University of KwaZulu Natal

Work & Identities (PSYC702)

Seminar: 4

Presenters:

Devon Ferreira (204519344)

Siphesihle Ngobese (205516965)

Date: 3 April 2009

Introduction

The notion of a contextualized career counselling model and science for the South African
environment is an issue at the heart of many an academic and practitioner in this field.
However the realities of this outcome are dependant on a few mitigating circumstances and
considerations that have to be adequately metered out. Thus this paper in a critically
descriptive manner shall elucidate the circumstances and considerations alluded to, by
introducing most importantly the concepts and works of various authors on this topic. The
ideas shall be provided, and crucially a critique for each shall be presented after each
discussion. Conceptually, this essay shall begin by positing what theories are most pervasive
within the South African career counselling framework with an express look at the theories of
Holland (1973) and Super (1990), such predisposition towards these theories shall be
critiqued by stating the socio-economic reality of South Africa which render these specific
western theories ineffective and aloof. Thus this shall lead into the next idea this paper seeks
to raise which is the advocating of the Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT) as the most
appropriate theory in the interim. The key tenets of this theory shall be discussed, showing
explicitly its relevance for the local context.

Given the argument that SCCT should be pervasive in the interim, we’ll then elucidate on
what the proposed path career counselling methods and research should ascribe to in South
Africa, by looking at Indigenisation and Indigenous psychologies respectively; and more
significantly to support this idea, by showing the need to develop a qualitative career
assessment process. Critically, the qualitative assessment model shall require a look into a
constructivist framework to assist in constructing meaning; and the idea that supports
framework this is the usage of the hermeneutic and dialogical approach to understanding
career development.

It is important to state that at that juncture of our paper, the notion of uncertainty shall be
introduced and meticulously discussed, by firstly assessing what its impact and implications
for career decision-making are, and discussing what recommendations and guidelines are
posited under the positive uncertainty framework are. The penultimate section of this paper
shall then theoretically account for the current era of constant change and uncertainty we
construct our sense of reality in; by providing firstly the Happenstance theory, which asserts
unplanned events aren’t annoyances, but should be seen as opportunities for career
exploration. The next theory is the chaos theory which we shall show critiques traditional
processes and posits a look at the individual and environment in more dynamic terms. In
addition we will discuss complexity theory which also focuses on non-linear dynamics as
well as relationships and views careers as complex adaptive entities. A conclusion shall then
summate.

Career Counselling in South Africa

The notion of career counselling, most importantly the aspect of actual career choice is seen
as undergoing a radical change, as the rigours of the post-modern society bring about
constant changes, and constant need to adapt. In South Africa, not only has the advent of a
transition into a democracy brought about significant change, but the re-opening of our
physical and metaphorical borders, have led to an influx of international goods and ideas that
we had to catch up to, and in many cases adapt or conform to. On the issue of the
development of career counselling in South Africa in particular, the adoption of western or
foreign theories has led to the proliferation of the usage of Euro-American theories and
theorists to provide an explanation of local phenomena. De Bruin and Nel (1996) report that
most researchers take the developmental model of Super (1990) or Holland’s (1973)
structural model of career interests and personalities as their theoretical frames of reference
(1996:248). However, such theories are sadly not appropriate for the South African context
given the unique nature of our society, and the very specific developmental pathway our
country is taking; in fact Stead & Watson (1999) begin with a critique of Super & Holland as
not adequately representative of the South African context. The crux of this critique lays in
the assertion that most empirical literature, and thus derived theories, posit the western
notions of career development. Stead & Watson (1999) write that, some of the most important
assumptions of the dominant Western theories of career development are:

• that people’s career development can be divided into clearly demarcated

developmental stages,
• that each development has to be completed successfully before the individual can
move to the next stage
• that if the developmental stages are dealt with successfully the individual should be
able to make a satisfying career choice
• that if the individual works hard he or she will be able to have a successful career
(in Stead & Watson, 1999:91). However the reality of South Africa dictates a different case.
Stead & Watson (1999) explain that, these assumptions do not necessarily hold for
individuals who do not have access to adequate educational, social and economic resources,
as is often the case in South Africa (Stead & Watson, 1999:91). The most pervasive career
counselling theories have been identified as Super (1990) & Holland (1973) theories,
however, as already mentioned, these theories are rendered largely inadequate for the South
African context; as Stead & Watson (1999) argue, do not take sufficient account of the
context in which career development takes place and thus are limited when applied in
contexts outside of middle-class America (Stead & Watson, 1999:92). A theory MUST
account for the socio-economic context, that is the environment it operates in, or else its
implicit worldview might render it negatively biased and unable to provide adequate
explanations of the target population.

Herein are the virtues of an argument for the use of the Social Cognitive Career Theory
(SCCT). There are six concepts that the authors advocate have to be fully understood when it
comes to an understanding of the SCCT: Triadic Reciprocity is the relationship between
personal attributes, the external environment and overt behaviour (Stead & Watson, 1999:92).
This point of view emphasises that people contribute actively to shaping their environment
(while the environment is shaping them), and are therefore not viewed as helpless victims of
their environment. This rings true for ordinary South Africans, whom although are the agents
of change in the environment they live in, are also shaped extensively by their environment.
This feedback loop is what triadic reciprocity seeks to highlight and account for.

Self-Efficacy expectations refer to people’s belief about their capabilities to perform

particular tasks (Bandura, 1986 in Stead & Watson, 1999:93). There are four ways to
experience self-efficacy and these are through; personal performance accomplishments,
vicarious learning, social or verbal persuasion, and physiological arousal. Hackett (1995)
asserts that, it follows that peoples beliefs about their ability to perform the tasks of a
particular occupation may influence their decision to enter into the occupation or not (in
Stead & Watson, 1999:93). In South Africa, self-efficacy is probably one of the most crucial
aspects that has to be addressed pertaining to enabling people to go after careers they like, as
opposed to being relegated to what is conveniently accessible yet they’re not satisfied in such
careers.

Outcome expectations refer to what people believe the results of particular behaviours will be
(Stead & Watson, 1999:93). In South Africa we need to build mechanisms whether by the
state or the private sector that encourage people to engage in behaviours that they feel will
lead to desirable outcomes.

Goals are defined by Lent et al. (1996) as the determination to engage in a particular activity
or to effect a particular future outcome (in Stead & Watson, 1999:93). Put best as saying that
in essence goals help people organise themselves. They would in essence be useful for career
counselling in the school setting in the sense that it would assist school-leaving learners guide
their actions and behaviour; however, this wouldn’t end at the school level, even for general
career counselling, the setting of goals could prove to hold great importance.

Interests are asserted under SCCT to see people develop interests in activities for which they
have positive self-efficacy and outcome expectations. Lent & Brown (1996) emphasise that
interests are tied to learning experiences, as according to this point of view, interests can
change throughout the lifespan depending on the learning opportunities that individuals
encounter (in Stead & Watson, 1999:94).

Career choice according to SCCT sees career choice flowing from the goals and activities
that develop out of interests (Stead & Watson, 1999:94). Choice most importantly is seen as
being correlated highly with opportunity, that is, whether it is open or limited. In South Africa
choice for many previously disadvantaged people is limited in the new economy as they are
unable to compete in a market economy; thus the environment is still posing a hindrance to
the development of many South Africans pertaining to their career choices. Stead & Watson
(1999) state that, in such cases individuals have to consider what jobs are available and then
assess whether they think they can do what is required and whether the outcomes will be
favourable (Stead & Watson, 1999:95).

The most important aspect to be ascribed is that this theory is able to be contextualized, that
is, it is able to adapt. SCCT recognizes the important influence of the context or environment
on the development of self-efficacy, expectations, outcome expectations and career choices
(Stead & Watson, 1999:95). It is argued that such an environment may be conducive and
fostering or even restrictive. With the South African context in mind, a major issue of the
structural skills shortage within the technical, math and science sector of society should be
addressed. The issue has been the propensity of black students to opt for careers in the social
fields, and avoid the technical/mathematics fields. Why has this happened? Banduras (1986)
is quoted to explain the best predictors pertaining to career decisions as self-efficacy
expectations (in Stead & Watson, 1999:96). The authors then continue to address this by
applying the SCCT to a case study of research that had been conducted by Watson et al
(1997) which reported that 72% of 216 black senior high school students in the Eastern Cape
aspired to social and investigative occupations (in Stead & Watson, 1999:96); however upon
closer inspection it was found that very few students aspired to more scientific occupations
such as engineering, technical trades, and computer science. Although the economy is in
desperate need for these skills, most black students have shown a propensity to avoid
scientific and technical skills areas, preferring to occupy studies in the social fields. Stead &
Watson (1999) assert that demand for graduates in the social sciences is not high, suggesting
that many of South Africa’s graduates may find it difficult to find employment in this field
(1999: 96).

Thus SCCT is contextualised to this case example, and seeks to address this issue by
asserting principally that positive self-efficacy expectations for science and mathematics-
related occupations can only develop if individuals have access to sources that may reinforce
their self-efficacy expectations (Stead & Watson, 1999:97). In keeping to the issue of
mathematics and science, a major hindrance to self-efficacy for South African school-
children is their lack of access to basic amenities. SCCT as mentioned calls for vicarious
learning, however in the case study, such is learning is difficult to achieve; as Stead & Watson
(1999) explain that there is a lack of role models, especially black role models, in science
related occupations (Stead & Watson, 1999:97). Vicarious learning may also only effectively
occur with people from the areas making it, as they would be able to relate with people better
through shared experience. The implications thus for career counselling in South Africa is
that counsellors should point out and explore discrepancies between an individual’s self-
efficacy expectations and his or her abilities or skills (Brown & Lent, 1996).

The pertinent ideas to extract is that the SCCT model is especially useful because it considers
the socio-cultural context in which learning takes place; and critically it does not assume that
everyone has one development route to follow. SCCT takes a positive view of the ability of
individuals to influence their environment and can help career counsellors and their clients to
remain positive when difficulties arise in the career development process (Stead & Watson,
1999:100). However, the normal Achilles heel presents itself with this theory too, as it should
be mentioned that not much research on SCCT has been done in South Africa.
Indigenisation & Indigenous Career Psychology in South Africa

Thus enters the argument for the indigenisation and/or indigenous psychology, in the sense
that the South African context is dissected even further, and an actual call for what career
counselling should evolve into is made. Beginning with a critique of the hegemony of theory
and literature that stems predominantly from the USA; Stead & Watson (1999) warns that,
career researchers and practitioners should be wary of embracing European or American
perspectives as the touchstones for a contextually appropriate career psychology (Stead &
Watson, 1999:214).

Let us begin by positing a clarification with a definition of the difference between indigenous
psychology and indigenisation approaches. Sinha (1997) explains, indigenous psychology is
defined as those elements of knowledge that have been generated in a country or a culture,
and that have developed therein, as opposed to those that are imported or brought from
elsewhere (in Stead & Watson, 1999:215). Thus in essence, one can see that indigenous
psychology recognizes the local way in which discourse is created and understood, and how
reality is created. In contrast then is indigenisation, which is as Adair (1992) defines it is, the
process of taking development from elsewhere (such as US psychology) and introducing
modifications to make it fit the new culture (in Stead & Watson, 1999:215).

In keeping with definitions, Stead & Watson (1999) see it prudent to then posit a working
definition of culture, ethnicity and career in relation to indigenisation and indigenous
psychologies. The definition of culture posited in the literature is the shared learned
behaviour that is transmitted from one generation to another for purposes of individual and
societal adjustment, growth and development (Stead & Watson, 1999:215). Ethnicity is
defined by first providing a warning of the propensity for it to be confused with culture,
although it is Betancourt & Lopez (1993) whom refer to it as, a people similar in terms of
nationality, language or culture (in Stead & Watson, 1999:215). The definition of a ‘career’ is
given the most attention, as in essence it is wrought with multiple innuendos and various
meanings. It is Stead & Watson (1999) whom defines it by saying, much of career
counselling, guidance and education has supported this ethic by assisting individuals to enter,
adapt and cope with work organisations; thus a career is widely considered to be a
progression up the metaphorical “corporate ladder” (Stead & Watson, 1999:216).
In order to fully understand the importance that indigenous psychology would have for South
Africa it is critical to posit the six identified strategies of indigenous psychology. The first
strategy calls for psychological knowledge to be understood within various contexts; Stead &
Watson (1999) simply back this up by asserting that Euro-American knowledge is not
necessarily easily transported to other countries such as South Africa (Stead & Watson,
1999:217). By positing various stats that underpin the South African context such as high
unemployment and relatively poor growth, the authors then posit an example of how theory is
time and place specific. Strategy 2, namely indigenous psychologies do not focus on the
bizarre or the exotic; levels a critique to indigenous psychology which is its seeming colonial
resonance of suggesting a search for the exotic or curious in other lands. Stead & Watson
(1999) shoot this down by saying that the purpose of career psychology in South Africa
should not be to provide career phenomena that vary substantially from Euro-American
perspectives of career development (Stead & Watson, 1999:218).

Strategy three asserts that multiple perspectives may be held by various cultures; with Stead
& Watson (1999) writing that, indigenous psychologies maintain many perspectives can be
held by members of a society or culture that are held by others in those societies or cultures
(Stead & Watson, 1999:218). There are many factors that account for differences in a same
ethnic group. Such a point is strongly relevant for South Africa in particular, given the
heterogeneity of the society we live in, and divergences between and in and amongst each
other. Moderating variables should be included in comparative studies of cultures to prevent
confounding variables such as socio-economic status from distorting the findings (Stanley &
Brown, 1983 in Stead & Watson, 1999:218-219). Strategy four advocates for a variety of
research methods; this is due to the fact that indigenous psychologies not particularly
favouring an exacting research method; recognise both quantitative and qualitative research
methods. The authors make the note that the propensity for the use of quantitative data in
South Africa has not aided in the generation of descriptive data which could be used for the
development of a theory. We believe that more emphasis should be placed on qualitative
research methods as, though research methods such as grounded theory (Glaser & Strauss,
1967 in Stead & Watson, 1999:219). In addition, the authors raise the issue of orality, by
looking at the oral tradition in South Africa, and discussing what the most appropriate method
to conduct qualitative research in South Africa would be.
Strategy five advocates a variety of perspectives; simply put no philosophical orientation is
seen as being superior to other (Stead & Watson, 1999:220). This is in stark contrast to the
preferential treatment Holland (1973) and Super (1990) receive currently within the carer
counselling framework in South Africa. In fact Stead & Watson (1999) say South African
career practitioners have become too entrenched in these perspectives and have not shown
openness in contemplating other counselling techniques (Stead & Watson, 1999:220). Worse
yet, is the seeming apathy around the development of career counselling techniques
appropriate to the South African context. The last strategy, strategy six, namely psychological
universals are advocated to be a way of establishing whether consensus or universals exist.
That is, if you can find indigenous psychology, then you can find a commonality. It is through
the development of indigenous psychologies that a universal psychology may emerge (Stead
& Watson, 1999:220).

Developing Qualitative Career Assessment Processes & the Hermeneutic-dialogical

approach to Career Development

As indigenous psychologies may be critically argued to be a long-term development, that is,

their development will take a long time to effect, a definite supporting facet to this process
will be the use of expanded qualitative methods for eliciting data and creating grounded
theory; in fact it is McMahon et al. (2003) whom call for an expanded investigation and
consequent use of qualitative assessment tools. There is still very little to guide the
development and conduct of qualitative assessment in career counselling because it has
traditionally received less attention in the literature (McMahon et al, 2003:194). The skewed
lean towards quantitative research is still seen as an unfortunate bias, given the untapped
potential of the converse. Stead & Watson (1999) belive that more emphasis should be on the
use of qualitative research methods, as these methods enable research participants to give
their perspectives on a problem (1999:219). Three ideas shall be raised on this topic, firstly
constructivism as it is understood through dissecting its main components, secondly an
overview of qualitative career assessment is made, and this leads to the final section which
discusses the development of qualitative career assessment processes.

Neimeyer & Neimeyer (1993) assert that meaning making is fundamental to constructivism
(in McMahon et al, 2003:195). The generation of personal meaning and the promotion of
reflection on the implications both new and old self-knowledge are the primary objectives of
constructivist assessment. Thus constructivism asserts more subjectivity. Lyddon & Alford
(1993) state a fundamental goal of constructivism is to understand personal patterns of
meaning – the way a client organises and makes sense of his or her experience over () The
objectivity of assessment informed by the logical positivist worldview that can often be
supported by test results is replaced by subjectivity, as individuals are encouraged to define
themselves and their environment and to refer to the subjective sources of their knowledge
(McMahon et al, 2003:195). The aim of assessment under a constructivist viewpoint is to
open up avenues of movement, promote empowerment, support transitions, and assist the
client gain eligibility for more participation (Peavy 1997 in McMahon, 2003:195). The
relations between the client and counsellor under a constructivist perspective may be
described as plural indeed. Counsellors are encouraged to establish collaborative
relationships with clients, involve them in the selection of assessment devices, and encourage
them to explore meaning from the outcomes (Forrest & Brooks, 1993 in McMahon et al,
2003:197). McMahon et al. (2003) assert that, qualitative assessment requires the counsellor
to be actively involved in the process from beginning to end.

The last idea raised in this reading is the process involved in developing qualitative career
assessment processes. Firstly the authors call for carer counsellors to design their research to
be concise, to design a process that fosters holism, write the instructions for the client, write
readable and easily understood instructions, sequence logical-simple-small-available steps,
provide a focused and flexible process, encourage cooperative involvement of counsellor and
client, and lastly include a debriefing process (McMahon et al, 2003:198-200).

A, this paper examined the assumptions underlying most career research and practice in
South Africa (Mkhize & Frizelle, 2000:1). The authors begin by critiquing the most pervasive
worldview, namely the influences of individualism and neo-positivist ideology in career
counselling. It is posited that our understanding of career development is based on the notion
of the self as a bounded, autonomous entity, incorrigibly present to itself (Richardson et al,
1998 in Mkhize & Frizelle, 2000:1). As a result, career research and practice have taken the
individual as the most convenient unit of analysis and in turn largely ignored the social and
institutional influences underlying an individual’s career development process. Mkhize &
Frizelle (2000) provide a direct critique to this by writing rather than assisting individuals to
be better able to participate meaningfully in social life, much of the concern of career
guidance has been with slotting individuals into various categories in a rational, efficient, and
predictable manner (Mkhize & Frizelle, 2000:1). Most importantly on this point of bias is that
if a test is developed in one culture and is being used in another, testers may not share the
assumptions, values, and knowledge that are implicitly assumed by the test.

The authors make the idea of personhood a crucial issue to consider given the local context,
in the sense that when referring to the local population of black African students and their
career decision making, Mkhize & Frizelle (2000) argue that it is the sense of personhood
that accounts for black learners being overly concerned with the social usefulness of their
careers (Mkhize & Frizelle, 2000:2). Of critical importance for the authors is the notion that
the assumption that an individual is a free, autonomous agent engaging with the world
without much external constraints has come under heavy criticism. Heelas (1981) write,
indigenous psychologies are the “cultural views, theories, conjectures, classifications,
assumptions and metaphors – together with notions embedded in social institutions” (in
Mkhize & Frizelle, 2000:2). The text goes on to posit the difference between indigenisation
and indigenous psychology. The encapsulated idea is that a group’s collective ideas and
cultural practices, as reflected in key ideological institutions and texts, are crucial in
understanding the relationship between concepts of personhood and career development in
the South African context (Mkhize & Frizelle, 2000:3).

The Hermeneutic and dialogical approach to understanding career development is advocated

for in support and as the method for a qualitative development framework. Mkhize & Frizelle
(2000) argue that hermeneutic and dialogical approaches provide us with an appropriate
theoretical framework and research methodology. A simple definition of hermeneutics would
be that it is concerned with the lived-human experience, rather than technical concerns, as
understanding is the process through which we gain access to another’s lived experience
(Tappan 1997 in Mkhize & Frizelle, 2000:3). Hermeneutics takes cognisance of the fact that
our interceptions as well as interpretive strategies are shaped by the values of the interpretive
communities” in which we are well embedded. In order to affirm and create unison and some
form of consensus in the way we interpret human experiences, Mkhize & Frizelle (2000)
argue it is therefore important to enter into dialogue with the horizons or perspectives of the
other, the ultimate aim being to enhance our understating through the fusion of perspective
(Mkhize & Frizelle, 2000:3). Such a hermeneutic process of understanding is explained to be
an iterative process involving movement between parts, and the whole. Mkhize & Frizelle
(2000) further explain that applied to career research, the aim of hermeneutics would be to
understanding would be to understand the complex process of career development in its
socio-cultural context, and to grasp the definition of this process as given by the social actors
involved (Mkhize & Frizelle, 2000:4). Thus importantly, one notes that the intricate meanings
attached to the process of career development will be opened up for scrutiny and further
investigation. Lastly Mkhize & Frizelle (2000) assert that because it is socio-culturally
situated, hermeneutics makes it possible to explore the issues of power, gender, and other
social and political factors in the process of career development (Mkhize & Frizelle, 2000:4).

Thus in conclusion, Mkhize & Frizelle (2000) have in their text argued for a broadening of
horizons to include interpretivist, meaning-based approaches that take into account the
indigenous or local narratives of what it means to be person developing within certain social
and cultural contexts (Mkhize & Frizelle, 2000:6).

A Case for Uncertainty in Career Counselling & Positive Uncertainty: A New Decision-
Making Framework for Counselling

With a pooling of many ideas, some of which aren’t conventional, the assertion is that most
decision-making models propose an end point. Miller (1995) affirms this by writing that; it
seems that the aim of most career decision making models is to reach an optimal choice (or
choices) among possible alternatives (Miller, 1995:1). This reading seeks to deal primarily
with the decision-making process that individuals follow; as Hershenson & Roth (1966)
assert most decision-making theories emphasize logical-rational processes based on objective
quantitative information (in Miller, 1995:2). This is the posited reality of career counselling,
however Baumgardner (1977) writes that, constantly changing economic realities make
certainty-geared (i.e. rational, logical) approaches to career decision unrealistic (in Miller,
1995:2). Thus a massive concern for the author was the wilful ignorance of decision theorists,
whom assume with their theories that the world is a constant that doesn’t change, or that
decision-making itself can appropriate the reality of the circumstances the client is in; in
essence it is argued that reality is subject, and worse yet never lasts long as change is a
constant. This is potentially problematic for the South African context, in the sense that it
would be reckless to convince clients of a career counselling that they have no real limits to
their rationality, vis-à-vis bounded rationality.

Gelatt (1989) suggests that perhaps what is most appropriate now is a counselling framework
that helps the client to accept uncertainty while suggesting that changing one’s mind is an
adaptive trait for the future (in Miller, 1995:2). At this stage, the author introduces their
theoretical framework of the Chaos theory. Brack et al. (1993) writes how, Chaos theory
validates our basic fears that the world is uncertain (in Miller, 1995:2). Miller (1995) himself
asserts that, chaos theorists believe that the first step in dealing with chaos is to understand it;
and the goal of understanding is to shift one’s thinking so that change and uncertainty are
expected and valued (Miller, 1995:2).

The sense of being in control or even when you aren’t to at least pretending you are, is
brought into serious challenge. More specifically, on the issue of decision-making, to seem
unsure has been a behaviour that we have been socialized not to accept. An inherent
assumption in much of the literature on career indecision is that being uncertain is a state to
be avoided (Miller, 1995:3). It is encouraged to be positive during uncertainty. Because a
positive attitude about uncertainty often leads to behavioural persistence; that is, the client
may very well continue seeking out new experiences in the face of uncertainty, and, in the
process, discover a desired goal (Miller, 1995:3). Lastly, a suggestion provides a brief
direction to career counsellors in the event of a client saying “I don’t know”. Wrenn (1990)
notes that when clients utter, “I don’t know”, perhaps counsellors ought to encourage them to
listen to their delayed response, their inward voice, and their intuition, to get a handle on
what to do next (in Miller, 1995:). Lastly, Miller (1995) writes that career counsellors will do
well to continually reflect on the idea that client uncertainty about a career choice often
behaviourally observed by the “I don’t know” response—is an honest and realistic response
to an extraordinarily complex undertaking (Miller, 1995:4).

With uncertainty being argued to be the new paradignm of certainty, this brief text is almost
building on the previous reading and the previous authors ideas in the sense that a term is
ascribed to being positive during uncertainty; namely positive uncertainty. Gelatt (1989)
avows that, what is appropriate now is a decision and counselling framework that helps
clients deal with change and ambiguity, accept uncertainty and inconsistency, and utilize the
non-rational and intuitive side of thinking and choosing (Gelatt, 1989:252). There is a
distinction made between the old decision making model, and the new decision making
science. Gelatt (1989) calls the old science as linear, objective, scientific methods of the past;
whilst the new ascribes reality as being a subjective creation in a personal frame of reference
(Gelatt, 1989:252-253).
Decision making is a non-sequential, non-systematic, non-scientific human process. Decision
making is the process of arranging and rearranging information into a choice or action
(Gelatt, 1989:253). This is the authors’ definition of decision-making, and is argued to have
three components, that have lead to the author to build guidelines around it. Firstly, the
Information guideline, which is advocating for the use of information to predict the future
and to prepare for what is predicted is likely to be supplemented with skills in avoiding
information overload, recognizing information inadequacies and rearranging information into
various futures (Gelatt, 1989:254).

The Process guideline has Gelatt (1989) positing that, the new science should make it clear
that the rational, objective approach is not always possible or desirable; thus the client’s
mind’s eye is the heart of invention; it is where reality is created (Gelatt, 1989:254). This new
counselling framework must help clients avoid the most common problem caused by the old
decision theory: pretending one already knows one wants. Gelatt (1989) shares a new way of
looking at decision-making by writing that, new experiences help develop new information,
new values, new goals, and new wants (Gelatt, 1989:254). He further asserts that the most
important part of the clients’ future may be their belief about it; as the old framework gave a
lot of practice remembering the past but not much experience imagining or creating the
future. The client’s mind’s eye is the mental faculty of remembering and also imagining
(Gelatt, 1989:255). Lastly on this specific guideline is that the process of arranging and
rearranging in the minds eye, is where reflection, imagination, and creativity take place. The
counsellor of the future must help clients learn the importance of these skills, practice using
them, and integrate them into their decision-making strategies (Gelatt, 1989:255).

The third guideline is that of Choice, whereby it is argued that in the old science, ration was
king. Holistic choice means using the right brain as well as the left, reflecting on one’s future
as well as one’s past and being flexible in decision strategies (Gelatt, 1989:255). Gelatt
(1989) continues this idea by explaining that counsellors will be helping clients remember
and imagine, reflecting backwards and forward; whereby persons need to be able to learn
from their future as they learned from their past (Gelatt, 1989:255). The largest argument
made as a final stage is a debate between the merits of reflection-flexibility versus the
rational-intuitive. Gelatt (1989) says the new counselling framework of reflection, flexibility,
and both rational and intuitive thinking will lead to inconsistency in choice (Gelatt,
1989:255). The choice of an action is argued to be the medium by which a decision maker
should be able to express their individuality; and not be done by formula.
As affirmed earlier, change and uncertainty are now seen as the new norm, thus theory within
the carer counselling framework must adapt to assist career counsellors to work within a
rapidly changing world, and within a unique South African climate. Thus the following
theories have arisen and taken prominence as tools to give explanatory power to such
constant change.

Happenstance Theory

Throughout an individual’s career, chance events play an integral role in their career
planning. Traditionally career counsellors have failed to acknowledge this. With the world of
work shifting in different directions creating uncertainties for individuals’ careers, it becomes
apparent that traditional counselling interventions are no longer sufficient to prepare clients to
respond to the uncertainties they are experiencing (Mitchell, Levin & Krumboltz, 1999: 1). It
has been suggested that career counsellors need to alter there counselling approach in such a
way as to allow for counselling interventions that view unplanned events as both “inevitable
and desirable” (Mitchell et al, 1999:1). Therefore career counsellors need to teach their
clients to act in ways which allows them to engage in “exploratory activities” in which they
may discover unexpected career opportunities and in turn capitalize on them (Mitchell et al,
1999: 1)

The Role of Chance in Career Counselling

There are several important issues which career counsellors’ have to consider when dealing
with a client. The fact that chance plays an integral role on one’s career, means that it is
impossible to predict the future accurately, that you never know who you may meet, who will
call or what letters or emails you may receive, all of which may have an impact on
individuals career choices or paths (Mitchell et al, 1999). It is therefore troubling that career
councellors’ often fail to take into account the unexpected or chance events that their clients
may have experienced.

There have been a few authors of career development literature that have taken recognition of
the role that chance events play career exploration. However some believe that including
these events in the career counselling model involves a complex and difficult process to
undertake (Mitchell et al, 1999). It is important to note here that “while it would be difficult
to develop a model that incorporates chance into the counselling process, it is nonetheless
essential that the counsellor help clients to recognize its effects and develop coping
behaviours that anticipate unforeseen events” (Cabral & Salomone, 1990: 14).

Despite the important role that chance events play in career choices, rational planning has
remained an important component of “career exploration” (Mitchell et al, 1999: 116).
Rational planning is a career development theory first developed by Frank Parsons, who was
regarded as the father of career counselling. It involved assessing workers values, skills, and
interests, with the emphasis being matching individuals to a particular job according to their
values, skills, and interests (Mitchell et al, 1999). This traditional trait-and-factor approach of
matching individuals to particular occupations has served to eliminate the role of chances in
career decision making (Mitchell et al, 1999). However, major technological advances, which
have contributed to the drastic changes in the world of work, have resulted in many
occupations becoming obsolete and unforeseen occupations being created. This means that
the traditional model of career counselling will become increasingly difficult to implement
effectively given the nature of the world work today (Mitchell et al, 1999).

This is why a new theory has been developed to help counsellors develop ways to help their
clients cope with the ever changing world of work. Planned happenstance theory is therefore
a “conceptual framework extending career counselling to include the creating and
transforming of unplanned events into opportunities for learning (Mitchell et al, 1999: 117).
The goal of planned happenstance intervention is to instil the very tools needed for a client to
generate, recognize and incorporate chance events into their career developments (Mitchell et
al, 1999: 117).

Reframing Indecision as Open-Mindedness

Using the term open-mindedness serves to displace indecision in planned happenstance

theory and helps clients learn not to fear uncertainty but rather to tolerate it and turn it into an
exploratory process. By enabling clients to change their attitudes towards uncertainty to an
exploratory one the client is able approach the numerous new situations and changes that the
individual may experience in “a manner which encourages growth and further self-definition”
(Blustein, 1997: 270).

Being open-minded has its advantages; most importantly it allows the individual to explore
his/her options, rather than be bound to a plan that may be obsolete before it is formulated
(Mitchell et al, 1999: 117). It allows the individual to develop the skill of asking questions
just out of curiosity, not necessarily to do anything about the answer (Mitchell et al, 1999). To
often when people reach a dilemma in their career, they seek the advice of a career
counsellor, who is quick to act by offering some sort of solution or definite answer obtained
form a “battery of tests” which serve to alleviate the client’s distress.

It is generally our culture which frequently causes us to expect a definite response or answer
as it is a decisive person who is seen to be in charge of his/her life or career even if the
answer has no real basis (Mitchell et al, 1999). Instead Krumboltz (1992) argues that being
indecisive about which career path you are going to take is far more sensible that relying on
firm commitments when you may never know what lies ahead.

Generating, Recognizing and Encouraging Beneficial Chance Events

Career counsellors need to realize that unplanned events are not only inevitable but desirable
as well. Once they have come to this realization they need to teach their clients to actively
engage in exploratory activities that allows for the probability of them being expose to such
unplanned opportunities with an open-mind (Mitchell et al, 1999: 118) in saying this
happenstance theory is based on to very important concepts, namely exploration which
generates chance opportunities for increasing quality of life, and; skills which enable people
to seize opportunities.

Planned happenstance theory therefore proposes that career counsellors teach their clients
ways of influencing or controlling chance to their benefit. This can be done by instilling five
necessary skills to recognize, create and use chance as career opportunities. They are
curiosity – whereby the client is able to explore new learning opportunities; persistence – the
client is able to continue exerting effort despite any major setbacks; flexibility – enables the
client to change their attitudes and circumstances they found themselves for the better;
optimism – the client is able to view new opportunities as possible and attainable, and; risk
taking – the client is capable of taking action in the face of uncertain outcomes (Mitchell et
al, 1999: 118). Other necessary skills that clients can teach their clients, include interpersonal
communications, networking, and social support building all of which facilitate the
possibility of chance events occurring.

There are other ways in which happenstance theory can be included. They include using
assessment instruments to generate chance events. Interest interventions for example are used
to provide efficient exposure to job titles that are available to the client thereby linking them
to the world of work (Mitchell et al, 1999: 119). In the traditional model of career counselling
the interpretations of such interests test, focus more on the counsellor informing the client
rather than allowing open discussion. Here the emphasis is matching particular career
possibilities with the client’s interest (Mitchell et al, 1999: 119). On the other hand the
happenstance theory approach takes into account the career titles that do not necessarily
match the client’s interest also. Clients are encouraged to consider the idea of developing new
interests, and not merely selecting occupations which match prior interest (Mitchell et al,
1999: 119). Allowing for open discussion with the client, whereby clients can discuss both
prior and potential interests, can make known some vital values and serve to liberate
exploration (Mitchell et al, 1999: 119).

Eliciting encouragement is another way in which happenstance theory can be included. Here
a witness, such as a friend, family member, colleague or counsellor observes a talent in the
person and encourages them to pursue that talent or interest. We are not born with the skill to
encourage ourselves to explore other interests and therefore need to learn the skill of self-
encouragement from others who have encourage us to take action (Mitchell et al, 1999: 119).

Learning as the Purpose of Career Counselling

Instead of counsellors acting as official matchmakers, they should consider themselves as

educators as they go about facilitating the learning process of their clients (Mitchell et al,
1999). Rather than simply identifying an ideal job for the client, counsellors can be a lot more
beneficial for the client by equipping them with new attitudes and valuable skills to improve
their quality of life (Mitchell et al, 1999). Savickas (1997: 254) calls this new attitude
“adaptability” which is defined as the “readiness to cope with the predictable tasks of
preparing and participating in the work role and with the unpredictable adjustments by
changes in work and working conditions.” Counsellors must encourage their client to strive to
be the person they want to be rather than adhering to “linear continuum of developmental
tasks” (Mitchell et al, 1999: 120).

Traditionally, counsellors have used informational interviews to elicit information from their
clients. However informational interviews can also be used to generate unexpected events.
Say for example a client shows up for an interview and starts by saying “I don’t have much
time to talk with you now – I have so much work to do” ((Mitchell et al, 1999: 120). Now the
conventional response to that would be to ask the client if he/she would like to reschedule.
However if the counsellor had to use a happenstance generated response he would show
excitement and offer his help to try take the load off. Encouraging clients to respond in this
manner will serve to provide the client with way to express enthusiasm, a willingness to work
hard, as well as providing an opportunity to get well acquainted with somebody already
working in the field (Mitchell et al, 1999: 120)

It is important to note that the happenstance part of an informational interview can occur at
any time, before, during or after the actual interview. For example a client is waiting in the
waiting room and just so happens to discover information about a job opening whilst
engaging in an unplanned conversation with a fellow client.

This is why it so importance for counsellor to apply the happenstance model so that they can
prepare their clients for such unanticipated events. Counsellor may use a “cognitive
restructuring” techniques in helping clients identify and interpret such events in different
ways so that the clients does not perceive them as mere interruptions but rather as
opportunities for learning (Mitchell et al, 1999: 120)

Clients also need to be encouraged to make the most of educational opportunities.

Traditionally educational planning and career exploration, has placed too much emphasis on
decisiveness. However Baumgardner (1982) cautioned student about committing themselves
to major to early because the world of work is changing ever so rapidly, and they may find
their major becoming obsolete by the time they reach graduation. Rather counsellors can help
students devise questions that “express their values, interest, skills, and curiosity” (Mitchell et
al, 1999: 120). Therefore by enrolling into class which is relevant to their questions, he/she
will more likely be prepared and able to learn from chance events that may occur there.

All this is very well and good, however receiving counselling by itself, will do little for the
client unless he/she plays his/her part and partakes in construction action. Counsellors need to
concentrate all their efforts on enabling their clients to take the necessary action needed to
improve their quality of life (Mitchell et al, 1999). Action taken by clients is usually inhibited
by their beliefs and the way they express their goals. Often these goals are expressed by a
client in such a way which makes them seem unattainable. However counsellors can help the
client by reframing the goals in ways which make progress towards them possible (Mitchell
et al, 1999).

When applying happenstance theory to career counselling, counsellors must from the outset
assure their clients that unplanned events are normal and essential components of their career
planning. There are four steps which can be used to guide the counsellor through the
counselling process. They include normalizing planned happened in the client’s history – this
can be seen as the most important step, as without it the clients will remain uneasy about
his/her future, preventing him/her from taking advantage of unexpected events. This step
entails making client aware of how their actions can contribute to constructing unplanned
career opportunities (Mitchell et al, 1999: 121). In doing so clients will be asked to identify
any unplanned events in their lives, and most importantly to specify the action taken that may
have enable them to contribute, generate and take advantage of such events (Mitchell et al,
1999: 121). The next step is assisting clients to transform curiosity into opportunities for
learning and exploration. Clients must be taught to look at any unplanned event as
opportunities to explore. To often clients walk into a counsellor’s office and expect them to
identify the perfect career for them. However with the use of the happenstance model
counsellors are able to reframe those requests by helping the client to identify opportunities
for learning and exploration (Mitchell et al, 1999: 121). The third step is to teach clients to
produce desirable chance events. Here counsellors must make it clear to the client that they
should not leave their careers passively to chance, but rather they should constantly seek new
learning opportunities and take actively look for chance opportunities. Counsellors need to
stress to the client that unplanned events are inevitable and that the necessary action is
required to generate desirable chance events (Mitchell et al, 1999: 121). The forth step is to
teach clients to overcome blocks to action. Very often clients hold strong beliefs that block
their willingness to take action, to experience their curiosity and benefit from unplanned
opportunities. Therefore counsellors need to encourage clients to engage in constructive
actions and not merely discuss them as abstraction (Mitchell et al, 1999: 121).

For too long career counselling has been working under an over-simplified theory that has
misrepresented the ways in which career choices are actually made. The basic three steps
matching of an occupation with the clients’ characteristics has proven insufficient for the 21st
Century (Mitchell et al, 1999). Everyone’s career is affected in some way or another by
events, that is why it is important for counsellors to adopt a happenstance approach to
counselling which acknowledges the influential role of unplanned events on individuals’
careers, and allows counsellors to teach clients the necessary skills to take advantage of these
events and actively take action to create new events (Mitchell et al, 1999)
Chaos, Complexity Theories and Non-Linear Dynamics

As mentioned before, predominant career theories have been based primarily on the
reductionist paradigms of science which rely on an underlying understanding that finding and
isolating all parts will enable us to grasp a greater understanding of the phenomenon, for
example understanding key attributes of an individual and then matching these to compatible
career environments. This makes it possible for the researcher or counsellor to yield reliable
predictions and replicable interventions (Bloch, 2005: 195). This approach however fails to
capture sufficiently the complexities, uncertainties and dynamic aspects of modern work.
Career theorists have been increasingly interested in approaches that look at the individual
and the environment in more complex and dynamic terms. We have already mentioned how
Mitchell et al (1999) explored the role of unplanned events in career choice. But recently
several authors have begun investigate another new approach to career development which is
not limited to reductionist methods, but rather challenges traditional approaches to scientific
explanation by drawing on non-linear dynamics and which includes chaos and complexity
theories. These theories allow us to grasp a much more fruitful understanding of the complex
entities which not only include all life from single cells to human beings but also
organisations to corporations (Bloch, 2005: 195).

Chaos Theory

There are two key concepts within chaos theory, they are nonlinearity and recursiveness. In
linear systems all the elements add up to make the whole, for example if we had to take a
look at a credit card balance it will be equal to the sum all the money spent, interest plus bank
charges (Bright & Pryor, 2005: 292). With nonlinear systems the elements add up to more (or
less) than the sum of the parts. This can be explained for instance when song increases its
airtime on a radio station as sales of the song increase, which in turn results in further
increase in the air time the song receives (Bright & Pryor, 2005: 292). This same example
can be used to explain recursiveness, whereby one variable has an influence on another,
which in turn influences the first one and so this is repeated. Therefore chaos theory provides
illustrates how the recursive application of several nonlinear equations to a system, results in
elements of both stability and susceptibility being subject to sudden and dramatic change at
the same time (Bright & Pryor, 2005: 292).
Using Attractors in Career Counselling

Bright and Pryor (2005: 299) highlight some important attractors which are generally
recognised in chaos theory. These attractors help describe the constraints on the functioning
system. The attractors influence the behaviour of the individual by drawing it into a particular
direction or constraining it in some way. There are four major types of attractors –

Point attractors – these refer to an individual being drawn to a particular vocational goal,
such as being promoted to the next level in the organisation. They generally occur when the
individual or other agency (employer or organisation) places false constraints on the
individual’s behaviour (Bright & Pryor, 2005: 301). Person-environment fit models are
examples of point attractors. These models serve to constrain the individual by imposing a
point attractor. Although this can be motivational, by the fact that the individual have a
particular goal to work towards, chaos theory reminds these individuals to continually re-
evaluate their goals and develop alternative plans in case of an unforeseen event or obstacle
preventing them from fulfilling their desired goal (Bright & Pryor, 2005: 301).

Pendulum attractors – this refers to an individuals behaviour be constrained to a regular,

predictable pattern as it moves from one extreme through to a midpoint and out to an opposite
extreme. This process is then reversed until it reaches the original position (Bright & Pryor,
2005: 301). Pendulum attractors reflect significant constraints which have been placed on an
individuals career behaviour, either self inflicted or as a result of narrow-minded thinking, or
external pressure such as family who yearn for the individual to pursue medicine whilst his
interest lie in psychology. Clients who have been affected by pendulum attractors tend hold
very rigid and extreme belief. This inhibits effective thinking and therefore prevents new
insights and the generation of solutions (Bright & Pryor, 2005: 301).

Torus attractors – this describes a behaviour which is a lot more complex, but still heavily
constrained and repeating. A client may feel comfortable in his job as described by this
attractor. Therefore this attractor can prove difficult to identify in a client due the apparent
complexity of its action serving to mask its repetitive nature (Bright & Pryor, 2005: 301).

Strange attractors – these attractors typically characterize chaos models. This attractor is
highly complex more so than the torus attractor. Although it may seem as though there are no
constraints or rule governing their dynamics, which is why it is regarded as chaotic, over time
and when considered from the appropriate perspective a pattern, though highly complex, can
be detected (Bright & Pryor, 2005: 302). Change and unpredictability are constraints within
the strange attractors. Minor disruptions in the initial states can result in significant nonlinear
changes in the behaviour of the attractor. For a career counsellor, “understanding a client’s
strange attractor in all it complexity, stability, and vulnerability will help both the counsellor
and client understand current and past behaviour and help prepare the client for his or her
future journey (Bright & Pryor, 2005: 302).

Complexity Theory

The focus of complexity theory as well as chaos theory is on relationships and nonlinear
dynamics and views careers as a complex adaptive entity, which makes up a minute part of
human entity (Bloch, 2005: 195). This theory enables career counsellors to seek an
understanding of the complex nature of careers which helps them explain what otherwise
appears to be chaos in life and reveals an underlying order of events which naturally appear
to be random (Bloch, 2005: 196).

Most complex adaptive entities share some common characteristics whether they described in
physics, biology, or in social sciences (Bloch, 2005: 196). Humans beings are consider to be
complex adaptive entities and so too are their careers. Therefore they both share the same
characteristics. These characteristics include the following elements:

Self generation – people are continually reinventing their careers as they move in and out of
particular roles which were previously expected to be fulfilled by so-called “healthy”
individuals (Bloch, 2005: 199);

Open exchange – career requires human beings in order to carry out its functions whereby
there is a constant exchange of all entities that make up the human body. Careers also don’t
just operate in isolation with a single individual, but rather through participation in complex
relationships (Bloch, 2005: 199);

Participation in networks – “relationships among the physical, psychological, neural, and

spiritual aspects of the individual are, however neither unitary nor linear but exist in
interweaving networks” (Bloch, 2005: 199). Since career are entity within the entity of the
individual they too become involved in surrounding networks of education, occupations,
industries, employers, needs of the community, local and global economies and cultures.
These ongoing relationships are influenced by the entity of each career (Bloch, 2005: 199);
Fractals – careers make up a mere fraction of an individuals life experience as while as that
of the entire work and economic system. Since careers make up a fraction of an individual’s
life, when one examines a career in this way, it becomes possible to see the patterns and
dynamics of the whole life. In addition careers are fractals of an individuals work experience,
this is because they consist of parts which are similar to the whole (Bloch, 2005: 199);

Phase transitions between order and chaos – individuals are constantly being bombarded
with change, which results in them moving form a state of order to chaos. Because careers are
involved in the relational networks, and these networks are subject to continual open
exchange, so too do careers undergo change. For example graduation, being fired, ambition,
illness, or any other events may bring about phase transitions (Bloch, 2005: 199);

Search for fitness peaks – during these phase transition careers are characterised by the search
for the best an individual desires for him or herself. This however is often limited by the
degree of timidity or risking taking as well as by the network relationships and exchanges
that take place continually. At each phase transition the individual is given the opportunity to
explore his or her career (Bloch, 2005: 200);

Non-linear dynamics – a person’s career development is understood when looked at in

relation to their own work life, the specific dynamics of the environment in which it occurred,
as well as the internal dynamics of the individual. People experience parts of their careers that
seem to form patterns, however these patterns are difficult to explain, or even partially
explain when relating them to other careers. Therefore the career development of an
individual can only be understood in terms of that individual (Bloch, 2005: 200);

Sensitive dependence, or potential for small changes to bring about large effect – it is
understood that often random, often minor, events in ones life, such as a distant disturbance
of the economy or an ignored interaction that took place at work, can bring about a major
career change (Bloch, 2005: 200);

Attractors that limit growth –. Careers formed by point attractors leave the individual
feeling that there is only one occupation available and only one route into the occupation.
They are therefore left with no options or even possible areas of career exploration (Bloch,
2005: 200). (Bright & Pryor, 2005: 300). Careers formed by pendulum attractors leave the
individual in a state of indecision, going back and forth, and unable to move forward (Bright
& Pryor, 2005: 300). Careers formed by torus attractors may leave the individual feeling
comfortable due to slight difference in the pattern of work although it remains very and
repetitive. The individual soon comes to the realization that he/she is trapped in an endless
circle of the same repetitive job tasks (Bloch, 2005: 200);

Role of strange attractors and emergence – emergence factor allows for careers to take on
new forms which results in unexpected career paths to arise. Even when an individual has
been in the same occupation and industry, there remains the possibility of emergence when
the individual is provided with the opportunity to continue learning, thus creating satisfaction
within his job (Bloch, 2005: 200);

Spirituality – viewing work as spiritual enables each individual to consider his own
contribution to the world. This gives value to their work and adds both an ethical and a
dimension of love to work (Bloch, 2005: 202).

Bloch and Richmond (1998) in Bloch (2005: 202) identified seven connectors between work
and spirit. These connectors may assist individuals in maintaining a sense of connectedness
with there work, which is otherwise difficult to attain. The first connector refers to the
individual being comfortable with change. Individuals are encouraged to be open to change in
themselves and the world around them. The second connector is striking a balance between
activities in life. Individuals need to achieve a balance between work, leisure, learning and
family relationships as well as a balance between past and present. The third connector refers
to energy. Here an individual must feel he always has enough energy to carry out the
activities he wishes to do. The fourth connector refers to community. It is important for
workers to work as a member of a team, as it creates a sense of unity and spiritually about
work. The fifth connector is calling. Here the individual needs to believe that the work they
doing is calling from a higher being as he has been provided with the necessary talents,
interests, and values needed to perform his job. The sixth connector is harmony. Here the
individual should seek work in harmonious environment which fits his/her talents, interests
and values. The seventh connector refers to unity. Individuals need to believe that the work
they do has a purpose other than making money, and in some ways serves others in the
community.

Conclusion

In summation, it seems clear that, the readings themselves follow a leading and
complementary model that seeks to address the hegemony of the pervasive theoretical
framework which stem from a context that is alien to ours. In essence the text calls for a bold
shift towards the development of local ways of thinking and addressing our career
counselling matters from a local perspective, from application of theory to even rearranging
the methods of decision thinking that we have socialized ourselves. Clearly the future of
South Africa will (based on the texts) require that we firstly ask the question, what is most
appropriate tools for us to learn and elicit better information that’ll then allow us to build own
indigenous theories that’ll be grounded. From this stage, we can then challenge career
practitioner to take a more avant-garde approach towards making career decision making a
more inclusive and plural process, whereby indecisiveness is viewed not as a hindrance to the
clients progress, but as an avenue for creating more opportunity in an environment that
proves constrictive for many South Africans.

In additions it becomes clear in the second section of this paper that traditional career
counselling approaches are becoming increasingly insignificant and difficult to implement.
Due to the drastic shifts in the world of work, uncertainties about ones careers have arisen,
making it impossible to predict or formulate career planning. Predominant career theories
have also failed to capture sufficiently the complexities, uncertainties and dynamic aspects of
modern work. In this sense counsellors have been urged to adopt more qualitative approaches
to their counselling, such as happenstance theory which is a conceptual framework extending
career counselling to include the creating and transforming of unplanned events into
opportunities for learning, thus making the client feel comfortable about his/her uncertainties.
Chaos theory and Complexity theories also challenge traditional approaches by drawing on
non-linear dynamics. The use of such theories as chaos and complexity theories allows us to
grasp a much more fruitful understanding of the complex nature of careers and thus a more
appropriate model to follow in the current world of work
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