf. fi!. 1"9G. 8n our sarcopha!us, the deceased is portrayed in the left:hand scene (ith the )antle (rapped ti!htly, thus envelopin! the ri!ht ar) in the Classical )anner. >ven here, (ell into the 9i!h >)pire, this pose could still connote an orator, even if that hardly suits the do)estic settin!. 8n the ri!ht side, y contrast, he is depicted as a teacher. 'he conception of learnin! is once a!ain )eant to e as all:

e) racin! as possi le. 'he praise of education is often e&tended to the children as (ell, especially to the oys. Iust as the little oys on )ytholo!ical sarcopha!i )ay e sho(n in the role of keen hunters, to si!nal their future /irtus, so else(here the parents co))e)orate their precocious little scholar, particularly in the !uise of the passionate orator. 8n a child sarcopha!us in the Hatican, for e&a)ple, a oy lectures to a !roup of his play)ates decked out in the attri utes of the .uses Ffi!. 169G.D1"E 'he conventional relationship of the .uses to the )an of learnin! is here oth ela orated and turned upside do(n. -t is not the .uses (ho inspire the little professor, ut the other (ay Cround. Clio records the precious (ords of the (underkind. But in order to )ake the scene half(ay plausi le, the artist has transfor)ed the .uses into little conte)poraries of the deceased. 'he serious purpose of co))e)oratin! the dead still ad)its an ele)ent of playfulness. 'he sa)e oy appears a second ti)e, on the lid. 9e is acco)panied no( y his favorite puppy ut other(ise is fully devoted to his studies. 'his apple of his parentsC eye holds in one hand an open ook roll Fthe hand (ith the ook roll is a )odern restorationG. -n front of hi) lies an open polyptych for takin! copious notes. 'he )otif of the precocious child intellectual, (hich (e shall encounter a!ain in connection (ith the icono!raphy of Christ, is one that (as popular throu!hout the Principate. But the nu) ers of oth the carved scenes and the correspondin! !rave epi!ra)s increase dra)atically in the later third century.D16E % BJJ %

4i!. 169 *arcopha!us of an intellectual (underkind, (ho instructs the @.uses@ in the !uise of oys his o(n a!e. Ca. ,.1. B$#. <o)e, Hatican .useu)s.

Pol%t%cal Off%ce an) the Ph%loso.h%cal L%fe

1espite the fa)ilial focus of )ost of this i)a!ery, so)e of the )ore ela orate sarcopha!i of the later third century do illustrate the pu lic reco!nition and auctoritas that co)e to the educated )an (ho has led his life follo(in! the precepts of the philosophers. 8n a fra!)ent of a hu!e and splendid sarcopha!us in the Hatican that (as once (ron!ly associated (ith the philosopher Plotinus, the fi!ure of a philosophical lay)an is @enthroned@ frontally efore the vie(er, not unlike a )a!istrate presidin! at court Ffi!. 15#G. 9e pauses in his readin! and looks pensively into the distance. 'he pile of ook rolls at his feet alludes to his devotion to his intellectual pursuits. '(o (o)en elon!in! to his % BJ$ %

4i!. 15# 4ra!)ent of a lavish sarcopha!us ca. ,.1. B$#, sho(in! an a)ateur philosopher surrounded y .uses and philosophers. <o)e, Hatican .useu)s. fa)ily3 oth have portrait features and (ear hairstyles of the period3stand eside hi) and look on ad)irin!ly.

+ike Pere!rinus, the deceased (as surrounded y a !roup of philosophers, thou!h the fra!)ent preserves only three. But unlike Pere!rinusC itinerant Cynics, these elon! to a )ore presenta le reed. -n addition, the sculptor has taken pains to differentiate their out(ard appearances. 'hus one (ears a lon! under!ar)ent, (hile a second, (hose aldin! head recalls *ocrates, (ears only a )antle, and the third, (ho is distin!uished fro) his (ell:tended collea!ues y his (ild hair and eard, nevertheless (ears his )antle properly draped. -t (ould see) that they are )eant to e representatives of different philosophical schools, and all served as advisers to the deceased. But the one (ith (ild hair, (ho stands eside and addresses hi), see)s the )ost trusted, pro a ly his closest confidant. 'he arran!e)ent of the fi!ures )akes clear the hierarchy (ithin the ranks of the counselors. ,n encyclopedic education is the prere?uisite for the philosophical life, ut % BJ9 % in the end (hat )atters )ost is adherence to a )oral standard, (hich can e achieved only throu!h constant spiritual e&ercise and the help of a role )odel (hose o(n life ad)its no co)pro)ise. -ntellectual superiority is presented here as the hi!hest for) of auctoritas, e&pressed in the frontal i)a!e orro(ed fro) -)perial state )onu)ents. ,nd yet this is once a!ain not a professional intellectual, ut rather, like Pere!rinus, a lay)an or, as .arrou says, an @a)ateur.@ 'he style of his shoes Fcalcei G )ay su!!est his identity as a )e) er of the e?uestrian order.D15E ,lthou!h (e have thus far considered only sarcopha!i (hose i)a!ery is confined to the private and do)estic sphere, there are other e&a)ples fro) the ti)e of the e)peror 2allienus F,.1. BM#5BM$G and later that )ake clear the direct connection et(een intellectual pursuits and political office. 'he presti!e of learnin! ac?uired throu!h ri!orous philosophical trainin! had no( apparently !ro(n to the point (here even )en of consular rank considered this an inte!ral ele)ent of their identity and not )erely a convenient status sy) ol. -n the ti)e of .arcus ,urelius, y contrast, these sa)e <o)an aristocrats had used traditional i)a!ery to cele rate their /irtus and their ?ualities of )ilitary leadership, especially on the attle or @4eldherrn@ sarcopha!i.D1ME Tet this is the sa)e period in (hich (e sa( evidence for the hi!h valuation of learnin! in the 5eitgesicht and the fashion for lon! eards. 'he so:called Brother *arcopha!us in ;aples presents four versions of the sa)e deceased individual, pro a ly a <o)an senator, in different outfits and poses, in conti!uous scenes Ffi!. 151G.D1JE 'hat it is the sa)e )an is clear ecause his portrait features re)ain the sa)e. 'he (hole i)a!e is thus a kind of @!allery@ of the type so)eti)es partially preserved in the for) of usts or statues and attested in (ritten sources for the e)perors the)selves.D1$E *o, for e&a)ple, a paintin! in the palace of the Uuinctilii depicted the e)peror 'acitus F,.1. BJ55BJMG in five variations, as togatus, chlamy#atus, armatus, 'alliatus, and /enatorio ha,itu F)ist. Aug., Hopisc. 'ac. 1MG3that is, in a to!a, in a )ilitary @travelin! outfit,@ in a cuirass, in the 2reek )antle, and in huntin! costu)e. 'he picture sounds like the visuali0ation of one of those particularly ver ose honorific inscriptions. *i)ilarly, the ;aples sar: % B$# %

4i!. 151 *o:called Brother *arcopha!us, sho(in! the deceased in various @roles.@ ,fter ,.1. BM#. ;aples, .useo ;a0ionale.

copha!us cele rates in turn each of the )ost i)portant virtues or spheres of activity of a senator or other hi!h official. ,t the left (e see hi) at the ac)e of his political career, assu)in! office, (hile at the far ri!ht his )arria!e is sho(n. 'hus his e&e)plary private life is presented as the counterpart to his political career. -n the center, ho(ever, he is sho(n once in the !uise of the ascetic 2reek philosopher, (earin! only the hi)ation, and once as a <o)an (earin! a to!a. 'he t(o see) as if in conversation, ut this of course is not to e taken literally. <ather, the pairin! e&presses the ine&trica ly linked dual identity of the <o)an aristocrat, co)prised, in e?ual )easure, of the precepts of philosophy and the traditional values of the mores maiorum 3ho(ever the oundary et(een these t(o )ay have een defined. -n his !uise @<o)an,@ the honorand (ears a si)ple to!a. 'he little attendant ne&t to hi) alludes to that )ost i)portant of the old <o)an virtues, reli!ious piety. 'he Brother *arcopha!us is far fro) uni?ue. 'here are other, % B$1 %

4i!. 15B *arcopha!us of )arried couple. -n the )iddle they share in a sacrificeA in the corners, he is sho(n as a philosopher, she as a .use. *econd half of the third century ,.1. .unich, 2lyptothek. less e&trava!ant sarcopha!i that sho( the deceased oth in ail old:fashioned to!a and in the 'allium, or as a pu lic official (earin! the toga conta,ulata, alon! (ith his philosopher:advisers. , !ood e&a)ple is an unusually lar!e stri!ilated sarcopha!us in the 2lyptothek in .unich, *everan in date Ffi!. 15BG. D19E 9ere a!ain a )arried couple appears in t(o different !uises. 'he scene in the )iddle cele rates their )arital concor#ia, (hile the fi!ures in the corners allude to literary, philosophical, and )usical education. 'he hus and !estures to(ard his ook roll as if to )ake a pointA his (ife, in the pose of Urania, points to a !lo e Fs'haira G that (as ori!inally held in her left hand. ,s on other sarcopha!i of this type, oth individuals are elevated on pedestals. -n this (ay a connotation of @pu lic honors@ is evoked to enhance the praise of the dead. 'hese are i)portant )onu)ents in the history of <o)an intellectual i)a!ery. 'he 'allium no( en/oys a status e?ual to that of the to!a in the catalo!ue of virtues prescri ed for the <o)an aristocracy and even the e)peror. 7e )ay recall that a)on! the five i)a!es of the % B$B % e)peror 'acitus (as one (earin! this type of 2reek )antle F'alliatus G. 7hat (as once a leisure pasti)e (ith du ious )oral connotations has no( eco)e an indispensa le prere?uisite for the )an of pu lic affairs. ,s is (ell kno(n, in the +ate >)pire, a !ood education, includin! philosophy, eca)e an i)portant criterion in the recruitin! of hi!h officials in the i)perial ureaucracy and, /ust as at one ti)e the (ithdra(al into a (orld of intellectual otium, it (as also a kind of status sy) ol.DB#E 'he e&traordinary value for the historian of the visual evidence lies in de)onstratin! to (hat e&tent these criteria (ere, y the second half of the third century, fir)ly esta lished (ithin the value syste) of ur an <o)an society. 'he nu) er of splendid sarcopha!i of hi!h artistic achieve)ent, of the type (e have een lookin! at, is

of course relatively s)all. But at the sa)e ti)e a lar!e class of si)pler, so:called stri!ilated sarcopha!i !ives evidence of ho( (idespread the sa)e kind of self:i)a!e had eco)e a)on! road strata of the prosperous @)iddle class@ in the city of <o)e, those (ho could afford a )ar le sarcopha!us in the first place Ffi!. 15"G. >ven a)on! those of )odest artistic pretensions, the )a/ority at least allude to the intellectual pursuits of the deceased in the for) of a ook roll. 2enerally the front side of the sarcopha!us is decorated (ith three s)all scenes in relief, in the )iddle and at the ends, the re)ainder filled (ith the ripple pattern. 'he scenes repeat the visual pro!ra) of the lar!er sarcopha!i, only reduced to a set of shorthand slo!ans. 'he sa)e is true of the (idespread inte!ration of these scenes a)id other kinds of i)a!ery, in particular of shepherds in a ucolic settin!. 8ften the deceased couple stands or sits opposite one another at the t(o corners in the traditional roles of philosopher and .use For, later on, as prayin! fi!ures: orans G, as on the fine sarcopha!us in .unich Ffi!. 15BG. 'he hus and al)ost al(ays (ears the )ore ascetic kind of philosopherCs )antle, (ithout an under!ar)ent. 9e is no lon!er afraid of identifyin! hi)self fully (ith his role )odel. , strikin! )otif in the )iddle panel of so)e e&a)ples is of a professional philosopher, either readin! alon!side a .use or en!a!ed in conversation (ith a collea!ue. 'he lon! hair of so)e of these )en recalls the % B$" %

4i!. 15" 4our )odest stri!ilated sarcopha!i sho(in! the deceased either in the !uise of a philosopher or as a .use. *econd half of the third century ,.1. aG 4lorence, for)erly on the Ponte Hecchio. G Pisa, Ca)po *anto. cG Porto 'orres F*ardiniaG. dG <o)e, .useodelle 'er)e. F7e!ner 19MM, nos. "1, J9, $1, 1BJ.G % B$6 % Charis)atic philosophers, the @holy )en@ (ho) (e heard a out in the previous chapter and (ill shortly encounter a!ain in our discussion of the i)a!e of Christ. -n a reviated for) they carry the sa)e )essa!e as the circle of ascetic philosophers around Pere!rinus or the philosophical friends of @Plotinus,@ only the feelin! of reverence for philosophical instruction is even )ore clearly articulated. DB1E 'here are only t(o the)es that can rival the popularity of the .uses and intellectual i)a!ery on sarcopha!i of the later third century: huntin!, (hich (as the traditional sy) ol of stren!th, coura!e, and valor, and the ucolic shepherds. But it is also si!nificant that the @philosophers@ no( often take over the pastoral settin!, and on one of the )ore )a!nificent sarcopha!i the tried and true sy) ol of /irtus is actually rele!ated to the ack side, (hile the front is !iven over to the philosophers.DBBE

The E)ucate) Man5s Search for Inner Peace

, re)arka le chan!e can e detected in the icono!raphy of sarcopha!i in the course of the second half of the third century, especially those (ith ucolic scenes. 7hereas the a)ateur intellectual had previously often appeared as the 0ealous teacher, (e no( have the i)pression that the teachin! is directed only at hi)self. ,t the sa)e ti)e, the earlier do)estic scenes are transported to a ucolic settin! in the country. 8ne of the earliest e&a)ples, pro a ly not )uch later than ,.1. B5#, is a recently pu lished sarcopha!us in Basel Ffi!. 156G.DB"E

'he deceased couple each appear t(ice (ith portrait features: once in the central portrait )edallion as a proper )arried couple, the hus and (earin! the official )a!istrateCs to!a, and a!ain in the landscape scene, in (hich each personifies the values they cherish. 9e sits in a )ar le seat, holdin! a curved staff, and (ears only the )antle that )arks hi) as a philosopher or poet. Unlike Pere!rinus, he (ears no under!ar)ent and has attri utes that (ould suit an itinerant philosopher, yet he is definitely a lay)an. 1espite the poor state of preservation, one can )ake out that the head ears portrait features and is eardless. 'hus, as on other sarcopha!i, he )ust e read as a pendant % B$5 %

4i!. 156 *arcopha!us of a )arried couple (ith ucolic fi!ures. ,fter the )iddle of the third century ,.1. Basel, ,ntiken)useu). to his (ife, the (o)an in the orans pose, (ho like(ise had portrait features.DB6E 'his a)ateur intellectual has interrupted his readin! Fthe open ook roll lies on the !round (here he dropped itG and sits lost in thou!ht. 'his is e&pressed, ho(ever, in a visual )otif that is thus far uni?ue. 9e holds his head hi!h and raises one hand to his ro(, as if he (ere lookin! out into the distance, or as if he (ere havin! a vision. 8n either side of the )edallion stand a )an carryin! a sheep and a fisher)an, (hile elo(, on a s)aller scale, are t(o shepherds (ith their flock. ,ll these ucolic ele)ents have a lon! pictorial and literary tradition and (ould have een fa)iliar to the conte)porary vie(er as sy) ols of the happy life.DB5E 'he )essa!e see)s to e that intellectual pursuits and the rural life confer on the individual a happiness and peace of )ind co)para le to that of the carefree shepherd. 'his is )ade even clearer y t(o co)ple)entary scenes on the short sides of the sarcopha!us. -n one, t(o philosophers, dressed as the seated fi!ure on the front, en!a!e in conversation, (hile, in the other, a herds)an pastures his sheep. 8n the one hand, the @philosopher@ is assi)ilated to this ucolic (orld throu!h his knotty staff and ani)al hide, (hile, on the % B$M %

4i!. 155 *arcopha!us of a )arried couple (ith ucolic and i lical scenes. +ate third century ,.1. <o)e, *anta .aria ,nti?ua. other, his carefully arran!ed !ar)ent and the various props Fthe )ar le seat, sundial, vine:covered pillar, and ookcaseG tie hi) fir)ly to the (ell:tended villa (here he devotes hi)self to his studies. ,lon! (ith the infiltration of these ucolic )otifs into the (orld of the a)ateur intellectual co)es fre?uently a chan!in! i)a!ery for (o)en. 'he Basel sarcopha!us, like others of the later third century, depicts the (ife as an orans, (ith oth ar)s raised. Co)parison (ith i)a!es on coins prove that this is a sy) ol for piety F'ietas G. 'he .use has eco)e a (o)an of prayer. 'his too, ho(ever, is a role for (o)en that is (ell esta lished in the traditions of <o)an art. Iulio:Claudian princesses, for e&a)ple, had so)eti)es een sho(n in the sa)e position of prayer. +earnin! and the life of the )ind are no( presented as assistin! in the search to attain inner peace and

happiness. 8ne of the earliest Christian sarcopha!i, in *anta .aria ,nti?ua at the <o)an 4oru), illustrates this especially vividly Ffi!. 155G.DBME 'he reader:philosopher sits in the open air eside his prayin! (ife, fra)ed y a )an carryin! a sheep and the fi!ure of the prophet Ionah reclinin! under a o(er Fa popular i)a!e in cataco) paintin!s, (hich does not correspond to the i lical tale of Ionah ut (as first created in this period as a Christian version of the ucolic idyllG. 'he aptis) scene at the ri!ht ed!e, alon! (ith the fi!ure of Ionah, identifies the conte&t here as a Chris: % B$J % tian one. 9ence the readin! fi!ure in the )iddle is )ost likely not studyin! the classics, ut rather *cripture. -n contrast to earlier i)a!ery, the reader is no( devoid of any ostentation. 9e is co)pletely o livious of the (orld around hi).DBJE <eadin! itself has eco)e a pious activity and there is no funda)ental difference et(een the hus andCs devotional readin! and his (ifeCs prayer. 'his is particularly (ell illustrated on a sarcopha!us relief in the .useo Civico at Helletri.DB$E 'he deceased (o)an stands in the orans pose in the center, flanked at either side y a shepherd. 'he space in et(een is filled (ith a patch(ork of s)all:scale scenes fro) the 8ld and ;e( 'esta)ents. -n one of these little scenes, ri!ht ne&t to the orans, a philosopher sits eside a chest filled (ith ook rolls and reads. 'hus a chain of associations is created et(een the readin! of the *criptures, faith and prayer, and the happy condition that these lead to. 'he direct connection et(een readin! and prayin! fi!ures )ust e deli erateA it i)plies that the (hole character of intellectual activity has chan!ed. Be!innin! in the later third century, the ?uestion (as hotly de ated in philosophical circles (hether the (ise )an should (ithdra( fro) pu lic life entirely or only on occasion, (hether y )eans of a kind of @inner escape@ (ithin the city Fthere (ere so)e philosophers (ho no lon!er (ent out of the houseG or y )ovin! out to the country. 'he notion itself (as not ne(. -n the 4lavian period, the *toic philosopher .usonius <ufus had e&plicitly reco))ended the life of a peasant or shepherd to the philosophically inclined individual: @,nd if the tendin! of the flocks did 9esiod no dishonor, nor did it prevent the !ods and the .uses fro) lovin! hi), then neither should it anyone else. 4or )e this is the )ost a!reea le of all rural activities, for it offers the soul the !reatest opportunities for leisure and reflection, and for the pursuit of everythin! (e )ean y 'ai#eia .@DB9E ;o(, ho(ever, this association et(een the philosopher and the pastoral life ca)e to e seen as so desira le that it is not unusual to find a (ell:dressed (ise )an actually tendin! a flock of sheep or, conversely, conventional shepherds depicted (ith the pose and facial e&pression of an intellectual.D"#E 'he very fact that such )otifs (ere adopted so naturally into the pictorial voca ulary sho(s that these % B$$ % )etaphors for spiritual lon!in! )ust have een fir)ly fi&ed in the )inds of )any people outside the narro( philosophical circles. But (hereas the real philosophers and, soon after, the first of the Christian her)its lon!ed for isolated spots devoid of hu)an contact, the a)ateur intellectual !enerally appears in scenes (here he is (ell inte!rated into the life of a country estate. *o, for e&a)ple, the lando(ner )i!ht e sho(n on sarcopha!i readin!, his (ife at prayer, in the )idst of scenes of vinta!in!, the olive harvest, huntin!, or a country )eal. , lar!e )osaic fro) a villa at ,rroni0 F;avarraG sho(s several )en in conte)porary dress, pro a ly lar!e lando(ners, as literati acco)panied y their .uses, each a!ainst the ackdrop of a villa settin!. ,nd a ;orth ,frican )osaic co) ines a ucolic scene (ith a villa !arden and clearly

la els the (hole ense) le as filoso;fiE< filolocus .D"1E ;aturally the a!e:old <o)an tradition of otium and the continuin! attraction of villa culture played an i)portant role in all this.D"BE But it is not enou!h to descri e this pheno)enon as si)ply a revival of the old idea of otium . ,t least in the case of so)e of the ;eoplatonists and their follo(ers, (e are no( dealin! (ith an escape fro) @the (orld.@ 'he principal !oal is to avoid any kind of distur ance so that one )ay focus on the interior life, tran?uility of the spirit, and the search for 2od.D""E But even for the lando(ner, the path fro) <o)e to oneCs country house eco)es a sy) olic /ourney into the (orld of the spirit. ,s a series of scenes on sarcopha!us lids of the early fourth century illustrates, readin! and discussion )i!ht e!in already in the car on the /ourney out Ffi!. 15MG.D"6E -n the ti)e of Constantine, ,idesios of Cappadocia, a pupil of the fa)ous -a) lichus, consulted a )ystic oracle and (as !iven a choice et(een a life of @undyin! fa)e@ in the cities or one as a shepherd or co(herd @(ith the hope of union (ith the i))ortal !ods,@ that is, a divine revelation. F.usonius, (e recall, had spoken only of the search @for everythin! (e )ean y 'ai#eia .@G ,idesios did actually ac?uire a s)all far)stead in the )ountains of Cappadocia, ut it (as not lon! efore his o(n pupils could persuade hi) to return to the philosophical schools. -n the opinion of >unapius, (ho records the story F3S 6M5G, this (as not the etter course. -t is only a!ainst the ack!round of such hopes for divine revelation throu!h isolation fro) the % B$9 %

4i!. 15M 4ra!)ent of the lid of a lar!e sarcopha!us, sho(in! a )an and his (ife in conversation on the (ay to their villa. Ca. ,.1. B$#. <o)e, 'er)e .useu). (orld that (e can !rasp the full si!nificance of the visionary !estures of the @philosopher@ on the Basel sarcopha!us or the )any orans fi!ures directin! their ad)onition strai!ht at the vie(er.

Chr%st as the Teacher of the True Ph%loso.h'

)e %ho %oul# o,ser/e the image of Go# in earthly colors, on the groun#s of )is ha/ing ,ecome a man, let him ,e accurse#F 3Bishop >piphanius of Cyprus Fca. ,.1. 6##G 7ith the official reco!nition of Christianity, sculptorsC and paintersC (orkshops in <o)e (ere ?uick to respond to the chan!in! (ishes of their clientele.D"5E 'raditional i)a!ery, especially dra(n fro) )ytholo!y, eco)es rare, and a ne( Christian icono!raphy suddenly takes its place. Bucolic sy) olis) of peace and happiness is replaced y scenes of )iracles, and Christ, the teacher of (isdo), takes the place of the cultivated <o)an citi0en. 'he funda)ental )oral o /ection to visual i)a!ery on the part of the ishops and church fathers % B9# % (as evidently out(ei!hed y the lay)anCs po(erful need to evoke the ne( )essa!e of salvation in physical for).D"ME 4or our purposes, t(o aspects of this pheno)enon are of particular interest: the

re)arka le continuity of the i)a!ery and, at the sa)e ti)e, the sharpenin! of the hierarchical dichoto)y et(een )aster and pupil.D"JE Christ hi)self, the apostles, prophets, and saints are all depicted like pa!an intellectuals. ,s a rule then, (ear the 2reek )antle F'allium G (ith under!ar)ent and hold a ook roll in one hand3even (hen this see)s rather an i)pedi)ent in certain scenes of )iracles. But it (as not throu!h the )ediu) of visual i)a!ery alone that the Christians set the)selves fir)ly in the tradition of the pa!an cult of learnin!. 'hey also assi)ilated the)selves to it in their daily lives. 'ertullian first declares the 'allium to e the suita le !ar)ent for a Christian F!e 'allio MG. -n the >astern provinces, this (ould not have een noticea le, ut in the 7est it )eant the adoption of distinctively intellectual dress. -n addition, fro) the third century on, church fathers reco))end the (earin! of a eard. Cle)ent of ,le&andria, for e&a)ple, (rites in favor of the eard on the !rounds that it !ives a )an a di!nified and a(e:inspirin! appearance FPai#. ".11.M#G. *o)eti)es the eard is /ustified on )oral !rounds, /ust as earlier the *toics had done. ,u!ustine (rites: @Bar a si!nificat fortes, ar a si!nificat iuvenes, strenuos, i)pi!ros, alacres@ F(nar. in 'salm. 1"B D.i!ne "J.1J""EG.D"$E 'hus Christians (ho follo(ed this advice on dress and appearance (ould have taken on the traditional i)a!e of the philosopher. 'his (as presu)a ly true a ove all for the cler!y. 8n the Carrand 1iptych of ca. 6## Fcf. fi!. 1M1G, the apostle Paul and his pupils appear in conventional philosopher dress. 'his evidently reflects the styles (orn y the cler!y in this period, since the i)perial )a!istrate and his entoura!e on the sa)e diptych also (ear the official outfits current at the ti)e.D"9E But (hen there (as a need to fashion the very essence of Christ into a sin!le visual i)a!e, he (as depicted e&clusively as the teacher of (isdo) startin! in the later third century, oth in cataco) paintin!s and on sarcopha!i.D6#E 'he usual pose (as seated frontally facin! the vie(er, (hich had already een used on earlier sarcopha!i and (as % B91 %

4i!. 15J Christ teachin!, fro) a colu)n sarcopha!us FNG. Ca. ,.1. "$#. <o)e, 'er)e .useu). derived fro) the )a!istrates in <o)an state art. >ven earlier, professional teachers had een depicted in this pose of authority Fcf. fi!. 1BMG. 'he typolo!ical si)ilarity is particularly strikin! (hen (e co)pare i)a!es of Christ (ith the @child intellectuals@ of <o)an funerary art, for e&a)ple, the youthful statuette of Christ in the 'er)e .useu) in <o)e Ffi!. 15JG (ith a child sarcopha!us in the +ouvre or the funerary % B9B %

4i!. 15$ 4unerary )osaic for the nine:year:old '. ,urelius ,urelianus. 'hird century ,.1. *plit, ,rchaeolo!ical .useu).

)osaic for a nine:year:old oy in the )useu) at *plit Ffi!. 15$G.D61E 'hese (underkinder, chosen at rando), )atch the i)a!e of Christ as teacher in pose, !estures, and drapery. -ndeed, the so:called statuette of Christ )i!ht actually e a fra!)ent fro) one of the sarcopha!i sho(in! scenes of instruction that has een re(orked into a statuette y the )odern restorer.D6BE 'hus Christ appears in a pictorial for)ula that (ould have een !enerally fa)iliar and there y e) odies precisely the sa)e ?ualities that had lon! en/oyed such hi!h status in the self:i)a!e of the ordinary <o)an: learnin! and a philosophical orientation in life. 'o non:Christians, these pictures of the ne( teacher of (isdo) offered a fa)iliar i)a!e as (ell. -n this respect they (ere (ell suited to )ake ChristCs teachin!s appear to e the continuation of a lon! tradition, one that (as trusted and revered. But (hereas the a)ateur intellectuals of earlier funerary art had een sho(n acco)panied y .uses, philosophical counselors, and % B9" % fa)ily )e) ers, Christ no( sits closely surrounded y his disciples, (ho are also depicted frontally. 'he pictorial i)a!e of the teacher is set (ithin a different conte&t, a kind of pu lic !atherin! instead of the do)estic a) ience. Christ invaria ly holds either a ook roll or a code& in his left hand. 9e does not actually read ut rather proclai)s his teachin!s contained therein. 8n the sarcopha!us of Bishop Concordius of ,rles Fd. "J6G, the opened code& ears the (ords #ominos legem #at Ffi!. 159a, G.D6"E 8ften the apostles have opened rolls or ooks in their hands as (ell, and they so)eti)es converse a)on! the)selves. ,t first !lance such scenes are re)iniscent of earlier !atherin!s of philosophers, as, for e&a)ple, on a s)all )osaic of the >arly -)perial period Ffi!. 1M#G.D66E But (hile these scenes are co)posed of several s)aller, fra!)ented !roupin!s, the strict sy))etry of the Christian scenes e&presses in visual ter)s the notions of consensus and a solute devotion. 'he +e& Christi is hailed as the @ne( philosophy,@ a )etaphor e)ployed as early as *aint Iustin and the ,le&andrian apolo!ists a out ,.1. B##. ,t the sa)e ti)e, ho(ever, it is )ade clear that there is no lon!er an alternative to this @philosophy.@ 'he )otif of frontality had first appeared on @philosopher sarcopha!i@ of the second half of the third century, ut in those scenes the acco)panyin! fi!ures (ere still turned to(ard the deceased (hose learnin! they ackno(led!e. -n Christian i)a!ery, ho(ever, the vie(er is directly confronted y the (hole !atherin!, (hich !ives these scenes an i))ediacy unkno(n up to this ti)e. 'he vie(er is dra(n into the !roup receivin! instruction, yet at the sa)e ti)e distanced y a sense of a(e. -f the hypothesis is correct that a)on! the prototypes of the lar!e:scale cataco) paintin!s and relief sarcopha!i (ere i)posin! frescoes or )osaics in the apses of Constantinian asilicas, this (ould only confir) the consciously reli!ious function of the frontal i)a!e. 7e )ust also keep in )ind that the )osaic in the apse (as reenacted, as it (ere, in ritual, (henever, durin! the service, the ishop and his circle of cler!y)en took their places on the i! ench of the e&edra eneath the apse. -n this (ay the ishop dre( his authority directly fro) that of Christ, the teacher of (isdo), and his apostles. 7e shall return once )ore to the hierarchical structure of these i)a!es. % B96 %

4i!. 159 a5 *arcopha!us of Bishop Concordius. +ast ?uarter of the fourth century ,.1.

,rles, .usKe dC,rt ChrKtien. -cono!raphical for)ulas are stereotyped i)a!es, the vehicles that convey ideas and values. 'he artist (ho e)ploys an old for)ula for a ne( idea fi&es that idea in a specific for), one that carries (ith it all the connotations still attached to the for)ula fro) its earlier use. -n so doin!, he also, consciously or unconsciously, e&cludes alternative as: % B95 %

4i!. 1M# .osaic front Po)peii (ith a !atherin! of philosophers. 4irst century B.C. ;aples, .useo ;a0ionale. sociations that conceiva ly are inte!ral parts of the ne( idea. 9e )ay, that is, alter the very character of the idea. 'hat Christ should appear in the i)a!e of the philosopher:teacher (as anythin! ut o vious and certainly not so ordained y *cripture. *eein! a youthful Christ in the sche)a of the intellectual (underkind, the Christian vie(er )ay naturally have thou!ht of his appearance efore the 1octors, (hile the earded Christ (ould have re)inded the) of the *er)on on the .ount. But the scenes of his % B9M % teachin! a !roup of disciples are not tailored to a specific event in the life of Iesus F(ith the e&ception of the scene on polychro)e pla?ues, fi!. 1MBG, (hich (ould have een easy to do throu!h the addition of the appropriate su sidiary fi!ures. 4or this reason the likeness to the philosopher:teacher achieves its full effect. 'he )etaphor of Christ as philosopher a)id a learned !atherin!, ho(ever, represented a distortion of (hat (as ne( and distinctive a out Christian doctrine, for Christianity, despite its !radual penetration into the upper strata of society, al(ays (anted to re)ain the reli!ion of the co))on people. ChristCs )essa!e of salvation (as directed e&plicitly at slaves as (ell as free people, poor as (ell as rich, uneducated and learned. 'he apostles the)selves had een si)ple people, and Iustin .artyr cele rates Iesus specifically as a carpenter. But the )en in these early i)a!es co)e across e&clusively as educated and upper class. 7ith the adoption of the earlier icono!raphy of the intellectual, the entire @cultural )ilieu@ of the cult of learnin!, as .arrou called it, per)eates the visual i)a!e. 'he tradition )ust have een so stron! that even the Christians could not envisa!e their savior in any (ay other than as the fa)iliar teacher of (isdo). 'his is yet a further, retrospective corro oration of ho( thorou!hly the cult of learnin! had penetrated the popular )entality. ,t the sa)e ti)e, the (idespread use of the )otif of Christ teachin! his disciples on the to) s of avera!e )iddle:class citi0ens sho(s that the concept of Christianity as the @true philosophy,@ a )etaphor ori!inally clai)ed y the learned apolo!ists in their de ate (ith the pa!ans, had y at least the early fourth century eco)e current and fully accepted y the Christian populace. 'hese i)a!es provide po(erful testi)ony in favor of the controversial thesis, first for)ulated y ,dolf von 9arnack, of the @9elleni0ation@ of Christianity. Usually (hat is )eant y this is the assi)ilation into Christian theolo!y of the ter)inolo!y and thou!ht patterns of earlier philosophers.D65E 'he visual i)a!ery illustrates in addition a elief, (idespread a)on! the faithful, in Christ as a ove all a !reat teacher.

'hese scenes of hi!hly cultivated apostles (ith their philosopher:teacher raise yet another issue. 'he Christians (ere constantly looked do(n on as uneducated and su /ected to the resultin! social discri)ination at the hands of the (ealthy and educated classes, precisely e: % B9J % cause the ne( reli!ion had had its initial success pri)arily a)on! the poor. Christian apolo!ists (ere al(ays tryin! in vain to counter this pre/udice. -n this li!ht, the i)a!ery of the cultivated !atherin! of learned )en )ay e seen as a response to these char!es. 'hese for)ulaic scenes functioned at several levels, directed oth at the Christian co))unity and outside it.D6ME 'he close association et(een )iracles and the !ospel of salvation reveals a si)ilar dependence on traditional eliefs. ,s is (ell kno(n, the icono!raphy of >arly Christian art is ased lar!ely on the depiction of certain )iracles, and these are the very ones ascri ed to the pa!an @holy )en.@ 'he !reat e&a)ple is once a!ain ,pollonius of 'yana, (ho is credited in PhilostratusC io!raphy (ith healin! the sick, drivin! a(ay de)ons, out:of: ody e&periences, and even raisin! the dead. 'here are si)ilar accounts in >unapiusC 1i/es of the Philoso'hers, recorded a out ,.1. "9#. -n oth the pa!an and the Christian conte&t, the )iracles serve to lend credi ility to the teachin!s, as (ell as to de)onstrate the holiness of the teacher. 'he scenes of Paul on the Carrand 1iptych )entioned earlier are a !ood e&a)ple Ffi!. 1M1aG. 'he apostle teaches in the sa)e pose as Christ, e&cept that he does not face the vie(er. 'he narrative is confined (ithin the scene, (here t(o pupils, also portrayed as philosophers or scholars, devotedly listen to his (ords. ,s (ith oth Christ and the pa!an @holy )en,@ the authority of PaulCs teachin!s derives fro) his superhu)an po(ers, (hich are evoked in t(o additional scenes. -n the central panel, the )iracle of the viper on .alta is narrated and, at the sa)e ti)e, su stantiated y the secular authority of a )a!istrate. Belo(, a cro(d seekin! salvation presses to(ard the )iracle (orker. ,t the sa)e ti)e, ho(ever, PaulCs teachin! is also seen to derive directly fro) 2od y )eans of the likeness to ,da), (ho is sho(n in Paradise at the ri!ht side of the i)a!e.D6JE

The 1ual Face of Chr%st

8ne of the )ost re)arka le features of >arly Christian art is the dual imago -hristi . Christ is depicted oth as a radiant youth or oy and3 % B9$ %

4i!. 1M1 -vory diptych sho(in! Paul as teacher and )iracle (orker and ,da) in Paradise. Ca. ,.1. 6##. 4lorence, Bar!ello. % B99 % thou!h )uch less often at first3(ith a full eard and shoulder:len!th hair. Both portrait types can e used in scenes of the sa)e su /ect, even )any ti)es on the sa)e )onu)ent, yet no strai!htfor(ard differentiation in )eanin! can e discerned.D6$E >vidently there (as no sin!le, all:e) racin! i)a!e for the fi!ure of Christ in the traditional voca ulary that (as considered ade?uate. Perhaps, then, (e

should interpret the deli erate /u&taposition of oth types as an atte)pt to capture the totality of ChristCs nature throu!h an accu)ulative process. 'he pheno)enon is of particular interest for our investi!ation ecause oth portrait types ulti)ately !o ack to ideas and pictorial )odels fro) the pa!an cult of learnin!. +et us consider first the youthful Christ. 'he picture of Christ !iven y Iustin, 'ertullian, and Cle)ent of ,le&andria is still unre)arka le, and it is only in the course of the third century that the i)a!e of the eautiful youth appears, pro a ly first a)on! the 2nostics.D69E 'his is surely an instance of @9elleni0ation.@ -n the scholarly literature the radiant youth has often een identified (ith ,pollo, ut this does not provide a concrete icono!raphical link, since ,polloCs eauty is est revealed in his nude ody. <ather, (e )ay recall the tradition of ro)antici0ed portraits of youn! )en (ith lon! hair of the second century ,.1. , (hich con/ured up various 2reek heroes fro) ,chilles to ,le&ander the 2reat as a kind of nostal!ic e&pression of faith in the revival and preservation of classical culture Fcf. fi!. 15JG. 8ther ideali0ed i)a!es of the youth (ith eautiful lon! hair )ay have had an influence as (ell, such as the Genius Po'uli $omani .D5#E ,lon! (ith the lon!:haired youth, (e also find not infre?uently an even youn!er, al)ost childlike i)a!e of Christ, not only in so)e of the )ore )odest cataco) paintin!s, ut also on so)e especially fine sarcopha!i. 'his is surely so)eho( related to the type of the intellectual (underkind, (hich, as (e have seen, (as especially popular in <o)an funerary art of the later third century Ffi!. 169G. Philostratus and >unapius also, incidentally, re!ularly report that the charis)atic (ise )en had een (underkinder too, distin!uished oth y their spiritual po(ers and y e&traordinary eauty. 'his (idespread enthusias) for the intellectual (underkind, (hich only increased as the >)pire (ore on, represents a definitive reak % "## % (ith the traditions of 2reece, (here )ental po(ers and (isdo) (ere al(ays associated (ith advancin! a!e. 7e are no( confronted instead (ith the notion of a ne( and )iraculous kind of (isdo), so)ethin! one is orn (ith, a !ift, no lon!er the result of either !reat )ental effort or e&perience. 7hen these ideali0ed notions of the )iracle (orker are adopted for the i)a!e of Christ, they take on an added di)ension. 'his divine youth, the *on of 2od, stands for an all:enco)passin! hope for a ne( (orld. 'he type of the earded Christ, on the other hand, has al(ays een reco!ni0ed as inspired y philosopher icono!raphy. , different avenue of interpretation, (hich seeks to esta lish a link to the Classical icono!raphy of the 2reek !ods, (hether Zeus or, as )ore recently su!!ested, ,sklepios, has ri!htly found little favor.D51E ;evertheless, - elieve it is one particular tradition of philosopher icono!raphy (ith (hich (e are dealin!. 9is shoulder:len!th hair clearly separates the earded Christ fro) the philosopher portraits of Classical and 9ellenistic art and places hi) instead in another tradition, one that (e first encountered in the description of >uphrates Fcf. p. B5JG. ,s - have tried to de)onstrate, this type of portrait, or, rather, the self:i)a!e that lies ehind it, (as )eant to translate into visual ter)s a special aura of di!nity, as (ell as )a!ical and spiritual po(ers to (hich these @holy )en@ lay clai). 8f all the !uises in (hich intellectuals of the past had appeared, this one radiated the ulti)ate authority. ,lthou!h it has proved i)possi le to arrive at a clearly defined prototype, oth ecause literary descriptions are va!ue and contradictory and ecause the visual evidence fro) the second century is still rather spotty, - nevertheless re)ain convinced that the i)a!e of the earded Christ (ith shoulder:len!th hair is closely associated (ith that of the theios aner . 'he co)parison of

Christ (ith the pa!an )iracle (orkers, (ho like(ise possessed divine po(ers and, in their o(n (ay, also pro)ised a kind of @salvation,@ (as self:evident and eca)e a favorite topos in the de ate et(een pa!ans and Christians. -t is in the portraiture of the later Charis)atic philosophers, (ho (ere elieved even )ore @holy@ and @divine,@ that (e shall once a!ain encounter the type (ith shoulder:len!th hair. % "#1 %

4i!. 1MB *o:called polychro)e pla?ues, sho(in! Christ perfor)in! )iracles and at the *er)on on the .ount. Ca. ,.1. "##. <o)e, 'er)e .useu). 'he first secure e&a)ple of a earded Christ elon!in! to this tradition is on the @polychro)e pla?ues@ )ade in <o)e a out ,.1. "## Ffi!. 1MBG. But there )ust have een earlier e&a)ples, as (e can infer fro) references to the i)a!es of Christ of the =arpokratians, (ho used these as o /ects of cult (orship, alon! (ith portraits of Plato, ,ristotle, Pytha!oras, and others.D5BE Christ appears in several scenes on the polychro)e pla?ues as healer or )iracle (orker, so)eti)es still depicted as an ascetic philosopher (ith no under!ar)ent, si)ilar to the fi!ure of the itinerant philosopher in the 9erakleion .useu) that (e sa( earlier Ffi!. 16"G. -n one scene, ho(ever, he turns to look out of the picture, !esturin! like a pu lic speaker and conspicuously holdin! aloft a ook roll. *everal s)all fi!ures sit listenin! at his feet, i)plyin! that this )ust e a specific event, such as the *er)on on the .ount. *i!nificantly, in this particular scene ChristCs lon!, thick hair is especially e)phasi0ed. 8nly a out the )iddle of the fourth century does the i)a!e of Christ as the theios aner eco)e (idespread on sarcopha!i and in cataco) paintin!s, oth in scenes (ith )ultiple fi!ures and in the for) of painted usts Ffi!. 1M"G.D5"E 9e is al(ays sho(n frontally, and oth % "#B %

4i!. 1M" 1etail of a ceilin! fresco in the Cataco) of *aints .arcellino and Pietro in <o)e, sho(in! Christ teachin! et(een Peter and Paul. *econd half of the fourth century ,.1. eard and hair are particularly lush and carefully tended. 'he hi!h forehead sho(s no e)otion and is e)phasi0ed y the central part. >?ually consistent is the i))aculately draped !ar)ent. ,ll of these traits )ust e intended to anish any possi le association (ith the @filthy@ i)a!e of the itinerant Cynic philosopher. -nstead, the lavish, dense hair e)phasi0es his )a!ical po(ers. 'he painted portrait usts in the cataco) s, (hich have ri!htly een said to reflect )a/or (orks of ecclesiastical art, first present us (ith the fully for)ed i)a!e of Christ in )a/esty that (ill so do)inate By0antine art. -n the ti)e of 'heodosius, (hen the earded Christ on sarcopha!i proclai)s his la( (ith a )a!isterial !esture, the old for)ula has taken

% "#" %

4i!. 1M6 *tri!ilated sarcopha!us sho(in! Christ as teacher. Ca. ,.1. "J#. <o)e, *antC,!nese fuori le )ura. on a ne( )eanin!. Tet a )ore )odest stri!ilated sarcopha!us of the sa)e period illustrates ho( the continuity fro) the i)a!e of the teacher of (isdo) has still not een for!otten Ffi!. 1M6G. ,s in the earlier scenes (ith the !atherin! of pupils, Christ turns directly to the vie(er and presents hi) (ith the *cripture. 'he chest of ook rolls once a!ain e)phasi0es the !reat learnin! of the teacher. But the % "#6 % curtains, as in -)perial state art, characteri0e the site of his epiphany as an i)pressive pu lic settin!. .ean(hile, the lid illustrates that ancient sy) ol of happiness, the )arine thiasos .D56E ,t this point (e should take at least a rief look at the portraits of the apostles. 'ypolo!ically they are ?uite distinct fro) the i)a!e of Christ and are ased instead on the traditional repertoire and icono!raphy of the intellectual. Particularly characteristic are the conventional eard, the ald head, and the e&pression of concentrated thou!ht. 'he countenance of Christ, y contrast, is free of any si!n of e&ertion.D55E 'his is also true of Peter and Paul, (ho early on (ere set apart fro) the others in <o)an art and received a distinctive physio!no)y. Paul is usually ald and/or has a lon! eard taperin! to a point, (hile Peter has a @classically@ styled eard and hair. *o)eti)es (e )ay even have the i)pression that the assi)ilation of the apostlesC icono!raphy to that of the ancient philosophers )ay have served the artists or their patrons as a )eans of conveyin! certain specific )essa!es. 'hus, for e&a)ple, on a (ell:kno(n ivory py&is in Berlin Ffi!. 1M5G, the head of Paul is clearly re)iniscent of *ocrates, (hile Peter holds a @CynicCs clu @ and has the unke)pt hair of an itinerant philosopher.D5ME Both these visual allusions evoke earlier sets of associations. Tet in spite of all these ties to the pa!an icono!raphy of the intellectual, the i)a!ery of Christ ?uickly transcends the received tradition. >arly Christian art rin!s a out a funda)ental chan!e in the depiction of the intellectual and of the (orkin!s of the )ind. 4or the first ti)e (e are confronted (ith a clearly defined hierarchy, in (hich the teacher en/oys a solute authority and the pupils appear fully devoted to hi). 4urther)ore, for the first ti)e the vie(er is addressed directly and virtually dra(n into the scene. 'he !atherin! of teacher and pupils eco)es a kind of devotionary i)a!e. ;ot incidentally, fro) no( on the ook rolls and codices are displayed in such a (ay that the vie(er is a le to read the 9oly 7rit. 4ro) the e!innin! there had een a !ro(in! tendency in scenes of Christ teachin! to portray hi) as the do)inant fi!ure. ,lthou!h so)e of the earliest cataco) paintin!s sho( Christ on virtually the sa)e % "#5 %

4i!. 1M5 -vory py&is sho(in! Christ enthroned as teacher a ove the apostles, (ith Peter and Paul ne&t to hi). ,fter ,.1. 6##. Berlin, *taatliche .useen. scale as the disciples, he soon eco)es lar!er and clearly elevated a ove the). Tet even so, the i)a!e of Christ as philosophical teacher (as eventually not enou!h, since it failed to )ake visi le his divine po(er. 'hus fro) the late Constantinian period, certain ele)ents of -)perial i)a!ery (ere transferred to Christ, (hile court theolo!ians and (riters of pane!yric developed a sy) olic syste) to de)onstrate ho( the po(er of the e)peror is derived fro) that of 2od. 8n the sarcopha!us of Iunius Bassus, a youthful Christ appears enthroned on the arch of 9eaven as kosmokrator, and it is not lon! efore the apostles, i)itatin! By0antine court ritual, approach hi) (ith their hands cloaked, to receive the @la(@ fro) the hand of Christ. 'he vie(er is invited to assu)e the sa)e attitude of reverence. *o, for e&a)ple, on the sarcopha!us of Bishop Concordius, t(o patron fi!ures, representin! the % "#M %

4i!. 1MM .osaic in *t. CatherineCs in *inai, sho(in! the transfi!uration of Christ. *i&th century ,.1. populace, are rou!ht efore the holy !atherin! in an appropriately hu) le pose Ffi!. 159G.D5JE -n these hierarchically structured co)positions, the artists )ake !ood use of the different portrait types of Christ and the apostles in order to !ive added clarity to the relative orderin! of status. ,part fro) Christ, only the prophets, the evan!elists, and a fe( fi!ures fro) the 8ld 'esta)ent (ho en/oyed positions of special authority, such as , raha) and .elchi0edek, are depicted (ith lon! hair and a full eard. 'o differentiate the) fro) Christ, they often have !rey hair, or their hair and eard are not as carefully styled. Iust ho( ri!idly the hierarchy (as so)eti)es o served is illustrated y the splendid )osaic of the transfi!uration of Christ in the .onastery of *t. Catherine in *inai Ffi!. 1MMG.D5$E Christ hovers et(een >li/ah and .oses, all three % "#J % represented in the portrait type of the @holy )an.@ But (hereas the t(o prophets stand on earth, Christ appears in a )andorla. 8f the disciples at his feet and the apostles, saints, and true elievers in the tondi, ho(ever, )any are sho(n in the traditional icono!raphy of the 2reek intellectual.

The Late Ant%<ue Ph%loso.her 9Look9

'he i)a!e of Christ as the teacher of (isdo) (as not si)ply derived fro) that of the theios aner4 it (as in so)e sense in co)petition (ith it. -t is, unfortunately, not possi le to reconstruct this process of )utual influence in detail, since the ody of evidence for +ate ,nti?ue philosophers is tiny co)pared (ith the (ealth of representations of Christ and is )ostly ?uite late as (ell. 'here are, ho(ever, so)e literary descriptions that present an i)pressive !li)pse into the eliefs and concerns of the philosophers. 'hey sho( that their )entality (as in )any respects not so very different fro) that of conte)porary Christians.

*tartin! in the third century, the popular notion of a philosopher and (hat (as e&pected of hi) once a!ain under(ent a )a/or chan!e. >unapiusC 1i/es of conte)porary @philosophers and *ophists,@ (ritten a out 6##, are funda)entally different fro) 1io!enes +aertiusC 1i/es of the Philoso'hers or the 1i/es of the So'hists of Philostratus, oth (orks of the early third century. 7hile oth these earlier accounts deal (ith )en (ho (ere (ell inte!rated into ur an society and displayed a (hole ran!e of hu)an stren!ths and (eaknesses, >unapius (rites (hat are asically ha!io!raphies. 9e presents the reader (ith a ne( kind of )ental and spiritual super)an (ho despises his )ortal ody and continually seeks purification in order to e nearer the !ods, (ho even en/oys certain divine po(ers hi)self, and (hose entire life is surrounded y an aura of the )ystic and the sacred. >ach one of the 1i/es is ased upon the sa)e catalo!ue of physical and spiritual ?ualities that (e first )et in PlinyCs description of >uphrates. But in addition there is a !reatly hei!htened reli!ious di)ension to the), )anifested in supernatural pheno)ena, )iracles, and prophecies that attest to the % "#$ % presence of the divine in these )en, @priests of the all:enco)passin! divinity@ FPorph. A,st. B.69G. 9ere, for e&a)ple, is >unapiusC description of the philosopher Prohairesios: @8ne could scarcely esti)ate his si0e, so )uch did he e&ceed all e&pectation. 4or he see)ed to e nine feet tall, so that he looked like a colossus, even (hen he stood alon!:side the tallest of his conte)poraries@ F3S 6$JG. 7hen Prohairesios (as su))oned to 2aul y the e)peror Constans, )any @could not really follo( his lectures and thus ad)ire the secrets of his soul. 4or this reason they clun! to (hat they could see clearly efore the), the si0e and eauty of his ody. 'hey looked up to hi) as to a colossal statue, so )uch did his appearance out)easure any hu)an standard@ F3S 6$J, 69BG.D59E 'he reli!ious aura is intensified y the repeated references to lookin! up to a statue. ,s early as the )id:third century, in a scene fro) the to) of the ,urelii in <o)e, is a depiction of one of the )iraculous (ise )en, over: life:si0e, sittin! in so)e pu lic place and instructin! the thron!s (ho cro(d around hi).DM#E 7e are apparently dealin! here (ith a very (idespread need, a)on! Christians and non:Christians, educated and uneducated people alike, to elieve in an incarnation of the divine, and even the @holy )en@ the)selves could not escape it. -a) lichus, for e&a)ple, feels co)pelled to contradict his pupils (hen they elieve that (hen he is privately at prayer, @his ody (ould rise up ten ells a ove the earth, and his !ar)ent (ould radiate (ith a !olden eauty@ F>unap. 3S 65$G. 7hen the transfi!ured Christ appears in the )andorla, he e) odies essentially the sa)e visual conception. 7ith all this, the !reat philosophers of late anti?uity still considered the)selves the spiritual heirs to the classical tradition. 'hey sou!ht their philosophical roots a ove all in certain of the )etaphysical (ritin!s of Plato, (hich they had @rediscovered@ and @purified.@ -n their daily lives, ho(ever, they )odeled the)selves )ost closely on Pytha!oras, the ascetic, pious, and pure philosopher of PorphyriusC description F 3it. Pyth. G. -ndeed, Philostratus had already turned ,pollonius of 'yana into a pure Pytha!orean. *tartin! (ith Plotinus, this a)al!a) of Platonic, Pytha!orean, and )ystical ele)ents (as thou!ht to constitute a sacred teachin!, (hich (ould e passed on (ithin the ;eoplatonic school fro) !eneration to !eneration, y one @divine@ % "#9 % Ftheios G or @holy@ Fhieros G )an to the ne&t. Unlike in earlier philosophical schools, conte)plation of the divine, oracles, and secret teachin!s all no( played a central role. -n the practice of (hat is called theur!y, associated a ove all (ith -a) lichus, the !ods the)selves intervene directly and raise up the hu)an soul to the)selves in a !esture that transcends anv intellectual effort.DM1E

But not every (orshipper had e?ual access to this ulti)ate )ystery. 'he result (as a ne( set of hierarchical structures (ithin the philosophical schools, very different fro) that of Christianity. 'he funda)ental distinction (as et(een, on the one hand, the traditionally learned philosophers, kno(n as 'hiloso'hoi or 'hilomatheis F@lovers of learnin!@G and, on the other, those fe( (ho had attained the hi!hest for) of )ystic revelation, the hieratikoi, theioi, or hieroi .DMBE 'hese @divine@ individuals (ere a ove any criticis). >unapius descri es the effect that .a&i)us of >phesus, the controversial teacher of Iulian the ,postate, had on his pupils: @;o one dared contradict hi), even the )ost e&perienced and ver ally skilled of his pupils, on those rare occasions (hen they dared address hi) at all. <ather, they listened to hi) in rapt silence and took in everythin! he said, as if it had een spoken fro) the tripod Dof ,pollo in 1elphiE. *o s(eet and co)pellin! (ere the (ords that issued fro) his lips@ F3S 6J"G. 'his spirit of su servience to a to(erin! fi!ure of intellectual authority is already reflected on a eautiful philosopher )osaic in ,pa)ea )ade after ca. "5# Ffi!. 1MJG. *i& of the ancient sa!es sit on either side of *ocrates and listen to his teachin!s. ,lthou!h they are still characteri0ed y physio!no)ic differences, it is only *ocrates, elevated like Christ y his central position, (ho is na)ed y a lar!e inscription. 'he very )an (ho once cast dou t on the idea of certain kno(led!e no( instructs others e2 cathe#ra . 'he )osaic (as found at ,pa)ea in *yria, the ho)e of a fa)ous ;eoplatonic school (here PlotinusC pupil -a) lichus, one of the @!olden chain of the divine,@ had tau!ht.DM"E ,fter the triu)ph of Christianity, the philosophers and rhetoricians lost the tre)endous presti!e that they had earlier en/oyed in <o)an society. ,lthou!h their ranks continued to e replenished fro) the ur an aristocracies, and they occasionally still held pu lic office, after the failure of Iulian the ,postate they ?uickly eca)e )ar!inali0ed. % "1# %

4i!. 1MJ .osaic in ,pa)ea in *yria, sho(in! *ocrates as the teacher of philosophers and (ise )en. ,.1. "MB/M". .en of the church no( do)inated the intellectual field. 'his is )ost likely the reason for the very )odest nu) er of preserved philosopher portraits fro) this period. But in these sa)e circu)stances, the pa!an philosophers !radually took on a ne( role. 'heir schools eca)e repositories of 9ellenis) in this late phase, places (here oth classical learnin! and the cults of the !ods (ere still )aintained. -t (as only natural that, alon! (ith their intellectual activities, these late pa!an philosophers also served as priests. Proclus F61B56$5G (as still )akin! pu lic sacrifices to ,sklepios, even thou!h the e)peror 'heodosius had ordered the closin! of all pa!an te)ples in "91. 8f the fe( securely identified portraits of philosophers, to (hich - should no( like to turn, it is si!nificant that all of the) save one (ear the (reath or fillet that is the )ark of priestly office. 'his )akes clear ho( central the priesthoods had eco)e to the identity of these +ate ,nti?ue philosophers. -t )ay e /ust an accident of preservation that these portraits all elon! to the early fifth century Ffi!s. 1M$, 1J#, 1J1G. 'ypolo!ically they are an astonishin!ly ho)o!eneous !roup, even

% "11 % thou!h they have een found in very different parts of the >)pire. ,ll (ear a eard and the thick, shoulder:len!th hair of Christ and the earlier @divine )en.@ 'heir appearance is consistently ele!ant, the eard and hair neatly co) ed and parted, the !ar)ent i)pecca ly draped. -n contrast to the Christian ascetics, (ho ne!lected their out(ard appearance in the )anner of the Cynics, the pa!an @holy )en@ al(ays re)ained an inte!ral part of ur an culture. 'heir style reflected their )ainly aristocratic ori!ins. 'he finest of the portraits are characteri0ed y a re)arka ly dra)atic facial e&pression turned up(ard, a trait not found in portraits of conte)porary individuals. 'his )ust have a specific )eanin!, a point to (hich - shall return presently. 2iven the strikin! si)ilarities of these portraits, one )i!ht (ell ?uestion ho( true to life they can e, especially (ith respect to the lon! hair. 'hese can hardly e realistic representations, since it is rather unlikely that all these )en of advancin! a!e had consistently lu&uriant, full heads of hair. Could it e that the @divine@ fi!ures in the philosophical schools (ore hieratic (i!s or )asks, like the earlier priest of ,sklepios, , onuteichos Fcf. p. BM"GN 'he provenance of four of these portraits is kno(n: ,thens, Constantinople F-stan ulG, ,phrodisias, and <o)e. 7e can therefore assu)e that this last of the ancient types of intellectual portraiture (as spread throu!h the (hole of the >)pire.DM6E 'he unifor)ity (ithin the !roup also leads to the inference that differences a)on! the various philosophical traditions no lon!er )attered in shapin! the identity of the individual. 'he kno(n provenances echo precisely (hat 2arth 4o(den has called the @topo!raphy of holiness.@ 4or alon! (ith the revived Platonic ,cade)y in ,thens, the )a/or schools (ere located in the cities of ,sia .inor3Per!a)u), >phesus, *ardis, ,phrodisias3as (ell as in ,pa)ea in *yria and ,le&andria in >!ypt. -t (as in these !reat centers, (hich transcended re!ional oundaries and (ere closely linked to one another, that classical studies still flourished into the fifth century. <. <. <. *)ith has een a le for the first ti)e to reconstruct a specific settin! for one of these portraits of an old philosopher, ased upon the archaeolo!ical conte&t of the recent discovery at ,phrodisias Ffi!. 1M$G.DM5E 'o!ether (ith several other tondo portraits, it decorated an e&edra, (hich, alon! (ith a porticus and an apsidal roo), (as uilt % "1B %

4i!. 1M$ 'ondo fro) an apsidal hall: portrait of a conte)porary philosopher. >arly fifth century ,.1. ,phrodisias, .useu). % "1" % onto a (ealthy residence of the >arly -)perial period. 'he uildin! (as situated in the )iddle of the city, directly ehind the (ell:kno(n Caesareu). *)ith adduces !ood reasons for identifyin! the co)ple& as the location of the ;eoplatonic philosophical school of ,phrodisias, (here ,sklepiodotus tau!ht in the fifth century. 9e had studied (ith Proclus in ,thens and later )arried the dau!hter of one of the richest citi0ens of ,phrodisias. 'he lavish decoration and central location of the school confir) that the philosophers of ,phrodisias still en/oyed pu lic reco!nition and had access to su stantial funds. 'he tondi, of course, (ere placed to e visi le not fro) the outside, ut rather fro) inside. 'hat is, they served as inspiration to the teachers and pupils, not as a )eans of sho(in! off to the pu lic at

lar!e. 'he preserved portraits and fra!)ents fall into t(o different series. 'he one includes heads of ancient poets and philosophers, identified y inscriptions, so)e sho(n (ith their fa)ous pupils F,ristotle (ith ,le&ander, *ocrates (ith ,lci iadesGA also Pindar, Pytha!oras, and ,pollonius Fpresu)a ly the one fro) 'yanaG. 'he other !roup co)prises the conte)porary philosopher, a eardless, rather youthful pupil, and a third conte)porary )ale portrait, identified y *)ith as a @*ophist.@ 'he latter t(o )ay e identified as )e) ers of a local fa)ily of honoratiores, (ho had acco))odated the school in their ho)e or een its enefactors in so)e other (ay. Unlike the first !roup, these carry no na)es inscri ed, perhaps a token of )odesty. Tet the head of the philosopher is lar!er than all the other portraits. 9e )ust have occupied a key position in the schoolCs hierarchy. , particularly interestin! fi!ure in this conte&t is the so:called *ophist, (ho is also characteri0ed as an intellectual yet is clearly several notches elo( the philosopher in status Ffi!. 1M9G. 'he recedin! hairline and closely tri))ed eard recall the @learned portraits@ of the second century ,.1. , (hich (ere in turn assi)ilated to !reat thinkers of the past Fsee pp. BB5ff.G. -n contrast to the philosophers, his hair falls only to the nape of the neck, not onto the shoulders. 9e could also e a )e) er of the school, one (hose inferior spiritual rank is e&pressed throu!h differences in hair and eard. 'he (hole pro!ra) of usts of ancient philosophers and poets !ives us so)e insi!ht into the profile of the philosophical school. Classical % "16 %

4i!. 1M9 Portrait of an a)ateur philosopher FNG, fro) the sa)e series as fi!. 1M$. ,phrodisias, .useu). authors still constitute the foundation of its teachin!, (ith the close teacher:pupil relationship hi!hli!hted y the fa)ous pairs, that is, as )odels for the present:day relationship of (ise teacher to pupils. 'he portraits of Pytha!oras and ,pollonius FPlato )ust have een in this series tooG perhaps represent a particular ranch of +ate ,nti?ue ;eoplatonic philosophy. 'he analo!y (ith the fa)ous teacher:pupil pairs underscores the close relationship et(een the conte)porary philosopher and the eardless youth. Perhaps his parents had entrusted his entire up rin!in! to this philosopher. Porphyrius, in his 1ife of Plotinus, records that parents of the no lest fa)ilies, /ust efore their deaths, (ould entrust oth their children and their fortunes to a philosopher as @divine and holy protector@ FPlot. 9G. 'he visual pro!ra) of the ,phrodisias school is not a uni?ue instance. >vidence of tondo portraits of classical philosophers and poets % "15 % has also een found else(here. 'he choice of those dee)ed (orthy of a portrait varied, ut the principle (as al(ays the sa)e. 'he presence of these classical authors (as intended to certify the +ate ,nti?ue philosophers as direct heirs to a lon! intellectual tradition. -n the >arly >)pire there had already een !alleries of portrait tondi in the li raries, representin! the /eteres scri'tores F'acitus, Annals B.$"G. 'he Christians then adopted the sa)e for) of co))e)oration. Christ appears surrounded y the apostles, saints, and devout patrons, in the sa)e )anner as the pa!an holy )an (ith

his classical authors, )ore advanced disciples, and oyish pupils. 'he (isdo) and divine revelation of the philosopher sprin! fro) the stores of classical learnin!. 'he portraits of the ancient poets and philosophers represent the (hole of the 2reek tradition, called up in order to confir) the authority of these latest teachers of (isdo). 'he la( of Christ, on the other hand, is founded upon the divine kin!do) of the teacher hi)self. 'he one series of portraits is retrospective, (hile the other looks ahead. Christ is the ori!in of all thin!s, and all lead ack to hi). 7hen the ori!inal conte&t is lost, it can indeed e difficult in particular instances to distin!uish the ust of a holy )an fro) that of Christ in the sa)e sche)a. 'hus, for e&a)ple, one )i!ht at first (onder if the i)pressive ust in -stan ul Ffi!. 1J#G could represent Christ. But in this instance the priestCs fillet in the hair su!!ests instead one of the holy )en. , pro le)atic case is the ust of a teacher in 8stia (ith his ri!ht hand in a teachin! !esture and a ni) us around his head, done in opus sectile techni?ue Ffi!. 1JBG.DMME 'he portrait (as found in association (ith the tondo portrait of a youth in the lavishly decorated )ar le hall of a patrician house at the Porta .arina. 'he pairin! of (hat see) to e teacher and pupil )ust, on the asis of the recent discovery at ,phrodisias, raise dou ts a out the (idely held interpretation of the teacher as Christ. +ike(ise, t(o splendid scenes of ani)al co) at (ith circus lions in )uch lar!er for)at on the sa)e (all ar!ue for a pa!an settin!. 'he cha) er (as a andoned efore its co)pletion, ca. ,.1. "95. .ost likely this (as a kind of private philosophical school in the ho)e of a (ealthy pa!an fa)ily, and the ani)al co): % "1M %

4i!. 1J# Bust of a conte)porary philosopher. Ca. ,.1. 6##. -stan ul, ,rchaeolo!ical .useu). ats, as on so)e third:century sarcopha!i, allude to the fa)ilyCs pu lic enefaction of sponsorin! the !a)es. -f this is the case, then the e&planation for the interruption of uildin! activity (ould e different fro) that proposed y 2iovanni Becatti and <ussell .ei!!s. -t (as caused y the Christian reaction to the revival of pa!an cults, especially under the e)peror >u!enius Fd. "96G. 'he usual interpretation of the hall as a !atherin! place for Christians rests on the identification of the sa!e as Christ, and this in turn rests lar!ely on the ni) us. But as a representation of li!ht, and hence a sy) ol of inner stren!th, this could e an attri ute of a (ide variety of fi!ures and even finds a direct e?uivalent in the conte)porary i)a!e of the @holy )an.@DMJE , out ,.1. 6$5 .arinus descri ed the philosopher Proclus thus: % "1J %

4i!. 1J1 Philosopher of the early fifth century ,.1. ,thens, ,cropolis .useu). 9e see)s truly to have en/oyed a particular divine !race. 'he (ords issued fro) the (ise

)anCs )outh like sno(flakes. 9is eyes (ere like li!htnin! olts, and his (hole face (as filled (ith a divine radiance. 8ne day, (hen a hi!h )a!istrate na)ed <ufinus, a serious and distin!uished )an, ca)e to his lecture, he actually sa( a li!ht runnin! around ProclusC head. ,fter the lecture he !ot up, thre( hi)self efore hi), and ore (itness under oath to this divine )anifestation. F3it. Procl. B"G % "1$ %

4i!. 1JB 8pus sectile (ith the portrait of a Charis)atic philosopher Ftheios aner G in a ni) us. Ca. ,.1. "95. 8stia, .useu). % "19 % Porphyrius had already recorded so)ethin! si)ilar of Plotinus, and in >unapiusC 1i/es of the philosophers, the !lea)in! eyes are a standard topos. 'he eyes of the divinely inspired (ise )an in 8stia have a particularly intense effect thanks to the colorful intarsia (ork. 'he vie(er is practically linded y the dark pupils set a)id the i! (hite disk. -n the )ysterious rituals of theur!y, (hich (ere preceded y fastin!, silence, and purification, philosophy eca)e a kind of revelation that surpassed rational thou!ht, a unitin! of the soul (ith the divine. 'he unusual e&pressions of the heads in ,thens Ffi!. 1J1G and ,phrodisias Ffi!. 1M$G )ay e consciously alludin! to this )ystery. -n any case, the sculptors of oth (orks (ere surely tryin! to render a state of inner arousal (ith the head turned up(ard, the e)phatically opened eyes, the ro(s dra(n up, and the lines in the forehead. ,ll these traits are pro a ly )eant to convey a readiness for the divine, in e&pectation of the )ystic e&perience. >verythin! depended on the de!ree of oneCs inner receptivity. ,s (e have seen, the e&pressions of these @holy )en@ are entirely different fro) those of 9ellenistic philosophers such as Zeno or Chrysippus Ffi!. 55G, concentrated thinkers (hose faces are )arked y the (ill to understand and y the conviction that this can e achieved y dint of their o(n intellect. 'he philosopher:priest, y contrast, releases hi)self, listens e&pectantly to his inner voice, and turns his spirit into a vessel or a )ediu). 9is e&pression of lon!in! and of readiness is at the sa)e ti)e profoundly different fro) the sense of cal) and illu)ination e&pressed in the portraits of Christ.DM$E ,ccordin! to this interpretation, the notion of the @divine@ (ould e represented in the @holy )an@ in the state of e&pectation of a hi!her !ood, the perfection of his earthly life. But he cannot )ake this happen, nor can he teach it, for it re?uires a divine !ift that co)es to only a fe(. 'he portrait in this (ay e&presses so)ethin! of the curious role of the +ate ,nti?ue philosophers as Klitist outsiders, (ho sa( the)selves )ore and )ore rele!ated to the )ar!ins of society, even thou!h they usually ca)e fro) esta lished fa)ilies and occasionally still served their cities in pu lic office, as 4o(den has sho(n. Christ, ho(ever, (ith his radiant visa!e, pro)ises the lessin!s % "B# %

of divine revelation to all the faithful. 'his (as a )essa!e (ith (hich the pa!an holy )an could not co)pete.

Late Ro*an Co.%es, Ne( Faces on Ol) Fr%en)s

+et us look once a!ain at the copies ased on earlier portraits of the ancient poets and philosophers. -n the fourth century ,.1. , cultivated people (ere still decoratin! their houses (ith )osaics and (all paintin!s that included the fa)ous 2reek intellectuals of the distant past. .ost popular (ere *ocrates and the *even *a!es, ut occasionally there (as a roader selection of philosophers, poets, la(!ivers, historians, and orators.DM9E >ven )ore interestin! for our investi!ation than these e&a)ples of traditional decorative arts are the copies of sculptured portrait types. 'he e&edra in the school at ,phrodisias de)onstrates that these (ere still ein! produced in the fifth century, (hile copies of other kinds of 2reek statuary had al)ost ceased to e )ade y the end of the third century. 'he settin! at ,phrodisias e&plains the continuin! interest in the !reat thinkers of the past. , nu) er of these portraits are of strikin!ly hi!h ?uality and attest to a level of skill and co))it)ent on the part of the sculptor that (e find else(here only in the est portraits of honoratiores .DJ#E But (hat )akes the late copies so fascinatin! is the (ay the sculptors no lon!er strive to produce e&act copies, as (as true earlier, ut instead consciously translate the prototype into the visual lan!ua!e of their o(n epoch. -n so)e cases this is so e&tre)e that (e have difficulty identifyin! a portrait at all. 'he pri)ary interest (as o viously no lon!er to represent the individual appearance or specific characteristics of each of these !reat )en of the past, ut rather to e)phasi0e certain capacities and )ental po(ers that transcend the individual. 'his process of transfor)ation had already e!un in the late third century. , portrait of =arneades in Bonn, for e&a)ple Ffi!. 1J"G,DJ1E (hich dates to this period, can still e reco!ni0ed y the furro(ed ro( and the turned:do(n )outh derived fro) the (ell:kno(n type Fcf. fi!. 95G. But the i))ediacy of the e&pression has een lost. 9is !a0e no lon!er connects (ith an interlocutor ut is directed up(ard. 'he % "B1 %

4i!. 1J" Carneades. +ate ,nti?ue version of the 9ellenistic portrait type in fi!s. 9559M. +ate third century ,.C. Bonn, 4. I. 1Ql!er -nstitute. only e&pressive ele)ent is the eyes the)selves, (hich are proportionally lar!er and further accented y the po(erfully arched ro(s. -n a portrait like(ise of the late third century, fro) >phesus, *ocrates has lost the last vesti!es of the silenlike physio!no)y Ffi!. 1J6G.DJBE 9is !a0e fi&es the vie(er. -t is perhaps not surprisin! that a ust of .enander, also fro) >phesus Ffi!. 1J5G, (as at first taken to e a portrait of a conte)porary of Constantine the 2reat, so radically has the @copyist@ altered the proportions and facial e&pression.DJ"E 'he lines in the face and the !entle and vulnera le e&pression of the copies in Henice and Copenha!en Fcf. fi!s. 6M, 6JG have een co)pletely e&pun!ed. -nstead, (e si)ply stare into the enor)ous eyes. Co)pared to the *ocrates, the e&pression is considera ly intensified, yet the !a0e is no

% "BB %

4i!. 1J6 *ocrates. +ate ,nti?ue version of the +ate Classical portrait type in fi!. "5. Ca. ,.1. "##. *elLuk, .useu) Ffro) >phesusG. lon!er directed at anyone. -nstead it conveys an inner illu)ination that is y no( fa)iliar fro) the i)a!es of philosophers. -n another portrait of .enander, the tondo for)erly at .ar ury 9all, this )ediatin! ?uality of the e&pression is further hei!htened y the (ide:open )outh.DJ6E 'he late portrait of Pindar fro) the !allery in ,phrodisias Ffi!. 1JMG )ay at first !lance see) )ore faithful. But a co)parison (ith the +ate <epu lican copy in 8slo Fcf. fi!. JG reveals that here too the sculptor has )odified the ori!inal e&pression of old a!e and )ental strain throu!h alterations to the forehead and eye ro(s, in order to create a look of anticipated revelation.DJ5E - think these e&a)ples (ill )ake the point. 1espite all the differences in individual detail and the variety of styles in different periods, all these heads are linked throu!h the e&pression. By e)phasi0in! the % "B" %

4i!. 1J5 .enander. +ate ,nti?ue version of the 9ellenistic portrait type in fi!. 6J. Constantinian period. *elLuk, .useu) Ffro) >phesusG. eyes and the forehead the sculptors (anted to convey the notion that these intellectuals of the past (ere also steeped in the spiritual and the divine. 'he a sence of an individuali0ed face assi)ilates these portraits to those of conte)porary <o)ans, (ho often have a very si)ilar e&pression. But in this (ay the sense of historical distance that (as the asis for the e&e)plary status of these ancient thinkers is lost. 'he process is sy)pto)atic of the a!e and finds an e&act parallel in the use that the +ate ,nti?ue philosophers and theur!ists )ade of the ancients. +ike the), the copyist kne( the ori!inal Fin this case, the portrait, or replicas of itG ut kept only as )uch of the old physio!no)y as (as necessary for the su /ect to e reco!ni0a le. 9is true interest (as in his o(n strivin! for spirituality and )ystic revelation, % "B6 %

4i!. 1JM Pindar. +ate ,nti?ue version of the >arly Classical portrait type in fi!. J. >arly fifth

century ,.1. ,phrodisias, .useu). (hich he tries to find in the !reat fi!ures of authority fro) the past. 'he ancients are no lon!er of interest for (ho they really (ere, ut only as forerunners of conte)porary for)s of the search for the self. 'he nature and content of their (ritin!s no lon!er play any part in the shapin! of the portrait. .enander is every it as @spiritual@ as Plato or Pytha!oras. 7hether poet or orator, philosopher or )erely a pupil, all of these fi!ures39o)er, Pindar, *ocrates, ,eschines, 1e)osthenes, ,lci iades, ,le&ander, ,pollonius3transfor) the)selves into seekers after 2od, and in the process their portraits eco)e ever )ore alike. 'hrou!h a lucky chance (e have preserved t(o full:len!th portraits, of 9o)er and Plato, in a very rare art for), that (ill help sup: % "B5 % port this interpretation. , out the year ,.1. "J# a flood caused the land around the har or of =enchreai to sink into the sea.DJME , (hole series of scenes in !lass, includin! !ods, )ytholo!ical fi!ures, donors, landscapes, and several fa)ous 2reek thinkers of the past, intended for the (indo(s of a sanctuary of -sis at the har or, (as lost. 'hese precious e&a)ples of !lass )osaic in opus sectile techni?ue (ere still in transport containers at the ti)e and (ere found in the e&cavations at =enchreai (ith their ackin!s stuck to one another. F'his e&plains (hy the illustration Dfi!. 1JJE is reversed.G 'he portraits of 9o)er and Plato have nothin! in co))on (ith earlier i)a!es of these )en. 9o)er has the look of a +ate ,nti?ue philosopher (ith lon! hair that, like ChristCs, is parted in the )iddle Ffi!. 1JJG. 9e (ears a volu)inous )antleA in his left hand he holds a ook roll, (hile the ri!ht is raised in the !esture of a teacher. 9is eyes are open (ide and directed at the vie(er. Plato, ho(ever, looks ahead, his le!s and hands dra(n to!ether, and conte)plates. 7ith his shorter hair recedin! at the sides, he stands in the sa)e relationship to 9o)er as the apostles to Christ. 'he privile!in! of 9o)er y icono!raphical )eans is re)arka le. ,pparently the artists and patrons in the sanctuary of -sis considered 9o)erCs authority to e hi!her than PlatoCs. -f this (ere a ;eoplatonic school, it (ould no dou t have een the other (ay around. 'he icono!raphical settin! at =enchreai looks rather conventional. 'he )ytholo!ical fi!ures and the landscape scenes recall the earlier association of learnin! and country life in the ideolo!y of the villa. But, as (e have /ust seen, country life also played an i)portant role for the +ate ,nti?ue philosopher. -a) lichus, for e&a)ple, despite his e&ercises in ascetis), (as a (ealthy )an (ho o(ned several villas outside ,pa)ea. But the fact that 9o)er and Plato are sho(n lar!er and )ore carefully rendered than the other su /ects, and that they appear in the costu)e of the conte)porary philosopher, su!!ests that these icons of classical learnin! (ere e&pected to e )ore than they had een in the sculptural decoration of the earlier <o)an villa. 'hey too have turned into teachers of (isdo). 'he nu) er of ancient poets and thinkers (hose portraits (ere still % "BM %

4i!. 1JJ 9o)er. 2lass (indo( fro) =enchreai FreversedG. Ca. ,.1. "J#.

% "BJ % ein! copied For, rather, refashionedG in the fourth and fifth centuries is relatively s)all. >ven Iulian the ,postate (rote: @7e should not concern ourselves (ith all the philosophers and teachin!s, ut only those (ho fill us (ith (isdo) and teach us so)ethin! a out 2od@ F('. "##d5"#1a, cf. "#1cG. ProclusC vie(s, a century later, are )uch )ore e&tre)e: @-f it (ere up to )e, the only (ritin!s of the ancients that (ould still e read and propa!ated (ould e the oracles and the Timaeus Dof PlatoE@ F.arinus 3it. Procl. "$G. 4ortunately not everyone (as so narro(. Particularly in the schools of !ra))ar and rhetoric, (hich carried on independently of the ne( reli!ion and nu) ered Christians a)on! their pupils, the ran!e of interests (as roader. *o, for e&a)ple, portraits of .enander still occur in considera le nu) ers, presu)a ly ecause his diction (as considered to e the perfect e) odi)ent of the purest ,ttic 2reek. 1idactic and peda!o!ical concerns )ay also e&plain the late replicas of the portraits of 1e)osthenes and ,eschines.DJJE

The Po(er of the Muses

'he source of all poetry and thou!ht (as the .uses, dau!hters of Zeus and .ne)osyne. 4ro) the) flo(ed all kno(led!e and inspiration. 'hus - (ould like to end this final chapter (ith a !lance at the .uses, and not only to pay the) due respect. 'he fact is, they had never efore assu)ed such a po(erful role in the visual arts as they did in the +ate ,nti?ue. 7hen the thou!ht process itself is directed at divine revelation, then all intellectual activity can e perceived only as a for) of divine dispensation or !race. 'hese in turn are trans)itted to )an y divine creatures, .uses or an!els. -n the 9ellenistic (orld, the conception of the intellectual enterprise (as infor)ed y the notion of individual (ill. 'he fi!ure of the thinker hi)self, (ith his ener!y and concentration, (as the focus of attention. 'his affected the .uses too, for they (ere so)eti)es depicted i))ersed in deep )editation as (ell. -n this process, the )ytholo!ical relationship of .use and poet could even e inverted, so % "B$ % hi!hly pri0ed (ere the achieve)ents of the creative intellectual. ,t the openin! of the Argonautica, ,pollonius invokes the .uses, ut only as @servants@ of his co)position. 'hey are no lon!er, as for 9o)er and the early poets, the .uses fro) (ho) all son! e)anates.DJ$E *i)ilarly, on a (ell:kno(n 9ellenistic votive relief in the Pala00o dei Conservatori in <o)e, the .use looks up to a lind old poet like an adorin! school!irl to her teacher.DJ9E But in the course of the <o)an period, the pendulu) s(un! once a!ain in favor of the .uses. ;o( there is scarcely a poet, philosopher, or scholar (ho does not appear alon! (ith his .use. But the relationship et(een the t(o see)s no( )ore direct and personal. 'his is especially clear on the sarcopha!i that sho( hus and and (ife as teacher and .use, seated or standin! opposite one another, since here the pairin! of intellectual and .use serves also as a )etaphor for con/u!al har)ony Fconcor#ia4 cf. fi!. 16JG. 'he )osaic in .adrid that depicts several intellectuals (ith their .uses a!ainst a villa settin! has already een )entioned. 'he .uses have !ro(n in statureA in so)e scenes they no lon!er stand ?uietly, and their vivid e&pressions see) to e havin! a po(erful i)pact on their protK!Ks. 8n the eautiful diptych in .on0a, a poet (ith shaved head listens (ith rapt attention to the chords of his kithara:playin! .use. 9is inspiration co)es not fro) the (ritin!s stre(n carelessly on the !round, ut fro) the .use and her son!.D$#E , diptych of the fifth century in the +ouvre presents the .uses as )i!hty, ele)ental forces (ho

literally @co)e over the poets,@ dancin! and flyin! like the ,n!el of the ,nnunciation Ffi!. 1J$G. 'he poets, (ho si)ply (atch and listen, are reduced to purely passive roles.D$1E .ean(hile, the .uses the)selves have turned into learned fi!ures: Calliope For perhaps ClioG reads to her char!e fro) a ook roll the (ords that he is to (rite do(nO 'he notion of spiritual inspiration that )arked +ate 9ellenis) and the Christian elief in the creation of 9oly 7rit throu!h the a!ency of celestial po(ers are in essence the sa)e. ,nd this !eneral picture (ill o tain (ell into the .iddle ,!es: (isdo) is a )ercy that co)es directly fro) 2od, trans)itted y his )essen!ers. 'his is vividly % "B9 %

4i!. 1J$ -vory diptych sho(in! poets (ith their .uses. 4ifth century ,.1. Paris, +ouvre. % ""# %

4i!. 1J9 -llu)inated code&: an an!el FNG assists *aint .ark in (ritin! the 2ospel. *i&th century ,.1. ,rchepiscopal +i rary, <ossano. illustrated in the <ossano 2ospels, (here a fe)ale personification3or is she an an!el (ithout (in!sN 3has taken the place of the .use and dictates (ord for (ord to *aint .ark, even !oin! over (ith her fin!er and checkin! (hat he has /ust (ritten Ffi!. 1J9G.D$BE 'he concept of the trans)ission of kno(led!e (ill fro) no( on e do)inated y such i)a!es of authority. 'he )edieval teacher sits or stands elevated a ove his pupils and dictates to the). 'his stereotypical i)a!e (ill lon! help shape the icono!raphy of the university.D$"E 'here is a correspondin! chan!e in the representation of the ook. -nstead of a si)ple attri ute that the learned )an holds or ponders, it eco)es a spiritually char!ed cultural icon (hose po(er is ai)ed di: % ""1 % rectly at the vie(er. ,s in the scenes of teacher and pupils, the i)a!e speaks directly to the vie(er, and Christ, the saints, and evan!elists hold the roll or code& up to hi). -t )akes no difference if the code& is open or only the richly orna)ented indin! is displayed. *alvation sprin!s fro) the 9oly *cripture, and the assurance of the truth revealed: seein! is elievin!.D$6E % """ %

E.%lo$ue Anc%ent Ph%loso.hers an) the Mo)ern Intellectual

,n en!ravin! )ade in Paris at the ti)e of the 4rench <evolution sho(s a little )an on a distant )ountain o servin! throu!h a telescope the activities of )ankind. 'here could scarcely e a etter i)a!e to represent the role and position of the )odern intellectual as they differ fro) those of his counterparts in classical anti?uity. 9e has no secure ho)e, no (ell:defined purpose. 9is )ain occupation is o servin! and co))entin! on others. -n contrast, ancient intellectuals (ere fir)ly inte!rated in their society, (hether it e the poet perfor)in! in cults and festivals, the philosopher teachin! in the !y)nasiu) and a!ora, or the politician in the popular asse) ly. 'heir place in society (as in the city, and this (as true (ell into late anti?uity. >ven the countercultural (ay of life of a 1io!enes is unthinka le (ithout the pu lic arena. -n this ook, (e have co)e to kno( the poets and philosophers of anti?uity as people (ho felt sure of the)selves, and of their role and purpose in society. 8f all the faces (e have looked at, there is not one that etrays even the faintest hint of a )elancholy type sufferin! eneath the (ei!ht of his o(n intellectual !ifts. 'here is no ancient e?uivalent, say, of the fa)ous photo!raph of 2iselle 4reud, (ith 7alter Ben/a)in lookin! out at the vie(er, his head propped on his hand, his face filled (ith loneliness and (eltsch)er0. 'here have een fe( societies that cele rated their poets and thinkers as did the 2reeks. Tet the votive and honorific statues of the Classical period cele rate the) not as !reat intellects, ut as e&e)plary citi0ens. 9o)er appears as the distin!uished elderly )an, ,nacreon as the properly ehaved sy)posiast, *ophocles as the decorous pu lic speaker. ,eschylusC !ravestone recorded only that he had fou!ht the % ""6 % Persians at .arathon: not a (ord of his success as a (riter. ;o )atter ho( !reat a )anCs reputation for intellectual achieve)ent, in de)ocratic ,thens at least, this (as no reason to set hi) apart fro) the conventional appearance of his fello( citi0ens. ,t the e!innin! of this ook, - referred to the fa)ous )onu)ent to 2oethe and *chiller in 7ei)ar Ffi!. BG, (hich like(ise sho(s oth poets in ordinary dress. But in contrast to the Classical statues of the )odel citi0en, the 7ei)ar poets in their !estures recall their individual characters as oth poets and people. 'he encounter takes place not in pu lic, ut in so)e ideal @private@ space. 2oethe and *chiller are depicted as !reat )inds (ith envia le hu)an ?ualities, ut not as )odel citi0ens (ith (ho) any of their fello(s could identify. 8nce a!ain there is no direct ancient parallel. 'he first !enuine intellectual portrait in anti?uity is the likeness of *ocrates (ith the u!ly face of *ilenus. 'his affront to the aesthetic and ethical nor)s of kalokagathia (as desi!ned to provoke the statueCs conte)poraries and, in so doin!, e!an a lon! tradition that continued in the @do!Cs life@ of 1io!enes, the dessicated old odies of 9ellenistic philosopher statues, all the (ay to ,puleiusC filthy hair. -n the fi!ure of *ocrates, the *ilenus )ask eco)es an archetype of the philosopher (ho ?uestions social convention and faulty thinkin!, clai)in! for hi)self the role of educator in ho( est to think and to live oneCs life. -t (as only a out a century later, as the unifyin! structure of the polis (as co)in! undone, that the 2reek philosopher first ac?uired an i)a!e distinct fro) that of the avera!e citi0en and eca)e a pu lic fi!ure (ith an authority of his o(n. 4ro) the early third century B.C. on, the philosopher defined hi)self as @the other.@ -nterestin!ly, this consisted at first si)ply in adherin! to the traditional citi0en

i)a!e. 7hile their conte)poraries ?uickly adopted the clean:shaven look initiated y ,le&ander the 2reat, the philosophers continued to let their eards !ro(. ,nd (hile others favored )ore ela orate Fand (ar)erG clothin!, they clun! to the si)ple citi0enCs cloak. -n this sense the philosopherCs i)a!e had fro) the start a @conservative@ ele)ent. 9is criticis) of the ne( )ores invoked ancestral (ays, that is, the a!e of the free and de)ocratic polis. But the ascetic ?uality is only one aspect of the philosopherCs re/ec: % ""5 % tion of the under!ar)ent. >&posin! the naked odies of these old philosophers !ave the sculptors an opportunity to portray the a!in! process (ith ruthless honesty. 'he @revelation@ of the a!in! )ale ody took on an even )ore dra)atic ?uality follo(in! on the tradition of fla(less physi?ues in Classical statuary. +ike the )ask of *ocrates, this too (as a calculated violation of the standards of kalokagathia that still do)inated the 2reek citi0enCs self:i)a!e. -n oth cases the provocative state)ent contains a particular )essa!e: death is the fate of every individual, ut the philosopher alone can teach us ho(, in the face of death, to live a life @in accordance (ith nature.@ 2reek reli!ion had no codified do!)a, no set of )oral teachin!s like the catechis), no esta lished cler!y (ho could )inister to the pastoral needs of the faithful. *tartin! (ith *ocrates, it (as the philosophers (ho ca)e increasin!ly to fill this role. 'hus the philosopherCs )antle desi!nated the counselor and the in:house philosopher, (ho (ere e&pected y society to lead de)onstrative and e&e)plary lives. 'he Christian priest and the )onk are the true successors of the ancient philosopher, and it is no coincidence that they early on assu)ed oth the eard and the cloak. 'he statue of Holtaire in old a!e is also characteri0ed y physical frailty and spiritual passion Ffi!. 1G. But 9oudon (as not tryin! to convey an e&e)plar of the philosophical (ay of life. <ather, y placin! Holtaire on a throne, he roadcast the intellectualsC clai) Fhere in the na)e of the 'hiloso'hes G to a share in the runnin! of the state. 'he statue e) odies the e&cite)ent of the >nli!hten)ent set in the political situation shortly efore the 4rench <evolution. ;o 2reek philosopher ever sat on a throne, at )ost an acade)ic @chair.@ >ven >picurusC @throne@ turns out to e rather a seat of honor, used y his pupils to convey the uni?ue intellectual and )oral authority of their )aster. ,s )uch as 9oudon )ay have relied on the anti?ue for his vision of Holtaire, his is a kind of philosopher (ho never e&isted in anti?uity. Unlike the ancient philosopher, )ost )odern intellectuals since the >nli!hten)ent have een co))itted to the notion of pro!ress, or at least of an i)prove)ent in social and political conditions. 'hey )ay appear, ho(ever, as the spokes)en for a (hole variety of forces and % ""M % !roups, ideolo!ies and )ove)ents. 'hey analy0e, shape, and propa!ate the interests of the particular !roup, shapin! the entire 0eit!eist, or perhaps only a )o)entary circu)stance. But the crucial difference is, they have no @teachin!@ and no specifically )oral authority, e&cept perhaps in the case of those (ho happen to have suffered under a recently discredited political syste). But even in such instances, the aura of )oral authority does not last for lon!, as (e can o serve in the fate of dissidents in the for)er *ocialist states of >astern >urope. 'he real reason for this failure is the )odern intellectualCs lack of practical kno(led!e, as soon as a

situation calls for so)e asic and !enerally applica le advice. 7herever he eco)es involved, the specialists are etter infor)ed. -n principle, of course, the intellectual is a specialist too, at least to the e&tent of his personal e&perience and his o(n field. >ven freelance (riters and critics )ove in a little literary (orld of their o(n. 'he ancient philosopher (as rather a @!eneralist@ and atte)pted oth to understand and syste)atically to e&plain the (orld and hu)an e&istence. 7hatever school he )ay have elon!ed to, his ethical i)peratives and the (ay of life i)plicit in the) at least clai)ed to e rooted in all:e) racin! theoretical principles of physics and perception, )athe)atics and )etaphysics. 9avin! said this, (e need not (onder that the )odern intellectual in the 7est has never developed a sin!le coherent i)a!e. 9is functions in society are too varied, his identity too contradictory. Certain attri utes, like the eret or ri)less !lasses, )i!ht en/oy a rief vo!ue ut are nothin! )ore than fashion accessories. 'he only so)e(hat consistent pheno)enon that )i!ht recall the ancient philosophers is the on!oin! atte)pt, in the for) of )ore or less deli erate floutin! of conventions of dress and )anners, to set onself apart fro) the @proper@ ehavior of officialdo) and the our!eoisie. But in the present cli)ate such atte)pts are usually doo)ed to failure, since anythin! that attracts attention for its @otherness@ is ?uickly co:opted y the )arket into a trendy ne( look. 'he only cate!ory of intellectual that has atte)pted in )odern ti)es, at least on certain cere)onial occasions, to pro/ect a specific corporate i)a!e is the professoriate. -nterestin!ly, (hen the traditions of this !roup (ere invented in the last century, it (as y reachin! ack to the dress of +ate .edieval clerics and !uilds: % ""J % )en, in order to define the acade)ics as a kind of secular order, the !uardians and dispensers of kno(led!e and (isdo). But the student unrest of the late 19M#s de)onstrated /ust ho( insecure (as the identity i)plied in this i)a!e. 'his leaves only the pheno)enon of /udicial ro es, ut these are not a sy) ol of any particular intellectual capacity. <ather, they are a relic of an a solute authority transcendin! the individual, so)ethin! still indispensa le to the )odern seculari0ed state. 8ne conclusion of this study has een that the philosopher turns out to e the only cate!ory of intellectual in anti?uity that defined itself as such y )eans of a consistent and un)istaka le i)a!e. ,t first the philosophers (ere clearly differentiated accordin! to schools of thou!ht and life:styles, ut later the sharp contours (ere lost as they ceased to correspond to reality. 'his did not, ho(ever, i)ply a loss in the philosopherCs presti!e. <ather, over the course of centuries the philosopherCs i)a!e steadily took on an added authority and )ysti?ue. -t (as for this reason that under the >)pire, intellectuals in other fields assu)ed the philosopherCs cloak and let their eards !ro(. 'his is particularly true of teachers of all kinds as (ell as doctors, (ho, in the -)perial period, sa( the)selves as physicians of the soul, not /ust the ody. 'hey reali0ed that the @care of the self@ involves ody and soul in e?ual )easure. -t (as only (ith the poets that (e have een a le to detect indications of a self:contained icono!raphic tradition. But the sorry state of our evidence for ids any s(eepin! !enerali0ations. -n strikin! contrast to the philosophers, .enander and Poseidippus in the >arly 9ellenistic a!e (ere visuali0ed dressed in the latest fashions and en/oyin! an envia ly co)forta le, even lu&urious style of life. 7e can readily understand (hy these co)ic poets felt the)selves to e cha)pions of the (orld of the private individual, since it (as they (ho rou!ht that (orld onto the sta!e. But does this apply to other (riters as (ellN Certainly not to the official poets of ,u!ustan <o)e, (ho (ere naturally envisa!ed in their to!as. Tet there are still so)e indications that the notion of poetic inspiration, in contrast to philosophical thou!ht, as so)ethin! associated (ith a pleasantly @soft@ (ay of life survived (ell into late anti?uity.

'he <o)an aristocrat (ho i))ersed hi)self in 2reek literature % ""$ % (hile at his villa is related to this fi!ure of the 9ellenistic poet, not so )uch ecause he often da led in (ritin! verse hi)self as ecause he e&perienced the life of the private intellectual, if only fro) ti)e to ti)e. 1urin! the +ate >)pire, this idea of (ithdra(al fro) pu lic life to the pleasures of readin! a)id a ucolic settin! takes on a deeper )eanin!. -t co)es to sy) oli0e a happy e&istence freed fro) all e&ternal pressures. Tet even in these later i)a!es, the intellectual life of the villa is still linked (ith the notion of )aterial co)forts and en/oy)ents. *tartin! (ith ,ristotle, philosophers (ere al(ays in addition scholars, historians, and philolo!ists. -n this !uise they interpreted the te&ts of earlier poets and thinkers, )astered and trans)itted the ancient (isdo). -n the 9ellenistic (orld, classical culture eca)e for the first ti)e an o /ect of reverence, at ti)es even in a reli!ious sense. -n this settin! there arose a ne( kind of retrospective @literary@ portrait that sou!ht to render the !reat )inds of the past as uni?ue individuals on the asis of their (orks or their lives. -n the conte&t of hero cults, these literary portraits honorin! the poets could take on the aspect of !enuine cult i)a!es. 4or the 2reek cities, (hose (orld had een utterly chan!ed y the co)in! of <o)e, the preoccupation (ith payin! ho)a!e to the intellectual heroes of the past eca)e a (ay of reaffir)in! their o(n spiritual identity and solidarity as 2reeks. 'he incorporation of these ne( heroes into (ell:esta lished rituals and cult practices is the funda)ental ele)ent lackin! in the sculptural )onu)ents of the late nineteenth century that cele rate the apotheosis of the intellectual hero. <odinCs statue of Hictor 9u!o and .a& =lin!erCs Beethoven Ffi!. "G are entirely individual visions of the artist, divorced fro) society. ,s such they serve as )uch to !lorify the sculptor, (ho drea)s of his o(n apotheosis, as to honor the su /ect. *uch creations are )onu)ents that have no true place of their o(n, no certain function in the real (orld. 7e perceive the) only as (orks of art, even (hen they stand in parks or !ardens instead of in )useu)s. Unlike the 9ellenistic )onu)ents that they )ay see) to evoke, and despite all their )i!hty pathos, they carry no (ei!ht as cultural artifacts and do not e&press any values (ith (hich the society around the) could identify. % ""9 % 'he culture of learnin! in the 9i!h >)pire, (ith its particular kind of retrospective rituals, elon!s in the tradition of the cities and courts of the 9ellenistic (orld that had like(ise nourished their cultural herita!e, and yet there is a funda)ental difference. 7hile the earlier period perceived an un roken continuity and sou!ht only to reactivate, e) ellish, and roadcast its cultural le!acy, the <o)ans had to invent a tradition that in fact never e&isted in Classical 2reece. 'he for!in! of a national identity that (ould help unify the im'erium $omanum (ould not have een possi le (ithout an ackno(led!ed set of shared values and life:styles. 'he cult of i)perial po(er and its attendant )yths (ere not sufficient to fill this need. 'he <o)ans needed a co))on lan!ua!e, a shared voca ulary of visual i)a!ery. 7hat e!an in 9adrianic ,thens as a !a)e of takin! on Classical costu)es and faces !re( into a personal state)ent, a kind of reli!ion of hi!h culture (hose rituals ai)ed at appropriatin! the classical tradition and turnin! it into a palpa le entity throu!hout the >)pire. 'he )anifold ran!e of activities and for)s of participation in this cult3costu)ed perfor)ances, for)al orations, learned dinner:ta le conversation, pictorial i)a!ery3add up to an e&traordinary collective effort to rin! the past into the present. -n essence these activities (ere nothin! )ore than a selective restructurin! of (hat had een standard cultural practice in the cities of Classical and 9ellenistic 2reece. But y a process of

separatin! these off, )ultiplyin! the), and stressin! certain ele)ents, there arose a pure and depolitici0ed @classical@ tradition that outdid the authentic 2reek culture no( lon! past. 'his and the i)perial cult (ere the t(o forces that to!ether laid the foundations for that sense of elon!in! and shared identity that united all the inha itants of the >)pire. -n this conte&t the )ask of *ocrates, alon! (ith the other intellectual !iants of old, once a!ain takes on !reat i)portance. 'he initiates in this cult of learnin! recreated the)selves as likenesses or versions of the classical icons. 'he @care of the self@ transfor)ed the a)ateur philosopher and initiate into a ne( kind of artist. ;ot only in his eard, hair, and e&pression did he )odel hi)self after the ancients, ut in his entire self. -f *ocratesC provocative *ilenus )ask stands at the e!innin! of our % "6# % story, then (e reach the end (ith the face of the enli!htened Charis)atic. 'he eard (as no lon!er y itself sufficient to )ark the otherness of these @divine )en@ and )iracle (orkers. 'he spirituality and @holiness@ of the +ate ,nti?ue )ystics re?uired a )ask of their o(n that (ould separate the) fro) traditional i)a!es of the philosopher. 'hus the shoulder:len!th hair eco)es the definin! ele)ent in this last intellectual portrait type of anti?uity, an i)a!e that in )any (ays recalls a )odern !uru )ore than a classical thinker. 7hen this final )ask (as adapted for likenesses of the earded Christ, the 9ellenistic i)a!e of the )i!hty thinker and dialectician had lon! een a andoned. 'he do!)a of official teachin! had taken the place of philosophical dialo!ue, and a strict hierarchy had esta lished itself (ithin intellectual circles. -t see)s to )e, finally, not (ithout si!nificance that the portrait types and narrative i)a!es of 9ellenistic ori!in have had little influence on the art of )ore recent ti)es, (hile the )ask of the Charis)atics lives on, in the i)a!ery of Christ, to the present day. % "61 %

A33re&%at%ons of Fre<uentl' C%te) 2orks

F, reviations in the notes follo( the !uidelines of the ArchGologischer An9eiger 199B, J6"ff., and the ArchGologische "i,liogra'hie 199"G ,, ,Br ,I, ,. ,;<7 ,rchVolo!ischer ,n0ei!er 2riechische und rQ)ische PortrVts. >dited y P. ,rndt and 4. Bruck)ann ,)erican Iournal of ,rchaeolo!y .itteilun!en des 1eutschen ,rchVolo!ischen -nstituts, ,thenische , teilun! ,ufstie! und ;ieder!an! der rQ)ischen 7elt

,nt= Bea0ley, ,<HB ,*,tene

,ntike =unst I. 1. Bea0ley, ,ttic <ed:fi!ure Hase:PaintersB F19M"G ,nnuario della *cuola archeolo!ica di ,tene e delle .issioni italiane in 8riente Bulletin de correspondance hellKni?ue Bollettino dCarte Bonner Iahr Rcher des <heinischen +andes)useu)s in Bonn und des Hereins von ,ltertu)sfreunden i) <heinlande 'he ,nnual of the British *chool at ,thens Papers of the Brithish *chool at <o)e Corpus Hasoru) ,nti?uoru) 1ialo!hi di archeolo!ia )adrilenas Photo!raphisch >in0elaufnah)en antiker *kulpturen. >dited y P. ,rndt and 7. ,)elun! ,. 4urt(Vn!ler:=. <eichhold, 2riechische Hasen)alerei - F19#6GA -- F19#9GA --- F19"BG ,. <uesch, 2uida illustrate del .useo ;a0ionale di ;apoli F19#9G -nscriptiones 2racae ad <es <o)anas Pertinentes -stan uler .itteilun!en Iahr uch fRr ,ntike und Christentu) Iahr uch des 1eutschen ,rchVolo!ischen -nstituts

BC9 Bd, BI

B*, B*< CH, 1ial, >,

4<

2uida <uesch -2< -st.itt I ,Chr Id-

% "6B % I9* I<* +ippold, Hat. =at. --1.B .ar 7Pr .e),c-nscr .e)+inc 'he Iournal of 9ellenic *tudies 'he Iournal of <o)an *tudies 2. +ippold, 1ie *kulpturen des Haticanischen .useu)s --- 1 F19"MG: --- B F195MG .ar ur!er 7inckel)ann:Pro!ra)) .e)oires de lC,cade)ie des inscriptions et elles:lettres .e)orie. ,tti della ,ccade)ia na0ionale dei +incei, Classe di scien0e )orali, storiche e filolo!iche .adrider .itteilun!en .onu)ents et )e)oires, 4ondation >. Piot .Rnchner Iahr uch der ildenden =unst Iahreshefte des Zsterreichischen ,rchVolo!ischen -nstituts in 7ien <ealle&ikon fRr ,ntike und Chistentu) Paulys <ealencyclopVdie der classischen ,ltertu)s(issenschaft, ;eue Bear eitun! ,tti dellC,ccade)ia na0ionale dei +incei. <endiconti <endiconti. ,tti della pontificia accade)ia ro)ana di archeolo!ia de +ouvain .itteilun!en des 1eutschen ,rchVolo!ischen -nstituts, <Q)ische , teilun! <Q)ische Uuartalschrift fRr christliche ,ltertu)skunde und =irchen!eschichte

.. .onPiot .RI ZIh <,C <>

<end+inc <endPont,c <. <Q)U*chr

<oscher, .+

7. 9. <oscher, ,usfRhrliches +e&ikon der !riechischen und rQ)ischen .ytholo!ie 'rierer 7inckel)annspro!ra))e 'rierer Zeitschrift fRr 2eschichte und =unst des 'rierer +andes und seiner ;ach ar!e iete

'r7Pr 'rZ

% "6" %

Notes
I+ Intro)uct%on, I*a$e- S.ace- an) Soc%al Values
1 1. Berin!, !ie Intellektuellen F*tutt!art, 19J$G "Bff.A .. 7al0er, The -om'any of -ritics F;e( Tork, 19$$G. B 7. *auerlVnder, 3oltaire, <ecla)Cs 7erk)ono!raphie $9 F*tutt!art, 19M"G. " P. <aa e, @1ichterverherrlichun! i) 19. Iahrhundert,@ in "il#en#e &unst un# 1iteratur F4rankfurt, 19J#G J9:1#1A '. ;ipperdey, @;ationalidee und ;ationaldenk)al in 1eutschland i) 19. Ih.,@ )5 B#M F19M$G 5"#:$5A <. *el )ann, !ichter#enkmGler in !eutschlan#. 1iteraturegeschichte in (r9 un# Stein F*tutt!art, 19$$G. Iust ho( lon! this )onu)ent continued to infor) the i)a!e of the CC our!eois@ is (ell illustrated y the photo!raph that caricatures =andinsky and =lee in the pose of the t(o princes of poetry: see P. <aa e, S'a9iergGnge #urch Goethe s Weimar FZurich, 199#G 161. 6 4ro) the dedication address for *ch(anthalerCs )onu)ent to 2oethe in 4rankfurt, 1$66, ?uoted y <aa e 19J# Fsupra n. "G. 5 *ee, for instance, P. 8. <ave, !as geistige !eutschlan# im "il#nis FBerlin, 1969G. M 1a gloire #e 3ictor )ugo, e&h. cat., 2rand Palais FParis, 19$5:$MG "1$ff.A <. Caden ach, Mythos "eetho/en, e&h. cat., Herein Beethoven:9aus FBonn, 19$MG 1"ff. J ,. 1Rckers, Ma2 &linger FBerlin, 19JMGA 2. 7inkler, Ma2 &linger F+eip0i!, 19$6G. 4or the positive reaction of so)e conte)poraries see >. ,seni/eff, M. &linger s "eetho/en: (ine kunsttechnische Stu#ie F+eip0i!, 19#BGA I. Ho!el, 1ei'9iger Skul'turen F+eip0i!, 19#BG JJff. Cf. ;. 9i))el)ann, I#eale .achtheit, , h. <hein.:7estf. ,kad. 7iss. J" F8pladen, 19$5G, B#f. $ <aa e 19J# Fsupra n. "G. 9 8n the history of scholarship see 4ittschen 19$$, 9ff. 1# 4or recent e&a)ples of thorou!h &o'ienkritik in the field of 2reek portraiture see =ruse:Berdoldt 19J5A *chei ler 19$9A *tVhli 1991A von den 9off 1996. 11 *ee ;eudecker 19$$, M6ff. 8n copyin! techni?ues see no( .. Pfanner, H#I 1#6 F19$9G 156ff. 1B <ichter 19MB. 1" .y datin! of the 8slo copy to the first century B.C. disa!rees (ith that of Ber!e)ann F1991,

159ff.G. - do not elieve that the dou ts e&pressed y *. *ande, AAA) ser. B, B F19$BG BJ, on the authenticity of the head in ;aples are (ell founded. 16 *ee the recent discussion y ;eudecker F19$$, M6ff.G. 15 <ichter -, 6Jff. and pls. 1:1J. 8n the copy in .unich, (ith earlier i lio!raphy on the type, see B. Hierneisel:*chlQr , Gly'tothek MInchen, &atalog #er Skul'turen, vol. B, &lassische Skul'turen F.unich, 19J9G no. 5, pp. "M:6$A 2iuliani 19$#, M#, no. 15A Houtiras 19$#, 56ff.A 4ittschen 19$$, 1$ and pl. 1". 1M <ed:fi!ure a)phora y >uthy)ides, .unich, ,ntikensa))lun!en B"#JA -3A .unich 6, pls. 1MM: MJ. .any vases of this period sho( other atte)pts to conceal aldness (ith an artful coiffure or distract attention fro) it: cf. 4ittschen 19$$, pl. BM, ". 8n the coiffure of the 9o)er portrait see Houtiras 19$#, M1. - a), ho(ever, not persuaded y the su!!estion of 9. =enner, !er A'oll /on "el/e#ere, *B7ien B9J." FHienna, 19JBG, adopted y Houtiras, that the knot over the ro( carries a cultic reference. 'he e&a)ples she cites have nothin! in co))on. 8n the characteristics of old a!e see 4. Preisshofen, >ntersuchungen 9ur !arstellung #es Greisenalters in #er frIh7griechischen !ichtung, 9er)es >in0elschriften "6 F7ies aden, 19JJG esp. 11Jff. 1J ,. >sser, !as Antlit9 #er "lin#heit B F+eiden, 19M1GA <. =retsch)er, Geschichte #es "lin#en%esens F<ati or, 19B5GA $A- " F1956G 6"":6M, s.v. Blindheit F>. +eskyG. 1$ B. ,sh)ole and ;. Talouris, *lym'ia: The Scul'tures of the Tem'le of 5eus F+ondon, 19MJG fi!s. "B:6#. 19 Plut. Mor. 6"BB F !e #ef. or. "9G. Cf. >sser Fsupra n. 1JG, (ith further references. B# Cic. Fin. 5.B9A Tusc. 5.116A cf. >sser Fsupra n. 1JG M6. B1 B. >. <ichardson, *l# Age among the Ancient Greeks FBalti)ore, 19""G 6ff. BB *ee <. *tupperich, IstMitt "B F19$BG BB6f. B" ;aples, .useo ;a0ionale inv. MB1MA 1. Co)paretti and 2. de Petra, 1a /illa ercolanese #ei Pisoni F;aples, 1$$"G BJJ, no. $"A +oren0 19M5, 1". B6 4. >ckstein, Anathemata: Stu#ien 9u #en Weihgeschenken strengen Stils im )eiligtum /on *lym'ia FBerlin, 19M9G "":6B. B5 7. Burkett, Griechische $eligion #er archaischen un# klassischen ('oche F*tutt!art, 19JJG 66#ff. BM Cf. 4ittschen 19$$, 15ff. BJ B. 2entili, Poesia e 'u,,lico nella Grecia antica: !a omero al 3 secolo F<o)e and Bari, 19$5G B#J and passi). B$ C. .eier, !ie 'olitische &unst #er griechischen TragJ#ie F.unich, 19$$G J5ff. B9 *ee )ost recently Hierneisel:*chlQr Fsupra n. 15G "9:61, (ith su))ary of earlier literature. "# 8n this passa!e see )ost recently +. Beschi, in Pausania, Gui#a #ella Grecia, vol. 1, ed. 1. .usti and +. Beschi FHicen0a, 19$BG "55. "1 9Qlscher F19J5, 191G assu)es that Pericles (as the patron responsi le for oth statues. Cf. +ippold 191B, "5A 4. Poulsen 19"1, MA *chefold 196", M6A 2auer 19M$, 161. "B 'he statue is no( in the ;y Carls er! 2lyptotek in Copenha!en: H. Poulsen 1956, B5ff., no. 1, pls. 1:", "". 8n the copies see <ichter -, J5ff. and fi!s. BJ1:9#. 4or the datin! of the copies see Houtiras 19$#, JJ:91A 9. +auter, CCZur Chronolo!ie rQ)ischer =opien nach 8ri!inalen des H. Ih.@ F1iss., Bonn,

19MMG 116. ,s far as style and datin! of the ori!inal are concerned, the association (ith Phidias (as )ade y ,. 4urt(Vn!ler, Meister%erke #er griechischen Plastik F+eip0i! and Berlin, 1$9"G 1 : 9Bff. Cf. >. Buschor, Phei#ias #er Mensch F.unich, 196$G M#ff.A Houtiras 19$#, $5ff. "" =. C. =urt0 and I. Board)an, @Booners,@ in Greek 3ases in the H. Paul Getty Musem " F.ali u, 19$MG : MJff. "6 Cf., for e&a)ple, the 1oryphorus of Polyclitus: )ost recently, P. C. Bol, in Polyklet: !er "il#hauer #er griechischen &lassik, e&h. cat., +ie ie!haus F4rankfurt, 199#G 111ff. 4or this interpretation of the pose see +ippold 191B, "5A also *chefold 196", M6A Buschor Fsupra n. "BGA 2auer 19M$, 161A .et0ler 19J1, BMM. ,n opposin! is held y 4. Poulsen F19"1, 6:M, 1":15G, Houtiras F19$#, $Jf.G, and +. 2iuliani Frevie( of Houtiras, in Gnomon 56 D19$BE 56G, (ho all re/ect the interpretation of oth Pausanias and )odern scholarship and elieve the pose is derived fro) a 9ellenistic conception of ,nacreon. "5 *chefold 196", 5#:5"A =urt0 and Board)an Fsupra n. ""G 6J:J#A 9. ,. *hapiro, AHA $5 F19$1G 1"$: 6#A ;. 9oesch, in &unst #er Schale: &ultur #es Trinkens, e&h. cat., ed. =. Hierneisel and B. =aeser F.unich, 199#G BJMff. "M *ee 2auer 19M$, 16B. "J =alathos:shaped krater attri uted to the Bry!os Painter, .unich, ,ntikensa))lun!en B61MA *chefold 196", 56f.A *i)on 19JM, pl. 15#A .. 8hly, Attische 3asen,il#er in #en Antikensammlungen in MInchen nach 5eichnungen /on &. $eichhol# B F.unich, 19$1G 56ff. Professional sin!ers (ho entertain at a sy)posiu) are clearly characteri0ed as such: cf., for e&a)ple, a so)e(hat later hero or funerary relief in <o)e, .useo Barracco inv. 11$A 9el i!6 --, no. 1$$J F7. 4uchsGA =. *chefold, Meister%erke griechischer &unst FBasel, 19M#G $6, B6M, B6$, no. "#J. "$ *ee 2iuliani 19$M, 1B9ff., on @.i)ik und Herhaltensnor)en in klassischen Zeit@A 9Qlscher 19J5, 19J. "9 'he copies of this type, then erroneously identified as the *partan kin! Pausanias, are collected in <ichter -, too and fi!s. 61B:B5A <ichter:*)ith 19$6, 1JMff.A *)ith 199#, 1"Bff.A 4ittschen 19$$, 19. 'he series and interpretation are no( discussed in detail y Ber!e)ann F1991, 15J:$9G. Cf., ho(ever, ;. 9i))el)ann, in Antike Welt B6.1 F199"G 5Mff., (ho !ives a very different interpretation, detectin! in the portrait peasant features. Cf. id., $ealistische Themen in #er griechischen &unst #er archaischen un# klassische 5eit, Id-:>9 B$ FBerlin, 1996G M9ff. 6# *ee Houtiras 19$#, 196A 4ittschen F19$$, "1 n. 5$G ri!htly re/ects HoutirasCs classicistic datin! of the statue. 61 'he copies !enerally a!ree closely in the renderin! of the face. 'he su tlest version is the head in Berlin: <ichter -, fi!s. BJJ, B$#. 'he copy (ith erect head: once Pala00o ,lte)psA <ichter, fi!s. B$$:9#. 6B $( 9 F191MG B565ff., s.v. infi ulatio FI. IRthnerGA Houtiras 19$#, $9A 7. >. *(eet, S'ort an# $ecreation in Ancient Greece F8&ford, 19$JG 1B9f.A id., 11 F19$5G 6":69A I. P. 'huillier, .ike'horos 1 F19$$G "5ff. 6" >.!., red:fi!ure sta)nos y the =leophon Painter, .unich, ,ntikensa))lun!en B616 Fconte)porary (ith the statue of ,nacreonG: -3A .unich 5, pl. B5MA B. Philippaki. The Attic Stamnos F8&ford, 19MJG 166, no. 6. Cf. the ;olan a)phora, a !eneration earlier, .unich B""9A CH, .unich B, pl. 5". ":6, (ith a ko)ast playin! the lyre. 8ther early e&a)ples include the red:fi!ure cup Berlin 4 BB$9A -3A Berlin B, pl. $#A another red:fi!ure cup, Berlin 4 B"#9A -3A Berlin B, pls. M9:J#, (ith clear differentiation et(een older and youn!er ko)asts. - a) inde ted to B. =aeser for helpful discussion of this pro le). 4or older satyrs cf. the red:fi!ure pelike y the =leophon Painter, .unich B"M1: Bea0ley, A$3 B 1165, no. "MA *i)on 19JM, pls. B#$f.A cf. also I. +. Caskey and I. 1. Bea0ley, Attic

3ase7Paintings in the Museum of Fine Arts "oston, vol. " F8&ford, 19M"G pl. $JA $A 15. 1 F191#G BBB: BM, fi!s. 5:$. 66 4or instance, on the pinakes fro) PenteskouphiaA Antike !enkmGler -, pls. J:$A --, pls. B":B6A ;. 9i))el)ann, ArchGologisches 9um Pro,lem #er griechischen Skla/erei, , h.ain0 1" F.ain0, 19J1G fi!s. ", M. Cf. in particular the )an (orkin! the kiln on the foundry cup in Berlin: -3A Berlin B, J". *ee 9. +icht, Sittengeschichte Griechenlan#s, *upple)ent FZurich and +eip0i!, 19B$G B1$, on the (ord kollo's as a dero!atory ter) for a cata)ite (ith a fat penis head. *ee also *(eet Fsupra n. 6BG on the practice of len!thenin! the foreskin F e'is'asmos G and on the efforts of 9elleni0ed Ie(s to conceal their circu)cision. 65 9. 4lashar, !er ('ita'hios #es Perikles, *B9eid F9eidel er!, 19M9G no. 1, reprinted (ith additions in id. (i#ola F,)sterda), 19$9G 6"5:$1. 6M Cf. &unst #er Schale Fsupra n. "5G B9"ff. and passi). 6J -f there (as actually a personal ond et(een PericlesC father and ,nacreon, as a fra!)ent of the poet has su!!ested to so)e, then puttin! up the statue (ould have een an ideal opportunity for Pericles to portray his close association (ith artists and intellectuals as an old fa)ily tradition. 8n the supposed association see $( 1 F1$96G B#"$, s.v., ,nakreon F8. CrusiusGA 1. Pa!e, Poetae Melici Graeci F8&ford, 19MBG 69". 6$ *o Houtiras 19$#, $Jff., follo(ed y ;. 9i))el)ann, I#eale .acktheit in #er griechischen &unst, Id-:>9 BM FBerlin, 199#G JJ. 'he unusual styli0ation of the statue, (hich can hardly e read as a specifically oli!archic )essa!e, (ould see) to ar!ue a!ainst this interpretation. Besides, the position of the oli!archic party in the years (hen Pericles (as at the hei!ht of his po(er )akes this scenario very unlikely. Cf. >. *tein:9Qlkeska)p, A#elskultur un# Polisgesellschaft F*tutt!art, 19$9G 1"!ff. 'he fact that ,nacreon (as later invoked y oli!archs like =ritias Fthe asis of HoutirasCs ar!u)entG si)ply sho(s ho( popular the poet continued to e in ,thens as a sy) ol of the life of pleasure. 69 'his portrait type, referred to as ,, (as first fully investi!ated in a detailed study y *chei ler F19$9G, (ho su))ari0es the ar!u)ents for the early datin!. Cf. <ichter -, 1#9, fi!s. 65M:$B. 5# 2. B. =erferd, ed., The So'hists an# Their 1egacy, 9er)es >in0elschriften 66 F7ies aden, 19$1GA I. .artin, Saeculum BJ F19JMG 16"ff. 51 7eiher 191", 5ff. Cf. =. I. 1over, Aristo'hanes -lou#s F8&ford, 19M$G &&&ii:lviiA P. 2reen, @*trepsiades, *ocrates, and the , uses of -ntellectualis),@ G$"S B# F19J9G 15:B5. 5B Paris, +ouvre 2 M1#A >. Pottier, Hases anti?ues du +o(re, vol. " FParis, 19BBG pl. 15JA .et0ler 19J1, 1#1, fi!. 11. 5" *chefold 196", 5M, 1#"A .et0ler 19J1, 96fA 9el i!6 -, no. 9J$ F9. *ichter)annG, (ith the correct datin! in the second half of the fifth century. - assu)e that the identification is correct, thou!h in the present conte&t it )akes no difference. 56 *ee Pen. Sym'. 5.5:J for the ul!in! eyes, the pu! nose (ith flarin! nostrils, and the lar!e )outh (ith thick lipsA Pl. Sym'. B15f. for the co)parison (ith silens, satyrs, and .arsyasA and Pl. Meno $#, for the co)parison (ith a stin!ray. Cf. *chei ler 19$9, B5ff., (ith further references. 55 Sokrates 19$9, ""ff. 8n the icono!raphy of silens and satyrs see <oscher, M1 -H: 666ff., s.v. *atyros F>. =uhnertG. 5M ;aples, .useo ;a0ionale: 9. 4uhr)ann, $M 55 F196#G J$ff.A *chefold 196", 1MB, B15A <ichter -, 11Jf.A 4. 7inter and >. Pernice, !ie hellenistische &unst in Pom'eDi FBerlin and +eip0i!, 19"BG 5: JMff., pls. 6$f.A ,. <u)pf, in Analecta Archaeologica, Festschrift F. Fremers#orf FColo!ne, 19M#G 9"ff. ,part

fro) the ;aples relief, the scene is repeated on t(o terra:cotta appli?uKs Fi)itatin! a ron0e vesselG. 'he I. Paul 2etty .useu) recently ac?uired a fine fra!)ent of another ron0e copy: GettyMusH B# F199BG 16Bf., no. J. 'he head of *ocrates, ho(ever, cannot e identified (ith 'ype , ut is rather a free conflation of the t(o principal types. ,s evidence of this, one )ay note the sharp elevation of the ri!ht shoulder in the copy of the head in 'oulouse F<ichter -, fi!s. 6J":J5G, (hich )atches the i)a!e on the relief. 5J 4. Bro))er, !er Parthenonfries F.ain0, 19JJG pls. 1M5, 1JJA cf. 9.:2. 9ollein, "Irger,il# un# "il#%elt #er attischen !emokratie auf rotfigurigen 3asen #es K.7L. Hh. /. -hr. F4rankfurt, 19$$G 1Jff., 5M, B55 F@*chole:'ypus@G. 5$ <ed:fi!ure skyphos, Bari, .useo ;a0ionale < 15#A 4. ,. 2. Beck, Al,um of Greek (#ucation F*ydney, 19J5G pl. 5". BJMa. Cf. ,. 2reifenha!en, $M 6M F19"1G BJff. 8n the relationship of *ocrates and *ilenus see C. 7eickert, in Festschrift H. 1oe, F.unich. 19"#G 1#":11#A see )ost recently 9. *chul0e, @'rophos: Unfreie >r0ieher in der antiken =unst und 2esellschaft@ F1iss., .unich, 1996G. 59 'his interpretation is hinted at y 2iuliani F19$#, M", no. 19G. M# , portrait like this does, ho(ever, presuppose vie(ers a le to look critically at ,thenian art, (ith its ideali0in! style and its tendency to suppress the variety of actual appearance. But there is also evidence startin! in the second ?uarter of the fifth century for )ore @realistic@ portraiture, that is, portraiture )ore oriented to(ard characteristic features of actual appearance. 'hese sources su!!est that a sculptor like 1e)etrios of ,lopeke, (ho) Uuintilian F1B.1#.9G descri es as similitu#inis quam 'ulchritu#inis amantior, (as not co)pletely eccentric. -f he could portray the Corinthian !eneral Pellichos (ith protrudin! elly, ul!in! veins, and disheveled hair, @/ust like a livin! )an@ F+ucian Philo's. 1$G, then there )ust have een people in the late fifth century (ho (ere prepared to discuss such violations of aesthetic nor)s in the sa)e (ay they discussed =leon and his violation of traditional standards of conduct in the popular asse) ly Fcf. pp. 65ff.G. 8n 1e)etrios see +au scher 19$B, M"f.

II+ The Intellectual as 0oo) C%t%4en

1 9.:2. 2ada)er, Platon als PortrGtist F.unich, 19$$G Jff. B 7. 9el i!, H#I 1 F1$$MG J1:J$ FS 4ittschen 19$$, MBfGA Pfuhl 19BJ, B$ff. FS 4ittschen, B6MfGA 9. von 9eint0e, in 9el i! 6 -, no. $MA cf. Ber!er Finfra n. 6G, (ho speaks of @the hard intellectual la or of one (ho has to stru!!le for the truth.@ 8n the portrait type see Boehrin!er 19"5A *chefold 196", J6, B#5A 9. von 9eint0e, $M J1 F19M6G "1ff.A <ichter --, 1M6ff., fi!s. 9#":JBA <ichter:*)ith 19$6, 1$1ff.A 2iuliani 19$M, 1"$f.A =. Hierneisel, in (in Platon7"il#nis fIr #ie Gly'tothek F.unich, 19$JG 11:BMA 4ittschen, BB, B6. " +ippold 191B, 55f.A cf. Pfuhl 19BJ, B$. 6 8n the 9olkha) 9all:Basel type see Pfuhl 19BJ, B9A 4. Poulsen, Greek an# $oman Portraits in (nglish -ountry )ouses F8&ford, 19B"G "Bf., no. 5A >. Ber!er, Pers'ekti/en #er Philoso'hie, .eues Hahr,uch 1" F19$JG "J1ff. Fthou!h - disa!ree (ith his datin! of this )ore dra)atic version in the ,ntonine periodA as far as - can see, no ne( adaptations of Classical or 9ellenistic portrait types (ere created in the -)perial periodGA 4ittschen 19$$, B5, pl. 1B5A Sokrates 19$9, 6". 5 8n +ycur!usC dedication see +ippold 191B, 69ff., MBf.A 2. .. ,. <ichter, Greek Portraits, FBrussels, 19MBG 6: B6ff.A 4ehr 19J9, 56ff.A 2auer 19M$, 1"B:"5A C. *ch(in!enstein, !ie Figurenausstattung #er griechischen Theaterge,Gu#e F.unich. 19JJG J6ff.A 2iuliani 19$M. 1"$f. 8n the datin! see )ost recently 4ittschen 19$$, B1. 8n +ycur!us and his political pro!ra) see $( 1".B F19BJG B66Mff., s.v. +ycur!us 1# F=unstGA .itchel 19J#, 1M5ff.A C. .ossK, Athens in !ecline, LAL7MK B.C. F+ondon, 19J1G

$#ff. M 8n the statue of *ophocles in the Hatican see no( C. Horster, 3atikanische Museen, Museo Gregoriano Profano, $Jmische Skul'turen F.ain0, 199"G 1 : 156, no. MJ, fi!s. B9J:"#$. 4or the copies see <ichter --, 1B$ff., fi!s. M$#:$$A <ichter:*)ith 19$6, B#5ff.A *chefold 196", 9#:9"A 4ittschen 19$$, "M n. 16M. J - ase )y interpretation pri)arily on the (ork of 4ehr F19J9, 51ff.G, thou!h - (ould see the statue of *ophocles less as a )odel for the @;or)al: Rr!er@ than for the citi0en presented as politically en!a!K. have su se?uently discovered that 'heodor <einach had already su!!ested this interpretation in H)S 6B F19BBG 5#:M9. 9e identified the statue, ho(ever, as the portrait of *olon on *ala)is. Cf. the response of 4. *tudnic0ka, H)S 6" F19B"G 5J. $ Paris, +ouvre 2 BBBA Bea0ley, A$3 B BJB, no. JA -3A +ouvre F---, -cG, "Bf., pl. 6B, 5:JA >. Pottier, 3ases antiques #u 1ou/re FParis, 19BBG " : B#J, pl. 1"#A ,. *hapiro, in The "irth of !emocracy, e&h. cat., ;ational ,rchives F7ashin!ton, 1.C., 199"G B6, fi!. 6. 9 ,eschin. In Tim. B1ff.A ,rist. Ath. 'ol. B$A Plut. .icias $.". Cf. 2iuliani 19$M, 1"BA 4ehr 19J9, 96 n. 1#B. 1# 8n the statue of ,eschines see <ichter --, B1Bff.A <ichter:*)ith 19$6, J"ff.A *chefold 196", 1#B, B#$A P. C. Bol, 1ie,ieghaus Frankfurt: Antike "il#%erke, vol. 1, "il#%erke aus Stein un# aus Stuck F.elsun!en, 19$"G B1#ff., no. MB. 'he su!!estion that the statue should e dated posthu)ously, after "15, is supported y oth historical circu)stances Fthe .acedonian do)inationG and stylistic indicators: see <. 9orn, Stehen#e %ei,liche Ge%an#statuen in #er hellenistischen Plastik, <.:>9 B F.unich, 19"1G B1f. 8n the pro le) of the relationship of statue and vie(er, see 4. 9iller, Mar,WPr, 19MB, 5"ff. 11 Cf. 1e). !e cor. 1B9A 4ehr 19J9, 5Jf., esp. n. 61#. 1B Cf. the illustrations collected in 2. =och:9arnack, &na,enlie,e un# Tiergeschenke FBerlin, 19$"G. 4or school scenes see *i)on 19JM, pls. 99:1##. 1" >.!., a votive relief to ,sklepios: ,thens, ;. 1"65A U. 9aus)ann, Griechische Weihreliefs FBerlin, 19M#G J1. fi!. 6#A -. ;. *voronos, !as Athener .ationalmuseum F,thens, 19#$G no. 15#1, pl. $"A cf. the ,tar os Base in the ,cropolis .useu): C. >. BeulK, +C,cropole dC,thYnes FParis, 1$56G pl. 6. +ater, in the 9ellenistic period, the type of ,eschines and *ophocles is used, for e&a)ple, on >ast 2reek !ravestones: see Zanker 199", B1J. 16 *tudnic0ka Fsupra n. JG M1A ,. =ru!, @Binden in der !riechischen =unst@ F1iss., .ain0, 19M$G 1B9f. 8n *ophocles as priest, and the hero cult after his death, see, )ost recently, +. Beschi, ASAtene 65:6M F19MJ:M$G 6B6ff. 15 9. C. ,very, @*ophoclesC Political Career,@ )istoria BB F19J"G 5#9:16. 1M Cf. the !rave stele ,thens, ;ational .useu)A B. *ch)alt0, Griechische Gra,reliefs F1ar)stadt, 19$"G, B#6, pl. 1$, 1A Con0e -, no. ""J, pl. $5 S >in0elaufnah)en M9B. 'he eli)ination of any intellectual trait fro) the portrait (ould e all the )ore si!nificant if, as has een su!!ested, another portrait type preserved in nu)erous copies, the so:called *ophocles 4arnese, (hich does have a @spiritual@ e&pression, does indeed reflect a statue created a out 6## B.C. *ee )ost recently 4ittschen 19$$, 19f., pls. "Mff. -n this version, *ophocles is depicted as an old )an. 'he later statue (ould then have )ade hi) youn!er in deli erate opposition to an already e&istin! icono!raphical tradition, in order to e)phasi0e the aspect of the su /ect as still politically active. 1J *ee <ichter -, 1B1ff. fi!s. 5JJ:M#"A <ichter:*)ith 19$6, J6ff.A *chefold 196", $$f., B#JA 4ittschen

19$$, "M n. 16M, pl. 5M. 'he )ost finely nuanced copy is preserved in the her) in ;aples, .us. ;a0. M1"9A ,Br 6#1f.A <ichter, fi!. 59J. 'he identification as ,eschylus is ased on t(o ar!u)ents: first, a close stylistic si)ilarity to the *ophocles in the HaticanA second, the association of this head (ith that of *ophocles in a @!allery@ of her)s and on a dou le her). 'he si)ilarity of hairstyles, especially at the te)ples, and eard, as (ell as in the )odelin! of the face, is considera le, even in a co)parison of the early ,u!ustan copy of ,eschylus fro) the Hilla dei Papiri (ith the Hatican *ophocles, (hich is pro a ly ,u!ustan in date. 1$ *. =arusu, AM 9M F19$1G 1J9:96, pls. 5"ff. 19 ,s in the case of *ophocles, it is possi le that the portrait of ,eschylus is a @re!ulari0ed@ version of an earlier portrait )ore in the physio!no)ic tradition. ,eschylusC aldness is first attested in late literary sources F 3ita in Pa!eCs 8C', p. ""BA Hal. .a&, 9, 1B. >&t. BA ,el. .A J.1MG. *o)e !e)s and !lass pastes of ?uestiona le authenticity F<ichter -, fi!s. M#M, M#$:9G allude to the anecdote a out ,eschylusC death in (hich a turtle (as dropped on his ald head y an ea!le that )istook his head for a rockO ,n >arly Classical portrait of a ald:headed )an, preserved in only a sin!le copy in the Capitoline .useu) F<ichter, fi!s. M#6:5A 4ittschen 19$$, 1$, B6, pl. 16G, (ith eye ro(s sharply dra(n to!ether, could in fact represent an intellectual, ut an identification as ,eschylus )ust re)ain co)pletely hypothetical ecause of the pro le)atical nature of the !e)s. Cf. 2auer 19M$, 159ff. PausaniasC co))ent that the portrait of ,eschylus (as created lon! after the poetCs death and after the paintin! of the attle of .arathon F1.B1.BG nevertheless i)plies that he (as fa)iliar (ith another physio!no)y for ,eschylus. 'he ald portrait head in the Capitoline )ay in any event, apart fro) its uncertain identity, !ive us an idea of (hat a portrait of ,eschylus )ade in his lifeti)e )i!ht have looked like. B# 8n the portrait of >uripides see <ichter -, 1""ff., fi!s. J1J:M1A <ichter:*)ith 19$6, 1B1ff.A *chefold 196", 96, B#$A 9. von 9eint0e, $M J1 F19M6G J1:JJ. ,s far as the copies are concerned, of the nearly thirty replicas of the head, the est is pro a ly the early ,u!ustan her) fro) the Hilla dei Papiri, no( in ;aples F<ichter, fi!s. J1J:19G. 'he accuracy of its details is confir)ed y the finely (orked head in .antua F4ittschen 19$$, pl. J5G and the recently discovered her) fro) +ucus 4eroniae F<ichter, fi!s. J5":56G, oth )ade in the first century ,.1. 'he datin! of the ori!inal )ust, - elieve, e ased on the plastic )odelin! of the forehead and ro(s, (hich has !ood parallels only in (orks of the second half of the fourth century Fcf. 4ittschen, B6G. 'he early datin!, in the late fifth or early fourth century, ar!ued, for e&a)ple, y 9. 7alter, AM J1 F195MG 1J$f., is ased pri)arily on the style of the lon! hair. But this is rather an icono!raphical )otif characteri0in! the su /ect as an old )an, (hich, ecause of its nor)ative value, cannot e used as a datin! criterion. -t see)s to )e therefore ?uestiona le (hether (e )ay see in this trait a historici0in! reference to the period of >uripidesC lifeti)e F(hat 4ittschen calls a @<ekonstruktionsportrVt@G, especially since such evocations of the 9i!h Classic are fre?uently found in the fourth centuryA cf. Bor ein 19J", 6"ff. 8n the datin! see )ost recently >. Houtiras, in 3illa Al,ani --, 191f., no. B1# Fca. ""#/B#G. 'he <ieti type, (hich is occasionally identified (ith the statue in +ycur!usC dedication, pre:supposes the e&istence of the 4arnese type and )ust, - elieve, e dated ca. "## or later. Cf. +. Curtius, $M 59 F1966G BBff., and, )ost recently, 2iuliani 19$M, B96A 4ittschen 19$$, pls. 11$:B#. B1 .. .eyer 19$9. BB -stan ul, ,rchaeolo!ical .useu) 1B6B Ffro) *)yrnaGA +ippold 191B, 69f.A <ichter -, 1"J, fi!. JMJ. 'he association of the portrait of >uripides (ith this relief is also discussed y 9. von 9eint0e, in 9ekler 196#, BJ, pl. "". 8n the for) of the chair cf. Con0e -, BJf., no. 95, pl. "JA $6, no. "J#, pl. 91A Con0e --, 156, no. JB#, pl. 1"9A 1M1, no. J5B, pl. 165. 8n the ook roll and the pillo( in the icono!raphy of older )en see ..

.eyer 19$9. B" *ee 2iuliani 19$M, B66 n. 166A 2. Panthakis:=ara)os, Stu#ies in Fourth7-entury Trage#y F,)sterda), 19$#G B$ff.A 9. 4lashar, Poetica 1M F19$6G 1ff. S id., (i#ola F,)sterda), 19$9G 16Jff. B6 A- 1B F19$"G 1#"Bff., s.v. 2reisenalter FC. 2nilckaGA P. <oussel, CC>ssai sur le principe dCanciennetK dans le )onde hellKni?ue du H e s. a. I.:C. [ lCKpo?ue ro)aine,@ MNmAcInscr 6".B F1951G 1B":BB$. B5 2iuliani 19$M, 1"9. Cf. also Houtiras 19$#, 16J, B$9A -. *chei ler, in Sokrates 19$9, M5. 8n the construction of >uripidesC character fro) his (ork see +efko(it0 19$1, $$ff. BM Cf. the illustrations in 4ittschen 19$$, pls. "$, 6B, 6", 65, 69. BJ 1ycurgue, -ontra 1Nocrate, Fragments, ed. and trans. 4. 1urr ach FParis, 195MG 1##, p. M6. B$ Cf. the survey of C. *chneider, &ulturgeschichte #es )ellenismus F.unich, 19MJG 1 : 159ff.A '. 9Qlscher, @'he City of ,thens: *pace, *y) ol, *tructure,@ in -ity7States in -lassical Antiquity an# Me#ie/al Italy, ed. ,. .olho, =. <aaflau , and I. >)len F,nn ,r or, 1991G "M$:J5. B9 8n the @pro!ra)@ of +ycur!us see .itchel 19J#, 19#ff.A 4ehr 19J9, 56ff. 8n the cult of 1e)okratia see ,. >. <au itschek, )es'eria "1 F19MBG B"$:6". 8n the >pony)ous 9eroes, see I. 'ravlos, Pictorial !ictionary of Athens F+ondon, 19J1G B1#A 9. ,. 'ho)pson, The Athenian Agora " F,thens, 19JMG J#f. "# 4or the copies of the *ocrates portrait 'ype B see <ichter, -, 11Bff., fi!s. 6$" ff.A 4ittschen 19$$, pls. 5$:M6. 'he type has )ost recently een treated in detail y -. *chei ler, in Sokrates 19$9, 66ff.A also 2iuliani 19$#, $6f., (ho arrives at a si)ilar interpretation. -t is uncertain (hether the statue (as in fact set up in the ti)e of +ycur!us, and this cannot e confir)ed throu!h stylistic analysis. 'he dates su!!ested in the scholarly literature vary, as usual: e.!., 2auer 19M$, 1B6 F)id:fourth centuryGA 2iuliani 19$#, M6, no. B1 F""#sGA *chei ler, in Sokrates 19$9, 51 Fsoon after "B#G. , co)parison (ith !rave stelai such as that of =orallion F1iepolder 19"1, pl. 65, BA 1. 8hly, AA, 19M5, "66G su!!ests to )e that a date ca. ""# is the )ost likely Fcf. Braun 19MM, 5#, 9#G. .itchel F19J#, B#9 n. 19JG had already suspected an association (ith the +ycur!an pro!ra). 'he story reported y 1io!enes +aertius FB.6"G that the )otive for the ne( statue (as the @re!ret@ of the ,thenians for the conde)nation of *ocrates is pro a ly a later interpretation. "1 'he holdin! ti!ht of the e&cess fa ric (ith one hand is depicted on )any !rave stelai Fe.!., 1iepolder 19"1. pls. 66, 65. BG and so)e statues F<ichter --, fi!. 1"M$G. 'he other !esture, ho(ever, of the free ar) (ith hand !rippin! the overfold, is rare in the fourth century, and so )ay have to do (ith the standard !estures of #e2iosis on the !ravestones and of prayer on the votives Fcf., for e&a)ple, the votive relief to 1e)eter in the +ouvre: (ncPhotT(1 ---, B1MaG. 4or *ocrates, therefore, the !estures of ,oth hands reflect correct ehavior, and, as the co)parison (ith the !rave stelai reveals, they cannot e interpreted psycholo!ically or as indicative of a specific situationA cf., )ost recently, Sokrates 19$9, 5#, and 2iuliani 19$#, M5. , !ood e&a)ple of disorderly drapin! of the )antle is found in the statue of a Cynic in the Capitoline F cf. fi!. JBG. "B '(o heads, +ouvre ., 59 F<ichter -, fi!s. 51", 51MA 4ittschen 19$$, pl. 5$G and .useo Capitolino inv. 5#$ F<ichter, fi!s. 6$6:$MA 4ittschen, pl. M1G, offer the )ost relia le versions of the ori!inal. 'his is then confir)ed y several heads of lesser ?uality, such as the inscri ed her) in the Conservatori F<ichter, fi!. 511G, a head in *t. Peters ur! F<ichter, fi!s. 5#5:JG, a head in a private collection F<ichter, fi!s. 696:9MG, and a fra!)ent in the )useu) in *fa& F4ittschen, pl. M#G. 'he fine >arly -)perial head in the 'er)e .useu) F<ichter, fi!. 69#A 4ittschen, pl. M"G, (hich is often reproduced as the @ est@ copy, (ith its sunken cheeks and @*ocratic@ e&pression, represents, in )y vie(, an eccentric interpretation of the ori!inal derived fro) the philosopherCs io!raphy. 'he super sculptor undou tedly (anted to convey )ore of *ocratesC personality than the ori!inal of 'ype B ever contained. -n t(o other copies,

oth of the second century ,.C. , an inscri ed her) in ;aples and a tondo ust in the Hilla ,l ani F<ichter, fi!s. 6$", 5##, 5#1, 5#", 51BA 3illa Al,ani, --, BJB, pl. 19"G, the physio!no)ic ?ualities of the ori!inal have een entirely done a(ay (ith. "" 'ravlos Fsupra n. B9G 6JJff.A 7. 9Qpfner, &erameikos, vol. 1#, !as Pom'eion un# seine .achfolger,auten FBerlin, 19JMGA U. =ni!!e, !er &erameikos /on Athen: FIhrung #urch Ausgra,ungen un# Geschichte F,thens, 19$$G J9ff. 8n the pinakes see 4ittschen 1991, BJ$. "6 <ichter -, 9M, fi!s. "$1:9J. Cf. the convincin! interpretation and datin! of ca. "5# in 2auer 19M$, 1B$ff.A 4ittschen 19$$, B6 n. 16B. But the head is3pace 2auer3entirely (ithout e&pression and in this respect co)para le to the tra!edians set up y +ycur!us in the 'heatre of 1ionysus, to (hich it is also close in style. Cf. in particular the su tler copy in ,ran/ue0: 1. 9ertel, MM BM F19$5G B"9, no. 6, pl. 5B, to!ether (ith ,eschylus, fi!. B$. "5 *ee 1. Pander)alis, @Untersuchun!en 0u den klassischen *trate!enkQpfen@ F1iss., 4rei ur!, 19M9G. 8n the typolo!y of statues of strategoi see, )ost recently, ;. 9i))el)ann, I#eale .acktheit in #er griechischen &unst, Id-:>9 BM FBerlin. 199#G $Mff.: '. 9Qlscher, Gnomon M5 F199"G 5B6. 8n the portrait of ,rchida)us --- of *parta FNG, see <ichter --, 1M#ff., fi!s. $$$:$9A 2auer 19M$, 156A cf. 2iuliani 19$M, 16#ff. "M *ee B. *ch(eit0er, 5ur &unst #er Antike F'R in!en, 19M"G B: 1$MA 2auer 19M$, 1"#. 8n such reuse see 9. Blanck, Wie#er/er%en#ung alter Statuen als (hren#enkmGler ,ei Griechen un# $Jmern F<o)e, 19M9G. "J 'he t(o portraits are, ho(ever, very different in style. 4or +ysias see <ichter --, B#J, fi!s. 1"6#ff.A <ichter:*)ith 19$6, 15JA Houtiras 19$#, B#5ff.A 4ittschen 19$$, pls. 66f. 4or 'hucydides, see <ichter -, 16Jff.A fi!s. $B5ff.A *chefold 196", JM, B#5A 4ittschen, pls. 61:6". "$ 'he e&istence of the !roup portrait of the *even 7ise .en in ,thens has een correctly inferred fro) the epi!ra) Anth. Gr. 1M.""B. -t is, ho(ever, ?uite uncertain (hether any connection e&ists et(een this !roup and the survivin! portrait types. 'he latter include inscri ed copies of the heads of Periander, Bias, and Pittakos of .ytilene F<ichter --, $1ff.A Bro))er 19J"A von 9eint0e 19JJa, 19JJ G. 'he ,thenian *olon, (ho also elon!s to this Klite co)pany, had previously een represented in the !uise of the )odel citi0en Fsee pp. 65ff.G. "9 'he key )onu)ent illustratin! this pheno)enon is the statue of >irene, or Peace, in the ,!oraA see Bor ein 19J", 11"ff. and passi). 8n -socrates see, )ost recently, C. 7. .Rller, CCPlaton und der CPane!yrikosC des -sokrates,@ Philologus 1"5 F1991G 16#:5M. 6# 8n the historical si!nificance of the *ophists see I. .artin, @Zur >ntstehun! der *ophistik,@ Saeculum BJ F19JMG 16"ff. 61 *ee 7eiher 191"A *assi 19$$, "B. 6B 'he to) of 'heodectes stood on the road to >leusis, that of -socrates at =ynosar!es Fps.:Plut. 0 orat. $"J1, $"$CG. 'he to) of 'heodectes (as still standin! in the ti)e of Pausanias F1."J.6G. -nstead of the usual fa)ily !roupin! that (e find on the to) s of ,thenian citi0ens in this period, the poet appeared surrounded y his spiritual predecessors, )uch as the princes and no le)en of the day dedicated in )a/or sanctuaries !roups of the)selves (ith their ancestors !oin! ack to )ytholo!ical heroes. 8ne of these, the )onu)ent of the 'hessalian dynast 1aochos at 1elphi, )ay !ive the est idea of the architectural for) of 'heodectesC to) A see Bor ein 19J", M$ff. Certainly 'heodectesC !allery of poets cannot have looked anythin! like the standard our!eois to) )onu)ent in the for) of an aedicula. -socratesC @trape0a@ (ill pro a ly have een no less noticea le or e&pensive. , )onu)ental colu)n, thirty ells in hei!ht, topped y a )ournin! sphin&, (ould have recalled ,rchaic !rave

)onu)ents and (as perhaps part of the fa)ilyCs earlier to) . 'hus as a )e) er of the ,thenian aristocracy, unlike the i))i!rant fro) Phaselis, -socrates (ould have co) ined a display of fa)ily tradition (ith his o(n clai) to the special status of an outstandin! intellectual. Cf. B. *ch)alt0, AM $" F19J$G 9#, and no( the detailed study of ,. *choll, in H#l 1#9 F1996G, B6B:56. 6" 8n the portrait of Plato see the references a ove in n. B. 'he >arly -)perial F'i erianNG copy in .unich Ffi!s. B6, "$G is certainly of hi!h ?uality, ut (hether it represents the @ est@ copy in every respect see)s to )e ?uestiona le. 'hus, for e&a)ple, the styli0ation of the hair across the ro( is less precise in the su tler copies and the ed!es of the forehead are not so pronounced. 'hese features su!!est a partial assi)ilation to a hairstyle of the period of the copy. 8ne could also ?uestion the )aterial renderin! of the flesh tones. 66 .. 7e er, $M 9$ F1991G, B1$f., pl. 5B. 65 4or -socrates (e kno( of t(o statues set up durin! his lifeti)e: see =. 2aiser, @Philochoros R er 0(ei *tatuen in ,then,@ in Praestant Interna, Festschrift >. )ausmann F'R in!en, 19$BG 91:1##. 2aiserCs restoration of the papyrus te&t does not see) to )e co)pellin!, as it starts fro) the unfounded assu)ption that Plato did not allo( any honorific statue of hi)self durin! his lifeti)e. 6M 'he follo(in! e&a)ples are illustrated here Ffi!. 66a:dG: FaG Copenha!en, ;y Carls er! 2lyptotek B1"A "ille#ta/ler -, pl. 1MA (A "995/MA F G ,thens, ;ational .useu) J19A Con0e -, $", no. "59, pl. $9A FcG Copenha!en, ;y Carls er! 2lyptotek B1$A "ille#ta/ler -, pl. 1MA (A "995/MA FdG Copenha!en, ;y Carls er! 2lyptotek B1B FS infra n. 51G. Cf. also .ali u, I. Paul 2etty .useu) J".,,.11M: ,. ;. 8ikono)ides, GettyMusH 5 F19JJG 61f.A ,thens, ;ational .useu) "5#5: *. =arusu, AM 9M F19$1G 1$M, (ith n. 1M, pl. M1, 1A and a fra!)ent illustrated in Arch!elt B# F19M5G Chron. 1#6, pl. 5J , c. ,nd cf. the (rinkled ro(s of all the older )en on the ase of an ,ttic !rave )onu)ent of the later fourth century illustrated y *ch)alt0 Fsupra n. 6BG pl. B$. - a) inde ted to I. Ber!e)ann, (ho is preparin! a study of ,ttic !ravestones, for a nu) er of su!!estions, i)prove)ents, and photo!raphs. 6J 2iuliani 19$M, 1"6ff., (ith a collection and interpretation of the relevant te&ts. Cf. in particular Pen. Sym'. $."A -soc. !em. 1.15. 6$ 7eiher 191", 65ff. 69 , statuette of a seated )an, no( lost, (ith the inscription . .+,'8;, )ust elon! in the 9ellenistic period y the renderin! of the drapery: 4ittschen 19$J, 15"A <ichter --, 1MJ, fi!. 9M#. 'he ust in =assel Fsupra n. 66G is also not evidence for a seated statue. 'he pattern of the drapery folds is also consistent (ith a standin! fi!ureA cf. the statuette of *ocrates, fi!. "". 8n !rave stelai there are )ature )en (ho have dra(n the )antle over their ri!ht shoulder: e.!., the stele of ,rte)onA B. Hierneisel: *chlQr , Gly'tothek, MInchen, &atalog #er Skul'turen, vol. ", &lassische Gra,#enkmGler un# 3oti/reliefs F.unich, 19$$G 6"ff., no. 9. 'he erect posture of the head on the s)all ust in =assel could (ell e an accurate reflection of the ori!inal, and this too (ould ar!ue a!ainst a seated statue. 'he sa)e is true of a portrait type of -socrates, (hich should e co) ined (ith a nor)al standin! statue like the statuette of *ocrates: <ichter --, B#$, fi!s. 1"6Mff.A <ichter:*)ith 19$6, 161A 3illa Al,ani -, B1Mf., no. J#, pls. 1B#:B1 F+. 2iulianiG. 5# 2iuliani 19$M, 1"$. 51 Copenha!en, ;y Carls er! 2lyptotek B1BA "ille#ta/ler -, pl. 1MA >. Bielefeld, AA, 19MB, 91f.A Hierneisel Fsupra n. BG BMA 4ittschen 19$$, B6, Pl. 5#.B. 8n this pheno)enon see further 4ittschen, B6A H. Poulsen, ActaArch 16 F196"G, M$. 5B 4or 'heophrastus see *chefold 196", 9$A <ichter --, 1JM, fi!. 1#BBA and, )ost recently, +. 2iuliani, in 3illa Al,ani -, 6M", no. 15B. 4or ,ristotle see 4. *tudnic0ka, !as "il#nis #es Aristoteles F+eip0i!,

19#$G S 4ittschen 19$$, 16Jff.A *chefold 196", 9MA <ichter --, 1JBff., fi!s. 9JMff.A <ichter:*)ith 19$6, 9JA 4ittschen, pls. JMff. 'he facial e&pression of the fine copy of ,ntonine date in Hienna F<ichter --, fi!s. 9JM:J$, 9$5G !oes eyond the other preserved copies in the renderin! of si!ns of old a!e, and elieve the ,ntonine copyist )ay have e&a!!erated these. , co)para le pheno)enon has also een o served in <o)an portraiture, thou!h to an even !reater e&tent. 'hat is, the portraits of avera!e citi0ens (ere assi)ilated, even in physio!no)ic detail, to those of the rei!nin! e)peror, (ho served as the e&e)plar. 8n this pheno)enon of the @Zeit!esicht@ in the -)perial period see Zanker 19$B. 5" *ee, for e&a)ple, ;. 9i))el)annCs article in the Frankfurter Allgemeine 5eitung, 199", no. 6M, p. ;5. 56 'here are, of course, e&ceptions. Cf., for e&a)ple, the stele of 'hraseas and >uandria in Berlin: 1iepolder 19"1, Pl. 66A or the stele in =ansas City: B. 4. Cook, AntPl -P FBerlin, 19M9G J#, fi!. 5. 55 Cf. P-G, ed. =assel and ,ustin FBerlin, 19$MG 5: 16Bf.A 7eiher 191", 5Bff. 7ith its pilin! up of other topoi of the ridicule of philosophers, as (ell as its enu)eration of other tar!ets, the passa!e can hardly, in )y vie(, e interpreted as havin! a @pro!ra))atic )eanin!@ for the self:i)a!e of the philosophers, as 9i))el)ann has ar!ued. 5M 7. 9oepfner and >. +. *ch(andner, )aus un# Sta#t im klassischen Griechenlan# F.unich, 19$MG. 5J , votive relief of a shoe)aker, for e&a)ple, fro) the ,thenian ,!ora, depicts four )en at (ork. 'hey (ear their )antles in the sa)e correct )anner as their conte)poraries on !rave stelai or in honorific statuary, althou!h this can hardly e the (ay they dressed in real life. -t )ust have een their principal concern as (ell to e)phasi0e (hat e&e)plary citi0ens they (ere. *ee I. .. Ca)p, The Athenian Agora: (2ca/ations in the )eart of -lassical Athens F+ondon, 19$MG 16J, fi!. 1BM. 5$ 'he standard (ork for reconstruction of the historical se?uence is no( C. 9a icht, >ntersuchungen 9ur 'olitischen Geschichte Athens im @. Hahrhun#ert /. -hr. F.unich, 19J9G. ,fter the collapse of the de)ocracy Fand the death of 1e)osthenesG in "BB, there follo(ed first an oli!archy for four years, then the ten:year ?uasi:tyrannical re!i)e of the Peripatetic philosopher 1e)etrius of Phaleron, "1J:"#J. 'hen a de)ocratic phase of four yearsC duration, a reasona ly de)ocratic constitution fro) "#" to B96, seven years of oli!archy until B$J, then the radical de)ocracy under 1e)ochares until BJ#/M9. 59 4ittschen 1991. 'his )ono!raphic treat)ent includes all the relevant evidence, as (ell as a co)plete list of copies. <. <Q(er undertook a co)plete study of the copies in a .unich dissertation, @*tudien 0ur =opienkritik frRhhellenistischer PortrVts@ F19$#G, that is unfortunately still unpu lished. M# 4or the copies see <ichter --, fi!s. 15B$ff. 'he ust in Henice should e dated to the +ate <epu lic and overe)phasi0es the (rinkles, (hile the youthful version in Copenha!en rather takes account of oth tendencies. Cf. fi!. 6M. M1 4or the anecdotes see $( 15.1 F19"1G J#Jff., s.v. .enandros 9 F,. =QrteGA *tudnic0ka 191$ S 4ittschen 19$$, B11. MB 8n 1e)etrius of Phaleron see $( 6.B F19##G B$1J:61, s.v. 1e)etrios $5 F.artiniGA $( *uppl. -F19M$G 516:5BB, s.v. 1e)etrios of Phaleron F4. 7ehrliG. 8n 1e)etrius Poliorcetes see Plut. !emetr. and $( 6.B F19##G BJM9:91, s.v. 1e)etrios "" F=aerstG. M" 8n the statue of 1e)osthenes see *chefold 196", 1#MA <ichter --, B1Mff., fi!s. 1"9J ff.A Balty 19J$A 2iuliani 19$M, 1"9f.A 4ittschen 19$$, pls. 1#$:1M. 'he literary testi)onia are collected y <. >. 7ycherley, Agora, vol. ", 1iterary an# ('igra'hical Testimonia FPrinceton, 195JG B1#f., nos. M9Jff.A cf. B. 9e ert, Schriftquellen 9ur hellenistischen &unst F2ra0, 19$9G $ff. 8n the decree, recorded in Plot.

Mor. $6J1, cf. the co))entary of 4. +adek, WS 1" F1$91G M":1B$. 8n the location of the statue see, )ost recently, -. 7orthin!ton, @'he *itin! of 1e)osthenesC *tatue,@ "SA $1 F19$MG "$9. 4or the historical ack!round see 9a icht Fsupra n. 5$G M$ff. Concernin! the trans)ission of the statue type, the torso in Brussels of >arly -)perial date FBalty 19J$G represents the )ost faithful copy of the ody. -t has keenly o served and realistic ele)ents of old a!e that are suppressed or eautified in the t(o other survivin! copies of the ody. 'he hands are preserved only in a )odern cast of a no(:lost ron0e statuette F<ichter --, fi!s. 1511:1BG and in one fra!)ent of a hand. 'he contraction of the ro(s is also rendered in a variety of (ays, ut the su tlest copies are also the )ost e&pressive, and this is even confir)ed y so)e !e)s. 4or the est copies of the head, and especially the facial e&pression, see in particular the s)all ron0e ust in ;aples F<ichter --, fi!s. 1661:6"A our fi!. 69G, a )ar le ust in Cyrene F<ichter, fi!s. 16$5:$$G, and an a)ethyst in a private collection F<ichter, fi!. 15#MG. M6 8n the )otif and its interpretation see '. 1ohrn, H#I J# F1955G 5#ff.A *. *ettis, Pros'etti/a B F19J5G 6:B$A 2iuliani 19$M, 1"5. 4or the )ultiple )eanin!s of this !esture cf., for instance, Anth. Gr. B.1Jff. and B56f. M5 'hose (ho (ould interpret the )ood of the statue as one of )elancholy introspection (ould have to offer evidence that such a possi ility even e&isted at this period. -n that case, (here are (e to think the speaker is actually standin!N ,t ho)eN 'here is no indication that the vie(er is )eant to i)a!ine hi) in private. MM *ee Pfuhl:.Q ius -, $#f., no. ---, pl. B5A 1$5, no. MM6, pl. 1##A Zanker 199". MJ 'orso in the ,sh)olean .useu), 8&ford, the so:called ,rundel 9o)er: 1. 9aynes, The Arun#el Mar,les F8&ford, 19J5G pl. 6 Fsecond century B.C. G. Cf. the dra(in!s y <u ens, reproduced in Boehrin!er:Boehrin!er 19"9, pls. 1#$:1". Cf. the torso fro) *a)os: <. 9orn, )ellenistische "il#%erke auf Samos, vol. 1B of Samos FBonn, 19JBG 16, $M, no. J, pl. B#f. Fca. 1M# B.C. G. M$ 2iuliani 19$M, 1"9f.

III+ The R%$ors of Th%nk%n$

1 4or 'ype ,, (ith the hand laid on the head, see *. Bes?ues, -atalogue raisonnN #es figurines et reliefs, vol. ".1 FParis, 19JBG "", no. 1 1J$, pl. 61 A (ncPhotT(1 --, pl. 1$M ,A >. Paul, Antike Welt in Ton F+eip0i!, 1959G no. B#B, pl. 55. 4or 'ype B, (ith the chin propped up, see 4. 7inter, !ie Ty'en #er figIrlichen Terrakotten FBerlin, 19#"G B:B5$, BA Bes?ues, "", no. 1 1J9 d.e F(earin! a petasosG, pl. 6#A I. *ievekin!, !ie Terracotten #er Sammlung 1oe, F.unich, 191MG B: pl. J9A 2. *chneider:9err)ann, (ine nie#erlGn#ische Stu#iensammlung antiker &unst F+eiden, 19J5G 1", no. 1M F(earin! a kausiaG. 'ype B is often (earin! either the petasos or the kausia, (hich transfor)s the conte)plative !esture into a )otif of rela&ation. 'his )ay su!!est ho( forei!n the ori!inal )otif )ust at first have see)ed. B 8n (hat follo(s see no( the i)portant study of Cai00i F199"G. " 4or the portrait of Zeno see *chefold 196", 1#$A <ichter --, 1$Mff., fi!s. 1#$6:11#5A H. =ockel, "#A J# F19$5G J1f., no. $A 'hiele)ann:7rede 19$9, 11#f.A and, )ost recently, (ith full i lio!raphy, von den 9off 1996, $9ff. 4or the history of the copies see 9. I. =ruse, AA, 19MM, "$Mff. 'he ,u!ustan ust, fro) a her), in ;aples, inv. M1B$, fi!. 5" F<ichter --, 1$$, fi!s. 1#$6f.G, represents the )ost relia le copy, apart fro) the drapery. 'his is also the vie( of 'hiele)ann:7rede, (hile =ruse disa!rees. 'his is especially true of the particular for) of the eard, (ith its li)p strands, (hich )ost of the copyists have altered to !ive the appearance of carefully curled locks. 6 8n the honorific decree see )ost recently C. 9a icht, in "athron, Festschrift ). !reru'

F*aar rRcken, 19$$G 1J":J5A 9a icht 19$$, 15f. 8f earlier studies see especially U. von 7ila)o(it0: .Qllendorf, @,nti!onos von =arystos,@ Philologische >ntersuchungen 6 FBerlin, 1$$1G B"B, "6#:66. 8n Zeno see $( 19 F19JBG $":1B1, s.v. Zenon B F=. von 4rit0GA +on! 19$M, 1#9ff. 5 Cf. Cai00i 199", "11ff., (ho - elieve stresses too )uch the *ocratic:Cynic ele)ent of poverty in ZenoCs i)a!e. M Cf. the statuette in the 2lyptothek in .unich that has een associated (ith the portrait of Zeno y 'hiele)ann:7rede 19$9, 16Jff., pls. B6:B5. 'his could indeed derive fro) a portrait of a *toic, ut pro a ly not Zeno, ecause the drapin! of the )antle is different. J +. *trou&, @Her!leich und .etapher in der +ehre des Zenon von =ition@ F1iss., .unich, 19M5GA =. 9. <olke, !ie ,il#haften 3ergleiche in #en Fragmenten #er Stoiker 5enon ,is Panaitios F9ildeshei), 19J5G. $ 8n the statue of Chrysippus see <ichter --, 19#ff., fi!s. 1111ff., and, )ost recently, (ith earlier i lio!raphy, von den 9off 1996, 9Mff. ,s for the copies, the her) ust in ;aples Ffi!. 5MA <ichter --, fi!s. 1115:1JG !ives the est idea of the plastic for)s of the head, (hile for pose and e&pression the ust in +ondon Ffi!. 55A <ichter, fi!s. 111$:B#G is est. 'he statuette in the Pala00o Conservatori .useo ;uovo in <o)e F<ichter, fi!. 116BG is evidently a variant, in (hich Chrysippus has een positioned upri!ht on a throne, )odeled on the statue of >picurus. 'he statue in Paris is, happily, confir)ed in this respect y a statuette recently found in Cyrene: +. Bacchielli, @,rato o Crisippo, CA1 1# F19J9G BJf. 8n the identification of Chrysippus: the ody type is identified on the asis of an inscri ed headless ust in ,thens. Bacchielli has reopened the discussion of the identification of the head type, ut elieve that the careful evaluation of all the ar!u)ents y von den 9off F1#1ff.G has settled the ?uestion in favor of Chrysippus, rather than ,ratus. 'he )ost recent contri ution is that of 4ittschen F199Ba, B1ff.G, (ho ri!htly insists that the association of the securely identified statue and the head type cannot e proven. - (ould nevertheless adhere to this association, even thou!h )y atte)pts to achieve a perfect !raftin! throu!h the use of casts have persuaded )e that this is not possi le. 'he identification of the head type still see)s likely ased on the (ell:kno(n nu)is)atic evidence, since the inscri ed ust in ,thens preserves enou!h of the neck to prove that (e cannot assu)e a lon! eard of the type (orn y ,ratus on the coins that are supposed to depict hi). -n addition, the )ove)ent of the neck see)s to )atch that of the preserved usts. Hon den 9off F99, no. 16G has een a le to adduce a previously overlooked dou le her), ,thens, ;. 5"J F<ichter, fi!. 1165G, (hich connects the Chrysippus type (ith that of Zeno. 4inally, the lar!e nu) er of copies favors Chrysippus rather than ,ratus, since Iuvenal FB.6:5G e&plicitly )entions ho( nu)erous ChrysippusC portraits (ere. 8n all three usts, the renderin! of the )antle is different and cursorily e&ecuted and therefore cannot e used to posit another statue independent of this one. -t is likelier that these are si)plified versions, as is also the case (ith the copies of other portrait types. -n the e&istin! reconstructions, the )otion of the head thrustin! for(ard, (hich is attested in several of the copies, especially the usts in +ondon F<ichter, fi!s. 111$:B#G, the head in Copenha!en, ;ational .useu) F<ichter, fi!s. 11"M:"$G, and the coin fro) *oloi F<ichter, fi!. 116JG, has een too little stressed, or not at all. - have atte)pted a ne( reconstruction, in the for) of a photo )onta!e (hich has no( een reali0ed (ith plaster casts y *. Bertolin: fi!. 56a: . Cf. Sokrates 19$9, J5A 4ittschen 199Ba. -n this e&peri)ent, the chest area of the +ondon ust Ffi!. 5MG could e /oined al)ost sea)lessly to the cast of the statue in Paris, thou!h the ack of the ustCs head overlaps the !ar)ent folds at the nape of the neck on the statue. 'he discrepancy is est e&plained y positin! that the copyist of the statue evened out oth the position of the head and the fall of the drapery. ,s the usts de)onstrate, the folds at the ack of the ori!inal statue (ere clearly pushed ack y the up(ard thrust of the head. 'hese photos of the ne( reconstruction should e understood si)ply as an aid in !ivin! a reasona le optical i)pression of the pose of the entire fi!ure. -n vie( of the nu)erous disparities a)on! the individual

copies of a sin!le portrait type, - do not elieve that an @i)plantation@ (hich is less than perfect can e used as an ar!u)ent a!ainst the co)pati ility of head and ody types. 9 *ee P. 9. von Blanckenha!en. @1er er!Vn0ende Betrachter,@ in Wan#lungen: Stu#ien 9ur antiken un# neueren &unst, Festschrift (. )omann7We#eking F7aldsassen, 19J5G 19":B#1. 1# 8n the literary sources see <ichter --, 19#. <. >. 7ycherley, The Athenian Agora, vol. ", 1iterary an# ('igra'hical Sources FPrinceton, 195JG 16", no. 65$, considers it possi le that the statue in the 2y)nasiu) of Ptole)y is identical (ith that in the =era)eikos. *ee, )ost recently, von den 9off 1996, 1#9ff. 11 -t is /ust possi le, ho(ever, that the entire ri!ht hand has een su se?uently restored. 'his is the vie( of 9.:U. Cain, to (ho) - a) !rateful for his detailed o servations of the ori!inal, and (as already suspected y Bacchielli. 'he restorer (ould then have een inspired, throu!h a learned adviser, y such literary accounts as Cic. Fin. 1."9, Pliny ). "6.$$, and *id. ,poll. ('ist. 9.9.16. 8nly the dis)antlin! of the statue and e&a)ination of the )ar le could provide a definitive ans(er. 'he only certainty is that the hand (as held (ith pal) up. *pecific interpretations ased on the positionin! of the fin!ers )ust also, then, re)ain hypothetical. But in this conte&t it can hardly )ean anythin! other than @persuasion throu!h ar!u)entation@ Fso *chei ler, in Sokrates 19$9, J5A cf. 'hiele)ann:7rede 19$9, 1BJff.G or @a speaker !esticulatin! in a lecture or conversation@ Fvon den 9off 1996, 116G. Cf. *ittl 1$9#, B5B:MBA 4ittschen 19$$, BM n. 15J F(ith a later datin!GA 'hiele)ann:7rede, 1B5ff.A von den 9off, 11"f. 1B *ee +ippold 191B, 5JA *chefold 196", 1B1, B1#A <ichter --, 1J5, fi!s. 1#1$f.A 9el i! 6 --, no. B#1M Fvon 9eint0eGA *chefold 19$#, 1M#ff.A *chefold 19$B, $5A von den 9off 1996, 116, 1MB. 1" 8n the so:called =leanthes see +ippold 191B, $M n. "A *chefold 196", 16M, no. BA <ichter --, 1$9ff.A fi!s. 11#Mff.A *chefold 19$#, 1M1A 'hiele)ann:7rede 19$9, 1"MA von den 9off 1996, 1M5. 'he type is preserved in only five statuettes, ut since they are of different si0es, it )ay e only an accident that no full:si0e copy survives. 'here are other full:si0e philosopher statues of (hich )any copies as statuettes are preserved. - take the ron0e statuette in +ondon to e the )ost faithful copy. 'his is the only one, for e&a)ple, that preserves the folds of the !ar)ent fallin! over the left hip, a )otif that is attested (ith certainty, for other, conte)porary seated statues, e.!., 9er)archus Ffi!. M6G and Poseidippus Ffi!. J5G. -n these, of course, the he) lies et(een the le!s, (hereas here it has een pushed to the side y an involuntary )ove)ent of the left hand. 'he deviations of the other statuettes in this respect could derive fro) a si)plified variant of the ori!inal. 'he different chairs and pillo(s of these statuettes are also not relia le copies of the ori!inal, since they vary so. 'he drapery style of the copy in the .useo Baracco looks decidedly +ate 9ellenistic, and this is the only copy that e&a!!erates the characteristics of old a!e. 'he ron0e statuette can only have sat on a flat seat, perhaps a stone ench, as in the case of the philosopher in the Pala00o *pada Ffi!. 5JG or Chrysippus. 8n the datin! see C. <eins er!, Stu#ien 9ur hellenistischen Toreutik F9ildeshei). 19$#G 1"5. 'he )assive ?uality is co)para le to that of the statue of Poseidippus Ffi!. J5G. 16 8n the statuette of ,ntisthenes see +. Curtius, $M 59 F1966G "$ff.A *chefold 196", B#MA <ichter --, 1$1, fi!. 1#5MA H. =ockel, AA, 19$M, 6$M, fi!. BMA ;. 9i))el)ann, in Phyromachos7Pro,leme, ed. B. ,ndreae F.ain0, 199#G 1M, pls. 66:6J, (ho re/ects an association (ith the portrait type. Cf. pp. 1J6ff. 15 8n >udo&us see ,. 9ekler, !ie Sammlung antiker Skul'turen, Museum #er ,il#en#en &Inste in "u#a'est FBudapest, 19B9G M#f.A *chefold 196", 15J, no. 6A <ichter --, B66, fi!. 1MJ9A <ichter:*)ith 19$6, 1B#. 1M 8n eards and shavin! see $( " F1$99G "#ff., s.v. Bart F.auGA 9ahn 19$9, "Bff.A 4ittschen 19$$, B5. 1J 'his, at least, is ho( he appears on the one ancient portrait that identifies hi) y inscription, on a <o)an )osaic in *parta, (hich - elieve could (ell reflect a Classical ori!inal Fpro a ly fourth

century rather than fifthG: <ichter:*)ith 19$6, $1, fi!. 6M. ,lci iades is also sho(n eardless on one of the fra!)entary tondi fro) ,phrodisias Fcf. pp. "1"ff.G. 1$ 2ood e&a)ples (ould include the >truscan sarcopha!i and urns F<. 9er i!, !ie DIngeretruskischen Steinsarko'hage, ,*< J DBerlin, 195BEG, >ast 2reek !rave stelai FPfuhl:.Q ius -:--G, and Cypriot sculpture FI. B. Connelly, 3oti/e Scul'ture of )ellenistic -y'rus D;icosia, 19$$EG. 19 -AF ---, """ff.A $( B#.1 F1961G "$#, s.v. Phoinikides F,. =QrteG. B# Cf. 9ahn 19$9, "M. B1 -t is unclear (hether ,lciphron )eans that the *toicCs hair (as too lon! or )erely unke)pt. !ratefully ackno(led!e the kind advice of .athias 2el0er in the interpretation of this and other te&ts. BB 'he irre!ular pattern of the eard is especially clear on the copies in +ondon, British .useu) 1$"M F<ichter --, fi!s. 11"9:61G and in the Hatican Ffi!. M#A <ichter, fi!s. 11B1:BBG. Hon den 9off F1996, 11Bf.G also reco!ni0es this feature ut interprets it si)ply as a si!n of the ne!lect of e&ternal appearances. B" 'he ?uote is fro) SPh -- 1"9, 16ff. Cf. +au scher 19$B. B6 8n the >picureans see +on! 19$M, 16ff.A +on!:*edley 19$J, B5:15JA $A- 5 F19MBG M$1:$19, s.v. >pikur F7. *ch)idGA and the forthco)in! article of 7. >rler, in 7. U er(e!Cs Grun#riss #er Geschichte #er Philoso'hie, vol. 6, ed. 9. 4lashar FBasel and *tutt!art, 199"G. .ore speciali0ed studies include .. +. Clarke. CC'he 2arden of >picurus,@ Phoeni2 BJ F19J"G $Mf.A 1. Clay, @-ndividual and Co))unity in the 4irst 2eneration of the >picurean *chool,@ in Stu#i Gigante F;aples, 19$"G B55:J9. B5 8n the statues of the >picureans see *chefold 196", 11$A <ichter --, 196ff., fi!s. 1169ff.A <ichter: *)ith 19$6, 11M. 4or the )ost co)plete lists of copies, (ith critical analysis, see von den 9off 1996, M"ff. 9is detailed stylistic analysis confir)s the traditional datin! ased on the date of death. 4ittschenCs recent reconstructions in 2Qttin!en, (ith the help of casts, have provided a )ore relia le asis for assessin! the overall effect of the portrait statues of >picurus and .etrodorus: see 4ittschen 199Ba. , careful study of the copies (as earlier undertaken in =ruse:Berdoldt 19J5. BM *ee ,. +on!, @Pleasure and *ocial Utility3'he Hirtues of Bein! >picurean,@ Fon#ation )ar#t, (ntretiens sur l antiquitN classique "B F19$5G B$":"1M. BJ 7rede F19$B, B"5:65G has persuasively esta lished the order of i)portance and associated it (ith the notions of hierarchy and orthodo&y in the =epos. B$ 8n the throne of >picurus see =ruse:Berdoldt F19J5, 15#f.G, (ho likens it to the honorary seats in the theatreA 7rede F19$BG, (ho co)pares it to the thrones of the !odsA and B. 4rischer F The Scul'te# Wor# DBerkeley, 19$BE 199ff.G, (ho sees a play on the fatherly role and the icono!raphy of 9erakles and ,sklepios. 8n the theatre seats see 2. .. ,. <ichter, The Furniture of the Greeks, (truscans, an# $omans F+ondon, 19MMG fi!s. 1"$ff., 16Mff., 69#, 699ff.A .. .aass, !ie Prohe#rie #es !ionysostheaters in Athen F.unich, 19JBG M#ff.A I. 'ravlos, Pictorial !ictionary of Ancient Athens F;e( Tork, 19JBG 566ff. 'he occasional depiction of )en on this kind of honorary chair, on >ast 2reek !rave reliefs Fe.!., Pfuhl:.Q ius -, BBB, no. $56, pl. 1B5A BJ5, no. 11#9, pl. 1MJG, is pro a ly also )ore a token of pu lic honors than of intellectual acco)plish)ents. B9 >picurusC facial features are rendered (ith the finest nuances in the dou le her) in the Capitoline .useu), fi!. MM F<ichter --, fi!. 115"G and in the fra!)ent in Copenha!en F<ichter, fi!s. 1B#5:MG. 'he turn of the head, ho(ever, could e )ost relia ly rendered in a ust in the Capitoline F<ichter, fi!s. 1151:5BG. .y vie(s here differ fro) those of =ruse:Berdoldt F19J5G. Cf. no( the e&cellent ne( reconstruction of the statue y 4ittschen F199Ba, 15ff.G, (hich is ased upon the head of the Capitoline

ust Ffi!. MBG. 8n the si!nificance of the raised eye ro(s see 2iuliani 19$M, 16#ff. 'he su!!estion of B. *ch)alt0 F Mar,WPr, 19$5G that the portraits of >picurus divide into t(o traditions that derive fro) different ori!inals cannot e ri!ht. Cf. the counterar!u)ents of von den 9off F1996, J#f.G. , co)parison (ith 9erakles is not, in )y vie(, supported y the ro( of the 9erakles 4arnese, since there it e&presses so)ethin! different, connotin! physical e&ertion. Cf. 7rede 19$B, B6". "# 'he 9adrianic ust in the Capitoline F<ichter --, fi!s. 1B"":"5A cf. =ruse:Bertoldt 19J5, M9f.G, thou!h the carvin! is unfortunately too hard and an!ular, provides the est idea of the ori!inal statue of .etrodorus Ffi!. MJG. 'he inclination of the head see)s to e faithfully rendered in a ust in ,thens F<ichter, fi!s. 1B55:5JG. *ch)alt0 Fsupra n. B9G "J, pl. 16, ri!htly co)pares the head (ith an ,ttic !rave stele of the fourth century, althou!h the co)parison applies only to the icono!raphical type and not to the style, (hich is closely related to that of >picurusC portrait. 'his Classical for)ula, (hich see)s so inappropriate to the early fourth century, also e&plains atte)pts to associate the portrait (ith the classici0in! )ode of the +ate 9ellenistic period. Cf. the counterar!u)ents of von den 9off F1996, M6f.G. "1 'he portrait of 9er)archus is est represented y a 9adrianic ust in Budapest F<ichter --, fi!s. 1"#M:9G and a s)all inscri ed her) fro) the Hilla dei Papiri, in ;aples, fi!. M$ F<ichter, fi!s. 1B91:9"G. 4or the full statue type cf. the statuette in 4lorence F<ichter, fi!s. 1"19:B#G. , stylistically earlier type, closely related icono!raphically, has een )ost recently discussed y B. 4reyer:*chauen ur!, $M 9M F19$9G "1"ff., thou!h - do not elieve her identification as 1e)ocritus can e defended. 2auer F19M$, 1M$f.G had taken it to e an earlier portrait of 9er)archus hi)self. But !iven the astonishin! icono!raphical si)ilarity to the !enuine portrait of 9er)archus, one could also consider the possi ility that it represents another of the early >picureans. "B >ven a sli!ht raisin! or stretchin! of the lo(er ar) (ould have to result in a tension in the )usculature of the shoulder. 'he ri!ht el o( pro a ly rested on the (rist of the left hand, as indicated y da)a!e at this spot on the statue in ,thens. 'he recently discovered copies fro) 1ion Fsee p. B"#G also i)ply this rela&ed position of the ar) and, in any event, invalidate the su!!ested reconstruction of 4rischer F19$B, 1J5, fi!. MG and the interpretation that he ases upon it. "" .. 2uarducci, $en#PontAcc 6J F19J6:J5G 1JJ, fi!. 1". "6 8n the process of readin! see Birt 19#JA Blanck 199B, JB. "5 8n the cult of the >picureans see $A- 5 F19MBG J6M, s.v. >pikur F7. *ch)idGA 7rede 19$B, B"J, (ith further references. "M *ee -. 2allo, CCCo))edia e filosofia in et[ ellenistica: Batone,@ 3ichiana n.s. 5 F19JMG B#M:6B, esp. B19. "J 4or the statuette in ;e( Tork, .etropolitan .useu) of ,rt, see *chefold 196", 1B6, no. 6A B11A <ichter --, 199, fi!. 1BB#A .. 'rue, in The Go#s !elight, ed. ,. =o0loff and 1. 2. .itten, e&h. cat., Cleveland .useu) of ,rt FCleveland, 19$$G 156, no. BMA and, )ost recently, the detailed analysis of von den 9off 1996, 1J1ff. 9e dates the (ork correctly in the +ate 9ellenistic period ut traces the philosopher to a !enre fi!ure of the years around B## B.C. "$ P. 7. +eh)ann, $oman Wall Paintings from "oscoreale in the Metro'olitan Museum of Art FCa) rid!e, .ass., 195"G "6ff., fi!. BJA *chefold 196", 1"Bf. "9 P. C. Bol, !ie Skul'turen #es Schiffsfun#es /on Antikythera FBerlin, 19JBG B6ff., pls. 1#:11A <. +ullies, Griechische Plastik 6 F.unich, 19J9G 1B9, pls. B5$:59.

6# Bron0e statuette: Paris, Bi l. ;ationale $5"A *chefold 19$B, $5A +. Beschi, I ,ron9etti romani #i Montorio 3eronese, -stituto Heneto, .e)orie "".B F19MBG 1"ff., the prototype convincin!ly dated to the second half of the third centuryA <ichter -, 1"B, fi!s. J11:1BA *chefold 19$#, 1MBA )ost recently treated in detail y von den 9off F1996, 1M1ff.G, (ho identifies the sa)e type on the philosopher )osaic in the Hilla ,l ani F<ichter, fi!. "19G. - a) inde ted to <. von den 9off for i)portant o servations in this conte&t. *ilver statuette: Paris, Bi l. ;ationaleA 2. .. ,. <ichter, Greek Portraits, vol. 6, Coll. +ato)us 56 FBrussels, 19MBG 61, pls. B":B6, fi!s. 5M:5JA *chefold 19$#, 1MB. 61 Paris, +ouvre ., J9A <ichter -, 166, fi!. J$6. 6B Iohansen 199B, 16Bf., no. 5$. - elieve the upper ody, ent for(ard, and the position of the ar)s )ake it clear that the statue represents a reader. 6" 'he statue is in <o)e, Capitoline .useu) 1"JA <ichter --, 1$5, fi!s. 1#J1, 1#J6A *chefold 196", 1BBA 9el i! 6 --, no. 16"1A +au scher 19$B, 66 (ith n. 1MB, MBA von den 9off 1996, 11$ff., confir)in! the traditional datin!. 8n the appearance of the Cynics see $( 1B F19B"G 6ff., s.v. =ynis)us F9el)GA P. <. 1udley, A )istory of -ynicism F+ondon, 19"JGA .. Biller ek, !er &yniker !emetrios F4rankfurt, 19J9G. 'hat the fi!ure (as arefoot is certain, for enou!h of the lo(er le! is preserved to say that there (ere no sandals. 8n the tri,on see $( M, Bd ser. F19"JG B615ff., s.v. 'ri on F*chuppeG. 66 8n the relation of the Cynics to society see 2. Bodei 2i!lioni, @,lessandro e i Cinici,@ in Stu#i ellenistici, ed. B. Hir!ilio FPisa, 19$6G: 51:J". *ince the i)portance of the Cynics (as already in decline in the third century, the statue could e a retrospective honor for one of the early Cynics set up, for e&a)ple, y the *toics. 'he latter felt inde ted to the founders of Cynic teachin! for so)e aspects of their o(n philosophy. 'he statue (ould in that case have een a kind of didactic re)iniscence. 'he )ain difficulty (ith this interpretation is the lack of retrospective or ha!io!raphic ele)ents of the kind (e shall encounter in the statuettes of 1io!enes and other retrospective portraits. 65 8n the @Cynic@ in Paris, +ouvre 566, see ,Br M19:B#A 9ekler 191B, pl. 1#"A =. 4ittschen, AA, 1991, BM1, fi!s. M, $. 'he copy elon!s to the later second century ,.C. Certain details, such as the @)oustache@ and the locks of the eard )i!ht lead one to suspect that this could e an i)a!e of a conte)porary individual that has )erely een styli0ed (ith traits of the philosopher Fcf. pp. B"5ff.G. 8n the other hand, the plastic structure of the head and especially the arran!e)ent of the hair on the cro(n of the head (ould ar!ue a!ainst this interpretation. 6M *ee Bodei 2i!lioni Fsupra n. 66G. 6J 4ittschen 199B , pl. 1J. 6$ 4or the +ate 9ellenistic copies of .enander see <ichter --, fi!s. 15"":"5, 15"M:"$, 159B:95. 69 <ichter --, fi!s. 15B6, 15BM, 15BJA cf. *tudnic0ka 191$ S 4ittschen 19$$, B#Jff., pl. 1#5. 4or a si)ilar kind of anecdotal representation see *chefold 19$#, 1MM. 5# 4unda)ental for (hat follo(s is the investi!ation of 4ittschen F199B G, (hich has put the scholarship on this )onu)ent on a ne( and fir)er footin!. Cf. *chefold 196", 11#A <ichter --, B"$, fi!s. 1M6J:5#. 8n Poseidippus see $( BB.1 F195"G 6BMff., s.v. Poseidippos F7. PeekG. 51 >. .. <ankin, The $ole of the Mageiroi in the 1ife of the Ancient Greeks FChica!o, 19#JG B5. 5B 9. =yrieleis, !ie "il#nisse #er PtolemGer FBerlin, 19J5G. 8ne should also note in this connection the portraits on >truscan sarcopha!i and urns, (hich derive fro) 2reek prototypes. 4ittschen F199B G also ri!htly associates the a)ple for)s of the portrait in Copenha!en, (hich he connects (ith the statue of the pseudo:.enander, (ith the ideal of try'he .

5" 'he .enander relief, for)erly in the *tro!anoff Collection, is no( in the ,rt .useu), Princeton University. *ee .. Bie er, in Festschrift A. $um'f FColo!ne, 195BG 16:1J. 8n the funerary altar of the <o)an poet see fi!. 11". 56 9. Bartels, *lym'ia7"ericht FBerlin, 19MJG, $ : B51ff., pl. 1B#A ;. 9i))el)ann, Ale2an#ria un# #er $ealismus in #er griechischen &unst F'R in!en, 19$"G 69f., pl. "#. 'he identification as a poet (as already proposed y Bartels on the asis of the fi!ureCs eardlessness and the under!ar)ent. 55 <. 7endorf, The (lements of 1ife: "iogra'hy an# Portrait Painting in Stuart an# Georgian (nglan# F8&ford, 199#G B51f., fi!. M9. Cf. 7. Busch, !as sentimentale "il# F.unich, 199"G 61J, fi!. 11M. 8n the portraits of 1r. Iohnson y <eynolds, five in all, see "os%ell s 1ife of Hohnson, ed. 2. Bir eck 9all F8&ford, 19"6G 6 : 66$ff. 5M 4ittschen 199B . 5J 4or the statuette of .oschion, ;aples, .useo ;a0ionale MB"$, see <ichter --, B6B, fi!s. 1MMM:MJA <ichter:*)ith 19$6, 1M9, fi!. 1"#A 4ittschen 1991, BMB n. J#, pls. 5M, BA MB, 6. 5$ Cf. the diptych fro) the cathedral treasury at .on0a: *chefold 196", 1$6A 7. 4. Hol ach, (lfen,einar,eiten #er S'Gtantike un# #es frIhen Mittelalters " F.ain0, 19JMG 5J, no. M$, pl. "9. 59 4or the !rave stele of 9er)on see >. 7alter:=arydi and H. von 2raeve, @1er ;aiskos des 9er)on: >in spVtklassisches 2ra !e)Vlde,@ in &anon, Festschrift (. "erger, ,nt=:B9 15 FBasel, 19$$G ""1ff., pls. 9":95. M# 8ne )ay also )ention in this conte&t the youthful poet 1e)etrios on the Prono)os Hase in ;aples (ith a depiction of a satyr play. 9e sits nude on a handso)e ench and is characteri0ed y ook rolls and a lyre. Buschor ri!htly interpreted his rela&ed pose and his (ide:eyed, e&cited facial e&pression (ith open )outh as one of poetic inspiration. -n any case, (e should not see hi) as part of the theatrical conte&t. 9e is, rather, depicted as a poet, and as a particularly handso)e youn! )an Fthus the nudityG (ith lu&urious locks and in the )idst of a festive and e&trava!ant !atherin!. *ee BuschorCs co))ents in ,. 4urt(Vn!ler and =. <eichhold, Griechische 3asenmalerei, vol. " F.unich, 19"BG te&t to pls. 16":65. M1 8n the so:called Her!il For >nniusG see H. Poulsen -, 66ff., nos. 5, MA 2iuliani 19$M, 1M"ff.A =. 4ittschen, AA, 1991, B55ff. Cf. t(o additional supposed portraits of conte)porary 9ellenistic poets, (hich )ay su stantiate (hat (e have said of the so:called Her!il: a eardless portrait elon!in! to a dou le her) in ;aples F2uida <uesch no. 11"5A 9. von 9eint0e, $M MJ D19M1E $#ff., pls. B#, BA B1, BA B"A 4ittschen 19$$, pls. 15#f.GA and a her) (ith a likely portrait of an elderly 9ellenistic poet in <o)e, Pala00o dei Conservatori F9el i! 6 --, no. 16MMA ,Br $$J:$$A 9. von 9eint0e, $M MJ D19M#E 1#"ff., pls. "1, ""A 4ittschen:Zanker -- Dforthco)in!EG. Tet another 2reek poet of the second century B.C. )ay e identified in the ivy:(reathed head (ith fleshy face and dra)atic turn of the head in +ondon, B. 1$5BA <. P. 9inks, Greek an# $oman Portrait Scul'ture F+ondon, 19"5G 15, fi!. 1Ma.

IV+ In the Sha)o( of the Anc%ents

1 4or the seated statue in Copenha!en, ;y Carls er! 2lyptotek, see +ippold 191B, M$ff.A *chefold 196", 1"$ Fidentified as PindarGA Buschor 19J1, "#, no. 111A H. Poulsen 1956, JJf., no. 5"A <ichter -, MJff., fi!s. B"1ff. F,rchilochusGA <ichter:*)ith 19$6, 1JMff.A 2iuliani 19$M, 159 n. BB9A >. Houtiras, in 3illa Al,ani --, 19"f., no. B11 Fdated late third centuryGA von den 9off 1996, 1#$. B Anth. 1yr. B -, fra!. $MA +o el:Pa!e fra!. 5# B 1$. Cf. 4. Preisshofen, >ntersuchugen 9ur !arstellung #es Greisenalters in #er frIhgriechischen !ichtung F7ies aden, 19JJG M5f.

" 4or the statue of Pindar fro) .e)phis see +auer:Picard 1955, 6$ff., pls. 6ff.A <ichter -, 16", fi!. J$". Cf. elo( in n. BJ. 6 8n the @Pseudo:*eneca@ see *chefold 196", 1"6A >. Buschor, "il#nisstufen F.unich, 196JG 1$"A <ichter -, 5$, fi!s. 1"1:B"#A Buschor 19J1, no. 115, fi!. "#A <ichter:*)ith 19$6, 191A >. *i)on, Pergamon un# )esio# F.ain0, 19J5G 59 F(ho su!!ests the presence of a *toic vie(pointGA 2iuliani 19$#, J# n. "6A 4ittschen 19$$, pls. 1"$f. .ost archaeolo!ists are currently inclined to the identification as 9esiod. 5 *ee +au scher 19$B, 1B and passi)A Bayer 19$", 1Jff. 8n <u ensCs @1yin! *eneca@ see .. .orford, Stoics an# .eostoics: $u,ens an# the -ircle of 1i'sius FPrinceton, 1991G. M *ee <ichter:*)ith 19$6, 1J#f. 8n the copies see .. 2. Pico00i, StMisc BB F19J6G 191ff., and, )ost recently, von den 9off 1996, 15J F(ho dates the ori!inal to the )id:second centuryG. J 'he description of this as a @literarisches -dealportrVt@ is o(ed to ,. 9ekler, OHh 1$ F1915G M1:M5. Cf. 9afner 1956, M6 , 9, pl. BJA *te(art 19J9, B9, pl. 5, (ith further details. $ *ee <ichter -, 151ff., fi!s. $M#ff.A <ichter:*)ith 19$6, 1"Mff.A ,. =ru!, )eilkunst un# )eilkult: Me#i9in in #er Antike F.unich, 19$5G 61f., fi!. 1#A von den 9off 1996, 15J, (ith a su))ary of earlier literature and a datin! a out the )iddle of the second century. 8n the identification see, )ost recently, ,. 9illert, Antike Pr9te#arstellungen F4rankfurt, 199#G "#. 9 ,Br 5$1:$6A I. 4rel, Greek Portraits in the H. Paul Getty Museum F.ali u, 19$1G 9M. 4or the recent association (ith the 'er)e relief F<ichter -, fi!s. B99:"##A <ichter:*)ith 19$6, $MG see von den 9off 1996, 155ff. 1# Cf., for e&a)ple, the funerary reliefs fro) *)yrna in Pfuhl:.Q ius -:--A Zanker 199". 11 8n (hat follo(s see especially <. Pfeiffer, Geschichte #er klassischen Philologie: 3on #en AnfGngen ,is 9um (n#e #es )ellenismus F9a) ur!, 19J#G 1B5ff.A 4raser 19JB, "#5f. 1B *ee Satiro, 3ita #i (uri'i#e, ed. 2. ,rri!hetti, in Stu#i classici e orientali 1" F19M6GA $( B, Bd ser. F19B1G BB$ff., s.v. *atyros F=indGA U. von 7ila)o(it0:.oellendorf, Sa''ho un# Simoni#es FBerlin, 191"G 15J. .ore !enerally, see ,. .o)i!liano, The !e/elo'ment of Greek "iogra'hy FCa) rid!e, 19J1G. 1" .. 2a athu er, @9ellenistische >pi!ra))e auf 1ichter@ F1iss., Basel, 19"JG. 8n the distancin! of the @ancient@ poets fro) the present day see P. Bin!, @'heokritosC >pi!ra)s on the *tatues of ,ncient Poets,@ Antike an# A,en#lan# "6 F19$BG 11J:BB. 16 'he relief is fully docu)ented and (ell descri ed y 1. Pink(art, in Antike Plastik FBerlin, 19M5G 6 : 55ff., pls. B$ff. Cf. 9. von 9es er!, H#I 1#" F19$$G """:"MA >. Houtiras, (gnatia 1 F19$9G 1"1:J#, (ho sees in the relief a specifically *toic interpretation of 9o)er and associates it (ith the school of =rates of .allos at Per!a)on. 9e identifies the poet represented in the statue on the .usesC hill as 9o)er hi)self. But this is unlikely in li!ht of the seated fi!ure of 9o)er else(here on the relief and is also contradicted y all the nu)is)atic evidence. 8n the portrait features of Chronos and 8ikou)ene on the ,rchelaos <elief see, )ost recently, >. la <occa, in Alessan#ria e il mon#o ellenistico7romano: Stu#i in onore #i A. A#riani F<o)e, 19$6G " : M"$, (ith n. 65. 'he interpretation of the draped statue efore a tripod occurs already in 2oetheCs analytic description: So'hien7Ausga,e F7ei)arG ser. 1, vol. 69 B , B5. Cf. >. 2ru)ach, Goethe un# #ie Antike FBerlin, 1969G B : 5JBff. 15 8n the heroon of Bias in Priene see 4. 9iller von 2aertrin!en, Inschriften /on Priene FBerlin, 19#MG 9Jff., no. 111A 1#Mff., no. 11". 8n the Bias coins fro) Priene see =. <e!lin!, !ie MIn9en /on Priene

FBerlin, 19BJG "6, no. "#, pl. "A <ichter -, fi!. "5JA *chefold 196", 1J". fi!. $. 1M 8n the ,rchilocheion see ;. .. =ontoleon, Fon#ation )ar#t, (ntretiens sur l antiquitN classique 1# F19M"GA $( *uppl. 11 F19M$G 1"Mff., s.v. ,rchilochos F.. 'reuG. 1J +efko(it0 19$1. B5ff., esp. "1. 1$ *ee *chefold 196", 1J", fi!. M, (ith co))entary y 9. Cahn, p. B19. 19 *ee *chefold 196", 1JBf. (ith B1$ff., for a collection of coins (ith retrospective portraits of intellectuals, and cf. the relevant sections of <ichter -:--. B# =. ,. >sdaile, H)S "B F191BG "1$:B5A C. 9ey)an, @9o)er on Coins fro) *)yrna.@ in Stu#ia Paulo .aster o,lata, vol. 1, .umismatica Antiqua, ed. *. *cheers F+euven, 19$BG 1MB:J"A and, )ost recently, 1. 8. ,. =lose, !ie MIn9'rGgung /on Smyrna in #er rJmischen &aiser9eit FBerlin, 19$JG "6ff. B1 8n the 9ellenistic lind 9o)er see Boehrin!er:Boehrin!er 19"9, (hich has the est docu)entation of all the copiesA *chefold 196", 16B, B1"A <ichter 1, 65ff., fi!s. 5$:1#MA <ichter:*)ith 19$6, 16Jff.A +au scher 19$B, B#A 4ittschen 19$$, BM. 4or the datin!, in the late third century B.C. , see, )ost recently, ;. 9i))el)ann, Ant& "6 F1991G 11#f. BB Boehrin!er:Boehrin!er 19"9, pls. 9B:95A .. Co)stock and C. C. Her)eule, Scul'ture in Stone FBoston, 19JMG J5, no. 119. 'here are e&cellent illustrations of the head in OHh 1$ F1915G, M6f., fi!s. "":"6. B" Boehrin!er:Boehrin!er 19"9, pls. MM:M$A <ichter -, fi!s. J#:JB. B6 I. 7. 2oethe, on a @Buste, die in 2yps , !uss vor )ir steht,@ in I. C. +avater, Physiognomische Fragmente 9ur "efor#erung #er Menschenkenntnis un# #er Menschenlie,e F+eip0i! and 7interthur, 1JJ5G B65. Cf. the co))ents of Iako Burkhardt, in !er -icerone 1# F+eip0i!, 191#G 1 : 1M1: @confess that nothin! !ives )e a etter i)pression of the !reatness of 2reek sculpture than its a ility to perceive and to render these traits. , lind sin!er and poet: that is all they had to !o on. ,nd yet the artist endo(ed the ro( and cheeks of the old )an (ith this divine )ental stru!!le, this )i!hty, conscious effort, yet at the sa)e ti)e, the perfect e&pression of the inner peace that only the lind en/oy. -n the ust in ;aples, every stroke of the chisel reathes a spirit and the (onder of life.@ B5 , thorou!h study of all the copies is still lackin!. 'he analysis of Bayer F19$", MBff. B#6ff.G is ased on the plastic for)s of the face, (hich are difficult to apprehend, and co)es to the erroneous conclusion that the ron0e head in 4lorence is the est copy of the type. , )ore pro)isin! approach (ould e to start (ith the details of the coiffure, especially the thick corkscre( curls at the te)ples and the roll of hair at the nape, (hich are )ost clearly rendered in the Boston head. 'o this asic type, (hich is also characteri0ed y the @active@ ?uality of the physio!no)y, - (ould assi!n the heads in the British .useu) FBoehrin!er:Boehrin!er 19"9, pl. $1G, in a private collection Fpls. 99ff., thou!h - a) not certain it is ancientG, in the Capitoline Fpls. 59f.G, and in *ch(erin Fpls. $$:91G, as (ell as the no(: lost ust that appears in <e) randtCs paintin! of ,ristotle in ;e( Tork, .etropolitan .useu) of ,rt Fpls. 5":55G. BM +efko(it0 19$1, 1M. BJ +auer:Picard 1955A cf. the revie( y 4. .at0 F Gnomon B9 D195JE $6:9"G, (ho noted the si!nificance of the t(o fra!)entary heads (ith fillets F+auer:Picard, $5, fi!s. 61:6BA B59, fi!s. 16B:6"G. 8n the asis of stylistic criteria and historical considerations he su!!ested a date in the early second century, (hich has also een supported y C. <eins er!, Stu#ien 9ur hellenistischen Toreutik F9ildeshei), 19$#G 11$, 1$6. *ee no( B. *. <id!(ay, )ellenistic Scul'ture F.adison, 199#G 1 : 1"1ff. , ne( study of the !roup, (hich has een ?uite inade?uately pu lished, is ein! prepared y ..

Ber!)ann and <. 7Rnsche. B$ 8n the 9ellenistic *ocrates see <ichter -, 11#f.A +. 2iuliani, in 3illa Al,ani -, 6MMff., no. 15", pls. BJ#:J1, (ith earlier i lio!raphyA Sokrates 19$9, 5B, (hich refers to a paintin! of the seated *ocrates in one of the so:called )anghGuser in >phesus. 8n *ocratesC i)portance for 9ellenistic philosophy see ,. ,. +on!, @*ocrates in 9ellenistic Philosophy,@ -C "$ F19$$G 15#:J1. B9 Cf. <ichter -, fi!s. 5M":5M"aA Sokrates 19$9, 5". 'he head type that appears on the side of the +ouvre sarcopha!us )i!ht actually e the sa)e as the ,l ani type. , terra:cotta statuette of *ocrates )ay derive fro) a creation of the .iddle 9ellenistic period and !ive us at least so)e idea of the appropriate ody type: see <. Z0!an, SelQuk Rni/ersiti: (#e,iyat FakIltesi !ergisi 1 F19$1G. "# *ee ,ndreae F19$#G and, )ost recently, von den 9off F1996, 16#ff.G, (ho traces the history of the copies and provides a stylistic analysis, also arrivin! at a date in the early second century B.C. 9e also su!!ests icono!raphical parallels (ith conte)porary i)a!es of centaurs, satyrs, and !iants. - cannot accept the idea that the classici0in! eard contains a direct reference to *ocrates, for ho( (ould the ancient vie(er have reco!ni0ed thisN ;. 9i))el)ann, in Phyromachos7Pro,leme, ed. B. ,ndreae F.ain0, 199#G 1"ff., adheres to the earlier datin! of the portrait, in the lifeti)e of ,ntisthenes. "1 ,n inscription in 8stia F9el i! 6 -H, no. ""$$G su!!ests that the ,ntisthenes portrait could e a (ork of one Phyro)achos, (ho (orked at the Per!a)ene court in the first half of the second century B.C. -n that case, (e )i!ht suppose a link to the *toic circle centered around the philosopher and !ra))arian =rates of .allos at Per!a)on, for the *toics considered ,ntisthenes, eside *ocrates, their !reatest fore ear. Unfortunately several uncertainties detract fro) this hypothesis, includin! the fact that there (ere several Phyro)achoi. Cf. ,ndreae Fsupra n. "#G 1"ff. "B *ee *chefold 196", 16M, B1"A <ichter --, 1$Bff., fi!s. 1#5J:M5A Bayer 19$", "$ff.A +. 2iuliani, in 3illa Al,ani -, 1$#ff., no. 55, pls. 1##:1#B, (ith earlier i lio!raphyA von den 9off 1996, 1B9ff. 'he statuette in the Hilla ,l ani, alon! (ith the ancient fra!)ents incorporated into a )odern statuette in ;e( Tork, !ives the est idea of (hat the ody looked like, (hile the head is est represented y the copy in ,i&:en:Provence. Because of the pro le)s of the trans)ission of the type, - do not elieve it is possi le to arrive at a datin! any )ore specific than late third or second century B.C. 8n 1io!enes and the Cynics see 9. ;iehues:PrQ stin!, !er &ynismus #es !iogenes un# #er "egriff #es 5ynismus B F4rankfurt, 19$$GA 2. Bodei 2i!lioni, @,lessandro e i Cinici,@ in Stu#i ellenistici, ed. B. Hir!ilio FPisa, 19$6G 1 :51:J". "" 'here is a particular pro le) in the trans)ission of the statue. *ince all five copies thus far kno(n are on the sa)e scale Fca. fifty:five centi)eters in hei!htG, (e )ust assu)e that the prototype (as also of this si0e. -t is ?uite possi le, ho(ever, that this (as a kind of @inter)ediary@ ori!inal, that is, a reduced version of a life:si0e ori!inal created for a do)estic conte&t. 'he e&istence of lar!e:scale statues of 1io!enes is securely attested F1. +. M.J$A cf. <ichter --, 1$B, no. 1A ;eudecker 19$$, B"1, no. MM, pl. 1M, 5G. 7hereas the s)all:scale version roadens the narrative aspect of the co)position, a life:si0e ori!inal could, like the Cynic in the Capitoline, have confronted the vie(er )ore directly. *everal details (ould see) to support this notion, such as the detailed (orkin! of the ack, (ith its insistently realistic renderin! of the a!in! ody, the e&tended ri!ht hand, and the co)pact for) of the head. 'he flatness of the fi!ure in a side vie( is est seen in the copies in the Hilla ,l ani and in ,fyon. 'he frontal vie( of the ,l ani statuette clearly sho(s that this s)all:scale version (as intended to e seen at an o li?ue an!le, as the plinth also su!!ests: 2iuliani Fsupra n. "BG pl. 1##. *)all:scale statuettes of this kind (ere popular already in the 9ellenistic period and (ere used in the decoration of ostentatious livin! areas. 'he 9ellenistic houses of 1elos have niches for the e&hi ition of such statuettes: see .. =ree ,

>ntersuchungen 9ur figIrlichen Ausstattung #elischer Pri/athGuser FChica!o, 19$$G. 8n )iniature copies see no( >. Bart)an, Ancient Scul'tural -o'ies in Miniature F+eiden, 199BG. "6 =. 9erdin!, CC1io!enes als BRr!erheld,@ in id., 5eichen #er AufklGrung: Stu#ien 9ur Mo#erne F4rankfurt, 19$9G 1M":$". 8n the <o)an funerary altar see 9. 7rede, H#I 1#B F19$JG "$6ff., fi!s. ":5, (hose interpretation - find too narro(. "5 I. 1elor)e, Gymnasion FParis, 19M#GA >. Zie art, Aus #em griechischen Schul%esen B F+eip0i! and Berlin, 1916GA .. P. ;ilsson, !ie griechische Schule F.unich, 1955GA 9. .aehler, @1ie !riechische *chule i) ptole)Vischen \!ypten,@ in (gy't an# the )ellenistic Worl#, Proceedin!s of the -nternational Collo?uiu), +euven, 19$B F+euven, 19$"G 191:B#"A Blanck 199B, esp. 169ff. "M *ee U. *inn, !ie homerischen "echer FBerlin, 19J9G, (ith full referencesA U. 9aus)ann, )ellenistische $elief,echer aus attischen un# ,Jotischen WerkstGtten F*tutt!art, 1959GA on silver vessels and carved rin!s see especially the illustrations in <ichter -:--. "J <ichter -. 5, fi!s. 116:1MA cf. U. Pannuti, @+Capotheosi dC8)ero,@ Mem1inc ser. )isc. ". B F19$6G 6": M1. "$ 'he )ost recent study of the portrait of Carneades, (ith a thorou!h discussion of the copies, is that of ,. *tVhli, AA, 1991, B19:5B. 9is ar!u)ent that the portrait (as created posthu)ously cannot e su stantiated (ith epi!raphical evidence, as Christian 9a icht kindly assures )e. ,side fro) the prosopo!raphical ar!u)ents, 9a icht points out that, accordin! to *. H. 'racy, Attic 1etter -utters, SST to MK ".-., 9esperia *uppl. 15 FPrinceton, 19J5G 1"$:61, the Carneades inscription is attri uted to the @cutter of -2 -- B "6J9,@ (ho (as active durin! the philosopherCs lifeti)e. +ike(ise, *tVhliCs stylistic co)parisons do not, in )y vie(, support a datin! in the last ?uarter of the second century. 'he t(o dedicators, ,ttalus and ,riarathes, are not forei!n princes, as previously elieved, ut ,thenians (ith royal na)es, as sho(n y the ne( victor list of the Panathenaic 2a)es of 1J#: cf. 'racy and 9a icht, )es'eria M# F1991G 1$$f. "9 9a icht 19$$. 6# 4or the portrait of @Panaitios@ see ,Br 999:1###A 9afner 1956, 11 < BA 2. +ippold, 3at. &at. ---, B, 6$#, no. 5#, pl. B1"A 69", no. M$A von den 9off 1996, 11". 61 *chefold 196", 15#A 9afner 1956, 1# < 1A <ichter ---, B$B, fi!. B#B#A <ichter:*)ith 19$6, 1$9f. Cf. the statue of a )an fro) <hodes, a 2reek ori!inal (ith a si)ilar head: 9afner, BB < 1J, pl. J. 6B 4or the !rave )onu)ent of 9ierony)os see Pfuhl:.Q ius --, 5##f., pl. "##A P. .. 4raser, $ho#ian Funerary Monuments F8&ford, 19JJG "6ff., 1B9f., fi!. 9J. 'he style su!!ests a date in the second half of the second century Falso accordin! to Pfuhl:.Q iusG, so that he cannot e identified (ith the Peripatetic philosopher of the sa)e na)e. 6" Berlin, *taatliche .useen inv. *= 16MBA for a !ood illustration see 9. 4ronin!, Marmor7un# Schmuckreliefs mit griechischen Mythen F.ain0, 19$1G $#, pl. MM, (ith earlier i lio!raphyA cf. 9. von 9es er!, H#I 1#" F19$$G "6$. 8f relevance to the interpretation )ay e -sidorusC e&planation of the sy) olic )eanin!s of letters: *rig. 1, ", J:9. 9e reports, for e&a)ple, that the Y represents the Pytha!orean e2em'lum /itae humanae, ecause the t(o strokes sy) oli0e the steep ascent to the /ita ,eata, as (ell as the easy descent into ruin. 66 8n a so)e(hat later relief in Berlin, the ele)ent of heroi0ation is no( ?uite e&plicit. 8f interest for us is the fact that the physician accorded heroic honors is rendered in the )anner of a philosopher !ivin! instruction, seated on a hi!h: acked, thronelike chair: ,. 9ilpert, Antike Pr9te#arstellungen F4rankfurt, 199#G 16ff., fi!. 16. 8n the position of the @house philosopher@ in <o)e see >. <a(son, @<o)an <ulers and the Philosophic ,dviser,@ in 2riffin 19$9, B"":5J.

65 8n the co))ents that follo( see 2iuliani 19$M, 15Mff.A 4ittschen 1991, B5$ff.A P. Zanker, @-ndividuu) und 'ypus,@ in Akten #es III. internationalen &olloquiums I,er #as rJmische PortrGt, Prague, ?TMM Fin pressG. 6M 4or an overvie( of the )aterial see .ichalo(ski 19"BA Buschor 19J1A 9afner 1956A *te(art 19J9A P. Zanker, @Zur <e0eption des hellenistischen -ndividualportrVts in <o) und in den ca)panischen *tVdten,@ in )ellenismus in Mittelitalien, vol. B, ed. P. Zanker, A,hGJtt "d ser., no. 9J F19JMG 5$1ff. 6J Cf. 2iuliani 19$M, 15Mff. 6$ -n the discussion that follo(s - rely on the as:yet unpu lished dissertation of 4a ricius F.unich, 199BGA cf. also Zanker 199". 69 4or the stele in 7inchester see Pfuhl:.Q ius, -, BBB, no. $55, pl. 1B5. 5# *tele in +eiden: Pfuhl:.Q ius -, B1J, no. $"1, pl. 1B1. 51 *ee, )ost recently, the testi)onia cited y 4ittschen 1991, BM6 and pl. MJ, in connection (ith the statue of .enander. 5B 'he stele of 'heodotos in -stan ul: ;. 4iratli, 1es steles funNraires #e "y9ance grNco7romaine FParis, 19M6G 56, no. "", pl. $A Pfuhl:.Q ius --, pl. 6$9A no. B#"6, pl. B96A 4a ricius 199B. 5" Pfeiffer Fsupra n. 11G "6, 1"Bff. 56 *ee '. =le er!, "uchhan#el un# 3erlags%esen in #er Antike F1ar)stadt, 19MJG B#A 4. 2. =enyon, "ooks an# $ea#ers in Ancient Greece an# $ome B F8&ford, 195#G. 55 *ee the follo(in! sources for i)a!es of readin! philosophers and poets. 9o)er on a fra!)ent of a 'a ula -liaca: <ichter -, 56, fi!. 119A ,. *adurska, "-) $M F19MBG 5#6:9A a statuette of Plato no( lost: <ichter --, 1MJf., fi!. 9M#A 1io!enes in the arrel on a !lass paste: <ichter --, fi!s. 1#M", 1#M$:J#A and cf. Z(ierlein:1iehl 19$M, 1$#, nos. 66"f., pl. J9A 1$$, no. 6$$, pl. $5A an anony)ous Cynic on a <o)an relief, Copenha!en, ;y Carls er! 2lyptotek 1$5: 4. Poulsen 19"1, 5$ff. Cicero F 3err. B.$JG refers to a statue of *tesichorus readin!. 'his cannot, ho(ever, e identified (ith the fi!ure sho(n readin! on a coin: *chefold 196", 1J", 16. 8n readers and ook rolls on >ast 2reek !ravestones see 4a ricius 199B, B5#ff. 5M +ondon, British .useu) B"B#A ,Br 9$9f.A I. I. Bernoulli, Griechische Ikonogra'hie F.unich, 19#1A repr., 9ildeshei), 19M9G 1 : 1"5f., pl. 15A 9. B. 7alters, -atalogue of the "ron9es, Greek, $oman, an# (truscan, in the "ritish Museum F+ondon, 1$99G 15", no. $6JA id., Select "ron9es, Greek, $oman, an# (truscan, in the !e'artment of Antiquities F+ondon, 1915G pl. M6A +ippold 191B, 5BA Pfuhl 19BJ S 4ittschen 19$$, B65A 4. *tudnic0ka, 5eitschrift fIr ,il#en#e &unst MB F19B$:B9G 1B1:"6 S 4ittschen, BM6A <ichter -, 1"1, fi!s. J#$:1#A 4ittschen, BM, pls. 1"Mf. , datin! in the +ate 9ellenistic period (as already ar!ued y Pfuhl and *tudnic0ka. , secure identification of the su /ect does not see) to )e possi le. 'he fillet certainly su!!ests a poet, and the )ost likely candidate is 9o)er. 'he relief (ith (hich this head type has correctly een associated is in Paris, Bi l. ;ationaleA see <ichter --, 1"1, fi!. J1".

V+ /a)r%an5s 8ear)
1 *ee 9ahn 19$9, (ith e&tensive i lio!raphyA I. Christes, "il#ung un# Gesellschaft: !ie (inschGt9ung #er "il#ung un# ihrer 3ermittler in #er griechischrJmischen Antike F1ar)stadt, 19J5GA Bardon 19J1, 95:1#MA P. Courcelle, CC+a fi!ure du philosophe dCaprYs les Kcrivains latin de lCanti?uitK,@ HSa/, 19$#, $5:1#1A ,. B. Bree aart, @'he 4reedo) of the -ntellectual in the <o)an 7orld,@ Talanta J F19J5G 55:J5A P. 1esideri, @-ntellettuali e potere,@ in -i/iltU #ei romani, vol. B, Il 'otere e l esercito, ed.

*. *ettis F.ilan, 1991G B"5:6#A *. +aursen, CC2reek -ntellectuals in <o)e3*o)e >&a)ples,@ Acta )y'er,orea 5 F199"G 191:B11. B 8n the portrait of Cicero see, )ost recently, 9. <. 2oette, $M 9B F19$5G B91ff., (ho ?uestions the identificationA in favor: 2iuliani 19$M, "B6f. 4or the portrait of *eneca see C. BlR)el, &atalog #er Sammlung antiker Skul'turen, vol. M, $Jmische "il#nisse FBerlin, 19""G < 1#M, pl. J1A .. Ber!)ann, in $Jmisches PortrGt 19$B, 166. " 9ahn 19$9, 1JBff. 6 'here are, ho(ever, a nu) er of literary references to portraits of <o)an (riters: see ;eudecker 19$$, J1. 5 8n this su /ect, and on (hat follo(s, see ;eudecker 19$$, M5ff.A .. 4uchs, >ntersuchungen 9ur Ausstattung rJmischer Theater in Italien un# in #en %estlichen Pro/in9en #es Im'erium $omanum F.ain0, 19$JG. M >. 2ruen, Stu#ies in Greek -ulture an# $oman Policy F+eiden, 199#GA >. <a(son, The Intellectual 1ife of the 1ate $e'u,lic F+ondon, 19$5G. J *ee )y co))ents in Zanker 19$$, B$:B9. $ ;eudecker 19$$, 16f.A Cic. Att. 6.1M.": #eus ille noster Plato . 9 +. Beschi, I ,ron9etti romani #i Montorio, -stituto veneto )e)orie "".B FHenice, 19MBG 1"ff.A )ist. Aug., ,urel. ".5A )ist. Aug., +a)pr. ,le&. B9.B. Cf. ;eudecker 19$$, "B, JB. 1# 8n usts of 9ippocrates as to) offerin!s see 2. Becatti, $en#PontAcc B1 F1965:6MG 1B":61. 'he authenticity of the interestin! notices of the t(o lararia of the e)peror *everus ,le&ander in the )istoria Augusta FB9.BA "1.6G has een ?uestioned. *ee ;eudecker 19$$, JB, "B. 11 4or survivin! e&a)ples of such rin!s see <ichter -:--, passi), and the catalo!ues of individual )useu)s. 1B H. .. *trocka has recently found evidence for such a private @ho)e li rary@ (ith the fittin!s for a lar!e uilt:in ookcase. 'he roo) )easures a out t(elve s?uare )eters and is located et(een a s)aller dinin! roo) and a cu,iculum and, like the latter, opens onto a terrace (ith a vie(. 7ell: preserved frescoes of the *econd *tyle on t(o of the (alls sho( t(o conte)porary <o)ans Fidentifia le as such ecause they are eardlessG, one of the) sho(n as a poet, the other, as *trocka su!!ests, as a scholar (ith his pointer. Both (ear the 2reek hi)ation. 'hese frescoes (ere pro a ly )eant to cele rate the literary a ilities of the houseCs o(ner or those of his friends. -t is also ?uite possi le that oth fi!ures represent the sa)e individual. *ee *trocka 199". 1" ;eudecker 19$$, 1B. 16 8n <o)an copies of 2reek portraits in the for) of her)s, see ,. *tVhli, @8rna)entu) ,cade)iae,@ Acta )y'er,orea 6 F199BG 16J:JB. 'his )aterial has never een collected and studied. Cf. <ichter -:-and the inde& to =. *chefold. !ie WGn#e Pom'eDis FBerlin, 195JGA 'heophilidou 19$6, B6":"6$. 15 4or Bias see <ichter -, $J, fi!. "56. 4or *ocrates, <ichter, 11", no. 1B, fi!. 5#". 4or a seated statue of >uripides (ith a catalo!ue of his (ork see <ichter, 1"J, fi!s. JM#:M1. 8n the encyclopedic !alleries see ;eudecker 19$$, M6ff. 1M -t is only in this li!ht that (e can )ake sense of a dra)atic anecdote like that of 9erodes, the father of the fa)ous orator, (ho ordered his slaves to stone the her)s of the orators of the past, on the !rounds that they had tau!ht his son the (ron! kind of oratory FPhilostr. 3S 5B1G. 1J ,. 9Kron de Hillefosse, @+e trKsor de Boscoreale,@ MonPiot 5 F1$99GA *chefold 196", 1MMf.A 4.

Baratte, 1e trNsor # orfV/rerie romaine #e "oscoreale FParis, 19$MG M5:MJA =. .. 1. 1un a in, @*ic eri)us cuncti . . . 'he *keleton in 2raeco:<o)an ,rt,@ H#I 1#1 F19$MG 1$5:B55, esp. BB6ff. 1$ 2. Cal0a, @1ie 'averne der *ie en 7eisen in 8stia,@ !ie Antike 15 F19"9G 99:115A ,. von *alis, @-)a!ines illustriu),@ in (umusia, Festga,e fIr (. )o%al# FZurich, 196JG 11:B9. Cf. <. ;eudecker, !ie Pracht #er 1atrine F.unich, 1996G "5ff., (hich offers a ne( interpretation. 19 4ittschen 199Ba. B# *uch fi!ures represented (ith 2reek dress and )anners (ere evidently co))on. Cf. the statue of a youn! )an in lon! )antle fro) the Hilla dei Papiri: Zanker 19$$, "#, fi!. B6A and the t(o intellectuals in 2reek )antle in the li rary of 9ouse H- 1J, 61 at Po)peii, recently discussed y *trocka 199". B1 'he need on the part of <o)an politicians and !enerals to have their deeds cele rated in literary pane!yric !oes ack to the .iddle <epu lic. -f >nnius (as a le to cultivate close relationships (ith the heads of several no le fa)ilies and could not only e uried in the to) of the *cipiones ut even have a statue of hi)self placed efore the facade of the )onu)ent, et(een t(o fa)ous )e) ers of the fa)ily Fa story, ho(ever, that )ay e dou tedG, this can )ean only that there (as already considera le presti!e attached to ein! ac?uainted (ith a (ell:kno(n poet. 8n the literary sources see 7. *uer au), >ntersuchungen 9ur Sel,st#arstellung Glterer rJmischer !ichter, *pudas)ata 16 F9ildeshei), 19M$G B#$ff. 2iulianiCs F19$M, 1M"ff., 1JBff.G identification of this statue (ith a portrait in the ;y Carls er! 2lyptotek in Copenha!en re)ains entirely hypothetical. Cf. =. 4ittschen, AA, 1991, B5":J#, esp. B55ff. BB 4riedlVnder --, 191 and esp. B16f.A Bardon 19J1, 1#1ff. Cf. no( .. Ber!)ann, @Zu ;ero,@ TrWPr, 1996. B" 4or collections of sources see .. ;o(icka, 1e 'ortrait #ans la 'einture antique F7arsa(, 199"G 1"#ff.A 2. Cavallo, @+i ro e cultura scritta,@ in Storia #i $oma F'urin, 19$9G 6: M9":J"6, (ith e&tensive illustrationsA id., @'esto, li ro, lettura,@ in 1o s'a9io letterario #i $oma antica, ed. 2. Cavallo et al. F<o)e, 199#G "#J:61. =. *te))er, -asa #ell Ara Massima 3I ?K, ?W7?X F.unich, 199BG fi!s. 156ff., !ives a !ood idea of ho( the tondi (ere placed on the (all. >. 2. 'urner, Greek Pa'yri F8&ford, 19M$G interprets the @9er)ione !ra))atike@ of a (ell:kno(n )u))y portrait at 2irton Colle!e, Ca) rid!e, as a CCliterary lady . . . of the 2raeco:<o)an )iddle classCC Fp. JJG. B6 4or the statue in Buffalo see =. +eh)ann:9artle en, @*o)e ,ncient Portraits,@ AHA 6M F196BG B#6: 1MA <. 7Rnsche, @>ine Bildnisher)e in der .Rnchner 2lyptothek,@ MIH, "1 F19$#G B5ff. 4or the statue in the 'er)e see 7Rnsche, BMf. and fi!s. BB:B". B5 9el i! 6 --, no. 1J"6A IG$ -, 11Mff., nos. "5#:5BA .arrou 19"$, 1"#, no. 151, B#5f.A and, )ost recently, Blanck 199B, JBff., fi!. 65. BM 8n the typolo!y of the portraits of 'ra/an and 9adrian see 4ittschen:Zanker -, 66ff., nos. 6Mff. BJ .. Ber!)ann, @Zeittypen i) =aiserportrVt,@ in $Jmisches PortrGt 19$B, 166f.A *. 7alker, @Bearded .en,@ Hournal of the )istory of -ollections ".B F1991G BM5:JJA P. Cain, MGnner,il#nisse neronisch7 fla/ischer 5eit F.unich, 199"G 1##:1#6, (ith earlier references on the pro le) of eards in <o)an portraiture. 4or the statue in Cyrene see >. <osen au), A -atalogue of -yrenaican Portrait Scul'ture F+ondon, 19M#G no. "6, pl. BMA 9. 2. ;ie)eyer, Stu#ien 9u #en statuarischen !arstellungen #er rJmischen &aiser FBerlin, 19M$G 9#, no. "1, pl. 9, 1. B$ *ee P. 2raindor, @+es cos)Ytes du .usKe dC,thYnes,@ "-) "9 F1915G B61:6#1A >. +attan0i, I ritratti #es cosmeti F<o)e, 19M$GA Ber!)ann 19JJ, $#ff.A 9. .eyer 1991, BB5ff.A von den 9off 1996, $f. B9 Bo(ie 19J#, ":61A I. 1ay, An (conomic )istory of Athens un#er the $oman !omination F;e(

Tork, 196BG 1$"ff.A *. 4ollet, AthVnes au II e et au --- e siKcle FParis, 19JMGA 1. I. 2ea!an, @<o)an ,thens: *o)e ,spects of +ife and Culture -,@ in A.$W B.J.1 F19J9G "$9ff.A 1. 7illers, )a#rians 'anhellenisches Program: ArchGologische "eitrGge 9ur .eugestaltung Athens #urch )a#rian, ,nt=: B9 1M FBasel, 199#G. "# 4or the kosmetes (ho rese) les Plato see +attan0i Fsupra n. B$G MB, pl. "# Fthe date is late 9adrianicA Ber!)annCs D19JJ, $$E datin! is too lateGA the *ocrates look:alike: .unich, <esiden0 >, 9M6A >. 7eski and 9. 4rosien:+ein0, !as Antiquarium #er MInchner $esi#en9 F.unich, 19$JG B65, no. 1B9, pl. 1M9A the 'heophrastus look:alike: +attan0i 55, pl. BBA Ber!)ann 19JJ, $"f.A the 1e)osthenes look:alike: Arch!elt 9 F19B6:B5G, Parart. BM, fi!. BBA Ber!)ann 19JJ, $9. 4or ,rrian as @;eos Penophon@ see I. 9. 8liver, AHA JM F19JBG "BJf. "1 - do not )ean to su!!est that the rese) lance is so close that (e )ay postulate a typolo!ical connection. 9adrianCs hairstyle is co)pletely different, closer to the lu&urious style of a 4lavian coiffure Fcf. .art. J.95.11G. "B Zanker 19$B, "#J:1B. "" 4or the fourth portrait type of .arcus ,urelius see 4ittschen:Zanker -, JM, no. M9, pl. $1A Ber!)ann 19J$, "#ff. 8n p. BM Ber!)ann refers to t(o versions of this type (ith furro(ed ro(, ut she interprets the) as si!ns of a!e and (orry. .y interpretation, for at least so)e of the late portraits of 'ype -H, is not vitiated y the fact that the dra)atic locks over the ro( and the eyes in other copies, and perhaps in the ori!inal as (ell, )ay carry ?uite different associations. 'he )essa!e conveyed y such ruler portraits (as often co)posed of a variety of for)ulas incorporatin! different ?ualities. 4or Pertina& see Ber!)ann, "" n. JB. "6 'here is a te&t and -talian translation in -lassici greci, *'ere #i Sinesio #i -irene, ('istole o'erette inni, ed. -. +ana and ,. 2ary0a F'urin, 19$9G MB#f. "5 4or the portraits illustrated here see the follo(in! sources: fi!. 1B1a: <o)e, Pala00o dei Conservatori B611A 1B1 : Hatican .useu), Chiara)onti 1J5#A 1B1c: .unich, 2lyptothek 6B9A 1B1d: <o)e, Hilla ,l ani F 3illa Al,ani -, no. 156, pl. BJBA and cf. the other e&a)ples at pls. BMM:MJGA 1B1e: 4lorence, .useo Bardini Fcf. =. 4ittschen, in (ikones: Festschrift ). Hucker, ,nt=:B9 1B DBern, 19$#E 1#$:16, pl. "$, "GA 1B1f. 'oulouse, .usKe *aint <ay)ond Fcf. 4ittschen, pl. "$, 6G. 4i!. 1BBa: <o)e, Capitoline .useu) 51" F9ekler 191B, pl. BJ6aA 4ittschen, in the still unpu lished te&t to the catalo!ue in 4ittschen:Zanker --, lists nu)erous additional e&a)ples of this type (ith ald headGA 1BB : .ali u, I. Paul 2etty .useu) $5.,,.11BA 1BBc: <o)e, Capitoline .useu) J1# F*tuart Iones, -a'., "1$, no. 11, pl. J9A the interpretation as an athlete is !iven y 4ittschen in the unpu lished te&t cited a oveGA 1BBd: ;e( Tork, Collection of *hel y 7hite and +eon +evy F1. von Both)er, ed., Glories of the Past D;e( Tork, 199#E BB1, no. 1M1GA 1BBe: 8stia .useu) 1"$M F9el i! 6 -H, no. "1"5GA 1BBf: 8stia .useu) M$ F9el i! 6 -H, no. "1"MA 9: "6 c)G. 8ne can find )any )ore e&a)ples in the various )useu) catalo!ues. "M 4or the so:called Plotinus Ffi!. 1BBfG see <. Cal0a, "#A "$ F195"G B#"ff., fi!s. 1:$A 9el i! 6 -, no. 61B F9. von 9eint0eGA 9. P. +C8ran!e, 1ikeness an# Icon F8dense, 19J"G "Bff., fi!s. 1ff. *ince all the preserved copies co)e fro) 8stia, one of the) over:life:si0e, and one found in a pu lic athin! esta lish)ent, the su /ect )ust have een an i)portant pu lic fi!ure in the city. 9e is therefore unlikely to have een a professional philosopher. , very si)ilar head, like(ise fro) 8stia Ffi!. 1BBeA no( 8stia .useu) inv. 1"$MG, displays certain typolo!ical differences and thus pro a ly represents yet another pu lic personality of the type (ith ald head. "J , !lance throu!h the catalo!ues of the )a/or collections of portraits (ill confir) this i)pression. 1espite the !enerally pro le)atic state of our evidence, it (ould nevertheless e (orth(hile to

co)pile )ore precise statistics on the various types of ust, in order to /ud!e )ore accurately (hich (ere held in hi!h re!ard in each individual period. "$ 'hessaloniki, ,rchaeolo!ical .useu) inv. no. 1#5$: 2. Bakalakis, AA, 19J", M$B, fi!. 9A I.:C. Balty, "Mus"ru2 55 F19$6G 5J. Budapest, ;ational .useu) 1JM: ,. 9ekler, !ie Sammlungen antiker Skul'turen FBudapest, 19B9G no. 1JMA id., !ie Antike 1M F196#G 1"", fi!s. 19:B#A *te))er 19$$, 19B, no. . 1#. Cf. also a head in Beirut: "erytus 6 F19"JG 111ff. "9 9ahn 19$9, 1M1. 6# 'he @philosophers@ fro) 1ion are as yet unpu lished, thou!h illustrated in calendars and else(here. - (ish to thank the e&cavator, 1. Pander)alis, for infor)ation and photos. Cf. (rgon, 19$J, M6f., fi!s. M6:M5A "-) 11B F19$$G M6M, fi!. J1A Arch$e' "5 F19$$:$9G MM, fi!. 9B. .. Ber!)ann points out to )e that the heads (ith facial features assi)ilated to those of Caracalla are si!nificantly s)aller, thus perhaps re(orked. 7e are dealin!, then, (ith t(o different odies of )aterial. 61 7e )ay also co)pare a !roup of five philosopher statues of eclectic types found in ,thens, t(o of the) in the pose of >picurus. *ee 1ontas 19J1, 1M:"", pls. 1:$. 6B 4or the so:called ,elius ,ristides see <ichter ---, B$J, fi!s. B#51:5"A 9el i! 6 -, no. 6M"A ,. 2iuliano, !ialArch 1 F19MJG JBff., (ho, ho(ever, takes the inscription as ancient, thou!h - (ould rather think it is )odern. 6" <ichter ---, B$5, fi!. B#"" Ftentatively dated to the *everan periodGA 1a colonna Traiana, ed. *. *ettis F'urin, 19$$G M5. 66 4or the sarcopha!us ;e( Tork, .etropolitan .useu) of ,rt 6$.JM.1, see ,. .. .cCann, $oman Sarco'hagi in the Metro'olitan Museum of Art F;e( Tork, 19J$G no. B6A ,. 9illert, Antike Pr9te#arstellungen F4rankfurt, 199#G 155ff., no. B9, fi!. "BA ,)edick 1991, 11M, 1"5, no. $1, pl. 116f. 65 Cf. the e&a)ples collected y 9illert Fsupra n. 66G. 6M 8n ,puleius see $( B.1 F1$9MG B6Mff., s.v. ,puleius 9 F*ch(a eG. 6J 2. Bru!noli, @+e statue di ,puleio,@ Ann-agl B9 F19M1:M5G 11:B5. 'he portrait of ,puleius on contorniates is eardless and has lon! hairA thus the prototype cannot elon! to his o(n lifeti)e. 'he type (as pro a ly created in the fourth century ,.1. , as su!!ested also y a co)parison (ith the @*ophist@ fro) ,phrodisiasA see ,lfQldi:<osen au) 19$B, pl. B, 5. 6$ *ee 9ahn 19$9, 51, 59A ,. 1. ;ock, @Conversion and ,dolescence,@ in Pisculi: Stu#ien 9ur $eligion un# &ultur #es Altertums, Festschrift F. H. !Jlger, ,ntike und Christentu) >r!Vn0un!s and 1 F.Rnster, 19"9G 1M5:JJA reprinted in ,. 1. ;ock, (ssays on $eligion in the Ancient Worl# F8&ford, 19JBG 6M9:$#. 8n Pere!rinus see Iones 19$M, 11Jff. 69 Hienna, =unsthistorisches .useu) - 11"A <. von *chneider, Al,um auserlesener GegenstGn#e #er Antikensammlung #es allerhJchster &aiserhauses FHienna, 1$95G JA >. Buschor, !as PortrGt F.unich, 19M#G 1"5, fi!. 9"A *te))er 19$$, 19B, no. . 11. 5# ,thens, ;ational .useu) "6#, fro) the ,thenian ,sklepieion accordin! to =avvadiasA ,Br 6"$:"9A 9. .eyer 1991, BBJ, pl. 1"$, ":6. 51 4or the old )an in the Capitoline see *tuart Iones, -a'., B"9, no. 5#, pl. 56A 9ekler 191B, 6", pl. BJ$a. 'he head (ill e treated y =. 4ittschen in 4ittschen:Zanker --. 5B ,thens, ,cropolis .useu)A ,Br 66#A 9. .eyer 1991, BBJ, pl. 1"$, B, (ith additional e&a)ples. 5" - !ive here only a fe( of the )any e&a)ples that (ill indicate the direction of )y ar!u)ent: Copenha!en, ;y Carls er! 2lyptotekA H. Poulsen --, $5ff., no. MB, pls. 99, 1## Ffro) ,thensGA no. M",

pl. 1#1A no. M5, P-*. 1#6:5A 15", no. 15B, pl. B65A Berlin, Per!a)on)useu) *= "1$A *te))er 19$$, 6Bf., no. 19A cf. =. 4ittschen, in Mousikos Aner, Festschrift Ma2 Wegner FBonn, 199BG 115ff., (ith a different interpretation. =. 4ittschen, &atalog #er antiken Skul'turen in Schloss (r,ach FBerlin, 19JJG 9#, no. "", pl. "9 Ffor the contrast of hair and eardGA <o)e, .useo 'orloniaA <. Cal0a, Sca/i #i *stia, vol. 9 F<o)e, 19J$G, I ritratti, "6, no. "$, pl. "#A 4lorence, Uffi0i inv. 1116.n."J1A 2. .ansuelli, Galleria #egli >ffi9i: 1e sculture F<o)e, 19M1G B: 9M, no. 11#. 56 ;y Carls er! 2lyptotek J#MA H. Poulsen --, 1#5f., no. 9B, pls. 156:55. .. Ber!)ann dates the portrait @nicht 0u spVt in hadrianische Zeit@ F Gnomon 5" D19$1E 1$"G. 55 B. .. 4elletti:.a/, Museo .a9ionale $omano: I ritratti F<o)e, 195"G 11"f., no. BBB Fidentified as +ucius HerusGA cf. no. B#1: =. 4ittschen, H#I $M F19J1G B16:5B. 5M 4or the ust of 'heon see 9ekler 196#, 1B6f., fi!. "A *chefold 196", 1$#, "A =. 4ittschen, in -nan: ,lfQldi:<osen au) 19J9, 1MBff., no. 115, pls. 95, 1#5. 8n 'heon hi)self see $( 5.,B F19"6G B#MJ, s.v. 'heon 16 F=. von 4rit0G. 5J P. 9adot, Philoso'hie als 1e,ensform: Geistige R,ungen in #er Antike FBerlin, 1991GA .. 4oucault, The -are of the Self, vol. " of )istory of Se2uality, trans. <. 9urley F;e( Tork, 19$MG esp. 5"ff. 5$ 8n 9erodes ,tticus see <ichter ---, B$M, fi!s. B#66ff.A *chefold 196", 1$#f. 59 -nan:<osen au) 19MM, 1BJ, no. 15#, pls. $", " and $J, ":6. M# -nan:,lfQldi:<osen au) 19J9, 1$M, pl. 1"9, (ith co))entary on the inscription y I. <eynolds. M1 4or the t(o usts said to co)e fro) *)yrna, no( Brussels, .usKe du Cin?uentenaire inv. ,1#J$/J9, see -nan:,lfKldi:<osen au) 19J9, 1M6ff., nos. 11M:1J, pls. 9M:9J. MB ,thens, ;ational .useu) 6BJA ,Br M"9:6#A 9ekler 196#, 1B5, fi!s. M:JA *chefold 196", 1$#f.A <ichter ---, B"5, fi!s. B#"6:"JA 7illers Fsupra n. B9G 66, pl. 6, 1:" Fdated +ate 9adrianic/>arly ,ntonineG. 8n Pole)on see $( B1.B F195BG 1"B#ff., s.v. Pole)on 1# F7. *te!e)annG, esp. 1"5" on the speech in ,thens. M" =. 4ittschen, in Greek $enaissance 19$9, 1#$:1". M6 *ee Philsotr. 3S 55B, 55$A 7. ,)elin!, )ero#es Atticus F9ildeshei), 19$"G 1: 11"ff.A B: cat. nos. 16$:$BA =. ,. ;eu!e auer, @9erodes ,tticus, >in antiker =unst)V0en,@ !ie Antike 1# F196"G 99f.A 9. .eyer, AM 1## F19$5G "9":6#6. M5 Glories of the Past: Ancient Art from the Shel,y White an# 1eon 1e/y -ollection, ed. 1. von Both)er F;e( Tork, 199#G B16f., no. 155. 7e )i!ht also place in this conte&t the fa)ous ust of the so:called <hoi)etalkes fro) the 'heatre of 1ionysus in ,thens: 4ittschen Fsupra n. M"G 1#9, pl. "$A Ber!)ann 19JJ, $#ff. MM *ee )y paper in Greek $enaissance 19$9, 1#B:J. MJ *ee Sym'otica: A Sym'osium on the Sym'osion, ed. 8. .urray F8&ford, 199#G, esp. the paper on ,thenaeus y ,. +ukinovich on pp. BM":J1A !ining in a -lassical -onte2t, ed. 7. I. *later F,nn ,r or, 1991G. M$ Bo(ersock 19M9, 6"ff.A >. +. Bo(ie, @'he -)portance of *ophists,@ in 1ater Greek 1iterature, Tale Classical *tudies 1J F;e( 9aven, 19$BG B9:59. M9 *ee =och:*ichter)ann 19$B. 4or an e&a)ple of this )ethod of interpretation see +. 2iuliani, H"erlMus ;.4. "1 F19$9G B5:B9. J# Paris, +ouvre ., M59A Baratte:.et0!er 19$5, B9ff.A ,)edick 1991, M"ff., 16#, no. 116, pls. 5B:5"A

cf. =och:*ichter)ann 19$B, 1#Jff. J1 Cf. .. <. +efko(it0 and .. B. 4ant, Women s 1ife in Greece an# $ome B F+ondon, 199BG 1$$:$9. JB I. 'oyn ee and I. 7ard Perkins, The Shrine of St. Peter an# the 3atican (2ca/ations F+ondon, 195MG $BfA 9. .ielsch and 9. von 9es er!, MemPontAcc 1M.B Fin preparationA cf. the preli)inary re)arks of .ielsch in *te))er 19$$, 1$Mff.G. J" 9ahn 19$9, "5A $( M F19#9G 1B1M, s.v. >uphrates 6 F9. von ,rni)G. 8n the characteristics of these @divine )en@ see Bieler -. J6 *ee $( 1M.1 F19""G $9", s.v. .usonius <ufus F=. von 4rit0G. J5 *ee .. Biller eck, !er &yniker !emetrius: (in "eitrag 9ur Geschichte #er frIhkaiser9eitlichen Po'ular'hiloso'hie F+eiden, 19J9GA $( 6 F19##G B$6", s.v. 1e)etrios 91 F9. von ,rni)G. JM .. .orford, Stoics an# .eostoics: $u,ens an# the -ircle of 1i'sius FPrinceton, 1991G esp. 155f., fi!s. M, B". JJ P. ,. Brunt, @*toicis) in the Principate,@ "S$ 6" F19J5G J:"5A I. .alit0, @9elvidius Priscus und Hespasian,@ )ermes 11" F19$5G B"1:6M. Cf. P. 1esideri, !ione #i Prusa F.essina and 4lorence, 19J$G esp. 1$Jff. J$ 8stia .useu) 1"# Fsaid to e @da una specie di aula tardo:antica presso il 'e)pio di >rcole@G. 'he di)ensions are 5# ] 51 ] 1B.J centi)eters. 2. Cal0a, -a'itolium 16 F19"9G B"# F@copisteria antica@GA 9. 4uhr)ann, AA, 196#, 6"9, fi!. 1$ F@Herstei!erun!CCGA >. 2. 'urner, Greek Pa'yri F8&ford, 19M$G 1$9f., pl. M FCCrhetorician or a teacher@GA <. Cal0a and .. 4loreani:*?uarciapino, Museo *stiense F<o)e, 19MBG $Bf., pl. 1" FChristian scene of instructionsNGA Blanck 199B, J#, fi!. 66. - a) inde ted to 9. Blanck for discussin! this interestin! relief (ith )e. J9 *ee Bieler -. $# 8n ,pollonius see Philostr. 3A 1."B. 8n 1ioCs lon! hair see 1io Chrys. JB.B, 1B.15A and cf. 9ahn 19$9, ""ff. *ee also 7. *peyer, @Zu) Bild des ,pollonios ei 9eiden und Christen,@ HA- 1J F19J6G 6Jff. $1 8n the eard styles of the Pytha!oreans see also ,th. 6.1M"f. 'he one securely identified portrait of Pytha!oras hi)self, on a contorniate of the fourth century ,.C. , does not actually sho( shoulder: len!th hair, thou!h he does have an e&tre)ely lon!, taperin! eard. *ee *chefold 196", 1JBf, no. 19A <ichter --, J9, fi!. "#6. $B 8n the )a!ical associations of lon! hair see +C8ran!e 196J, B$ff., (ith further referencesA >. <. +each, @.a!ical 9air,@ Man: Hournal of the $oyal Anthro'ological Institute $$ F195$G 16J:M$. 'he est:kno(n of the Classical portraits of intellectuals (ith lon! hair is the 9o)er of the so:called ,pollonius type, (hich pro a ly derived fro) an ori!inal of the late fourth or early third century B.C. *ee <ichter -, 6$ff., fi!s. B5ff.A *. *chrQder, &atalog #er antiken Skul'turen #es Museo #el Pra#o in Ma#ri# F.ain0, 199"G 6Bf., nos. 1J:1$. -t (as ecause of the lon! hair that the type (as ori!inally identified as ,pollonius of 'yana. -t is not clear (hether in this case the lon! hair (as inspired y analo!y (ith Zeus Fas early as "5# B.C. a coin struck on the island of -os sho(s 9o)er (ith the lon! hair of ZeusA cf. p. 1M6 a oveG, or (hether it is connected (ith the lon! hair of the sin!erA cf. 9. +oh)ann, Gra,mGler auf unteritalischen 3asen FBerlin, 19J9G BJ$, no. + ", pl. 1", BA B$", no. + "6. 8ccasionally (e co)e across anony)ous portraits (ith lon! hair. 8n the (ell:kno(n philosopher )osaic in Colo!ne, Chilon the (ise )an sports lon! hair: <ichter -, fi!. "59. -n !eneral, ho(ever, very lon! hair is alien to the intellectual portraits of the Classical and 9ellenistic periods. $" <osen au) Fsupra n. BJG M5, no. J#, pl. 65A =. 4ittschen, in Greek $enaissance 19$9, 11B. Cf. the

si)ilar head (ith and across the ro( in 9ou!hton 9all: 4. Poulsen, Greek an# $oman Portraits in (nglish -ountry )ouses F8&ford, 19B"G 6J, no. B1. , key piece of evidence in this conte&t is the 9adrianic relief in >leusis, sho(in! a hierophant, identified y inscription, (ith very lon! hair and a priestly fillet: AHA M6 F19M#G BM$, pl. J"A "-) $6 F19M#G pl. 1". $6 8. 7einreich, @,le&ander der +R!enprophet,@ .H,, 6J F19B1G 1B9A Iones 19$M, 1""ff. $5 Copenha!en, ;y Carls er! 2lyptotek inv. B6M6A ,Br "69:5#A H. Poulsen 1956, no. 5$, pl. 66A Iohansen 199B, 16M, no. M# Fhere descri ed as )odernG. *ee the additional references in Poulsen Fsupra n. $"G 6J, no. B1A and cf. the te&t on (A 6B#9:1". 'he prototype of the so:called .odena >uripides could also elon! in this conte&t, if indeed there (as one, as - elieve Fas also 4ittschen 19$$, 1BB, pl. 159, and, )ost recently, .. +. .orricone, @-l cosidetto 8)ero della 2alleria de!li Uffi0i,@ $en#1inc 9.".B D199BE 1M":9BG. -n a case like this, it is of course not possi le to dra( a clear distinction fro) the type of the ascetic (ith unke)pt hair. $M 9erakleion .useu)A <ichter -, $#f., fi!s. "#M:J, "1# Fhere identified as 9eraclitus ecause of the clu GA *chefold 196", 1M#, no. 16 Fhere called 9eraclitus, @ ased on a not )uch earlier classicistic prototype@GA 9Qlscher 19$B, B16A 4ittschen 19$$, pl. 51, 1:B. $J 8n the identification of the Cynics (ith 9erakles see <. 9Qistad, -ynic )ero an# -ynic &ing FUppsala, 196$G 5#ff.A B. <. Hoss, @1ie =eule der =yniker,@ )ermes 95 F19MJG 1B6:B5. $$ -n the early third century, this portrait type occurs for the ucolic readin! fi!ure, the @philosopher@ fro) the to) of the ,urelii, and later also occasionally for the seated philosophers on relief sarcopha!i Fsee pp. B$Bff.G. 8n the to) of the ,urelii see 2. Bendinelli, Mem1inc B$ F19BBG 66#A 2. 7ilpert, $en#PontAcc ".1.B F19B6G B5, pl. JA 9i))el)ann 19J5, 19f.A ,. 2ra ar, The "eginnings of -hristian Art F+ondon, 19MJG fi!. 1#J Fcolor illustrationG.

VI+ The Cult of Learn%n$ Transf%$ure)

1 8n the portrait type see 4ittschen:Zanker -, 1#5ff., pl. 111, Beila!e J1ff. B - shall deli erately o)it fro) consideration the aspect of @heroi0ation@ or of continued life after death as a re(ard for e&ceptional service to the .uses, a )otif that often echoes in the poetic i)a!ery of funerary epi!ra)s. .arrou F19"$, B#9ff., B5"f.G already reco!ni0ed that these represent a rather )ar!inal !roup in relation to the (ealth of sources pertainin! to the praise of learnin!, and that their evidence is anythin! ut clear:cut. 'he enor)ous influence of 4. Cu)ontCs $echerches sur le sym,olisme funNraire #es romains FBrussels, 196BG esp. B5":"5#, has, in )y vie(, un/ustly )ade this aspect the focus of )ost su se?uent interpretation. " *ee, )ost recently, *. 7alker, -atalogue of $oman Sarco'hagi in the "ritish Museum, C*-< 2reat Britain B.B F+ondon, 199#G 51, no. MM, pl. BM, (ho !ives a date of ca. B##. 7ie!art0 F19M5G places this sarcopha!us in his chronolo!ical chart at a out B"#:B"5. 9e also !ives other e&a)ples of this type. 8n the e&port of Phry!ian sarcopha!i see .. 7aelkens, !okimeion: !ie Werkstatt #er re'rGsentati/en kleinasiatischen Sarko'hage FBerlin, 19$BG 1B6ff.A 2. =och, Sarko'hage #er rJmischen &aiser9eit F1ar)stadt, 199"G 1B1ff. 6 *ee =och:*ichter)ann 19$B, 56$, fi!. 5"$. 5 'his )aterial (as first !athered to!ether y .arrou F19"$G, then y 7e!ner F19MMGA cf. the i)portant revie( of 7e!nerCs ook y 4ittschen F19JBG, and =och:*ichter)ann 19$B, B#":M. *ee also '. =lauser, HA- " F19M#G 11Bff.A id., HA- M F19M"G J1:1##A 2erke 196#, BJBff. 'here is, ho(ever, a noticea le ti)e la! et(een the early e&a)ples of i)ported sarcopha!i depictin! the a)ateur intellectual, such as the fra!)ent in the British .useu) Ffi!. 166G or the sarcopha!us in the !arden of the Pala00o Colonna

F7ie!art0 19M5, 1MB, dated ca. 1$#G, and the adoption of co)para le )otifs y (orkshops in the city of <o)e, (hich (ill have e!un only in the years around B"# to B6#, if the datin! ased on stylistic criteria is correct. M 8n the )usical education of (o)en and on dance see 4riedlVnder -, BJ1f.A --, 1"J, 1$". 8n the i)a!e of <o)an (o)en !enerally see B. von 9es er!:'onn, @Coniun& carissi)a: Untersuchun!en 0u) ;or)charakter i) >rscheinun!s ild der rQ)ischen 4rau@ F1iss., *tutt!art, 19$"G. J 'he sa)e notion also occurs in conte)porary inscriptions. Cf., for e&a)ple, *. ;icosia, Il segno e la memoria FPaler)o, 199BG no. $5 FS .. 2uarducci, ('igrafia greca D<o)e, 19J6E ": 1$Jff., fi!. J5G, in (hich an actress is cele rated as the tenth .use. $ <o)e, .useo 'orlonia 6B6A 7e!ner 19MM, no. 1"", pls. M#, MB, M6a, J"a. *ee the interpretation of 4ittschen F19JB, 69Bf.GA 9Qlscher F19$B, B16GA Ber!er:1oer F199#, 6B5GA >(ald F199", MMff.G, (ho has ri!htly reco!ni0ed in the @(ise )en@ a reference to itinerant philosophers of the day, on account of their dress. 8n the social status of +. Pullius Pere!rinus see <. *tein, !er rJmische $itterstan#: (in "eitrag 9ur So9ial7 un# Personengeschichte #es rJmischen $eiches FHienna, 19BJG 161. 9 8n the difference et(een the 'allium and the to!a in seated statues see 2oette 19$9, J5f.A 4ittschen 199B , BMMff. 1# +ike )any of his conte)poraries, Pere!rinus elieved in astrolo!y, includin! the notion that the hour of oneCs death is already fi&ed y the constellations !overnin! oneCs irth. 4ittschen F19JB, 69"G (as a le to infer this fro) the fact that the inscription records the e&act len!th of his life do(n to the )inute. ,t his death Pere!rinus (as only t(enty:nine years, three )onths, one day, and one:and:a:half hours old. 11 Bro(n 19$#, 1B: @'hese silent fi!ures are the !hosts of (hat each dead )an )i!ht have een.@ *ee also 9adot 19$1. 1B Hatican, Belvedere M$A 7e!ner 19MM, 55, no. 1"5, pls. 55, 5JA 9el i! 6 -, no. B1$ FB. ,ndreaeGA 4ittschen 19JB, 69"A 7rede 19$1, 169, B$J, no. B6", pl. "5, 1:6. 1" Hatican, 2alleria dei Candela ri inv. B6BBA +ippold, 3at. &at. ---, B, 11Mff., pl. 156A 7e!ner 19MM, 5$, no. 1"9, pls. 59, M9A 9el i! 6 -, no. 516 FB. ,ndreaeGA 4ittschen 19JB, 696 Fdated ca. ,.1. B$#G. ,)edick 1991, M9ff., traces the )otif to scenes of )a!istrates and provides further e&a)ples. 16 *ee Bieler -, "6f.A .arrou 19"$, 19J:B#JA ,)edick 1991, J#f.3all of (hich also include references to the epi!ra)s and inscriptions. 15 Hatican, .useo 2re!oriano Profano 95#6A 7e!ner 19MM, 6J, no. 11M, pls. M6, J#f.A 4ittschen 19JB, 691f.A =och:*ichter)ann 19$B, B#6f. 8n the outfits see 2oette 19$9, 9JA and, on the shoes, id., H#I 1#" F19$$G 651, fi!. "5cA 65!ff. 'he philosopher in the lon! under!ar)ent (as ori!inally intended to e a fe)ale fi!ure: 9i))el)ann 19$#, 166 n. 69$A cf. 2. =och, $oman Funerary Monuments in the H. Paul Getty Museum F.ali u, 199#G 1: 59:J#. *uch differentiation a)on! the philosopher:advisers also occurs else(here, e.!., on the (ell:kno(n sarcopha!us fro) the Hia *alaria in the Hatican Fe&:+ateran 1$1G: =och:*ichter)ann, fi!. 1B"A $e'ertorium 19MJ, - MB, no. MMA pl. B1A Age of S'irituality 19J9, 51$f., no. 6MBA 9i))el)ann, 1"Bf. 1M 4or the Fel#herrn sarcopha!i, as (ell as sarcopha!i (ith attles and (eddin!s, see =och: *ichter)ann 19$B, 9#ff., 99ff., 1#Mf.A 2. <oden(aldt, R,er #e Stil%an#el in #er antoninischen &unst, , hBerl FBerlin, 19"5G no. ", "ff.A '. 9Qlscher, @1ie 2eschichtsauffassun! in der rQ)ischen <eprVsentationskunst,@ H#I 95 F19$#G B$$ff. 1J ;aples, .useo ;a0ionaleA =och:*ichter)ann 19$B, 1#B, fi!. B#". 4unda)ental to the interpretation

is 9i))el)ann 19MB. H. .. *trockaCs readin!, in H#I $" F19M$G BB1:"1, of the )iddle scene as the dispute et(een the /ita acti/a and the /ita contem'lati/a is under)ined y the out)oded supposition that there )ust e a narrative. 8n the interpretation see =. 4ittschen, H#I 96 F19J9G 5$9ff. 'he deceased need not e of consular rank, as 9i))el)ann assu)ed. 9e could e so)e lesser )a!istrate Fcf. 2oette 19$9, 96G, (hich for our purposes (ould not affect the essential )eanin! of the i)a!e. 'here is a fine e&a)ple of a philosophical adviser in a scene of a <o)an )a!istrate on a sarcopha!us in the .useo 'orlonia: B. ,ndreae, @Processus consularis,@ in *'us .o,ile, Festschrift >. Hant9en F7ies aden, 19M9G ":1", pls. 1:BA ;. 9i))el)ann, Ty'ologische >ntersuchungen an rJmischen Sarko'hagreliefs #es @. un# L. Hahrhun#erts n. -hr. F.ain0, 19J"G Mff., pl. 1#. 1$ *ee =. 4ittschen, AA, 19JJ, "19:BM. 19 1. ,hrens, MIH, 19 F19M$G B"B, fi!s. ":6. - o(e the parallel (ith Urania to >(ald F199", 5$G, (ho cites other e&a)ples co) inin! the to!a (ith the 'allium . -t is unclear (hether the @philosopher@ ears portrait features. B# .arrou 195M, 65#ff.A Bro(n 19$#, 6. B1 7e!ner 19MM illustrates nu)erous e&a)ples. Cf. also 7ilpert -:---A $e'ertorium 19MJ. 'here are, ho(ever, a !reat )any )ore, as a !lance throu!h the photo archive of the 2er)an ,rchaeolo!ical -nstitute in <o)e reveals Ffiches M6#:6JG. >(ald F199"G offers a provisional collection of the )aterial. BB 8n the hunt sarcopha!i see B. ,ndreae, !ie rJmischen Hag#sarko'hage, ,*< 1.B FBerlin, 19$#G. Cf. the fra!)entary philosopher sarcopha!us (ith the scene of a lion hunt on the ack, Hatican, .useo 2re!oriano Profano 95B"A ,ndreae, MB, 1$1, no. B"1, pl. "1.5A ,. Haccaro .elucco, Sarco'hagi romani #i caccia al leone, StMisc B, 19M":M6 F<o)e, 19MMG BB, no. 1B, pls. 1B, B$A 1", B9. B" Ber!er:1oer 199#, 61Jff., no. B5M. Cf. the co)paranda in '. 9auser, HA- " F19M#G 11Bff. B6 >(ald F199", 61G su!!ests a different interpretation. Tet the contradictory icono!raphy Fsee further elo(G see)s to )e to support )y interpretation, in (hich - follo( Ber!er:1oer. Contrast this (ith the ucolic philosophers or poets on the short sides of a .use sarcopha!us in Paris: 7e!ner 19MM, "Mf., no. J5, pl. 1"5A Baratte:.et0!er 19$5, 1J1, no. $6 Fca. 15#:1M#G. 4or the side of the ;aples sarcopha!us see 9i))el)ann 19$#, 156, pl. MBa. B5 ,s 9i))el)ann F19$#, 1"$ff.G has de)onstrated, the fi!ure carryin! a sheep (as at first only a kind of ucolic shorthand and had nothin! to do (ith Christian eliefs. BM $e'ertorium 19MJ, "#M, no. J6J, pl. 11JA 2erke 196#, pls. 5B, 5$, 59f. 4or the interpretation see 9i))el)ann 19$#, 1"", 15J, pl. MMA 1eich)ann 19$", 1BMf. BJ 7e!ner 19MM, "6f., no. M9, pl. 1B$ A *chu)acher 19JJ, pls. BJa, B$c, "#. 8n depictions of Peter as a reader see 7. 7isch)eyer, in &erygma un# 1ogos, Festschrift -. An#resen F2Qttin!en, 19J9G 6$B:95. B$ 2erke 196#, J"ff., pl. M, BA Age of S'irituality 19J9, 61", no. "J1A FrIhchristliche Sarko'hage 19MM, pl. J. B9 -. Musonius $ufus, ed. 8. 9ense F+eip0i!, 19#5G 5$.1"A -. Musonio $ufo, 1e #iatri,e e i frammenti minori, ed. <. +aurenti F<o)e, 19MJG M6A cf. 9i))el)ann 19J5, B#. *ee also $( 1M.1 F19""G $9"ff., s.v. .usonius F=. von 4rit0G. "# 8stia, -sola *acraA Brenk 19JJ, pl. M9A $e'ertorium 19MJ, 6"5, no. 19"$, pl. 1MMA =och:*ichter)ann 19$B, 11$, fi!. 1BJA ;. 9i))el)ann, @*arcofa!i ro)ani a rilievo,@ AnnPisa ser. ", 6.1 F19J6G 1M6, pl. 16, B. Cf. also the )uch:discussed sarcopha!us lid in ;e( Tork and the fra!)ent in the Hatican (ith the shepherd:philosopher supposedly !ivin! instruction: 9i))el)ann 19$#, pls. JB, MB . "1 4or the sarcopha!us lid in the Hatican (ith the scene of a country )eal see $e'ertorium 19MJ, 9J,

no. 151, pl. "6A ,)edick 1991, 1M9, no. B95, pl. "#, 1. Philosopher in a vinta!in! scene: '. .. *ch)idt, @>in rQ)ischer *arkopha! )it +ese: und <eiters0ene,@ in =och 199", B#5:1$. 4or the )osaic fro) ,rroni0, no( .adrid, .useo ,r?ueol^!ico ;acional, see I. .. Blas?ue0 and .. ,. .es?uiri0, Mosaicos romanos #e .a/arra, vol. J of -or'us #e mosaicos #e (s'aYa F.adrid, 19$5G 15, no. B, pls. ", 1J, 5#:56aA 'heophilidou 19$6, B91:"#6. 8n the )osaic fro) 8ued:,t)enia, no( lost, see 9i))el)ann 19J5, 1$, pl. B1. "B *ee +. *chneider, !ie !omGne als Welt,il# F7ies aden, 19$"GA I. .atthe(s, Western Aristocracies an# Im'erial -ourt, A.!. @KL7LSW F8&ford, 19J5G 1:1B. "" *ee 4o(den 19$B, 5Mff. "6 8n the )otif of the (a!on /ourney see ,)edick 1991, 69ff.A id., @Zur -kono!raphie der *arkopha!e )it 1arstellun! aus der Hita Privata und de) curriculu) vitae eines =indes,@ in =och 199", 16":5", (ho also discusses and illustrates Fpls. M5, BA $B, 6G the sarcopha!us lid <o)e, .useo ;a0ionale <o)ano $96B, (ith the )arried couple conversin! For perhaps the in:house philosopher (ith the )istress of the houseG. Cf. 7. 7e er, !ie !arstellungen einer Wagenfahrt auf rJmischen Sarco'hag#eckeln un# 1oculus7Platten #es @. un# L. Hh. n. -hr. F<o)e, 19J$G. "5 4or the ?uotation fro) >piphanius of Cyprus see 9. =och, !ie altchristliche "il#erfrage nach #en literarischen Cuellen F2Qttin!en, 19#JG MB. "M $e'ertorium 19MJA 1eich)ann 19$", 11$f.A 9. =aiser:.inn, in S'Gtantike 19$", "1$:"$. "J 8n the ori!ins of Christian art see the e&cellent survey, (ith e&tensive references, in 1eich)ann 19$", 1#J, and, on the early i)a!e of Christ, 1M#ff. "$ 7e )ust ear in )ind here the chan!e in fashion in the +ate *everan period. 'he lon! +ate ,ntonine eard of (hich (e have spoken Fpp. BBBff.G (as replaced y the short, stu ly eard of Caracalla and his successors. -t is note(orthy, therefore, that Cle)ent of ,le&andria, in ar!uin! in favor of eards, is referrin! e&plicitly to the traditional sy) ol of learnin!. "9 8n the eard styles of the Christians see *auer 19B6, "#9, "B9A I. 7ilpert, !ie Ge%an#ung #er -hristen in #en ersten Hahrhun#erten FColo!ne, 1$9$G. 8n the Carrand 1iptych see n. 6J elo(. 6# 4or cataco) paintin!s sho(in! !atherin!s of teacher and pupils see, for e&a)ple, 7ilpert 19#", pls. 1BM, 16$, 155, 1J#, 1JJ, 19". 61 4or the child sarcopha!us +ouvre ., 15B#, see Baratte:.et0!er 19$5, "1ff.A ,)edick 1991, 16#, no. 11B, pl. M5, 1A 7e!ner 19MM, "$, no. JJ, pl. 165, and, for further e&a)ples, cf. 5$, no. 1"9, pl. 59A 5#, no. 1BJ, pl. 1B#A and 1,- <o)e Photo ,rchive, fiche M6M. 4or the )osaic fro) a )ausoleu) at *plit see Gui#e to the Archaeological Museum at S'lit F*plit, 19J"G no. 'JA ;. Ca) i, in $Jmische GrG,erstrassen, ed. 9. von 9es er! and P. Zanker, , h.Rnch F.unich, 19$JG BM$. 6B 'he statuette is <o)e, .useo ;a0ionale <o)ano M15M5A 4. 2erke, -hristus in #er s'Gtantiken Plastik FBerlin, 196#G pls. 5M:59A Age of S'irituality 19J9, 5B6, no. 6M9. Cf. no( .athe(s 199", 1B9. 'he su!!estion of a )odern re(orkin! (as )ade y ;. *chu)acher, in Actes #u 0 e Con!rYs international dCarchKolo!ie chrKtienne FHatican City and 'hessaloniki, 19$#G B: 6$9:99, (ho erroneously elieves that the type is derived fro) *erapis. .. Ber!)ann, ho(ever, infor)s )e that there are !ood reasons for dou tin! this hypothesis. 8n the connection et(een representations of Christ teachin! (ith the type of the frontally seated ancient (ise )an see =oll(it0 19"M, 65ff.A .arrou 19"$, 55ff.A Cu)ont 196B, ""5f. 6" ,rles, .usKe dC,rt ChrKtien inv. 5A FrIhchristliche Sarko'hage 19MM, "", pl. 1$, 1A 7ilpert -, 6M, $", pl. "6, "A 4. Benoit, Sarco'hages 'alNochrNtiens # Arles et #e Marseille, 2allia *uppl. 5 FParis,

1956G "5, no. 6, pl. ". 66 4or the i)a!e of Christ sin!led out a)on! his disciples see, for e&a)ple, the cataco) in the Hia +atinaA ,. 4errua, -atacom,e sconosciute: >na 'inacoteca #el I3. sec. sotto la /ia 1atina F<o)e, 199#G 1#5f. 4or later e&a)ples in apse )osaics see I. 7ilpert and 7. ;. *chu)acher, !ie rJmischen Mosaiken #er kirchlichen "auten /om I3.70III. Hahrhun#ert F4rei ur!, 191M and 19JMG pl. M F.ilan, *. ,?uilinoG, pls. 19:BB F<o)e, *. Puden0ianaG. 4or the )osaics in <o)e, Hilla ,l ani Ffro) *arsinaG, and ;aples, .useo ;a0ionale Ffro) Po)peiiG, see <ichter -, $B, fi!. "1MA 9el i! 6 -H, "BJ, no. ""5# F=. ParlascaGA *chefold 196", 156, fi!. B16. 8n the relationship of apse )osaic to cathedra, (hich is referred to elo(, see no( the i)portant discussion of .athe(s F199", 11"ff.G. 65 'he recent i lio!raphy on this topic is collected y .. +ut0:Bach)ann, @9ellenisierun! des Christentu)s,@ in Colpe 199B, JJ:9$A +. 9onnefelder, @Christliche 'heolo!ie und C(ahre Philosophie,C@ i id., 55ff. Cf. no( .athe(s F199"G, (ho ri!htly stresses the connection et(een the i)a!e of the philosopher and that of Christ and re/ects the association (ith the e)peror. 6M *ee I. Ho!t, @1er Hor(urf der so0ialen ;iedri!keit des frRhen Christentu)s,@ Gymnasium $B F19J5G 6#1:11. 6J 8n the interpretation of the Carrand 1iptych see >. =onno(it0, @'he Pro!ra) of the Carrand: 1iptychon,@ Art" MM F19$6G 6$6:$$A =. I. *helton, @<o)an ,ristrocrats, Christian Co))issions: 'he Carrand 1iptych,@ HA- B9 F19$MG 1MM:$#A C. 9ahn, CCPurification, *acred ,ction, and the Hision of 2od,CC Wor# an# Image 5.1 F19$9G J1:$6. 6$ 8n the coe&istence of the earded and eardless i)a!es of Christ see 1eich)ann 19$", 169, 1M6A 1inkler 19$#, B$f.A *auer 19B6, "#"f. ,s has lon! een reco!ni0ed, (hen oth types appear on the sa)e )onu)ent, the youthful Christ is usually the active perfor)er of )iracles, (hile the earded Christ is )ore often the inspired teacher and, later, the la(!iver in )a/esty. -n the )osaics of *. ,pollinare ;uovo in <avenna, for e&a)ple, the type (ith eard, no( !ettin! even lon!er, first occurs in a scene of the Passion, (hile the Christ (ho /ourneys throu!h the land preachin! and (orkin! )iracles is still sho(n as youthful. -n a case like this, the eard see)s to characteri0e hi) at a )ore )ature a!e, that is, as a @realistic@ trait. -n this (ay the scenes su!!est a narrative of his life and thus correspond to the lives of the philosophers recorded y Philostratus and >unapius. 'his (ould accord (ell (ith the derivation of the youthful type fro) the icono!raphy of heroes for (hich - shall ar!ue. 69 *auer 19B6, "#"f. 5# 9. =unckel, !er rJmische Genius F9eidel er!, 19J6G. 51 8n the i)a!e of the earded Christ see especially *auer 19B6, "#":B9A $A- " F195JG Mff., s.v. Christus ild FI. =oll(it0G. 1eich)ann F19$", 1M1, (ith further referencesG ar!ues persuasively a!ainst 1inkler 19$#, "5ff., and B. =Qttin!, in $A- 1" F19$MG B#1, s.v. 9aar. 5B 4or the polychro)e pla?ues, <o)e, .useo ;a0ionale <o)ano inv. MJM#M/J, see $e'ertorium 19MJ, "B#ff., no. JJ"A 1. *tut0in!er, in S'Gtantike 19$", M#J, no. B##A <. *Qrries and U. +an!e, AntW 1J." F19$MG 1":BB. 8n the =arpokratians and the fi!ure of Christ see *auer 19B6, "#M. 5" *ee <. 7arland, !as "rust,il# -hristi: Stu#ien 9ur s'Gtantiken un# frIh,y9antinischen "il#geschichte F<o)e, 4rei ur!, and Hienna, 19$MG. 56 <elief sarcopha!us in *antC ,!nese fuori le )ura: 7ilpert -, 5J, pl. "M, 1A $e'ertorium 19MJ, "#", no. J"9, pl. 11MA 1inkler 19$#, "M, pl. B#, B9. 55 *o)e e&a)ples: the ceilin! fresco fro) **. .arcellino e Pietro Ffirst half of the fourth centuryGA I. 1eckers, !ie &atakom,e 6Santi Marcellino e Pietro,6 vol. 1 FHatican City, 19$1G no. ", foldin! pls. B:".

Cf. also 7ilpert 19#", pls. 156, 155, 1$1, 1$B . ,lso the diptych Berlin, *taatliche .useenA 7. 4. Hol ach, FrIhchristliche &unst F.unich, 195$G pl. BB6A S'Gtantike 19$", M9J, no. BJB. Cf. .. *oto)ayor, @Petrus und Paulus in der frRhchristlichen -kono!raphie,@ in S'Gtantike 19$", 199:B1#A 9. P. +C8ran!e, 1ikeness an# Icon F8dense, 19J"G "B:6B. 5M 4or the py&is Berlin, *taatliche .useen, *culpture inv. 5M", see Hol ach 19JM, 1#6, no. 1M1, pl. $B. 5J 8n the ele)ents dra(n fro) -)perial art for the icono!raphy of Christ see =oll(it0 19"M, 5Mff.A =Qt0sche 199B. 4or a different vie( see no( .athe(s 199". 'he )ost i)pressive e&a)ple fro) the city of <o)e )ay e found in the apse )osaic of *anta Pruden0ia Fca. ,.1. 6##G: 7ilpert and *chu)acher Fsupra n. 66G pls. 19:B". 4or the sarcopha!us of Iunius Bassus in the Hatican see 4. 2erke, !er Iunius "assus Sarko'hag FBerlin, 19"MGA $e'ertorium 19MJ, BJ9ff., no. M$#A ,)edick 1991, 1J#, no. "##, pl. 1". 5$ 9. 4orsyth and =. 7eit0)ann, The Monastery of Saint -atherine at Mount Sinai F,nn ,r or, 19J"G 1: 11ff., pls. 1#", 1"M:"JA >. =it0in!er, "y9antine Art in the Making F+ondon, 19JJG 99:1#1, fi!s. 1JJ: J9A Brenk 19JJ, pl. 1$5A I. >lsner, @'he Hie(er and the Hision,@ Art )istory 1J F1996G $1:1#B. 59 *ee P. Co&, "iogra'hy in 1ate Antiquity: A Cuest for the )oly Man FBerkeley, 19$"GA 4o(den 19$BA Bro(n 19$#A 2oulet 19$1. M# 8n the to) of the ,urelii in the Hia .an0oni see 2. Bendinelli, Mem1inc B$ F19BBG B$9:5B#A 2. 7ilpert, MemPontAcc ".1.B F19B6G, and cf. especially the detail vie(, pl. BBA 9i))el)ann 19J5, 1$, pl. 6. M1 2. *ha(, @'heur!y: <ituals of Unification in the ;eoplatonis) of -a) lichus,@ Tra#itio 61 F19$5G 1:B$A 2. 4o(den, The (gy'tian )ermes FCa) rid!e, 19$MG 1BM:61. MB 'he asic discussion of this issue is 4o(den 19$BA cf. Bro(n 19$# and Co& Fsupra n. 59G. M" 4or the *ocrates )osaic see <ichter -, $B, fi!. "15A 2. .. ,. 9anf)ann, )S-P M# F1951G B#5:"": I. C. Balty, ed., Actes #u -olloque A'amNe #e Syrie FBrussels, 19JBG pl. 5", 1A *)ith 199#, 151. Cf. the @*chool of the ,nato)ists@: ,. 4errua, 1a 'ittura #ella nuo/a catacom,a #i /ia 1atina F<o)e, 19M#G J#f., pls. 1#J, 1#B, fi!. 11A Balty, pl. 5", B. M6 ,thens, ,cropolis .useu) inv. 1"1"A 2. 1ontas, AM M9:J# F1956:55G 16Jff.A Ber!)ann 19JJ, 15J n. M"J Fdated in the ti)e of 'heodosiusGA ,. 4rant0, Agora, vol. BM, 1ate Antiquity, A.!. SKX7XAA FPrinceton, 19$$G 66, pl. 66c Fon the purported find spot, in the so:called 9ouse of ProclusG. -stan ul, ,rchaeolo!ical .useu) inv. B6M1A -nan:,lfQldi:<osen au) 19J9, B$B, no. BJ6, pl. B5BA ;. 4iratli, 1a scul'ture ,y9antine au MusNe ArchNologique Istan,ul FParis, 199#G 1$, no. "5, pl. 1M. 4or the ,phrodisias head see *)ith 199#, 166ff. 'he head <o)e, Capitoline .useu) .a!a0ine inv. "#BB (ill e pu lished for the first ti)e in the forthco)in! 4ittschen:Zanker --. ,)on! co)para le portraits of unkno(n provenance are the follo(in!: *tockhol), ;ational .useu) ;. *k 1"MA +C8ran!e 196J, 1##f., fi!s. J1:JBA 7inkes 19M9, B6JA 9eidel er!, ,rchVolo!isches -nstitutA 9Qlscher 19$B, B1"ff. ,dd, too, the recut usts in .ali u pu lished y I. <aeder, in Ancient Portraits in the H. Paul Getty Museum F.ali u, 19$JG 1: 5:1M. 'he re)oval of the ed!es of the ust could have resulted fro) reuse as a tondo. 8n the portrait type see +C8ran!e, 95ff.A *)ith, 166ff. M5 *)ith 199#. MM 2. Becatti, in Sca/i #i *stia F<o)e, 19M9G M: J$f., 1"9ff., pls. 55.B, 5MA Brenk 19JJ, pl. 6#A Age of S'irituality 19J9, "M"f., no. "6#A 5B"f., no. 6M$A <. .ei!!s, $oman *stia B F8&ford, 19J"G 5$$f. MJ 8n the ni) us see no( the thorou!h co)pilation of )aterial in ,. ,hl?uist, Tra#ition och rJrelse: .im,usikonografin in #en romerskantika och fornkristna konsten F9elsinki, 199#G, esp. "MJ: @-ts

pri)ary si!nificance can e connected (ith astral odies, its sy) olis) elon!s to the concepts of po(er and craft, to the divine craft that the ni) ated fi!ure possesses and (ith (hose help he acts, directly or as a representative.@ M$ 'here is, ho(ever, a close conver!ence in the facial e&pressions et(een Christian and pa!an, for e&a)ple, in the i)a!e of Iohn the Baptist on the throne of ,rch ishop .a&i)ian in <avenna. IohnCs role as prophet and @pathfinder@ is to so)e e&tent co)para le to that of the pa!an @holy )an.@ Cf. Hol ach Fsupra n. 55G pls. BBJff. M9 *ee the collection of )aterial in *)ith 199#, 151. Cf. ,lfQldi:<osen au) 19$B, (hich also deals (ith the contorniates. J# *)ith 199#, 15BA 9. von 9eint0e, $M J1 F19M6G JJ:1#", pls. 1M:BB Fon the portraits of Plato and *ocratesGA 7inkes 19M9. J1 Bonn, 4.I. 1Ql!er -nstituteA 9. von 9eint0e, HA- M F19M"G "5ff., pls. 1:5A <ichter --, B5#, no. JA <ichter *uppl., fi!. 1M9MaA *tVhli 1991, B6#. JB 'he head co)es fro) the Baths of *cholastica in >phesus: *elLuk .useu) inv. J65A ,. Ba))er, <. 4leischer, and 1. =ni e, FIhrer #urch #as ArchGologische Museum in SelQuk7('hesos FHienna, 19J6G M$A *. >rde)!il et al., ('hesus Museum -atalogue F-stan ul, 19$9G "6A *)ith 199#, 16#. - thank .aria ,urenha))er for the photo!raph reproduced here. J" *elLuk .useu) inv. J55 Falso fro) the Baths of *cholasticaGA <ichter --, B"", no. 6J, fi!. 1M"MA -nan:<osen au) 19MM, 16Mf., no. 1$J, pls. 1#1.B, 1#9A *)ith 199#, 15B. J6 <ichter --, BBJ, no. B, fi!s. 15B$:"#A 4ittschen 1991, B6$, no. BM. J5 *)ith 199#, 1"B, pls. M:JA Ber!e)ann 1991, 159ff., (hich !ives a history of the copies. JM +. - rahi), <. +. *cranton, and <. Brill, &enchreai: (astern Port of -orinth, vol. B, The Panels of *'us Sectile in Glass F+eiden, 19JMG BM$f.A 2. .. ,. 9anf)ann, in Age of S'irituality, Sym'osium, .e% Bork, ?TXX F;e( Tork, 19$#G J$. JJ <ichter --, fi!. 1"$B F,eschinesG, fi!. 16#9 F1e)osthenesGA 7inkes 19M9, esp. B"Jff.A @<o),@ no. 6"f. J$ *ee +. Paduano 4aedo, @+Cinversione del rapporto Poeta:.usa nella cultura ellenistica,@ AnnPisa ser. B, "9 F19J#G 1:1#. J9 -nv. 16#9A *chefold 196", 1"#A 7. 9. *chuchhardt, ('ochen #er griechischen Plastik FBaden: Baden, 1959G 11B, fi!. 91A 9el i! 6 --, no. 1JB1 F9. von *teu enG. $# 4or the diptych in .on0a Cathedral see *chefold 196", 1$6A Hol ach 19JM, 5J, no. M$, pl. "9. Cf. the si)ilar scene on an ivory pla?ue in Paris, Bi liothY?ue de lC,rsenal, (here t(o poets listen to >rato as she plays the kithara: Hol ach, 59, no. J1, pl. 61A Age of S'irituality 19J9, B5$, no. B61. $1 +ouvre *.2 6MA Hol ach 19JM, 5$, no. M9, pl. 6#A Age of S'irituality 19J9, B5$, no. B6B. $B <ossano, ,rchepiscopal +i rary Fdated to the si&th century and thou!ht to e of *yrian ori!inGA ,. .uno0, Il -o#ice #i $ossano, fasci)ile ed. F<o)e, 19#JGA =. 7eit0)ann, S'Gtantike un# frIhchristliche "uchmalerei F.unich, 19JJG "" F(ith !ood color illustrationG. $" *ee <. ,. .Rller, Geschichte #er >ni/ersitGt F.unich, 199#G. $6 8f the ne( pictorial types created in the third century B.C. , that of the individual reflectin! (as )ost often passed on. -n the i)a!ery of the evan!elists in ook illu)inations, a particularly popular type has the hand raised to the head in a conte)plative !esture that (e first sa( in the portraits of

>picurus and his circle. But the Christian i)a!e is open to the vie(er, the *criptures lyin! efore the evan!elist turned so that he can read alon!. -n this (ay the reflective !esture eco)es an ad)onition to the reader. 4or a !ood overvie( of this )aterial see ,. .. 4riend, Ir., @'he Portraits of the >van!elists in 2reek and +atin .anuscripts,@ in Art Stu#ies: Me#ie/al, $enaissance, an# Mo#ern FCa) rid!e, .ass., 19BJG 115:6J, (ith full illustrations. % "9J %

Sources of Illustrat%ons
Photo ,linari: fi!s. B$, 5"a, 1M#. ,)erican *chool of Classical *tudies, =enchreai >&cavations: fi!. JJ. Photo ,nderson: fi!s. J6, 9#, 9". ,rchVolo!isches -nstitut, 2Qttin!en: fi!s. 65, MB, J5 Fphotos *. >ckhardtG. ,ustrian ,rchaeolo!ical -nstitute, >phesos >&cavation: fi!. 1J6. I. Balty: fi!. 1M$. Photo +. Beyer F7ei)arG: fi!. B. I. 1eckers: fi!s. 159a, 159 , 1M". Photo 1espatin/2o ell: fi!. 1. Photo 2. 4ittschen:Badura: fi!s. 66 , 1#M, 11", 116, 11$, 1B1a, 1B9, 1"". 4orschun!sarchiv fRr rQ)ische Plastik FColo!neG: fi!s. B5, 61. 4ototeca Unione at the ,)erican ,cade)y in <o)e: fi!. M5. 2er)an ,rchaeolo!ical -nstitute F,thensG: fi!s. JJ, $B, 1##, 11M, 11J, 1"J, 1J1 Fphotos 2. 9ellnerG. 2er)an ,rchaeolo!ical -nstitute FBerlinG: fi!s. 1#1, 1#". 2er)an ,rchaeolo!ical -nstitute FCairoG: fi!, 91. 2er)an ,rchaeolo!ical -nstitute F-stan ulG: fi!s. "B, 1J# Fphotos P. *teyerG. 2er)an ,rchaeolo!ical -nstitute F<o)eG: fi!s. $, B1, "#, "M, "J, $#, $1, $", $6, 11#, 1"1, 16B, 16M55B, 1MB, 1M6. 9ir)er Photo ,rchive F.unichG: fi!s. BB, 15J, 1M1, 1M5. 2. =och: fi!. 165. =o))ission 0ur >rforschun! des antiken *tVdte(esens at the Bavarian ,cade)y of *ciences: fi!. 1#B Fphoto H. Brink)annG. Photo .ar ur!: fi!. B9. .Rn0ka inett Berlin F9. 1. *chult0G: fi!s. $M , $J. .Rn0ka inett der *tadt 7interthur F9.:.. von =VnelG: fi!s. $Ma, $Mc, $Md, $$a5c. % "9$ %

.useu) fRr , !Rsse =lassischer Bild(erke F.unichG, ,rchive: fi!s. 6, M, 15, "", J#, 9$. 1. Pander)alis: fi!s. 1B"5B5. <. <. <. *)ith: fi!s. 1M$, 1M9, 1JM. ,uthorCs photo archive: fi!s. 5B, $5 . The follo%ing are museum 'hotos kin#ly 'ro/i#e# ,y those museums name# in the ca'tions: fi!s. J, 9 Fphoto =auf)annG, 1#, 11, 1B Fphoto I. *elsin!G, 1", 16, 1M, 1$, B6 Fphoto 9. =opper)annG, BJ, "$ Fphoto 9. =opper)annG, 6", 66a, 66c, 66d, 6J, 6$, 5#, M", MM, J1, JBa, JB , J$, J9, $9, 95, 9M Fphoto C. =opper)annG, 9J, 99, 1#6, 1#5, 1#J, 1#$, 115, 119, 1B#, 1B1:BB Fsee p."MB n."5G, 1BJ, 1"B, 1"6, 1"5, 166, 156 Fphoto 1. 7id)erG, 155, 15$, 1J" Fphoto C. =opper)annG, 1J$. Photos of casts %ere 'ro/i#e# ,y: .useu) fRr , !Rsse =lassischer Bild(erke F.unichG, photos of casts in the )useu)Cs collection, y 9. 2lQckler unless other(ise indicated: fi!s. 5, 1J, BM, "5, "9a, "9 , 6#, 6M Fphoto C. =opper)annG, 5"a, 5" , 56 Freconstruction y *. BertolinG, 55, 5J, M9 Fphoto C. =opper)annG, 96. The follo%ing are re'ro#uce# from the sources in#icate#: fi!. ": Ma2 &linger, e&h. cat. F9ildeshei), 19$6G M. fi!. 19: *chefold 196", fi!. J9. fi!. B#: Ansigter, ;y Carls er! 2lyptotek FCopenha!en, 19$9G fi!. 5M. fi!. BB: P. <. 4ranke and .. 9ir)er, !ie griechische MIn9e F.unich, 19M6G pl. 15. fi!. B": 4. 7inter and >. Pernice, )ellenistische &unst in Pom'eDi, vol. 5 FBerlin, 19"BG, p. 69. fi!s. "1, "6: 1iepolder 19"1, pls. B" and 65.B. fi!. 69: >. <osen au), A -atalogue of -yrenaican Portrait Scul'ture F+ondon, 19M#G pl. J.1. fi!. 51: (nc. Photogr. #e l Art --, '>+ Paris, +ouvre FParis, 19"MG 1$Ma. fi!. M#: <ichter --, fi!. 11B1. fi!. J": ,Br M19. fi!. $5a: Antike Plastik 6 F19M5G, pl. B$. fi!. 9B: 3illa Al,ani -, pl. BJ#. fi!. 1#9: 4. Baratte, 1e trNsor # orfV/rerie romaine #e "oscoreale FParis, 19$MG M5. fi!. 11B: AHA 6M F196BG pl. 11. % "99 % fi!. 1BM: <ichter ---, fi!. B#"". fi!. 1B$: ,Br 6"$.

fi!. 1"#: ,Br 66#. fi!. 1"1: <. Bianchi:Bandinelli, $om: 5entrum #er Macht F.unich, 19J#G fi!. "1$. fi!. 1"M: <ichter ---, fi!. B#"J. fi!. 1"$: Baratte:.et0!er 19$5, "#. fi!. 16#: Blanck 199B, J#. fi!. 161: >. <osen au), A -atalogue of -yrenaican Portrait Scul'ture F+ondon, 19M#G pl. 65.1. fi!. 16": <. 1el rRck, Antike PortrGts FBonn, 191BG pl. 16. fi!s. 15"a5d: 7e!ner 19MM, nos. "1, J9, $1, 1BJ. fi!. 15M: ,)edick 1991, pl. "9.1. fi!. 1MM: 9. 4orsyth and =. 7eit0)ann, The Monastery of Saint -atherine at Mount Sinai F,nn ,r or, 19J"G 1: pl. 1#". fi!. 1JB: *stia H- F<o)e, 19M9G, pl. 5M. fi!. 1J5: reproduced fro) a photo at the 7ar ur! -nstitute, +ondon. fi!. 1JJ: =. 7eit0)ann, S'Gtantike un# frIhchristliche "uchmalerei F.unich, 19JJG "". % 6#1 %

8%3l%o$ra.h'
,Br ,rndt, P., and 4. Bruck)ann, eds. 1$995196B. Griechische un# rJmische PortrGts. .unich. Age of S'irituality 19J9 Age of S'irituality. 19J9. >dited y =. 7eit0)ann. >&hi ition catalo!ue, .etropolitan .useu) of ,rt, 19JJ5J$. ;e( Tork. ,lfQldi:<osen au) 19$B ,lfQldi:<osen au), >. 19$B, @,ni)ae *anctiores: PortrVt:2alerien erRh)ter 2riechen und <Q)er aus de) spVten vierten Iahrhundert n. Chr.@ -n Pro Arte Antiqua, Festschrift ). &enner, 1: 11:BB. Hienna. ,)edick 1991 ,)edick, <. 1991. !ie Sarko'hage mit !arstellungen aus #em Menschenle,en. Hol. 6, 3ita 'ri/ata . ,*< 1.6. Berlin. ,ndreae 19$# ,ndreae, B. 19$#. @,ntisthenes philosophos Phyro)achos epoiei.@ -n (ikones, Festschrift ). Hucker , 6#56$. ,nt=:B9 1B. Bern. Balty 19J$ Balty, I. C. 19J$. @Une nouvelle rKpli?ue du 1K)osthYnes de Polyeuctos.@ "Mus"ru2 5#: 69ff Baratte:.et0!er 19$5 Baratte, 4., and C. .et0!er. 19$5. MusNe #u 1ou/re, -atalogue #es sarco'hages en 'ierre # N'oques romaine et 'alNochrNtienne. Paris.

Bardon 19J1 Bardon, 9. 19J1. @+a notion dCintellectuel [ <o)e.@ St-las 1": 9551#M. Bayer 19$" Bayer, >. 19$". @4ischer ilder in der hellenistischen Plastik.@ 1iss., Bonn. Ber!e)ann 1991 Ber!e)ann, I. 1991. @Pindar: 1as Bildnis eines konservativen 1ichters.@ AM 1#M: 15J5$9. % 6#B % Ber!er:1oer 199# Ber!er:1oer, 2. 199#. @4ischer:9irten:*arkopha! fRr ein >hepaar.@ -n Antike &unst%erke aus #er Sammlung 1u#%ig, ed. >. Ber!er, ": 61J5"M, no. B5M. Basel. Ber!)ann 19JJ Ber!)ann, .. 19JJ. Stu#ien 9um rJmischen PortrGt #es @. Hahrhun#erts n. -hr. Bonn. Ber!)ann 19J$ Ber!)ann, .. 19J$. Marc Aurel. +ie ie!haus .ono!raphie B. 4rankfurt. Bie er 19M1 Bie er, .. 19M1. The Scul'ture of the )ellenistic Age. ;e( Tork. Bieler -5-Bieler, +. 19"5, 19"M. Theios Aner. Hols. 15B. Hienna. "ille#ta/ler .y -arls,erg Gly'totek, "ille#ta/ler til &atalog et o/er antike kunst/aerker. 19#J. Copenha!en. Birt 19#J Birt, 'h. 19#J. !ie "uchrolle in #er &unst: ArchGologisch7antiquarische >ntersuchungen 9um antiken "uch%esen. +eip0i!. Blanck 199B Blanck, 9. 199B. !as "uch in #er Antike. .unich. Boehrin!er 19"5 Boehrin!er, <. 19"5. Platon: "il#nisse un# .ach%eise. Breslau. Boehrin!er:Boehrin!er 19"9 Boehrin!er, <., and >. Boehrin!er. 19"9. )omer: "il#nisse un# .ach%eise. Breslau. Bor ein 19J" Bor ein, ,. 9. 19J". @1ie !riechische *tatue des 6. Iahrhunderts v. Chr.: 4or)analytische Untersuchun!en 0ur =unst der ;achklassik.@ H#I $$: 6"5B1B. Bo(ersock 19M9 Bo(ersock, 2. 7. 19M9. Greek So'hists in the $oman (m'ire. 8&ford. Bo(ie 19J# Bo(ie, >. +. 19J#. @2reeks and 'heir Past in the *econd *ophistic.@ PastPres 6M: 55M. <eprinted in Stu#ies in Ancient Society, ed. .. -. 4inley F+ondon, 19J6G 1M9. Braun 19MM Braun, =. 19MM. >ntersuchung 9ur Stilgeschichte ,Grtiger &J'fe auf attischen Gra,reliefs un# Folgerungen fIr einige "il#niskJ'fe. .unich.

Brenk 19JJ Brenk, B., ed. 19JJ. S'Gtantike un# frIhes -hristentum. PropylVen =unst!eschichte *uppl. 1. 4rankfurt and Berlin. % 6#" % Bro))er 19J" Bro))er, 4. 19J". @Zu den Bildnissen der *ie en 7eisen.@ AA, MM"5J#. Bro(n 19J1 Bro(n, P. 19J1. @'he <ise and 4unction of the 9oly .an in +ate ,nti?uity.@ H$S M1: $#51#1. Bro(n 19$# Bro(n, P. 19$#. The Philoso'her an# Society in 1ate Antiquity. Protocol of the Collo?uy of the Center of 9er)eneutical *tudies in 9ellenistic and .odern Culture. Berkeley. Buschor 19J1 Buschor, >. 19J1. !as hellenistische "il#nis. Bd ed. .unich. Cai00i 199" Cai00i, 4. 1. 199". @'he Porch and the 2arden.@ -n Images an# I#eologies 199", "#"5B9. Colpe 199B Colpe, C., +. 9onnefelder, and .. +ut0:Bach)ann, eds. 199B. S'Gtantike un# -hristentum: "eitrGge 9ur $eligions7un# Geistesgeschichte #er griechisch7rJmischen &ultur un# 5i/ilisation #er &aiser9eit. Berlin. Con0e -5-H Con0e, ,. 1$9"519BB. !ie attischen Gra,reliefs. Hols. 156. Berlin. Cu)ont 196B Cu)ont, 4. 196B. $echerches sur le sym,olisme funNraire #es romains. Paris. 1eich)ann 19$" 1eich)ann, 4. 7. 19$". (infIhrung in #ie christliche ArchGologie. 1ar)stadt. 1iepolder 19"1 1iepolder, 9. 19"1. !ie attischen Gra,reliefs #es W. un# L. Hh. /. -hr. Berlin. 1inkler 19$# 1inkler, >. 19$#. @Christus und ,sklepios.@ S")ei#: B. 1ontas 19M# 1ontas, 2. 19M#. (ikones kathemenon 'neumatikon anthro'on eis ten archaian elleniken technen. ,thens. 1ontas 19J1 1ontas, 2. 19J1. @>ikonistika BC.@ Arch!elt BM,: 1M5"". >(ald 199" >(ald, B. Chr. 19"". @CPhilosophenCauf rQ)ischen *arkopha!en.@ .asterCs thesis, .unich. 4a ricius 199B 4a ricius, I. 199B. @1ie hellenistischen 'oten)ahlreliefs: BRr!erliche *el stdarstellun! auf 2ra reliefs ost!riechischer *tVdte.@ 1iss., .unich.

% 6#6 % 4ehr 19J9 4ehr, B. 19J9. "e%egungs%eisen un# 3erhaltensi#eale: Physiognomische !eutungsmJglichkeiten #er "e%egungs#arstellung an griechischen Statuen #es W. un# L. Hhs. /. -hr. Bad Bra)stedt. 4ittschen 19JB 4ittschen, =. 19JB. <evie( of 7e!ner 19MM. Gnomon 66: 6$M55#6. 4ittschen 19$J 4ittschen, =. 19$J. @1ie Bildnisstatue des 1ichters .enander: 1oku)entation der _ erlieferun! und <ekonstruktion.@ -n SWA Hahre Georg7August7>ni/ersitGt GJttingen, Ausstellung im Au#itorium, 16$ff. >&hi ition catalo!ue. 2Qttin!en. 4ittschen 19$$ 4ittschen, =. 19$$. Griechische PortrGts. 1ar)stadt. 4ittschen 1991 4ittschen, =. 1991. @1ie *tatue des .enander.@ AM 1#M: B6"5J9. 4ittschen 199Ba 4ittschen, =. 199Ba. @_ er das <ekonstruieren !riechischer PortrVtstatuen.@ -n Ancient Portraiture: Image an# Message, ed. '. 4ischer:9ansen et al., 95B$. ,cta9yp 6. Copenha!en. 4ittschen 199B 4ittschen, =. 199B . @Zur <ekonstruktion !riechischer 1ichterstatuen B. 'eil: 1ie *tatuen des Poseidippos und des Ps.:.enander.@ AM 1#J: BB95J1. 4ittschen:Zanker -5--4ittschen, =., and P. Zanker. 19$5, forthco)in!A 19$". &atalog #er rJmischen PortrGts in #en -a'itolinischen Museen un# #en an#eren kommunalen Sammlungen #er Sta#t $om. Hols. 15". .ain0. 4o(den 19$B 4o(den, 2. 19$B. @'he Pa!an 9oly .an in +ate ,nti?ue *ociety.@ H)S 1#B: ""559. 4raser 19JB 4raser, P. .. 19JB. Ptolemaic Ale2an#ria. 8&ford. 4riedlVnder -5-H 4riedlVnder, +. 19BB. !arstellungen aus #er Sittengeschichte $oms in #er 5eit /on August ,is 9um Ausgang #er Antonine. Hols. 156. 1#th ed. +eip0i!. 4rischer 19$B 4rischer, B. 19$B. The Scul'te# Wor#: ('icureanism an# Philoso'hical $ecruitment in Ancient Greece. Berkeley. FrIhchristliche Sarko'hage 19MM FrIhchristliche Sarko'hage in "il# un# Wort. 19MM. >dited y 4. 7. 1eich)ann and 'h. =lauser, ,nt=:B9 ". Bern. % 6#5 % 2auer 19M$ 2auer, 7. 19M$. @1ie !riechischen Bildnisse der klassischen Zeit als politische und persQnliche 1enk)Vler.@ H#I $": 11$5J9.

2erke 196# 2erke, 4. 196#. !ie christlichen Sarko'hage #er /orkonstantinischen 5eit. Berlin. 2iuliani 19$# 2iuliani, +. 19$#. @-ndividuu) und -deal: ,ntike Bildniskunst.@ -n "il#er /om Menschen in #er &unst #es A,en#lan#es, 61ff. >&hi ition catalo!ue. Berlin. 2iuliani 19$M 2iuliani, +. 19$M. "il#nis un# "otschaft: )ermeneutische >ntersuchungen 9ur "il#niskunst #er rJmischen $e'u,lik. 4rankfurt. 2oette 19$9 2oette, 9. <. 19$9. Stu#ien 9u rJmischen Toga#arstellungen. .ain0. 2oulet 19$1 2oulet, <. 19$1. @+es vies des philosophes dans lCanti?uitK tardive et lent portKe )ystKri?ue.@ -n 1es actes a'ocry'hes #es a'Ztres: -hristianisme et mon#e 'a[en, 1M15B#J. 2eneva. Greek $enaissance 19$9 The Greek $enaissance in the $oman (m'ire. 19$9. >dited y *. 7alker and ,. Ca)eron. Papers fro) the 'enth British .useu) Classical Collo?uiu). +ondon. 2riffin 19$9 2riffin, .., ed. 19$9. Philoso'hia togata. 8&ford. 9a icht 19$$ 9a icht, C. 19$$. @9ellenistic ,thens and 9er Philosophers.@ 1avid .a!ie +ecture, Princeton University. 9adot 19$1 9adot, P. 19$1. (2ercices s'irituals et 'hiloso'hie antique. Paris. 9afner 1956 9afner, 2. 1956. S'Gthellenistische "il#nis'lastik: 3ersuch einer lan#schaftlichen Glie#erung. Berlin. 9ahn 19$9 9ahn, I. 19$9. !er Philoso'h un# #ie Gesellschaft: Sel,st/erstGn#nis, Jffentliches Auftreten un# 'o'ulGre (r%artungen in #er hohen &aiser9eit. *tutt!art. 9aus)ann 19$# 9aus)ann, U. 19$#. @Zu) Bildnis des 1ichters 'heokrit.@ -n Stele: Ge#enkschrift .. &ontoleon, 5115 B6. ,thens. von 9eint0e 19M1 von 9eint0e, 9. 19M1. @Zu Poseidippos und C.enanderC i) Hatikan.@ $M M$: $#59B. % 6#M % von 9eint0e 19JJa von 9eint0e, 9. 19JJa. @1ie erhaltenen 1arstellun!en der sie en 7eisen.@ Gymnasium $6: 6"Jff. von 9eint0e 19JJ von 9eint0e, 9. 19JJ . @Zu den Bildnissen der sie en 7eisen.@ -n Festschrift F. "rommer, 1M"5J". .ain0.

9ekler 191B 9ekler, ,. 191B. !ie "il#niskunst #er Griechen un# $Jmer. *tutt!art. 9ekler 196# 9ekler, ,. 196#. "il#nisse ,erIhmter Griechen. 19MB. "d ed., revised y 9. von 9eint0e. .ain0. 9el i!6 -5-H 9el i!, 7. 19M"5JB. FIhrer #urch #ie Jffentlichen Sammlungen klassischer AltertImer in $om. Hols. 156. 6th ed. 'R in!en. 9i))el)ann 19MB 9i))el)ann, ;. 19MB. @*arkopha! eines !allienischen =onsuls.@ -n Festschrift F. Mat9, 11#5B6. .ain0. 9i))el)ann 19J5 9i))el)ann, ;. 19J5. !as )y'ogGum #er Aurelier am 3iale Man9oni: Ikonogra'hische "eo,achtungen. , h.ain0 J. .ain0. 9i))el)ann 19$# 9i))el)ann, ;. 19$#A _ er 9irten:2enre in der antiken =unst. 8pladen. 9Qlscher 19J5 9Qlscher, '. @1ie ,ufstellun! des Perikles:Bildnisses und ihre Bedeutun!.@ WIr9H,, ;.4. 1: 1$J599. 9Qlscher 19$B 9Qlscher, '. 19$B. @>in 7eiser in 9eidel er!: Zu) HerhVltnis von typisierender und individueller 1arstellun!s(eise in rQ)ischen Bildnissen.@ -n $Jmisches PortrGt 19$B, B1"515. von den 9off 1996 von den 9off, <. 1996. Philoso'hen'ortrGts #es FrIh7 un# )ochhellenismus. .unich. Images an# I#eologies 199" Images an# I#eologies: Self7!efinition in the )ellenistic Worl#. 199". >dited y ,. Bulloch et al. Berkeley. -nan:,lfQldi:<osen au) 19J9 -nan, I., and >. ,lfQldi:<osen au). 19J9. $Jmische un# frIh,y9antinische PortrGt'lastik aus #er TIrkei: .eue Fun#e. .ain0. -nan:<osen au) 19MM -nan, I., and >. <osen au). 19MM. $oman an# (arly "y9antine Portrait Scul'ture in Asia Minor. +ondon. Iohansen 199B Iohansen, 4. 199B. Greek Portraits. Catalo!ue, ;y Carls er! 2lypotek. Copenha!en. % 6#J % Iones 19$M Iones, C. P. 19$M. -ulture an# Society in 1ucian. Ca) rid!e, .ass. Iucker 19M$ Iucker, 9. 19M$. @Zur Bildnisher)e des Par)enides.@ Mus)el/ B5: 1$1ff. =och 199" =och, 2., ed. 199". Gra,eskunst #er rJmischen &aiser9eit. .ain0.

=och:*ichter)ann 19$B =och, 2., and 9. *ichter)ann. 19$B. $Jmische Sarko'hage. .unich. =Qt0sche 199B =Qt0sche, +. 199B. @1as herrscherliche Christus ild.@ -n Colpe 199B, pp. 9951B". Berlin. =oll(it0 19"M =oll(it0, I. 19"M. @Christus als +ehrer und die 2eset0esR er!a e an Petrus in der konstantinischen =unst <o)s.@ $JmCSchr 66:655MM. =ruse:Berdoldt 19J5 =ruse:Berdoldt, H. 19J5. @=opienkritische Untersuchun!en 0u den PortrVts des >pikur, .etrodor und 9er)arch.@ 1iss., 2Qttin!en. +au scher 19$B +au scher, 9. P. 19$B. Fischer un# 1an#leute: Stu#ien 9ur hellenistischen Genre'lastik. .ain0. +auer:Picard 1955 +auer, I.:Ph., and Ch. Picard. -955. 1es statues 'tolNma[ques #u Sara'ieion #e Mem'his. Paris. <evie(ed y 4. .at0, Gnomon B9 F195JG $6ff. +auren0i 1961 +auren0i, +. 1961. $itratti greci. 4lorence. <eprinted, (ith i lio!raphy, 19M9. +efko(it0 19$1 +efko(it0, .. <. 19$1. The 1i/es of the Greek Poets. +ondon. +ippold 191B +ippold, 2. 191B. Griechische PortrGtstatuen. .unich. +on! 19$M +on!, ,. ,. 19$M. )ellenistic Philoso'hy. Bd ed. Berkeley. +on!:*edley 19$J +on!, ,. ,., and 1. ;. *edley, 19$J. The )ellenistic Philoso'hers. Hols. 15B. Ca) rid!e. +C8ran!e 196J +C8ran!e, 9. P. 196J. A'otheosis in Ancient Portraiture. 8slo. +oren0 19M5 +oren0, 'h. 19M5. Galerien /on griechischen Philoso'henun# !ichter,il#nissen ,ei #en $Jmern. .ain0. % 6#$ % +oren0 19JJ +oren0, 'h. 19JJ. @1as Bildnis des *okrates.@ -n Pers'ekti/en #er Philoso'hie, .eues Hahr,uch, B55ff. .arrou 19"$ .arrou, 9.:-. 19"$. Mousikos Auer: \tu#e sur les scVnes #e la /ie intellectuelle figurant sur les monuments funNraires romains. 2reno le. .arrou 195M .arrou, 9.:-. 195M. A )istory of (#ucation in Antiquity. ;e( Tork. 4rench ori!inal: )istoire #e l N#ucation #ans l antiquitN FParis, 196$G. .athe(s 199"

.athe(s, '. 4. 199". The -lash of Go#s: A $einter'retation of (arly -hristian Art. Princeton. .et0ler 19J1 .et0ler, 1. 19J1. PortrGt un# Gesellschaft: R,er #ie (ntstehung #es griechischen PortrGts in #er &lassik. .Rnster. <evie(ed y +. *chneider, Gnomon 6M F19J6G "9Jff., and y 1. Pander)alis, "H, 1J" F19J"G 5"1f. 9. .eyer 1991 .eyer, 9. 1991. Antinoos. .unich. .. .eyer 19$9 .eyer, .. 19$9. @,lte .Vnner auf attischen 2ra stelen.@ AM 1#6: 695$B. .ichalo(ski 19"B .ichalo(ski, C. 19"B. 1es 'ortraits hellNnistiques et romains. Hol. 1" of 1Klos. Paris. .inakaran:9ies!en 19J# .inakaran:9ies!en, >. 19J#. @Untersuchun!en 0u den PortrVts des Penophon und des -sokrates.@ H#I $5: 11B55J. .itchel 19J# .itchel, 4. 7. 19J#. @+ycour!an ,thens, ""$5"BB B.C. @ +ectures in .e)ory of +ouise 'aft *a)ple, University of Cincinnati. ;eudecker 19$$ ;eudecker, <. 19$$. !ie Skul'turenausstattung rJmischer 3illen in Italien. .ain0. Pander)alis 19J1 Pander)alis, 1. 19J1. @Zu) Pro!ra)) der *tatuenausstattun! in der Hilla dei Papiri.@ AM $M: 1J"5 B#9. Pfuhl 19BJ Pfuhl, >. 19BJ. !ie AnfGnge #er griechischen "il#niskunst: (in "eitrag 9ur Geschichte #er In#i/i#ualitGt. Bd ed. .unich. <eprinted in 4ittschen 19$$, BB655B. Pfuhl:.Q ius -5-Pfuhl, >., and .Q ius, 9. 19JJ, 19J9. !ie ostgriechischen Gra,reliefs. Hols. 15B. .ain0. % 6#9 % 4. Poulsen 19"1 Poulsen, 4. 19"1. @-cono!raphic *tudies in the ;y Carls er! 2lyptotek. -n From the -ollections of the .y -arls,erg Gly'totek, 1: 1595. Copenha!en. H. Poulsen 1956 Poulsen, H. 1956. 1es 'ortraits grecs. Copenha!en. H. Poulsen -5-Poulsen, H. 19MB, 19J6. 1es 'ortraits romains. Hols. 15B. Copenha!en. $e'ertorium 19MJ $e'ertorium #er christlichantiken Sarko'hage. 19MJ. Hol. 1, $om un# *stia. >dited y 4. 7. 1eich)ann and revised y 2. Bovini and 9. Branden ur!. 7ies aden. <ichter 19MB <ichter, 2. .. ,. 19MB. @9o( 7ere the <o)an Copies of 2reek Portraits .adeN@ $M M9: 5B55$.

<ichter -5---, *uppl. <ichter, 2. .. ,. 19M5, 19JB. The Portraits of the Greeks. Hols. 15" and *upple)ent. +ondon. <ichter 19M5 <ichter, 2. .. ,. 19M5. @'he 8ri!in of the Bust 4or) for Portraits.@ -n Festschrift A. *rlan#os, 1: 595 MB. <ichter:*)ith 19$6 <ichter, 2. .. ,., and <. <. <. *)ith. 19$6. The Portraits of the Greeks. -thaca, ;.T. $Jmisches PortrGt 19$B $Jmisches PortrGt: Wege 9ur (rforschung eines gesellschaftlichen Phinomens. 19$B. 7issenschaftliche =onferen0, 1B.515. .ai 19$1, 7issZBerl B5". Berlin. *assi 19$$ *assi, .. .. 19$$. 1a scien9a #ell uomo nella Grecia antica. 'urin. *auer 19B6 *auer, I. 19B6. @1as ,ufko))en des Vrti!en Christustypus in der frRhchristlichen =unst.@ -n Strena "uliciana, "#"5B9. Za!re . *chefold 196" *chefold, =. 196". !ie "il#nisse #er antiken !ichter, $e#ner un# !enker. Basel. *chefold 19M5 *chefold, =. 19M5. Griechische !ichter,il#nisse. Zurich. *chefold 19$# *chefold, =. 19$#. @,riston von Chios.@ -n (ikones, Festschrift ). Hucker, 1M#5MJ. ,nt=:B9 1B. Bern. *chefold 19$B *chefold, =. 19$B. @1ie _ erlieferun! der !riechischen Bildniskunst.@ -n Praestant Interna, Festschrift >. )ausmann, J959#. 'R in!en. % 61# % *chei ler 19$9 *chei ler, -. 19$9. @Zu) Vltesten Bildnis des *okrates.@ MIH, "d ser., 6#: J5"". *chu)acher 19JJ *chu)acher, 7. ;. 19JJ. )irt un# 6Guter )irt6: Stu#ien 9um )irten,il# in #er rJmischen &unst /om S. ,is 9um Anfang #es L. Hh. unter ,eson#erer "erIcksichtigung #er Mosaiken in #er SI#halle /oti AquileDa. <Q)U*chr *uppl. "6. <o)e and 4rei ur!. *ettis 19JB *ettis, *. 19JB. @*evero ,lessandro e i suoi lari F*.9.,., *.,. B9, B5"G.@ Athenaeum 5#: B"J551. *i)on 19JM *i)on, >. 19JM. !ie griechischen 3asen. .unich. *ittl 19$# *ittl, C. 19$#. !ie Ge,Gr#en #er Griechen un# $Jmer. +eip0i!. *)ith 199# *)ith, <. <. <. 199#. @+ate <o)an Philosopher Portraits fro) ,phrodisias.@ H$S $#: 1BJ555. *)ith 199"

*)ith, <. <. <. 199". @=in!s and Philosophers.@ -n Images an# I#eologies 199", B#B511. Sokrates 19$9 Sokrates in #er griechischen "il#niskunst. 19$9. >&hi ition catalo!ue, 2lyptothek .Rnchen. .unich. S'Gtantike 19$" S'Gtantike un# frIhes -hristentum. 19$". >&hi ition catalo!ue, +ie ie!haus 4rankfurt. 4rankfurt. *tVhli 1991 *tVhli, ,. 1991. @1ie 1atierun! des =arneades:Bildnisses.@ AA, B1955B. *te))er 19$$ *te))er, =., ed. 19$$. &aiser Marc Aurel un# seine 5eit. >&hi ition catalo!ue, , !uWsa))lun!. Berlin. *te(art 19J9 *te(art, ,. 19J9. Attika: Stu#ies in Athenian Scul'ture of the )ellenistic Age. +ondon. *trocka 199" *trocka, H. .. 199". @Po)pe/i H- 1J,61: >in 9aus )it Privat i liothek. @ $M 1##: "B1551. *tudnic0ka 191$ *tudnic0ka, 4. 191$. @1as Bildnis .enanders.@ .eue Hahr,Icher fIr #as klassische Altertum, Geschichte un# #eutsche 1iteratur B1: 15"1. <eprinted in 4ittschen 19$$, 1$5ff. 'heophilidou 19$6 'heophilidou, >. 19$6. @1ie .usen)osaiken:der rQ)ischen =aiser0eit. @ Tr5 6J: B6"5"6$. % 611 % 'hiele)ann:7rede 19$9 'hiele)ann, ,., and 9. 7rede. 19$9. @Bildnisstatuen stoischer Philosophen.@ AM 1#6: 1#9555. 3illa Al,ani -5--Forschungen 9iir 3illa Al,ani: &atalog #er antiken "il#%erke. 19$$59B. Hols. 15". >dited y P. C. Bol. Berlin. Hol ach 19JM Hol ach, 7. 4. 19JM. (lfen,einar,eiten #er S'Gtantike un# #es frIhen Mittelalters. "d ed. .ain0. Houtiras 19$# Houtiras, >. 19$#. @*tudien 0u -nterpretation und *til !riechischer PortrVts des 5. und frRhen 6. Iahrhunderts v. Chr.@ 1iss., Bonn. 7e!ner 19MM 7e!ner, .. 19MM. !ie Musensarko'hage. ,*< 5.". Berlin. 7eiher 191" 7eiher, ,. 191". @Philosophen und Philosophenspott in der attischen =o)Qdie.@ 1iss., .unich. 7ie!art0 19M5 7ie!art0, 9. 19M5. &leinasiatische SGulensarko'hage. Berlin. 7ilpert -5--7ilpert, 2. 19B95"M. I sarcofagi cristiani antichi. Hols. 15". <o)e. 7ilpert 19#"

7ilpert, I. 19#". !ie Malereien #er &atakom,en $oms. 4rei ur!. 7inkes 19M9 7inkes, <. 19M9. -li'eata imago: Stu#ien 9u einer rJmischen "il#nisform. Bonn. 7rede 19$1 7rede, 9. 19$1. -onsecratio in formam #eorum: 3ergJttlichte Pri/at'ersonen in #er rJmischen &aiser9eit. .ain0. 7rede 19$B 7rede, 9. 19$B @Bildnisse epikurVXscher Philosophen.@ AM 9J: B"5565. 7rede 19$5 7rede, 9. 19$5. !ie antike )erme. .ain0. Zanker 19$B Zanker, P. 19$B. @9errscher ild und Zeit!esicht.@ -n $Jmisches PortrGt 19$B, "#J51B. Zanker 19$$ Zanker, P. 19$$. The Po%er ofimages in the Age of Augustus. 'ranslated y ,. *hapiro. ,nn ,r or. Zanker 199" Zanker, P. 199". @'he 9ellenistic 2rave *telai fro) *)yrna: -dentity and *elf:-)a!e in the Polis.@ -n Images an# I#eologies 199", B1B5"#. % 61B % Zinserlin! 19M9 Zinserlin!, H. 19M9. @<ealistische Bildniskunst der 2riechen: ,nfVn!e und frRhe >nt(icklun!.@ Wiss5Hena 1$: 1$Jff. Z(ierlein:1iehl 19$M Z(ierlein:1iehl, >. 19$M. Glas'asten im Martin /on Wagner Museum #er >ni/ersitGt WIr9,urg. Hol. 1. .unich. % 61" %

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,eschines, 65 :69, 6M Ffi!. BMG, 5M , J$ , $5 :$9, BB1 , B6" , "B6 , "BJ ,eschylus, 6" , 5# :5B, 51 Ffi!. B$G, 5M :5J, BB1 , """ (umeni#es , B# ,esop, "" , "" Ffi!. 19G Ai#os , 69 ,lcaeus, B5 :BM, BM Ffi!. 16G, 169 ,lci iades, "6 , 1#$ , 15$ , "1" , "B6 ,lciphron, 11# :11, BMB ,le&ander of *eleucia, B6" ,le&ander the 2reat, M$ , JJ , $# , 1#$ , 1"J , 1JM , B6$ , B99 , "1" , "B6 , ""6 ,le&os, 51 , 5B Ffi!. B9G ,nacreon, BB :"1, B" Ffi!. 1BG, BJ :B9Ffi!s. 1M:1JG, M" , J1 , 16M :6J, """ , "6J n6$ ,na&a!oras, 1M" Ffi!. $McG, 1M6 ,na&ilaos, 19 ,na&i)ander, 155 , 15M Ffi!. $6G ,nti!onus 2onatas, 9" , 95 ,ntinoos, B6$ ,ntisthenes, 1#J , 1J" :J6, 1J5 Ffi!. 9"G, 1JM , 1J9 , BB1 , B"M , B"J Ffi!. 1B$G, B"$ , B"9 Ffi!. 1"#G ,ntonine period, BB$ , B"B , B6" , BMB , BM$ , BJ# , BJ6 , "JJ n6, "9# n"$ ,ntoninus Pius, BBB Ffi!. 11$G ,ntonius Claudius 1o)etinus 1io!enes, +., B66 , B65 Ffi!. 1"5G ,pollo, 1$ , 159 , 1MB , B99 , "#9 ,pollonius of <hodes, Argonautica , "B$ ,pollonius of 'yana, B6" , BM# , BMB , BM5 , B9J , "#$ , "1" :16, "B6 , "$5 n$B ,postles, B9# , B9" , B9M :9J, "#6 A: "#J , "15 , "B5 ,puleius, B"" :"5, B"9 :6B, BJ" :J6, ""6 ,rchelaos of Priene, <elief, 159 :M#, 1M# :M1Ffi!s. $5a: G, 1M5 :MM, 1J# , 1JB ,rchida)us, M" ,rchilochus, 16J , 1MB , 1M" Ffi!. $MaG, 1J" ,ri!notus, BMB ,ristokles, B"5 ,ristokreon, 9$ ,ristophanes, 5M , MJ -lou#s , "B :"6

,ristotle, J# :J1, J1 Ffi!. 61G, J6 :J5, "#1 , "1" , ""$ ,rkesilaos, 1BJ ,rrian, BB1 ,rte)on of Cassandreia, 196 ,sceticis), ascetics, B"$ , B6# :6", B6J :6$, B5M , B5$ , BMM , BJ" :J6, B$# , B$B :$", "#1 , "11 , "B5 , ""6 ,sklepiodotus, "1" ,sklepios, 19 , "## , "1# :11, "M6 nB$ ,thena, B56 ,thena +e)nia, BB ,thenaeus, 5M !ei'noso'histai , B51 ,thenodorus, B5$ ,tticus, B#5 ,u!ustus, B1B

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Beethoven, M , J Ffi!. "G, ""$ Ben/a)in, 7alter, """ Ber!e)ann, Iohannes, B$ Bias of Priene, 1MB , 1M" Ffi!. $M G, 1J" , B#$ Bie er, .ar!arete, 161 Blindness, 1J :1$, 1MM :M$ Book rollFsG, 55 :5M, 1B6 , 1B$ :B9, 16" , 159 , 1M" , 1M5 , 1$J , 19# , 19" :9J, B16 , B"B , B66 , B5" , BMM , BM9 , BJ1 , BJM :JJ, B$1 :$B, B$5 , B9# , B9" , "#1 , "#" :"#6, "B5 , "B$ :"1, "5B nBB, "M$ nM#, "JM n55 see also Code& Bo(ersock, 2len, B5B Bro( or forehead: conveyin! )ental activity, intellectual capacity, concentration, effort, 95 :9M, 1## , 1#B , 1B9 , 165 dra(n up, "19 furro(ed, lined, or dra(n:to!ether ro( or forehead, 1J , "" , 51 , 5M , M5 , J# , JB , J6 :J5, $5 , $J , 9B , 1B1 , 16# , 151 , 1M$ , 1J" , 1J5 :JM, 1$B , 1$9 , 19J , BB6 , BM$ , "B# s)ooth, 119 :B# Brutus, B#5 , B#J Bucolic or pastoral )otifs, B$6 :$9, B$5 :$MFfi!s. 156:55G, "B5 , ""$ Burkhardt, Iaco , "J1 nB6 Buschor, >rnst, 1"5 Bust or her), preferred y <o)ans, 1# , 6B @learned usts,@ BBM

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Chrysippus, 9M :11", 9$ :1#1Ffi!s. 56a: , fi!s. 55:5MG, 11B Ffi!. M#G, 116 :15, 11$ :19, 1B6 , 1BJ , 1"B , 1"6 :"5, 15# :51, 1J" , 1$1 :$B, 1$6 :$5, 19# , 19B , B6J , "19 Cicero, 199 , B## Ffi!. 1#MG, B#5 , B#J Cle)ent of ,le&andria, B9 , "9# n"$ Code&, B9" , "#6 , ""1 Concordius of ,rles, B9" , B96 Ffi!s. 159a: G, "#5 Constans, B#$ Constantine the 2reat, B$$ , "B1 Conte)plation, conte)plative fi!ures, "" , 5M :5J, MJ , 9B , 1"6 , 16" , 15M , 1MM , 1J9 :$#, 1$B , 1$6 , 1$$ :9#, 19" , B1" , B"B , B56 , BM$ , BJ# , BJ" , "B5 Fseated fi!uresG 9# :9B, 91 Ffi!s. 51:5BG, 115 , 1B9 Copenha!en, statue of old sin!er, 16M :69, 16$ :69Ffi!s. J9a: G Copies: <o)an copies of 2reek portraiture, 9 :16 Cult of learnin!, B#B , B#$ , B1B , B16 , B19 , BB" , BBM , B"J , B51 , B9# , B9M , B99 , ""9 Cult of the )onu)ent, 6 :M Cushion: see Pillo( Cynics, "B , 9M , 111 , 11J , 1B9 , 1"# :"1Ffi!s. JBa: G, 1"B :"", 1"" Ffi!. J"G, 1"6 , 15# , 1J6 , 1JM :J9, 195 , 199 , B"M , B"$ , B6# , B66 , B5J , B59 :M1, BMM , BJ" :J6, BJ$ , "#B , "11 CynicCs clu , BM5 :MM, BJ" , "#6

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1io of Prusa, B5$ :59, BM1 :M", (ncomium of )air , B69 1io!enes, 1"" , 1"M , 15$ , 1J" , 1JM :J$, 1JJ Ffi!. 96G, 195 , BB6 , B"5 , """ :"6 1io!enes +aertius, 1i/es of the Philoso'hers , "#J 1io)edes, B5# 1ionysios of ,r!os, 19 1ionysus, 19 , "$ , 55 , 55 Ffi!. "BG 1ioti)a, "M , "J Ffi!. B"G 1C-sraeli, -saac, -uriosities , B5B @1ivine )an@: see Theios aner 1o)itian, B1B , B1M , B1$ , B5J , B59 :M# 1runkenness, B6 :BM 1rusus, B5M

E
>li/ah, "#M >nnius, B1B (nthousiasmos , B6 >paphroditus, .. .ettius, B"B , B"" Ffi!. 1BMG >pictetus, 111 , B5$ :M# >picureans, 1## , 1#B , 111 , 11" :1$, 1B6 :B5, 1BM Ffi!. J#G, 1"6 , 1$6 >picurus, 1#" , 11" :BB, 115 Ffi!. MBG, 1B# Ffi!. MMG, 1B" :B5, 1B" Ffi!. M9G, 1"5 , 1"9 , B#9 , BB9 :"#, B"$ , ""5 >piphanius of Cyprus, B$9 >pony)ous 9eroes, on Parthenon 4rie0e, "J )onu)ent in ,!ora, 5$ >udo&us, 1#J Ffi!. 59G >u!enius, "1M >unapius, B99 , "9B n6$ 1i/es of the Philoso'hers , B9J , "#J , "19 >uphrates, B5J :5$, BM# :M", BMM , "## , "#J >uripides, 6" , 5B :5J, 5" Ffi!. "#G, 55 Ffi!. "BG, M$ , 1#M , 15$

F
4avorinus, B56

4illet or (reath, 1M , 1M$ (orn y ,thenian )ale citi0en, B6 , si!n of priestly office, 5# , BMB , "1# , "15 4ist: see 9ands 4ittschen, =laus, J$ , $# , 1BB , 1"J :"$, B6$ 4lavian period, B51 , B5M , B5$ , B$J 4oucault, .ichel, B#B 4o(den, 2arth, "11 , "19 4reud, 2iselle, """ 4riedlVnder, +ud(i!, B1B

0
2ada)er, 9ans:2eor!, 6# 2alleries of portrait usts, B#M :B#$, B"# , "15 , "BB , "51 n1J, "J$ n15 2allienus, BJ9 2ellius, ,ulus, Attic .ights , B51 2iuliani, +uca, 5M , JB , $J 2nostics, B99 2oethe, 7olf!an!, 6 :M, 5 Ffi!. BG, ""6 , "J# n16 description of head of 9o)er in ;aples, 1J# 2or!ias, MJ :M$

/
9adrian, B#B , B1J :B", B1J :B19Ffi!s. 116:15G, B6# , B6M , B51 :5", B59 , BMJ 9ahn, I., B"6 9air effe)inate hairstyle, $9 knotted on forehead, 1M lon!, flo(in!, shoulder:len!th, 1M , "B , "6 , 5B , 5M , M# , 1#$ , 165 , 1J1 , 1J5 :JM, BB# , B6$ :69, B5M :5J, BM# :M6, BMM , B$B , B99 :"#B, "#M , "11 , "B5 , "6# , "5B nB#, "$B n6J, "$5 nn$1:$" short, close:cropped, BB# , B6# :6B, B65 , BMJ , "B5 sy) olic value for different schools of philosophy, 11# :1" unco) ed, )atted, unke)pt, "M , 111 , 1"# , 1"" , 15# , 1M$ , 1J# , 1J5 :JM, B"" :6B, B6J , B5M , BMB , BJ" :J6, BJ$ , "#6 , ""6 , "$5 n$5 (ell:!roo)ed, neatly:tri))ed, 5# , M$ , JM :J$, $# , 111 , 11M , 1B1 , 1B5 , B1J :1$

(hite, B# , BM1 9ands: clasped hands, $5 :$M, 1#J clenched fist, M , 9# , 9J :9$, 1#" , 1#M 9arnack, ,dlof von, B9M 9eint0e, 9el!a von, 6# 9ekler, ,nton, B6M 9el i!, 7olf!an!, 6# 9eliodorus, B59 9elvidius Priscus, B59 9eraclitus, BM5 , BJ" 9erakles, 9M , BMM , "M6 nB$, "M6 nB9 9er)archus, 116 :15, 11$ :BB, 11J Ffi!. M6G, 1B1 Ffi!. M$G, 1B6 , 1M6 9er)es, B56 9er)ia, C. Halerius, B56 :5M, B55 Ffi!. 1"9G, BJM 9erodes ,tticus, B"5 , B6" :66, B66 Ffi!. 1"6G, B5# 9esiod, 19 , 16" , 151 , B5B :5"Ffi!s. $#a:cG, 15J 9ierarchical structure of i)a!es, B9" , "#6 , "#M , "6# 9ierony)os of <hodes, 1$J )ieros aner , B$6 , B9J , "## , "#J :"#9, "11 , "15 :1M, "19 , "96 nM$ 9i)ation or 2reek )antle, 69 , 5B , M# , M" , M$ , $# , $5 :$M, 1$B , 1$5 , 1$J , B#6 :B#5, BBM , % 61M % BB$ , B"B , B"M , B6$ , B56 , BMM , B$# , )antle dra(n over ack Fof old )enG, 55 , )antle enfoldin! ar)s, 6" , 6J , 9$ , 115 , BJM see also Pallium 9ipparchus, B6 9ippias of >lias, 11$ 9ippocrates, 155 , 15M Ffi!. $"G, B#M 9ippo)achos, 56 Ffi!. "1G 9ippona&, 156 , 155 Ffi!. $BG 9Qlscher, 'onio, BB @9oly )en@: see )ieros aner

9oly *criptures or 9oly 7rit: see *criptures 9o)er, 16 :BB, 15 Ffi!. 9G, M$ , 1BJ , 159 :JB, 1M# :M1Ffi!s. $5a: G, 1M6 :M9Ffi!s. $J:9#G, 1$# , 196 :9M, 195 :9MFfi!s. 1#6:1#5G, B6$ , BMB , "B6 :B5, "BM Ffi!. 1JJG, "B$ , """ , "$" n$B 9orace, 1B5 9oudon, Iean:,ntoine, " :6, " Ffi!. 1G, ""5 9u!o, Hictor, M , ""$ 9y!ieia, 19

I
-a) lichus, B$$ , "#$ :"#9, "B5 -nfi ulation, B$ :B9, B9 Ffi!. 1JG -ntellectual, definition of, B -on of Chios, 5# -socrates, MB , MJ :M$, B"5

=
Iohn the Baptist, "96 nM$ Iohnson, 1r. *a)uel, 16B Ionah, B$M Iulian the ,postate, "#9 , "BJ Iunius Bassus, "#5 Iupiter, B15 Iustin .artyr, B9J , B99

:
=allias, 56 Ffi!. "1G, $5 &alokagathia , 1# , B9 :"#, "6 , "$ :"9, 69 , JB , $9 , 11B , 1"6 , "6M n"5 =arneades, 1"5 :"M, 1$# :$6, 1$1 :1$"Ffi!s. 95:9MG, 1$9 , B#6 , "B# , "B1 Ffi!. 1J"G =arpokratians, "#1 =assander, $" =ephalos, 56 =ephisodotus, J$ =leanthes, 9M :9J, 1#6 :1#5Ffi!s. 5$a: G, 1#M , 19B =leon, 65 , "69 nM# =lin!er, .a&, M :J, J Ffi!. "G, ""$

=orallion, M# , M1 Ffi!. "6G, "51 n"# &osmetai , of ,thens, BB# , BB1 Ffi!s. 11M:1JG, BBB :B6, BB$ , B"J , B"9 , B6" =rantor, 1BJ =rates, 1"B , B"5 , "J# n16, "J" n"1 =ritias, "6J n6$ &uno#esme , B$ :B9, B9 Ffi!. 1JG

L
+aokoon, B#$ +au scher, 9. P., 111 +earnin!: see Cult of learnin! +ivia, B5M +C8ran!e, 9. P., BB6 +ucian, B#5 !emona2 , B6B +ucius Herus, BB9 , B"9 :6#, B65 +yceu), J5 see also Peripatetics +ycur!us, 6" , 65 , 5# , 5B , 5M :5$, MB , M6 :M5, J1 , $" , $5 +ysias, 5J , M5 +ysippus of *icyon, 5$ , M#

M
.antle, B6 , "" , 1#B , 1#M , 116 , 1B9 , 16" , B16 , BB9 :"#, B"B , B6J , BMM :MJ, BJ" :J6, BJM , BJ$ , B$B , B$6 , B9# , "B5 , ""5 draped over shoulder of nude torso, B6 , B$ see also )imation .arcus ,urelius, 11# , BBB Ffi!. 119G, BB6 , BBM , B5B , B56 , BJ9 Me#itations , B6B , BJ6 .arcus Cornelius, B5" Ffi!. 1"$G .arrou, 9.:-., BM$ , BJB , BJ9 , B9M .arsyas, "6 .a&i)us of >phesus, "#9 .edea, $M .ei!!s, <ussell, "1M

.elchi0edek, "#M .enander, 1" , MB , JJ :$5, J9 :$"Ffi!s. 65:6JG, 1B" , 1"M , 1"J Ffi!. J6G, 1"9 :6", 15# , 15J , 1M$ , B16 , "B1 :BB, "B" Ffi!. 1J5G, "B6 , ""J .etrodorus, 116 , 11M Ffi!. M"G, 11$ :19, 1B1 Ffi!. MJG, 1BB , 1B" :B5, 1BJ .ikythos, 19 :B# .iltiades, M" :M5, M6 Ffi!. "MG, M$ .ithridates, dedicant of statue of Plato, "$ , M9 .nesiepes, 1MB .oschion, 16" .oses, "#M .useFsG, 1$ , 159 , B5" , BM$ , BM9 Ffi!. 166G, BJ1 :JB, BJ1 :BJ"Ffi!s. 16M:6JG, BJ6 :JM, BJJ :BJ$Ffi!s. 169:5#G, B$1 :$6, B$1 :B$"Ffi!s. 15B:5"G, B$M , B9B , "BJ :"#, "B9 Ffi!. 1J$G, "$M nB .usonius <ufus, 111 , B5$ :59, B$J :$$ % 61J %

N
;akednessA see ;udity ;eoplatonists, B$$ , "#$ :"#9, "1" :16, "B5 ;ero, B1B , B51 , B5M , B5$ :59 ;eudecker, <ichard, B#M ;i!rinus, B#5 ;udity, 6 , M , B6 :B5, B$ :"#, "" , M" :M6, 1"M , 1M" , 1JM , 1J$ :J9, BBM , B6$ , B99 , "M$ nM#

O
8ld a!e or old )en, representation of, 1M , 1$ , B# :BB, B5 , B$ :B9, 5B :5J, M1 , M$ , J6 :JM, J9 , 95 , 9J , 1#1 , 1#5 :1#M, 1B1 , 1"B , 1"5 , 16# , 16J :69, 1M$ , 1J# , 1J5 :J$, 19# , 19B , B15 , BJ" , "## , "BB , ""5 , "66 n1M, "51 n1M, "5B nB#, "5B nBB, "5M n6M, "5J n5B, "5$ nM", "MB n1", "J" n"" 8ly)pia, 'e)ple of Zeus, 1J sanctuary of Zeus, 19 :B# 8ly)piodorus, $$ , $$ Ffi!. 5#G *rans pose Fprayin! fi!ureG, B$B , B$M :$J, B$9 8rpheus, 19 *tium , $B , 19$ , B#" , B1# , B1B :16, B"1 , BJ6 , B$B , B$$

P
Pai#eia , MB , MJ :M$, 151 , 1J9 , 19# , 19" , B#6 , B6J , B$J :$$ Pala00o *pada statue of seated philosopher, 91 , 1#B :1#", 1#" Ffi!. 5JG, 1#M , 161 , 19B Pallium , BMJ , BJ6 , BJ9 , B$1 :$B, B9# Panaitios, 1$6 :$5, 1$6 Ffi!. 9JG Panyassis, 156 , 155 Ffi!. $1G Paul FapostleG, B9# , B9J , B9$ Ffi!. 1M1G, "#6 , "#5 Ffi!. 1M5G Pausanias, BB , B6 Peisistratus, B5 Pellichos, "69 nM# Pere!rinus, +. Pullius, BJB :J6, BJ" Ffi!. 16JG, BJ$ :J9, B$6 Pere!rinus Proteus, B"5 , BMB Periander, M5 , MM Ffi!. "JG Pericles, BB :"B, BM Ffi!. 15G, 5$ , M" , J1 :JBA "6J n6J Peripatetics, Peripatos, JM , $1 , 11# :11, 1BJ , 1$" , B"5 see also +yceu) Pertina&, BB" Ffi!. 1B#G, BB6 , BBM Peter FapostleG, "#6 , "#5 Ffi!. 1M5G Pfeiffer, <udolf, 196 Pfuhl, >rnest, 6# Philip of .acedon, M$ , 15$ Philiskos, 161 Philostratus, B99 , "#$ , "9B n6$ 1ife of A'ollonius of Tyana , B9J 1i/es of the So'hists , "#J Phineus, 1$ Phyro)achos, "J" n"1 Pillo( or cushion, 55 , $# , 16B :6", "5B nBB Pindar, 1" , 1" Ffi!s. J:$G, B# , B6 , B$ , 5J , J1 , 16M , 169 , "1" , "BB , "B6 Ffi!. 1JMG Plato, "" :"6, "$ , 6# :6", 61 Ffi!. B6G, 5# , 5M , MJ :JJ, M9 :J#Ffi!s. "$:"9G, 1BJ , 196 , B#5 , BB# , B"5 , B6# , BJB , "#1 , "#$ , "16 , "B6 :B5 -rito , B#$ Sym'osium , "6 Pliny the Toun!er, B1B , B5J , BM# :M1, "#J

Plotinus, BB6 , BJJ , B$6 , "#$ :"#9, "19 Plutarch, -on/ersations at Ta,le , B51 Pole)on of +aodicea, B6" , B6M , B6M Ffi!. 1"MG Polyaenus, 116 Polyeuktos, $" Polykrates of *a)os, B6 Po)peion, M1 :MB, M5 Porphyrius, 1ife of Pythagoras , "#$ +ife of Plotinus, "16 , "19 Poseidippus, 1B" , 1B9 , 1"J :65, 1"$ :"9Ffi!s. J5:JMG, 16M , 15J , B11 Ffi!. 11#G, B16 , BJ6 , ""J Poseidonius, 1$# , 1$5 :$J, 1$M Ffi!. 9$G Pra&iteles, J$ Pria), 1M , 1J Ffi!. 1#G Proclus, "1# , "1" , "1M , "BJ Prohairesios, "#$ Propylaea, BB Proto!enes, 161 Prytaneion, M" :M6 Pseudo:9erodotus, "ios )omerou , 1J1 Pseudo:*eneca, 15# :5B, 15# :51Ffi!s. $#a:cG, 1J$ Ptole)ies F.acedonian kin!s of >!yptG, $" , 16# , 1J" Ptole)y -, 15J , 196 Ptole)y --, 161 Pupienus, BJ5 Pytha!oras, B"6 , BMB , "#$ , "1" :16, "B6 Pytha!oreans, BMB , "#1

R
<eadin! or readers, 1B6 , 1B$ :B9, 1B$ Ffi!. J1G, 161 , 1MM , 1$J :$$, 196 :9J, B#M , B1" :16, B"B , B56 , BM$ , BM9 Ffi!. 166G, BJ1 :JB, BJJ , B$B , B$5 :$$, "B$ , ""$ , "JM n55, "$M n$$ <ealis), M , 1" , 15 , 1J , B# , "# , 6B , $9 , 16# , 15# , 1JJ :J$, 1$J , 199 , B15 , BBM , "11 <eynolds, Ioshua, 16B <hoi)etalkes, "$" nM5 <iace ron0es, B# :B1, B1 Ffi!. 11G <ichter, 2isela, $

<ietschel, >rnst, 6 :5, 5 Ffi!. BG % 61$ % <odin, ,u!uste, M , "$$ Thinker , 1#6 <u ellius Plautus, B5$ <u ens, Peter Paul, B59

S
*aint .ark, ""# , ""# Ffi!. 1J9G *appho, BB , B5 :BM, BM Ffi!. 16G, BJB *arcopha!i, BJ9 :$B, @philosopher sarcopha!i,@ BJ1 :JB, B9" *atyros, 1ife of (uri'i#es , 15$ *atyrs, B$ , "6 , 1B6 , 161 *chefold, =arl, 9 , 1#5 , 1BJ *chiller, 4riedrich von, 6 , 5 Ffi!. BG, ""6 *criptures or Bi le, B$M :$J, B95 , "#" :"#6, "B$ :"1 *elf:control: see So'hrosyne *eneca, 199 :B##, B#1 Ffi!. 1#JG, B#5 , B5J :59 *erapeion in .e)phis, e&edra (ith statue !roup, 1JB , 1JB Ffi!. 91G *even 7ise .en, M5 , MM Ffi!. "JG, 1MB , 19" , B1# , BJ" :J6, "B# , "55 n"$ *everan period, BB9 , B6" , B$1 , "9# n"$ *everus, *epti)ius, BMJ *hapiro, ,lan, 65 *havin!: clean:shaven face: see Beard *ilanion, "$ , M9 *ilens, "6 *ilenus, 1B , "B :"9, "M Ffi!. BBG, M# , ""6 , ""9 *)ith, <.<.<., "11 *ocrates, 1B , 1B Ffi!s. 5:MG, "B :"9, "5 Ffi!. B1G, "5 Ffi!. B"G, 5J :MB, 59 Ffi!. ""G, MB Ffi!. "5G, M" , M5 , M$ , J1 , J6 , 9B , 111 , 11B , 1B9 , 1J" :J6, 1J6 Ffi!. 9BG, 1JM , 1J9 , B#$ , BB1 , BB6 , BJ$ , "#6 , "#9 , "1" , "B# :B1, "BB Ffi!. 1J6G, "B6 , ""6 :"5, ""9 *olon, 6J :6$, "5# nJ *ophists Fof fifth centuryG, "B , "" Ffi!. B#G, MJ , 11$ , B"5

Fof *econd *ophisticG B6" , B6M , B5# :51 *ophocles, 6" :65, 69 :5#, 66 Ffi!. B5G, 51 , 5M :5J, J$ , $# , $5 , $9 , 16M , 196 , """ So'hrosyne , 6J , 69 , M" *tesichorus, 1M" Ffi!. $MdG, 1M6 *toics, $$ , 9B , 9J , 1#B , 1#M , 1#$ , 11J , 1"6 :"5, 16# :61, 165 , 1J" :J6, 1JM , 1J9 , 1$B , 1$6 :$5, B6# , B66 *tra o, 1M1 :MB *tudnic0ka, 4ran0, $# *ulpicius .a&i)us, B15 :1M, B1M Ffi!. 11"G *y)posiu), B6 :B5, B9 :"1, 16J , B1# , B51 , """ *ynesius of Cyrene, Praise of "al#ness , BB6 , B69

T
'a ula -liaca, 195 , 195 Ffi!. 1#6G 'acitus Fe)perorG, BJ9 'eiresias, 1$ 'ertullian, B99 'heatre of 1ionysus in ,thens, 6" , M5 , J$ 'rohe#ria , 11$ , 119 Ffi!. M5G Theios aner , BM1 , BM" , BMM , "## :"#1, "#9 , "11 , "1$ Ffi!. 1JBG, "6# 'he)istocles, B# , M" 'heodectes, M$ 'heodosius, "#B , "1# 'heon of *)yrna, B6# , B61 Ffi!. 1""G, B6B , B65 'heophrastus, J1 , JB Ffi!. 6"G, J5 , 9M , BB1 'hersites, "B 'hrasea Paetus, B5$ :59 'hucydides, 5J , M5 , J1 , JB Ffi!. 6BG 'i)archus FsculptorG, J$ 'i)okrates, B5$ 'ra!edians: statues of the three !reat tra!edians in 'heatre of 1ionysus, 6" :5J, M5 , J1 , $" , 16M , "56 n"6 'ra/an, B1J :1$, B59 'ri)alchio, B#M , B5M Try'he , $1 , 1"M , 16# , 1$#

'yche of ,ntioch, "M

V
Her!il, 16" Hespasian, B59 Holtaire, " , " Ffi!. 1G, ""5

2
7ritin! utensils, 19" , B1" :16 7underkind, BJM , BJJ Ffi!. 169G, B91 :9B, B95 , B99

>
Panthippos, BB , B6 , "1 , "6J n6J Penophanes, B# Penophon, "" :"6, BB1

Z
5eitgesicht of intellectuals, B1J , BB6 , BBM , BB9 , B6J , BJ9 , "5J n5B Zeno, 9# , 9B :9J, 96 :95Ffi!s. 5"a: G, 1#1 :1#B, 1#M , 1#9 , 111 , 119 , 1"B , 1"5 , 1J" , 1$B , B#9 , "19 Zeus, M , 159 :M#, 1M6 :M5, B#$ , B1M , "## , "BJ , "$5 n$B % 619 %

In)e6 Locoru*
A
,>+-,; .A J.1M "51 n19 3) ".19 $1 1".BB 1M1 ,>*C9-;>* In Tim. B1ff. "5# n9

B" 5M B5 6J ,2,'9-,* Anth. Gr. 1M.""B "55 n"$ ,+C,>U* frag. F+o el:Pa!eG 5# FB 1$G "M9 nB ,;8;T.U* -ert. )om. et )es. 1$ 1MB ,PU+>-U* A'ol. 6.1 B"6 ,<-*'8P9,;>* "ir#s 1B$1f. "B -lou#s 1#1ff. "B "6$ff. "B 616 "B Frogs $#6 51 :5B $"#ff. 51 :5B $59 51 :5B Thesm. 1M" B6 ,<-*'8'+> Ath. Pol. B$ "5# n9 Poetics 165"aB9f. 5M ,'9>;,>U* 9.5#9B JM

1".5M5 1#9 1".M##> B6 ,U2U*'-;> (nar. in 'salm. 1"B B9#

C
C9<-*'818<8* Anth. Gr. B."11:69 1$ C-C><8 Aca#. B.165 9J Att. 6.1#.1 B#5 "rut. B6 B#5 Fin. 1."9 1#1 , "MB n11 5." B#M 5.6 1J9 5.B9 "65 nB# *rat. 11# B#5 $a,. Post. BM B#6 Tusc. 6.$1 "6 5.116 "65 nB# 3err. B.$J "JM n55 % 6B# % C+>.>;* ,+>P,;1<-;U*

Pai#. ".11.M# B9# Strom. B.B1 1B6

1
1>.8*'9>;>* !e corona 1B9 "5# n11 !e falsa legatione B51 6$ 1-8 84 P<U*, "5.11 BMB "M.1J BB# 1-82>;>* +,><'-U* 1.$B 1MB B.B$ 1B9 B.61 1B9 B.6" 5$ , M1 , "5" n"# ".B5 "$ , M9 ".BJ J6 6.BM 1BJ 6."1 1B$ 6.MB 1$B 5."1f. 1BJ 5.61 J5 5.51 J# M.1#5 1"B J.1 9" J.M 95 J.1#:1B 9" J.1M 9" J.1J# 9M J.1$B 1#1 , 1"5

1#.BB 1B" 1#."5 1B6 1#.$5 1B6

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>P9-PPU* fra!. 16 JM >P-C'>'U* !iss. 1.B.B$ BM# ".1.BM 111 ".1.6B 111 6.1.1B" B59 6.$.1J B5$ >U;,P-U* 3S 65$ "#$ 6M5 B$$ 6J" "#9 6$J "#$ 69B "#$ >U*>B-U* )ist. eccl. 5.$.11 15J ,U+U* 2>++-U* 1B.1 B56

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9><818'8* B.5" 19 9-*'8<-, ,U2U*', -a'itol 3ersus 11#.J BB9 M. Ant. B.M:J B6B

M. Aurelius ".5 B56 Se/erus Ale2an#er B9.B "JJ n1# "1.6 "JJ n1# S'art. )a#r. 1M.1# B59 BM B1$ 3o'isc. Tac. 1M BJ9 98.>< Ilia# B.B1Bff. "B *#yssey M.B"# B69 $.MBff. 1J $.M":M5 1$ )ymn. )om. A'. 1JB 1J 98<,C> ('ist. 1.6.15f. 1B5

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-*8C<,'>* !em. 1.15 "5M n6J -*818<U* *rig. 1.".J:9 "J5 n6"

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IU+-,; '9> ,P8*','> ('. "##d:"#1a "BJ

"#1c "BJ IUH>;,+ 1.Jff. B1" B.1:J B#M 16."#9 1J9

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+UC-,; Ale2. " BM" % 6B1 % 1" BM" .igrinus B B#5 Peregr. 15 B"5 Philo's. 1$ "69 nM# B1 B#M B9."B BMB

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.,<-;U* 3it. Procl. B" "1J "$ "BJ .,<'-,+ J.95.11 "$# n"1 .U*8;-U* !iatr. B1 111 5$.1" B$J

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P,U*,;-,* 1.$.B $5 1.1J.B 1#1 1.1$." M" 1.B1.1:B 6" , "51 n19 1.B5.1 BB 1.B9.15 1## :1#1 1."J.6 "55 n6B 5.B6.M 19 5.BM.5 19 1#.1$.J MJ P9,>1<U* Fa,ulae 5.1 $1 P9-+8*'<,'U* 3A 1."B BMB B.5.5J#:J1 B6" J.6 BM# $.J BMB 3S 1.6$# B"5 B.".5MJ B"5 B5.5"" B6" 5B1 "J$ n1M P98-;-=-1>* frag. 6 1#9 P9<T;-C9U* PS $5B B$ P+,'8 Anth. Gr.

9.5#M BJB Meno $#, "6$ n56 Protagoras "15 11$ $e'u,lic "B$C 56 "B9> 56 Sym'osium B15B "9 B15f. "6$ n56 P+-;T '9> >+1>< ). "".$" MJ "6.$$ "M# n11 "5.B B#M "5.5 1B5 "5.1#f. 6B "5.1#M 161 P+-;T '9> T8U;2>< ('. 1.1#.5:J B5J P+U',<C9 -ato maior B#.6 B56 BB B#6 !emosthenes 9.6 $M 11." $M Moralia BMB J5 5"C J5 6"BB "66 n19 $"J1 "55 n6B

$"$C "55 n6B $614 6" $6J1 "5$ nM" 1#""> 99 .icias $." "5# n9 Pericles 5 BJ "M BJ P8++UP B.6.1J1 B$ P8<P9T<-U* A,st. B.69 "#$ % 6BB % Plot. 9 "16

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('ist. 9.9.16 9" , 9J , "MB n11 *8P98C+>* *T 655 1$ *'<,B8 1#.1."J 1MB *U>'8;-U* 3es'. 15 B59

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',C-'U* Annales B.$" "15 1M."":"5 B5$ !ialogus 1M 19$ '><'U++-,; !e 'allio M B"B , B9# M.B BJ6 '9>8C<-'U* Anth. Gr. M.MM6 16M '9UCT1-1>* B."J "# B.61 "# 1.J# "1 '-.8; 84 P9+-U* frag. 1B 15J

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9.1B.>&t.B "51 n19 H,<<8 $ust. B.11.1# B1$ H-<2-+ (cl. M.J# 151 H-', ,>*C9T+p.""B Pa!e "51 n19

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P>;8P98; Mem. 1.MB 1B9 Sym'. 5.5:J "6$ n56 $." "5M n6J % 6B" %

Museu* In)e6
Finventory nu) ers, if availa le, in parenthesesG

A
,pa)ea, .useu), )osaic (ith *ocrates teachin! philosophers, "#9 , fi!. 1MJ ,phrodisias, .useu) F$1.115G, Pindar, "BB , fi!. 1JM portrait statue of +ucius ,ntonius Claudius 1o)etinus 1io!enes, B66 :65, fi!. 1"5 @*ophist,@ "1" , fi!. 1M9 tondo portrait of a philosopher, "1# :1", fi!. 1M$ ,rles, .usKe dC,rt ChrKtien F5G, sarcopha!us of Bishop Concordius, B9" , fi!. 159 ,thens, ,!ora .useu) F1 J"9MG, votive relief of shoe)aker, "5$ n5J

,thens, ,kropolis .useu), @ne( ,ntisthenes,@ B"$ , fi!. 1"# F1"1"G philosopher, "19 , fi!. 1J1 ,thens, =era)eikos, !rave stele of 9er)on, 16" , "M$ n59 !rave stele of =orallion, M# , fi!. "6 ,thens, ;ational .useu) F"B#G, citi0en F9ellenistic portraitG, 1$9 , fi!. 1## !rave relief of ,le&os, 51 , fi!. B9 @9ippona&,@ 156 , fi!. $B F"$$G kos)etes, BB1 , fi!. 11J F"9MG kos)etes, BB# , fi!. 11M F"6#G @ne( ,ntisthenes,@ B"M , fi!. 1B$ F1"6##G philosopher fro) ,ntikythera ship(reck, 1BJ F6BJG Pole)on FNG, B6M , fi!. 1"M portrait on !rave relief, J# :J1, fi!. 66 F"M1G youn! ,thenian in !uise of hero, B6$ , fi!. 1"J

8
Bari, .useo ;a0ionale F< 15#G, skyphos, "$ , "6J n5$ Basel, ,ntiken)useu) *l!. +ud(i! FB5MG, sarcopha!us of )arried couple (ith ucolic fi!ures, B$6 :$5, fi!. 156 Berlin, *taatliche .Rn0sa))lun!, silver coin fro) -os, 1M6 , fi!. $J silver coin fro) =atane, "6 , fi!. BB Berlin, *taatliche .useen, ,nacreon, BM :BJ, fi!. 1M F*= 5M"G ivory py&is (ith Christ as teacher, "#6 , fi!. 1M5 F*= 16MBG relief of in:house philosopher, 1$J :$$, fi!. 99 *eneca, 199 , fi!. 1#J 'a ula -liaca, 196 :95, fi!. 1#6 Bonn, 4. -. 1Ql!er:-nstitut, =arneades, "B# :B1, fi!. 1J" Boston, .useu) of 4ine ,rts F#6.1"G, 9o)er, 1MM :M$, fi!. $9

Brussels, .usKes <oyau& dC,rt et dC9istoire F,/1#J$, 1#J9G, portraits, B65 :6M, "$" nM1 Budapest, ;ational)useu) F6JJ$G, >udo&us of Cnidus, 1#J :1#$, fi!. 59 F1JMG philosopher, BB$ , "$1 n"$ Buffalo, ,l ri!ht ,rt 2allery F"M:1G, statue of a poet, B16 , fi!. 11B

C
Cleveland, .useu) of ,rt FBM.599G, colu)n:krater, B5 , fi!. 1" Colo!ne, <Q)isch:2er)anisches .useu), philosopher )osaic, "$5 n$B Copenha!en, =unst)useu), =arneades FcastG, 1$1 :$B, fi!. 95 Copenha!en, ;y Carls er! 2lyptotek F691G, ,nacreon, BB :"1, fi!. 1B, fi!. 1J FJ#MG dandy (ith philosophical pretensions, B"9 , fi!. 1"B FBJ$BG 1e)osthenes, $" :$9, fi!. 6$ F15B$, 1$J", 195JG !rave relief fra!)ents, J1 :JB, fi!s. 66a, 66c:d 9ellenistic poet F@Her!il@G, 16" :65, fi!. J$ F5JJG .enander, $# , fi!. 6J F15M"G @8ld % 6B6 % *in!er,@ 16M :56, fi!s. J9a: FB6M6G philosopher, BM6 , fi!. 161 FB$1BG readin! fi!ure Ffor)erly @*ocrates@G, 1B9 Copenha!en, for)erly, ;y Carls er! 2lyptotek, reconstructed statue of .etrodorus, 116 , fi!. M" Cyrene, .useu), 1e)osthenes, $J :$$, fi!. 69 priest Flost portraitG, BMB :M", fi!. 16B

1
1ion, .useu), statue !roup of philosophers, BB9 :"#, fi!s. 1B6, 1B5a:

F
4lorence, .useo ,rcheolo!ico, 9er)archus, 116 :15, fi!. M6 4lorence, .useo Bardini, portrait, BB6 , fi!. 1B1c, "$#n"5 4lorence, .useo ;a0ionale del Bar!ello F19G, Carrand 1iptych, B9J , fi!. 1M1 4rankfurt a) .ain, +ie ie!haus, .arcus ,urelius, BBB :B", fi!. 119

0
2eneva, .usKe dC ,rt et dC9istoire F.4 1""#G, Poseidippus, 1"$ :"9, fi!. JM 2Qttin!en, , !uWsa))lun! des ,rchVolo!isches -nstitus, reconstructed statue of >picurus, 116 :15, fi!. MB of .enander, J$ :$#, fi!. 65 of Poseidippus, 1"J :6#, fi!. J5

/
9eraklion, .useu) F1G, philosopher fro) 2ortyn, BM6 :MM, fi!. 16" 9olka) 9all, 'hucydides, J1 , fi!. 6B

I
-stan ul, ,rchaeolo!ical .useu) F1B6BG, >uripides relief, 56 :55, fi!. "B !rave relief, 19" , fi!. 1#" FB6M1G philosopher ust, "15 , fi!. 1J#

:
=assel, *taatliche =unstsa))lun!en FBr J6JG, ron0e ust of Plato, M$ :J1, fi!s. "9a: =onya, .useu), sarcopha!us of )arried couple, BJ# , fi!. 165

L
+eiden, <i/ks)useu), !rave relief of old )an, 19B , fi!. 1#B Pertina&, BBB :B", fi!. 1B# +ondon, British .useu) FB191G, ,rchelaos relief, 159 :M#, fi!s. $5a: FB"B#G @,rundel 9o)er,@ 19M :9J, fi!. 1#5 F1$"MG Chrysippus, 1## , fi!. 5M F1"$1G 9adrian, B1$ , fi!. 115 F$6$G @=leanthes,@ 1#5 :1#M, fi!s. 5$a: F569G Pericles Fher)G, BM :BJ, fi!. 15 F1$5BG portrait of poet, "M$ nM1 FB"1BG readin! fi!ure on sarcopha!us fro) ,sia .inor, B1$ :19, fi!. 166 F19B5.11:1$.1G *ocrates, 5$ :M#, fi!. ""

M
.adrid, .useo ,r?ueol^!ico ;acional, )osaic fro) ,rr^ni0, B$$ , "9# n"1 .ali u, I. P. 2etty .useu) F$5 ,, 11BG, portrait, BB6 , fi!. 1BB .ar ury 9all Ffor)erlyG, .enander tondo, "BB .on0a, Cathedral 'reasury, diptych, "B$ , "M$ n5$, "95 n$# .unich, ,ntikensa))lun!en FB"#JG, a)phora, 15 , fi!. 1# FB616G sta)nos, B$ , fi!. 1$ FB61MG (ine cooler (ith *appho and ,lcaeus, B5 :BM, fi!. 16 FB#BG youn! )an, 9# :91, fi!. 5B .unich, 2lyptothek FBJ"G, 9o)er Ftype ,G, 15 , fi!. 9 =arneades, 1$B :$", fi!. 9M

F56$G Plato, 6# :6", fi!. B6 , M$ , fi!. "$ F6B9G portrait, BB6 , fi!. 1B1c F5""G sarcopha!us of )arried couple, B$1 , fi!. 15B F66$G *ocrates Ftype ,G, 1B , fi!. M .unich, .useu) fRr , !Rsse =lassischer Bild(erke, reconstructed statue of Chrysippus, 9M :1#B, fi!s. 56a:

N
;aples, .useo ;a0ionale FM#1$G, ,eschines, 65 :69, fi!. BM FM1"9G ,eschyllus Fher)G, 5# :51, fi!. B$ FMM#"G @Brother *arcopha!us,@ BJ9 :$#, fi!. 151 FM1BJG Chrysippus, 9$ , fi!. 55 FM1"5G >uripides Fher)G, 5B :5", fi!. "# F56J1G 9er)archus, 1B1 :BB, fi!. M$ FM#B"G 9o)er F ustG, 1M$ :J#, fi!. 9# FM1BMG 9o)er statue fro) 9erculaneu), 19 , "6" nB" FM15BG Panyassis, 156 , fi!. $1 F1B6565G philosopher )osaic, B9" , fi!. 1M# F11"JG Pindar, 1" :16, fi!. $ F9#$6G poetess on fresco fro) Po)peii, B1" :16, fi!. 111 FM16BG Poseidonius, 1$5 :$M, fi!. 9$ F"B6#G Prono)os vase, "M$ nM# F5M1MG @pseudo:*eneca@ F9esiodNG, 15# :56, fi!s. $#a:c *ocrates, % 6B5 % "M :"9, fi!. B" FM1B9G *ocrates Ftype ,G, 1B , fi!. 5, fi!. B1 FM1B$G Zeno, 9B :95, fi!s. 5"a: ;e( Tork, .etropolitan .useu) F1#.B"1.1G, >picurean philosopher, 1B5 :BJ, fi!. J# F6$.JM.1G sarcopha!us of a physician, B"B :"", "$# n66 ;e( Tork, 7hite:+evy Collection,

ust of a youn! )an, B5# , "$" nM5 portrait, BB6 , fi!. 1BBd

O
8ly)pia, .useu), teracotta statue of a tra!edian, 161 , fi!. JJ 8slo, ;ational!alerie F1B9BG, 8ly)piodorus, $$ , fi!. 5# Pindar, 1" , fi!. J 8stia, .useu), 9ippocrates, 156 :55, fi!. $" philosopher in opus sectile, "15 , fi!. 1JB FM$G @Plotinus,@ BB6 , fi!. 1BBf F1"$MG portrait, BB6 , fi!. 1BBc F1"#G relief, BM# , fi!. 16# 8&ford, ,sh)olean .useu), @,rundel 9o)er,@ "59 nMJ

P
Paris, Ca inet des .Kdailles FP $5"G, readin! fi!ure, 1B$ :B9, fi!. J1 Paris, Collection de la Co)Kdie 4ranLaise, statue of Holtaire, " :6, fi!. 1 Paris, +ouvre F2 M1#G, askos, "" , fi!. B# F., $#G Chrysippus, "M# n$ F., 566G Cynic, 1"" , fi!. J" F*.2 6MG diptych, "B$ , fi!. 1J$ F., MBG head of @8ld *in!er@ type, 1# :11, fi!. 6 F., 11M6G 9erodes ,tticus, B6" :66, fi!. 1"6 F2 BBBG neck a)phora, 6J , fi!. BJ F., 1"56G @8ld 4isher)an,@ 111 :1", fi!. M1 F., J9G readin! fi!ure, 1B9 , "MM n61 F., M59G sarcopha!us of a child, B5" :56, fi!. 1"$ FBI 19B"G silver cup fro) Boscoreale, B#9 :1#, fi!. 1#9

F., 59G *ocrates Ftype BG, M# :M1, fi!. "5 FC, M5MG youn! )an, 9# :91, fi!. 51 Piraeus, .useu), !rave relief of 9ippo)achus and =allias, 5" , fi!. "1 Pisa, Ca)po *anto FPP---, C to estG, sarcopha!us, B$B , fi!. 15"B Porto 'orres, sarcopha!us, B$" , fi!. 15"c

R
<avenna, .useo ;a0ionale, throne of Bishop .a&i)ian, "96 nM$ .iltiades, M" , fi!. "M <e!!io Cala ria, .useo ;a0ionale, <iace ron0es, B# :B1, fi!. 11 <o)e, .usei Haticani, Bi lioteca, ,elius ,ristides FseatedG, B"# Cortile del Belvedere, sarcopha!us (ith .uses, BJ1 , fi!. 16M F$J1G sarcopha!us (ith @.uses,@ BJ5 :JM, fi!. 16$ 2alleria dei Candela ri FB6BBG, sarcopha!us of a child (ith .uses, BJM , fi!. 169 2alleria delle *tatue F5$$G, Pseudo:.enander FseatedG, 1"M 2alleria !eo!raphica FB$9JG, Chrysippus, 11B , fi!. M# FB$"JG Panaitios FNG, 1$6 :$5, fi!. 9J .useo Chiara)onti F1J5#G, portrait, BB6 , fi!. 1B1 .useo 2re!orio Profano F99$5G, .enander relief, 1"M , fi!. J6 F95#6G @sarcopha!us of Plotinus,@ BJJ :J$, fi!. 15# F99J"G *ophocles, 6" :5#, fi!. B5, fi!. 6# .useo Pio Christiano F1$1G, sarcopha!us fro) Hia *alaria, "$$ n15 *ala delle .use FB$$G, ,ntisthenes her), 1J6 :JM, fi!. 9" FBJMG Periander her), M5 , fi!. "J Hasensa))lun! F1M55BG, ,esop, "" :"6, fi!. 19 <o)e, .useo Capitolino F59MG, @,eschylus,@ "51 n19 F555G ,na&i)ander FNG, 155 , fi!. $6 F5$9G Cicero, 199 , fi!. 1#M

FJ"JG Cynic, 1B9 :"", fi!. JBa: F5JMG dou le her) of >picurus and .etrodorus, 119 , fi!. MM F5J5G .etrodorus ust, 119 :B1, fi!. MJ @philosopher@ ust, B"J , fi!. 1B9 F51"G portrait, BB6 , fi!. 1BBa FJ1#G portrait, BB6 , fi!. 1BBc F5B9G 'heon of *)yrna, B6# :61, fi!. 1"" <o)e, .useo 'orlonia F6B6G, sarcopha!us of Pullius Pere!rinus, BJB :J6, fi!. 16J <o)e, Pala00o ,ltieri, !rave statue of .. .ettius >paphroditus, B"B , fi!. 1BM <o)e, Pala00o dei Conservatori, >picurus, 1BB :B", fi!. M9 F11#BG !rave )onu)ent of U. *ulpicius .a&i)us, B15 :1M, fi!. 11" F$9#G 9adrian in cuirass, B1J :1$, fi!. 116 F16#9G .use on votive relief, "B$ poet on her), "M$ nM1 FB611G portrait, BB6 , fi!. 1B1a <o)e, Pala00o *pada, philosopher FseatedG, 1#B :1#5, fi!. 5J <o)e, 'er)e .useu) FM15M5G, Christ, B9B :9B, fi!. 15J F5$1M1G @+ucius Herus,@ B"9 :6#, fi!. 1"1 FMJM#M/JG @polychro)e pla?ue,@ "#1 , fi!. 1MB F5BBM6G sarcopha: % 6BM % !us, B$B , fi!. 15"d F$96BG sarcopha!us lid, B$$ , fi!. 15M F1B"MG *ocrates Ftype BG, "J9 nB6 <o)e, Hilla ,l ani F96BG, 1io!enes, 1JM :J9, fi!. 96 F1#"9G portrait, BB6 , fi!. 1B1d F1#6#G *ocrates Ftype ---G, 1J" :J6, fi!. 9B

F1#"6G 'heophrastus her), J1 , fi!. 6"

S
*elLuk, .useu) FJ55G, .enander, "B1 :BB, fi!. 1J5 FJ65G *ocrates, "B1 , fi!. 1J6 *inai, Church of *t. Catherine, apse )osaic, "#5 :"#J, fi!. 1MM *plit, ,rchaeolo!ical .useu), !rave )osaic of ,urelius ,urelianus, B9B , fi!. 15$

T
'hessaloniki, ,rchaeolo!ical .useu) F1#5$G, philosopher ust, BB$ , fi!. 1B" 'oulouse, .usKe *t. <ay)ond, portrait, BB6 , fi!. 1B1f

V
Helletri, .useo Civico, Christian sarcopha!us (ith ucolic fi!ures, B$J Henice, *e)inario Patriarchale, .enander, $# , fi!. 6M Hienna =unsthistorisches .useu), ,ristotle, J1 , fi!. 61 F- 11"G philosopher ust, B"5 :"M, fi!. 1BJ

2
7inchester Colle!e, !rave relief of a citi0en, 19# :91, fi!. 1#1
Preferred Citation: Zanker, Paul. The Mask of Socrates: The Image of the Intellectual in Antiquity. Berkeley, Calif: University of California Press, c1995 1995. http://ark.cdli .or!/ark:/1"#"#/ft"f59n$ #/