High forest (woodland)

High forest is a term for a woodland or forest with a well-developed natural structure. It is
used in both ecology and woodland management, particularly in contrast with even-aged
woodland types such as coppice and planted woodland.
In a high forest the trees range in age from young seedlings and saplings through to mature
trees and veteran trees, and there are well-developed layers of canopy trees, shrubs and
ground vegetation, as well as occasional clearings.
High forest may occur as a result of the natural development of woodland without human
interference, or it may be created and maintained through deliberate management. It
usually has greater biodiversity than even-aged woodland, because it has a greater range of
microhabitats within it (thus providing niches for more organisms), and because it is more
similar to the natural woodland to which woodland organisms are adapted.
Once fully established, high forest may require less regular woodland management than
some other woodland types such as coppice, and for this reason (as well as the potential for
increased biodiversity), it is sometimes chosen as a deliberate management aim for
neglected woodland.
In many climates, a lack of woodland management in plantation or coppice may eventually
produce high forest, as trees fall and new ones grow. However, this natural process is likely
to take many decades on its own, and so deliberate thinning and selective felling may be
used to speed up development of high forest.

Ecotone
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
An ecotone is a transition area between two adjacent but different plant communities, such
as forest and grassland. It may appear on the ground as a gradual blending of the two
communities across a broad area, or it may manifest itself as a sharp boundary line.
Changes in the physical environment may produce a sharp boundary, as in the example of
the interface between areas of forest and cleared land (Krummholz). Elsewhere, a more
gradually blended interface area will be found, where species from each community will be
found together as well as unique local species. Mountain ranges often create such ecotones,
due to the wide variety of climatic conditions experienced on their slopes. They may also
provide a boundary between species due to the obstructive nature of their terrain; Mont
Ventoux in France is a good example, marking the boundary between the flora and fauna of
northern and southern France. Most wetlands are ecotones.
Ecotones are particularly significant for mobile animals, as they can exploit more than one
set of habitats within a short distance. This can produce an edge effect along the boundary
line, with the area displaying a greater than usual diversity of species.
The phenomenon of increased variety of plants as well as animals at the community
junction is called the Edge effect and is essentially due to a locally broader range of
suitable environmental conditions or ecological niches.
The word was coined from a combination of eco(logy) plus -tone, from the Greek tonos or
tension – in other words, a place where ecologies are in tension.
Sacred groves of India
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For the article about sacred groves in general, see Sacred grove
Sacred groves in India refer to forest fragments of varying sizes, which are communally
protected, and which usually have a significant religious connotation for the protecting
community. Hunting and logging are usually strictly prohibited within these patches. [1] Other
forms of forest usage like honey collection and deadwood collection are sometimes allowed on
a sustainable basis. Sacred groves did not enjoy protection via federal legislation in India.
Some NGOs work with local villagers to protect such groves. Traditionally, and in some cases
even today, members of the community take turns to protect the grove. [2] However, the
introduction of the protected area category community reserves under the Wildlife (Protection)
Amendment Act of 2002 has introduced legislation for providing government protection to
community held lands, which could include sacred groves.
Indian sacred groves are sometimes associated with temples / monasteries / shrines or with
burial grounds (which is the case in Shinto and Ryukyuan religion-based sacred groves
respectively in Japan). Sacred groves may be loosely used to refer to other natural habitat
protected on religious grounds, such as Alpine Meadows.
Historical references to sacred groves can be obtained from ancient classics as far back as
Kalidasa's Vikramuurvashiiya.
[edit] Beliefs
Typically, such groves are associated with the concept of a "presiding deity". While most of
these sacred deities are associated with local Hindu gods, sacred groves of Islamic and
Buddhist origins, and some based on smaller local religions and folk religions (like the folk
deities ayyanar and amman ) are also known of. There are over 1000 deities associated with
sacred groves in the states of Kerala and Karnataka alone. In Kodagu in Karnataka the martial
community of Kodavas maintained Deva kadus dedicated to Aiyappa the forest god.
[edit] Locations
Sacred groves are scattered all over the country, and are referred to by different names in
different parts of India. Sacred groves occur in a variety of places - from scrub forests in the
Thar Desert of Rajasthan maintained by the Bishnois, to rain forests in the Kerala Western
Ghats. Himachal Pradesh in the North and Kerala in the South are specifically known for their
large numbers of sacred groves. The Kodavas of Karnataka alone maintained over a 1000
sacred groves in their region. [3]
Around 14,000 sacred groves have been reported from all over India, which act as reservoirs of
rare fauna, and more often rare flora, amid rural and even urban settings. Experts believe that
the total number of sacred groves could be as high as 100,000. [4] [5]
It is estimated that around 1000 km² of unexploited land is inside sacred groves. Some of the
more famous groves are the kavus of Kerala, which are located in the Western Ghats and have
enormous biodiversity; and the law kyntangs of Meghalaya - sacred groves associated with
every village (two large groves being in Mawphlang and Mausmai) to appease the forest spirit.
Among the largest sacred groves of India are the ones in Hariyali, near Ganchar in Chamoli
District of Uttarakhand, and the Deodar grove in Shipin near Simla in Himachal Pradesh.
Kodagu, a small region of about 4000 sq.km. in Karnataka, had over a 1000 sacred groves.
No of
State Local name References
groves
Andhra 750 B. R. P. Rao [6]
Pradesh
Gumpa forests
Arunachal
65 (since attached Dudley et al. [7]
Pradesh
to monasteries)
Assam 40 Than, Madaico
Sarna, Devlas,
Chhattisgarh 600*
Mandar, Budhadev
SERBC document
Goa NA* [8]

Gujarat 29*
Haryana 248
Himachal
5000 Deo bhumi
Pradesh
Sarna
more than 500 " Jaherthan" in Godda of
Jharkhand 21* Marine Carrin [9]
Jharkhand<Saurabh
Gunjan>s.gunjan@rediffmail.com
Devarakadu,
Karnataka 1424 Gadgil et al. [10]
Devarkan
Kerala 2000 Kavu M. Jayarajan [11]
Madhya Devkot, Matikot,
21*
Pradesh Devsthali, Budhadev
Deorai/Devrai
(Pune, Ratnagiri, Waghchaure et al.
Maharashtra 1600
Raigarh, Kolhapur [12]
districts)
Gamkhap, Mauhak
Khumbongyam et
Manipur 365 (sacred bamboo [13]
al.
reserves)
Law kyntang, Upadhyay et al.
Meghalaya 79 [14]
Law lyngdhoh
Orissa 322* Jahera, Thakuramma
Ramanujam et al.
Pondicherry 108 Kovil Kadu [15]

Oran (Jaiselmer,
Jodhpur, Bikaner),
Kenkri (Ajmer),
Rajasthan 9*
Vani (Mewar),
Shamlat deh, Devbani
(Alwar), Jogmaya
Gumpa forests
S. S. Dash [16]
Sikkim 56 (since attached
Dudley et al. [7]
to monasteries)
M. Amrithalingam
Tamil Nadu 503 Kovil Kadu [17]

Uttarakhand 18* Deobhumi, Bugyal Anthwal et al. [18]

 (sacred alpine
meadows)
Garamthan, Harithan,
West Bengal 670* Jahera, Sabitrithan, R. K. Bhakat [19]
Santalburithan
All numbers are quoted from the records of the C.P.R. Environmental Education Centre of the
Government of India. Starred numbers are likely to increase. The centre also maintains a
complete list of identified sacred groves in India, most of which is online. [20]
[edit] Uses
Traditional uses: One of the most important traditional uses of sacred groves was that it acted
as a repository for various Ayurvedic medicines. Other uses involved a source of replenishable
resources like fruits and honey. However, in most sacred groves it was taboo to hunt or chop
wood. The vegetation cover helps reduce soil erosion and prevents desertification, as in
Rajasthan. The groves are often associated with ponds and streams, and meet water
requirements of local communities. They sometimes help in recharging aquifers as well.
Modern uses: In modern times, sacred groves have become biodiversity hotspots, as various
species seek refuge in the areas due to progressive habitat destruction, and hunting. Sacred
groves often contain plant and animal species that have become extinct in neighboring areas.
They therefore harbor great genetic diversity. Besides this, sacred groves in urban landscapes
act as "lungs" to the city as well, providing much needed vegetation cover.
[edit] Threats
Threats to the grove include urbanization, over-exploitation of resources (like overgrazing and
excessive fuelwood collection), and environmental destruction due to religious practices. While
many of the groves are looked upon as abode of Hindu gods, in the recent past a number of
them have been partially cleared for construction of shrines and temples. [4] Other threats to the
sacred groves include invasion by invasive species, like the invasive weeds Chromolaena
odorata, Lantana camara and Prosopis juliflora.
[edit] Traditions
A large number of distinct local art forms and folk traditions are associated with the deities of
sacred groves, and are an important cultural aspect closely associated with sacred traditions.
Ritualistic dances and dramatizations based on the local deities that protect the groves are
called Theyyam in Kerala and Nagmandalam, among other names, in Karnataka. Often,
elaborate rituals and traditions are associated with sacred groves [21], as are associated folk tales
and folk mythology.

Bishnois
The Bishnois are a community of nature worshippers in the state of Rajasthan, India. They
also have a sizeable presence in the neighbouring states of Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh,
Maharashtra, Gujarat,Haryana, Punjab and Delhi.
•
Origin of the Bishnois
The sect was founded by Guru Jambheshwar (b. 1451) after a drought in the Marwar region
of India. He made a community having 29 principles to follow thus Bishnoi translates as
Twenty-niners. Further, the Guru directed the worship of lord Vishnu (Bishnu). Killing
animals and the felling of trees was banned. One of his 29 principles states "jeev daya
palni, runkh lilo nahi dhave" which means to protect trees and animals, thus trees and
animals are considered to be sacred by the Bishnois.
Worship Places Belongs to Bishnois
Worship places of Bishnois situated in a small village called MUKAM at Nokha Tehsil in
Bikaner District Rajasthan. Other places belongs to Bishnois are SAMRATHAL DHORA
situated 3 km from Mukam, Pipasar, Jangloo, Lohat, Lodipur(UP) etc.
Lovers of animals and plant life

Khejri, Prosopis cineraria tree.

Bishnois are strong lovers of wild animals. It is because of their protection that in Bishnoi-
dominated areas, deer and antelope (such as blue bulls, black bucks, chinkaras and
chowsinghas) are seen grazing peacefully in their fields despite the fact that the State of
Rajasthan where the Bishnois mainly live, faces severe water shortages.
In recent years, the Bishnoi community has launched strong protests against the killing of
black bucks by Salman Khan, a Bollywood film star and Mansur Ali Khan of Pataudi, a
former Indian cricketer. Noted chartered accountant and social activist Mangilal Bishnoi
led the demonstration against actor Salman Khan in Mumbai. In New Delhi, Mr. Sharvan
Bishnoi(sharan) given the notice to Menaka Gandhi, Salman Khan was convicted on the
evidence of Bishnoi witnesses.[citation needed]

Amrita Devi and the Khejarli Massacre

Cenotaph of Bishnoi martyrs at Khejarli, who laid down their lives in 1730 AD protecting
trees
Main article: Khejarli#Origin of Chipko_movement
On a Tuesday (the 10th day of the month of Bhadrapad, according to the Indian lunar
calendar, in 1730 AD, Amrita Devi, a Bishnoi woman was at her home with her three
daughters, Asu, Ratni and Bhagu bai, when she learned that a number of people had
descended on their otherwise sleepy village of Khejarli, named after "Khejri" (Prosopis
cineraria) trees, found in abundance in the village. The people were a party of men sent by
Maharaja Abhay Singh, the ruler of the kingdom of Jodhpur, in the Marwar region; their
mission was to fell green Khejri trees to burn lime for the construction of the Maharaja's
new palace and there was a lot of greenery in the Bishnoi villages even in the middle of the
Thar Desert.

The martyrdom of Amrita Devi

Amrita Devi protested against the Maharaja's men who were attempting to cut green trees
as it was prohibited according to Bishnoi principles. The malevolent feudal party told her
that if she wanted the trees to be spared, she would have to give them money as a bribe.
She refused to acknowledge this demand and told them that she would consider it an act of
insult to her religious faith and would rather give her life to save the green trees. At that
point she spoke these words:
Sar santey rookh rahe to bhi sasto jaan
(If a tree is saved even at the cost of one's head, it's worth it)
Having said these words she offered her head. The axes, which were brought to cut the
trees, severed her head. The three young girls Asu, Ratni and Bhagu were not daunted, and
offered their heads too.
The Khejarli Massacre
The news spread like wildfire. The Bishnois of Khejarli gathered and sent summons to their
counterparts in eighty-three Bishnoi villages in the vicinity to come and decide on the next
course of action. Since the supreme sacrifice by Amrita Devi and her daughters had not
satisfied the royal party, and the felling of green trees was continued, it was decided that for
every green tree to be cut, one Bishnoi volunteer would sacrifice his/her life. In the
beginning, old people voluntarily started holding the trees to be cut in an embrace (as in the
20th century Chipko Movement).
Despite many valiant old persons sacrificing themselves, the Hakim (the royal party's
leader), Girdhar Das Bhandari, taunted the Bishnois that they were offering unwanted old
persons. Soon, young men and women (including the recently married) and children were
sacrificing themselves in a similar manner.
There was pandemonium. The tree-felling party was badly shaken. With their mission
unfulfilled, they left for Jodhpur to relay these events to the Maharaja. As soon as he
learned about it, he ordered the felling of trees to be stopped.
By that time, three hundred and sixty three (363) Bishnois, young and old, men and
women, married and unmarried, rich and poor had already become martyrs.
Khejarli Massacre aftermath
Honouring the courage of the Bishnoi community, Maharaja Abhay Singh apologised for
the mistake committed by his officials and issued a royal decree, engraved on a copper
plate ordering the following:
• All cutting of green trees and hunting of animals within the revenue boundaries of
Bishnoi villages was strictly prohibited.
• It was also ordered that if by mistake any individual violated this order, he would be
prosecuted by the state and a severe penalty imposed.
• Even members of the ruling family would not shoot animals in or near Bishnoi
villages.
World Environment Day
World Environment Day is celebrated every year on 5th June. Bishnois also celebrate world
Environment Day on 5th June at Bishnoi Bhanwan, New Delhi.
Joint Forest Management
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Joint Forest Management scheme at work in degraded forests of the Arabari forest range,
West Bengal
Joint Forest Management often abbreviated as JFM is the official and popular term in
India for partnerships in forest management involving both the state forest departments and
local communities. The policies and objectives of Joint Forest Management are detailed in
the Indian comprehensive National Forest Policy of 1988 [1] and the Joint Forest
Management Guidelines of 1990 of the Government of India[2].
Although schemes vary from state to state and are known by different names in different
Indian languages, usually a village committee known as the Forest Protection Committee
(FPC) and the Forest Department enter into a JFM agreement. Villagers agree to assist in
the safeguarding of forest resources through protection from fire, grazing, and illegal
harvesting in exchange for which they receive non-timber forest products and a share of the
revenue from the sale of timber products.[3].
•
[edit] Origins
Joint Forest Management originated in West Bengal accidentally at the Arabari Forest
Range in West Midnapore, near Midnapore town in 1971. The major hardwood of Arabari
is sal, a commercially profitable forest crop. Ajit K. Banerjee, a silviculturalist, working for
the Forest Department as the Divisional Forest Officer, was conducting trials which were
constantly being disturbed by grazing and illegal harvesting by the local populace. At the
time there were no initiatives for sharing of forest resources between the government and
the locals, with the government considering many of the locals no more than "thieves".[4]
The forest official, against the suggestions of his co-workers, sought out representatives of
eleven local villages and negotiated the terms of a contract with an ad hoc Forest Protection
Committee. The initial program involved 612 families managing 12.7 square kilometres of
forests classified as "degraded". 25% of profits from the forests were shared with the
villagers. The experiment was successful and was expanded to other parts of the state in
1987. JFM is still in force at Arabari. [1]
A few years later, Joint Forest Management was employed in the state of Haryana to
prevent soil erosion and deforestation. In 1977, villagers were persuaded that instead of
grazing on erosion-prone hills, building small dams would help agricultural output on areas
currently under cultivation. The program led to reforestation of many hills in the state.[5]
[edit] Current status
After the initial successes in West Bengal and Haryana, the JFM schemes received national
importance in the legislation of 1988 and thrust in the Guidelines of 1990. As of 2005, 27
states of the Indian Union had various JFM schemes with over 63,000 FPCs involved in the
joint management of over 140,000 km² of forested land.[6]
Nepal has also developed a system of community forest management on the lines of JFM.[7]