THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Scrotum The scrotum is a sac-like organ made of skin and muscles that houses the testes. It is located inferior to the penis in the pubic region. The scrotum is made up of 2 side-by-side pouches with a testis located in each pouch. The smooth muscles that make up the scrotum allow it to regulate the distance between the testes and the rest of the body. When the testes become too warm to support spermatogenesis, the scrotum relaxes to move the testes away from the bodys heat. Conversely, the scrotum contracts to move the testes closer to the bodys core heat when temperatures drop below the ideal range for spermatogenesis. Testis The 2 testes, also known as testicles, are the male gonads responsible for the production of sperm and testosterone. The testes are ellipsoid glandular organs around 1.5 to 2 inches long and an inch in diameter. Each testis is found inside its own pouch on one side of the scrotum and is connected to the abdomen by a spermatic cord and cremaster muscle. The cremaster muscles contract and relax along with the scrotum to regulate the temperature of the testes. The inside of the testes is divided into small compartments known as lobules. Each lobule contains a section of seminiferous tubule lined with epithelial cells. These epithelial cells contain many stem cells that divide and form sperm cells through the process of spermatogenesis. Epididymis The epididymis is a sperm storage area that wraps around the superior and posterior edge of the testes. The epididymis is made up of several feet of long, thin tubules that are tightly coiled into a small mass. Sperm produced in the testes moves into the epididymis to mature before being passed on through the male reproductive organs. The length of the epididymis delays the release of the sperm and allows them time to mature. Spermatic Cords and Ductus Deferens Within the scrotum, a pair of spermatic cords connects the testes to the abdominal cavity. The spermatic cords contain the ductus deferens along with nerves, veins, arteries, and lymphatic vessels that support the function of the testes. Seminal Vesicles The seminal vesicles are a pair of lumpy exocrine glands that store and produce some of the liquid portion of semen. The seminal vesicles are about 2 inches in length and located posterior to the urinary bladder and anterior to the rectum. The liquid produced by the seminal vesicles contains proteins and mucus and has an alkaline pH to help sperm survive in the acidic environment of the vagina. The liquid also contains fructose to feed sperm cells so that they survive long enough to fertilize the oocyte. Ejaculatory Duct The ductus deferens passes through the prostate and joins with the urethra at a structure known as the ejaculatory duct. The ejaculatory duct contains the ducts from the seminal vesicles as well. During ejaculation, the ejaculatory duct opens and expels sperm and the secretions from the seminal vesicles into the urethra. Urethra Semen passes from the ejaculatory duct to the exterior of the body via the urethra, an 8 to 10 inch long muscular tube. The urethra passes through the prostate and ends at theexternal urethral orifice located at the tip of the penis. Urine exiting the body from the urinary bladder also passes through the urethra. Prostate The prostate is a walnut-sized exocrine gland that borders the inferior end of the urinary bladder and surrounds the urethra. The prostate produces a large portion of the fluid that makes up semen. This fluid is milky white in color and contains enzymes, proteins, and other chemicals to support and protect sperm during ejaculation. The prostate also contains smooth muscle tissue that can constrict to prevent the flow of urine or semen. Cowpers Glands The Cowpers glands, also known as the bulbourethral glands, are a pair of pea-sized exocrine glands located inferior to the prostate

and anterior to the anus. The Cowpers glands secrete a thin alkaline fluid into the urethra that lubricates the urethra and neutralizes acid from urine remaining in the urethra after urination. This fluid enters the urethra during sexual arousal prior to ejaculation to prepare the urethra for the flow of semen. Penis The penis is the male external sexual organ located superior to the scrotum and inferior to the umbilicus. The penis is roughly cylindrical in shape and contains the urethra and the external opening of the urethra. Large pockets of erectile tissue in the penis allow it to fill with blood and become erect. The erection of the penis causes it to increase in size and become turgid. The function of the penis is to deliver semen into the vagina during sexual intercourse. In addition to its reproductive function, the penis also allows for the excretion of urine through the urethra to the exterior of the body. Semen Semen is the fluid produced by males for sexual reproduction and is ejaculated out of the body during sexual intercourse. Semen contains sperm, the male reproductive gametes, along with a number of chemicals suspended in a liquid medium. The chemical composition of semen gives it a thick, sticky consistency and a slightly alkaline pH. These traits help semen to support reproduction by helping sperm to remain within the vagina after intercourse and to neutralize the acidic environment of the vagina. In healthy adult males, semen contains around 100 million sperm cells per milliliter. These sperm cells fertilize oocytes inside the female fallopian tubes.

THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Ovaries The ovaries are a pair of small glands about the size and shape of almonds, located on the left and right sides of the pelvic body cavity lateral to the superior portion of the uterus. Ovaries produce female sex hormones such as estrogen and progesterone as well as ova (commonly called "eggs"), the female gametes. Ova are produced from oocyte cells that slowly develop throughout a womans ear ly life and reach maturity after puberty. Each month during ovulation, a mature ovum is released. The ovum travels from the ovary to the fallopian tube, where it may be fertilized before reaching the uterus. Fallopian Tubes The fallopian tubes are a pair of muscular tubes that extend from the left and right superior corners of the uterus to the edge of the ovaries. The fallopian tubes end in a funnel-shaped structure called the infundibulum, which is covered with small finger-like projections called fimbriae. The fimbriae swipe over the outside of the ovaries to pick up released ova and carry them into the infundibulum for transport to the uterus. The inside of each fallopian tube is covered in cilia that work with the smooth muscle of the tube to carry the ovum to the uterus. Uterus The uterus is a hollow, muscular, pear-shaped organ located posterior and superior to the urinary bladder. Connected to the two fallopian tubes on its superior end and to the vagina (via the cervix) on its inferior end, the uterus is also known as the womb, as it surrounds and supports the developing fetus during pregnancy. The inner lining of the uterus, known as the endometrium, provides support to the embryo during early development. The visceral muscles of the uterus contract during childbirth to push the fetus through the birth canal. Vagina The vagina is an elastic, muscular tube that connects the cervix of the uterus to the exterior of the body. It is located inferior to the uterus and posterior to the urinary bladder. The vagina functions as the receptacle for the penis during sexual intercourse and carries sperm to the uterus and fallopian tubes. It also serves as the birth canal by stretching to allow delivery of the fetus during childbirth. During menstruation, the menstrual flow exits the body via the vagina. Fimbriae Fingerlike structure that draw an egg cell from the ovary to the fallopian tube.

Physical changes in the teenage years For girls, you might start to see early physical changes from about 10 or 11 years, but they might start as young as 8 years or as old as 13 years. Physical changes around puberty include: breast development changes in body shape and height growth of pubic and body hair the start of periods (menstruation)

For boys, physical changes usually start around 11 or 12 years, but they might start as young as 9 years or as old as 14 years. Physical changes include: growth of the penis and testes (testicles) height increase change in body shape erections with ejaculation growth of body and facial hair changes to voice.

THE OVARIAN CYCLE

Ovarian Cycle The normal sex cycle that includes development of an ovarian follicle, rupture of the follicle, discharge ofthe ovum, and formation and regression of a corpus luteum. This cycle is associated with the maturation of the oocyte and its discharge from the ovary, from where it passes through the oviduct to the uterus. The sequence of physiologic changes in the ovary involved in ovulation.

THE MENSTRUAL CYCLE

THE HUMAN GAMETES

In humans, the largest cell is the egg cell. The sperm cell is relatively smaller than the egg cell. It has a tail-like structure called flagellum. The flagellum is needed by the sperm cell in order to move.

FERTILIZATION

The process of fertilization involves a sperm fusing with an ovum. The most common sequence begins with ejaculation during copulation, follows with ovulation, and finishes with fertilization. Various exceptions to this sequence are possible, including artificial insemination, In vitro fertilization, external ejaculation without copulation, or copulation shortly after ovulation. Upon encountering the secondary oocyte, the acrosome of the sperm produces enzymes which allow it to burrow through the outer jelly coat of the egg. The sperm plasma then fuses with the egg's plasma membrane, the sperm head disconnects from its flagellum and the egg travels down the Fallopian tube to reach the uterus.

FATAL GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

Stages of Growth: Month by Month Month 1 As the fertilized egg grows, a water-tight sac forms around it, gradually filling with fluid. This is called the amniotic sac, and it helps cushion the growing embryo. The placenta also develops. The placenta is a round, flat organ that transfers nutrients from the mother to the baby, and transfers wastes from the baby. A primitive face will take form with large dark circles for eyes. The mouth, lower jaw, and throat are developing. Blood cells are taking shape, and circulation will begin. The tiny "heart" tube will beat 65 times a minute by the end of the fourth week. By the end of the first month, your baby is about 1/4 inch long smaller than a grain of rice! Month 2 Your babys facial features continue to develo p. Each ear begins as a little fold of skin at the side of the head. Tiny buds that eventually grow into arms and legs are forming. Fingers, toes and eyes are also forming. The neural tube (brain, spinal cord and other neural tissue of the central nervous system) is well formed. The digestive tract and sensory organs begin to develop. Bone starts to replace cartilage. The head is large in proportion to the rest of the babys body. By the end of the second month, your baby is about 1 inch long and weighs about 1/30 of an ounce. At about 6 weeks, your babys heart beat can usually be detected. After the 8th week, your baby is called a fetus instead of an embryo. Month 3 Your babys arms, hands, fingers, feet, and toes are fully formed. Your baby can open and c lose its fists and mouth. Fingernails and toenails are beginning to develop and the external ears are formed. The beginnings of teeth are forming. Your babys reproduc tive organs also develop, but the babys gender is difficult to distinguish on ultrasound . By the end of the third month, your baby is fully formed. All the organs and extremities are present and will continue to mature in order to become functional. The circulatory and urinary systems are working and the liver produces bile. At the end of the third month, your baby is about 4 inches long and weighs about 1 ounce. Since your babys most critical development has taken place, your chance of miscarriage drops considerably after three months . Month 4 Your babys heartbeat may now be audible through an instrument called a doppler. The fingers and toes are well-defined. Eyelids, eyebrows, eyelashes, nails, and hair are formed. Teeth and bones become denser. Your baby can even suck his or her thumb, yawn, stretch, and make faces. The nervous system is starting to function. The reproductive organs and genitalia are now fully developed, and your doctor can see on ultrasound if you are having a boy or a girl. By the end of the fourth month, your baby is about 6 inches long and weighs about 4 ounces. Month 5 You may begin to feel your baby move, since he or she is developing muscles and exercising them. This first movement is called quickening. Hair begins to grow on babys head. Your babys shoulders, back, and temples are covered by a soft fine hair called lanugo. This hair protects your baby and is usually shed at the end of the babys first week of life.

The babys skin is covered with a whitish coating called vernix caseosa. This "cheesy" substance is thought to protect babys skin from the long exposure to the amniotic fluid. This coating is shed just before birth. By the end of the fifth month, your baby is about 10 inches long and weighs from 1/2 to 1 pound. Month 6 Your babys skin is reddish in color, wrinkled, and veins are visible through the babys translucent skin. Babys finger and toe prints are visible. The eyelids begin to part and the eyes open. Baby responds to sounds by moving or increasing the pulse. You may notice jerking motions if baby hiccups. If born prematurely, your baby may survive after the 23rd week with intensive care. By the end of the sixth month, your baby is about 12 inches long and weighs about 2 pounds. Month 7 Your baby will continue to mature and develop reserves of body fat. Your babys hearing is fully developed. H e or she changes position frequently and responds to stimuli, including sound, pain, and light. The amniotic fluid begins to diminish. At the end of the seventh month, your baby is about 14 inches long and weighs from 2 to 4 pounds. If born prematurely, your baby would be likely to survive after the seventh month. Month 8 Your baby will continue to mature and develop reserves of body fat. You may notice that your baby is kicking more. Babys bra in is developing rapidly at this time, and your baby can see and hear. Most internal systems are well developed, but the lungs may still be immature. Your baby is about 18 inches long and weighs as much as 5 pounds. Month 9 Your baby continues to grow and mature: the lungs are nearly fully developed. Your babys reflexes are coordinated so he or she can blink, close the eyes, turn the head, grasp firmly, and respond to sounds, light, and touch. Baby is definitely ready to enter the world! You may notice that your baby moves less due to tight space. Your babys position changes to prepare itself for labor and delivery. The baby drops down in your pelvis. Usually, the babys head is down toward the birth canal. Your baby is about 18 to 20 inches long and weighs about 7 pounds.

PARTS OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

nasal cavity nasal septum turbinates

Contains nasal septum, turbinates, and cilia. Divides nasal cavities into right and left sides.

Bones that protrude into the nasal cavity- they increase surface area for filtering dust and dirt particles by the mucous membrane.

cilia sinuses

Nose hairs, trap larger dirt particles. Cavities in the skull, ducts connect them to the nasal cavity, lined with mucous membrane to warm and moisten the air. Give resonance to voice.

types of sinuses pharynx epiglottis

Frontal, maxillary, ethmoid, and sphenoid.

Throat. Common passageway for air and food. 5" long. When food is swallowed, this closes over the opening to the larnyx, preventing food from entering the lungs.

larynx glottis trachea

Voice box. Triangular chamber below pharynx. "Adam's Apple". Vocal cords within the larynx. Windpipe. 4.5" long. Walls are alternate bands of membrane and c-shaped rings of hyaline cartilage to keep it open. Lined with ciliated mucous membrane. Coughing and expectoration gets rid of dust-laden mucous.

bronchi

Similar to trachea with ciliated mucous membrane and hyaline cartilage. Lower end of trachea divides into right and left this.

bronchial tubes bronchioles

Cartilaginous plates (instead of c-shaped rings of trachea).

Thinner walls of smooth muscle, lined with ciliated epithelium. Subdivision of bronci. At the end, alveolar duct and cluster of alveoli.

alveoli

Composed of single layer of epithelial tissue. Inner surfaces covered with surfactant to keep from collapsing. Each surrounded by capillaries. Oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange takes place between these and capillaries.

lungs apex base right lung left lung pleura

Fill thoracic cavity. Tissue is porous and spongy- it floats. Upper part of lung. Lower part of lung. Larger and shorter (displaced by liver) and has three lobes. Smaller (displaced by heart) and has two lobes. Thin, moist, slippery membrane that covers lungs. Double-walled sac. Space is pleural cavity- filled with pleural fluid to prevent friciton.

THE BREATHING MECHANISM

PARTICLES FOUND IN THE AIR

COMPONENTS OF A CIGARETTE

THE PARTS OF THE URINARY SYSTEM

The Urinary System and Its Major Parts 1. Kidneys- the kidneys are two brownish, bean shaped organs about the size of a fist, they weigh about 5 ounces. They are located in the upper right and left back part of the abdominal cavity. Each kidney contains about 1,200,000 microscopic filters called nephrons. Nephrons are smaller than the smaller dots. The main function or the kidneys are to maintain the water balance and to eliminate waste materials from the blood.

2.

Ureters the left and the right ureters are long muscular tubes. They are about 12 inches long with a diameter 2 to 3 millimeters.

The ureters connect pelvis of each kidney to urinary bladder. They carry urine from each kidney to the urinary bladder. 3. The Urinary Bladder the urinary bladder is a muscular sac that holds urine. It is located in front the pelvis and behind the pubis. As the bladder fills walls stretch signaling the desire to urinate. 4. The Urethra- the urethra is a muscular tube which carries urine from the bladder to the outside part of the body. In the female, it is a one inch long from the bladder to the cleft of the labia. In the male, it is several inches long from the prostate gland to the penis. When one is about to urinate, a value in the urethra relaxes to allow the urine to flow out.

LAYERS OF THE HUMAN SKIN

THE LIVER

The liver is a vital organ present in vertebrates and some other animals. It has a wide range of functions, including detoxification, protein synthesis, and production of biochemicals necessary for digestion. The liver is necessary for survival; there is currently no way to compensate for the absence of liver function in the long term, although new liver dialysis techniques can be used in the short term. This organ plays a major role in metabolism and has a number of functions in the body, including glycogen storage, decomposition of red blood cells, plasma protein synthesis, hormone production, and detoxification. It lies below the diaphragm in the abdominal-pelvic region of the abdomen. It produces bile, an alkaline compound which aids in digestion via the emulsification of lipids. The liver's highly specialized tissues regulate a wide variety of high-volume biochemical reactions, including the synthesis and breakdown of small and complex molecules, many of which are necessary for normal vital functions.

KIDNEY STONES

These are solid particles deposited in the kidney. This ailment is also caused by too much intake of salty foods. The salt that accumulates in the blood is filtered by the kidney. However, if there is too much salt to be filtered, it may be deposited and hardened inside the kidney. Symptoms of having kidney stones include painful urination, blood in the urine and back pain.

MGA TANYAG NA PILIPINO NOONG PANAHON NG KASTILA 1. Adonay, Marcelo Quitoria- Larangan ng Musika 2. Baltazar, Fransisco- Larangan ng Panitikan 3. Belen, Gaspar Aquino de- larangan sa Panitikan 4. Domingo, Damian- Larangan sa pagpinta 5. Hidalgo, Felix Resureccion- Larangan sa pagpinta 6. Jaena, Graciano Lopez- Larangan sa panitikan 7. Lozano, Jose Honorato- Larangan sa Pagpinta 8. Luna, Juan- Larangan sa Pagpinta 9. Rizal, Jose - Larangan sa Panitikan 10. De Los Santos, Juan- Larangan sa Paglililok