Fluctuations and waves in fluidized bed systems:

The influence of the air-supply system

Srdjan Sasic, Bo Leckner, Filip Johnsson
*
Department of Energy Conversion, Chalmers University of Technology, S-412 96 Goteborg, Sweden
Received 30 June 2003; received in revised form 29 October 2004
Available online 10 May 2005
Abstract
A general model of the response of a fluidized bed to disturbances is formulated, and the information provided by the model with respect
to the dynamics of the bed, the bed plus the air-plenum and the bed plus the entire air-supply system, is investigated. Expressions given in
literature on the fundamental frequency of the bed-plenum system are analyzed, and it is shown that they are a special case of the general
model. In order to simulate various types of interaction between the bed and the rest of the system, experiments were performed in a cold
fluidized bed unit operated under both non-circulating and circulating conditions. At low velocity, three regimes were identified: the multiple
bubble regime with almost no interaction between bed and air-plenum, the single bubble regime with the interaction between bed and air-
plenum only, and a regime with numerous irregular bubbles, where the bed interacted with the entire air-supply system. At high fluidization
velocity, the exploding bubble regime was identified, with the same dominant frequency as that of the single bubble regime (the interaction
with the air-supply system remains at that frequency). The models investigated correctly reproduce the dynamics when the bed is independent
of the other parts of the system, or when the bed interacts only with the air-plenum. However, the models are only partially applicable when
the bed interacts with the entire air-supply system. The reasons for this are investigated. In the case of system interaction, pressure waves,
generated in the bed, interact with pressure pulsations from the air-supply system. This results in a coupled system, which is not covered by
the models. Pressure waves resulting from events in the bed, are recognized as the coherent part of the cross power spectra of pressure
fluctuations measured in the bed and the air-plenum.
D 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Gas solid fluidized beds; Dynamics; Fluctuations; Waves; Interaction; Air-supply system
1. Introduction
The most commonly studied quantities in dynamical
analyses of gassolid fluidized beds are pressure fluctua-
tions e.g. [15]. They are used to characterize the fluid-
ization [4] or to model the response of a dynamical system
(the fluidized bed) to any input or disturbance [2,6].
Although measurements of pressure fluctuations are easy
to perform, the interpretation of such signals is not
straightforward. It is generally accepted that the fluctuations
come from bubble motion within the bed, but the origin of
the fluctuations is usually not clear. A pressure disturbance
is propagated as a wave through the system [7]. Such waves
in fluidized beds have been the subject of a few publications
[79]. The studies originate from two view-points that
created separate paths in the research: to explain the nature
of pressure fluctuations in a bed e.g. [1] and to study the
conditions of fluidization e.g. [10]. The latter usually
concerns the onset of bubbles and their effect on the
(in)stability of uniform fluidization, whereas the former
deals with the overall hydrodynamic behavior of the bed and
fluidization regimes.
A previous study [11] identified three principal cases
with respect to the boundary limiting the physical phenom-
ena that may be relevant for the dynamics of the system:
a) Only the fluidized bed is concerned. This is the case
when the pressure drop across the air-distributor is in the
order of magnitude or higher than the pressure drop of
0032-5910/$ - see front matter D 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.powtec.2005.03.012
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +46 31 772 1449.
E-mail address: filip.johnsson@me.chalmers.se (F. Johnsson).
Powder Technology 153 (2005) 176 195
www.elsevier.com/locate/powtec
the bed, yielding no significant propagation of pressure
and flow waves upstream of the air-distributor.
b) The bed interacts with the air-plenum. This is typically
the case in such laboratory units that are fed from
pressurized air systems and have air-distributors with
reasonably low pressure drop.
c) The bed interacts with the entire air-supply system. This
may take place in industrial systems (with low pressure
drop air-distributors), normally consisting of fluidized
bed, air-plenum, air-supply lines, and fan (or fans).
Pressure and flow waves propagate through the entire
system and an interaction is expected between these
parts. This may make it necessary to include the entire
system in simulations.
The dashed lines in Fig. 1(ac) indicate the boundaries
of the system in the three cases.
Flow waves in the air-supply parts of the system and
their influence on the fluidized bed dynamics (Case c) have
not attracted much attention so far. Most studies have been
carried out in laboratory units corresponding to Case b or
Case a. Such devices usually prevent the pressure and flow
waves from propagating throughout the system, whereas in
industrial units with long supply lines and low pressure drop
devices, the opposite is to be expected. The influence of the
flow waves on the bed dynamics is far from clear. Although
this issue has been treated by Moritomi et al. [6] and
Johnsson et al. [11], no model of the interaction between
different parts of the system has been presented.
The aim of this work is to analyze literature models on
the dynamics of fluidized beds and to compare them with
the three experimental configurations corresponding to the
abovementioned Cases (a, b, and c). The models, assumed
to be general enough to comprise the cases treated, express
the response of a fluidized bed system to disturbances (both
external and internal ones with respect to the bed). The
analysis of the experiments and models is used to identify
mechanisms responsible for the interaction between the bed
and the air-supply system.
2. Theory
2.1. Modeling of the response of the dynamical system
The idea behind studies of the response of a dynamical
system is that the fluctuation of a given quantity is affected
by disturbances imposed on the system. In this manner,
Borodulya and Zavyalov [12] studied the behavior of the
instantaneous bed height, Moritomi et al. [6] derived a
model for fluctuations of pressure in the air-plenum,
depending on the input (i.e. disturbances) from the air-
supply system, while Fan et al. [2] characterized the
dynamics of a fluidized bed by the fluctuation of the bubble
residence time in terms of both internal and external
disturbances (the term noise was used in the original
work). Table 1 summarizes the main features of the models
given by these authors.
fluidized bed
air plenum
fludizing air
fluidized bed
air plenum
fludizing air
fan
fluidized bed
air plenum
fludizing air
a) b) c)
Fig. 1. a: Case a. The bed is separated form the air-supply system by a high pressure drop air-distributor. b: Case b. Interaction between the bed and the air-
plenum may take place. c: Case c. The bed, the air-plenum, supply lines and the fan form a coupled system.
S. Sasic et al. / Powder Technology 153 (2005) 176195 177
The models summarized in Table 1 provide fundamental
information about the system (usually a principal frequency
of pressure fluctuations) and can be used for stability
analysis with respect to disturbances originating from
different physical and operating parameters. In this way,
Borodulya and Zavyalov [12] investigated the effects of bed
height, as well as of some other features of the system, such
as hydraulic resistances of the air-supply system and of the
air-distributor, on the stability of fluidization. They con-
cluded that increase of the pressure drop over the distributor
had the tendency to stabilize the process, while the system
remained stable irrespective of the change of the bed height.
In summary, the models investigated describe the system
in the frequency domain, either by a first-order transfer
function (relating any two of several properties of the
system, for example the amplitudes of pressure fluctuations
in the plenum and in the bed)
G ix
1
1 i
x
x
0
;
where x
0
is the principal frequency of the system, or, by a
second-order transfer function
G ix
1
1
x
2
x
2
0
_ _
i2x
n
x
0
_ _;
n being the damping constant.
The first-order transfer function results in the following
ratio of the amplitudes of air-plenum and in-bed pressure
fluctuations

P
ap
P
bed

1
x
2
x
2
0
:
It is obvious that the interaction between the bed and the
air-plenum (Case b in Fig. 1b) decreases as the principal
frequency decreases (and it decreases as the pressure drop
over the air-distributor increases). These conclusions fully
agree with the experimental work of Svensson et al. [13],
who also reported that the interaction between the bed and
the air-supply system decreases with increase in the pressure
drop of the air-distributor.
A general formulation of the model employed by the
abovementioned authors can be derived. The fluctuating
pressure in the plenum is chosen to characterize the
dynamics of the system, and the applicability of the
model to Cases a to c is discussed. The aim is to treat
both the properties of the internal bed structure (bubble
eruptions at the surface of the bed) and external
disturbances (effects from the air-supply system and the
configuration of the apparatus). The system to be treated
is shown in Fig. 2. The model is based on the following
assumptions:
& The pressure fluctuations in the bed and in the air-plenum
are the result of external disturbances from the air-supply
system (flow fluctuations) and from the action of
bubbles.
& The entire bed mass moves vertically or moves and
expands at the same time, while the mass of the bed
remains constant.
& There is a periodic eruption of bubbles (or of a single
bubble) at the surface of the bed.
The derivation of the model comprises a mass balance
over the air-plenum, a momentum balance over the bed, an
expression for the pressure drop over the distributor and an
equation that links the flows on both sides of the distributor.
The details of derivation are presented in Appendix A. After
fluidized bed
air plenum
external
disturbance:
fluidizing air
internal disturbance:
bubble activities
Fig. 2. The dynamical system of interest for the study of the response of a
fluidized bed to disturbances.
Table 1
Summary of models expressing the response of a fluidized bed to disturbances
Author(s) Modelled property of the
system
Disturbances taken into account Type of equation Model outputs
[12] Instantaneous bed height External (from the air-supply system) Non-linear differential Stability analysis, Well-posedness of the
mathematical description
[2] Bubble residence time Internal (bubble activity) and external
(from the air-supply system)
Second-order linear
differential
Principal frequency of pressure fluctuations,
Stability analysis
[6] Fluctuating pressure in the
air-plenum
Internal (bubble eruption) and external
(from the air-supply system)
Second-order linear
differential
Principal frequency of pressure fluctuations,
Pressure responses in the plenum depending
on various disturbances
S. Sasic et al. / Powder Technology 153 (2005) 176195 178
some algebra, a linear differential equation for the fluctuat-
ing pressure in the plenum is obtained
d
2
p
ap
dt
2

C
2
C
1
dp
ap
dt

1
C
1
p
ap

C
3
C
1
dq
ex
dt

C
4
C
1
q
ex

1
C
1
P
in
1
which can be compared with the general equation describing
a harmonic oscillation of a mechanical system, where both
external excitation ( F(t)) and damping are present
d
2
x t
dt
2
2nx
0
dx t
dt
x
2
0
x t F t 2
yielding x
0
1=

C
1
p
as the natural frequency of the
nondamped oscillations and n C
2
=2

C
1
p
as the damping
factor. After introducing the equivalent height of the plenum
(H
eq
=V
ap
/A
ap
), the coefficients become
1
C
1

q
fb
q
ap
_ _
g
H
eq
bP
ap

DP
fb
A
bed
A
ap
_ _
;
C
2
C
1

q
fb
q
ap
_ _
DP
dist
DP
fb
_ _
mg
U
eq
A
bed
A
ap
_ _
; 3
C
3
C
1

bP
ap

A
ap
H
eq
;
C
4
C
1

q
fb
q
ap
_ _
DP
dist
DP
fb
_ _
mg
U
eq
bP
ap

A
ap
H
eq
A
bed
A
ap
_ _
4
The application of the analogy between the fluidized bed
and the mechanical system (Eq. (2)) to simulate the bed
dynamics requires that the terms on the right hand side of
Eq. (1) be imposed on the system as indicated in Fig. 2, and
that these terms be independent of events taking place
within the boundary. This means that the pressure fluctua-
tions in the bed and the flow fluctuations in the air-supply
system have to be defined independently and then used as
input to the simulation. Consequently, in the present
application, the disturbance originating from bubble activ-
ities in the bed (pressure pulse P
in
in Eq. (1)), which is an
internal disturbance, formally has to be treated as if it were
an external disturbance term ( F(t) in Eq. (2)). Eq. (1) was
implemented in a dynamical solver (SIMULINK) for
simulating the system. The simulations were compared with
experiments corresponding to the three Cases (a, b, and c).
All measured signals were characterized in the frequency
domain by power spectra, obtained as an average from a
number of sub-spectra (the number being chosen to obtain a
good trade-off between frequency resolution and statistical
significance). Each data set contained 512 points and the
total duration of each run was 240 s.
There are investigations in literature [3,14,15] where the
fluidized bed dynamics are expressed by a single frequency
(called natural, dominant, or principal). The princi-
pal frequency of the system is assumed to be a result of the
oscillations of the bed mass due to bubble passages and can
be identified from a peak in the power spectrum of the static
in-bed pressure fluctuation. These expressions are special
cases of the general model (Eq. (1)), where damping and
disturbances are not accounted for. They give the same
principal frequency of nondamped oscillations as the
general model, but no additional information (e.g. stability
analysis) is obtained. The frequencies calculated will be
compared with the ones obtained in the experiments, and it
is therefore necessary to analyze the basic assumptions of
the models.
For a system equipped with a low-resistance air-distrib-
utor and operating at low velocities (Case b), a model
proposed by Davidson [14] could be applied. The bed is
assumed to behave like a mass that oscillates on top of a gas
volume with a frequency (to be detected both in the air-
plenum and in the bed) given by the expression
f
0

1
2p

jP
ap
A
bed
q
bed
H
bed
V
ap

; 5
where P
ap
is the absolute pressure in the air-plenum,
q
bed
=q
s
(1q)+q
g
q the bulk density of the bed, A
bed
is
the bed area, V
ap
is the volume of the plenum, and H
bed
is
the height of the bed. Baskakov et al. [3] derived their
expression for the fundamental frequency under conditions
that were similar to those of Davidson [14] using the
analogy with oscillations of an ideal fluid in a U-tube. This
results in
f
0

1
t
n

1
p

g
H
mf
_
; 6
where H
mf
is the bed height at incipient (minimum)
fluidization. The frequency is inversely proportional to

H
mf
p
and independent of voidage. The principal frequency
of the bed was derived by Roy et al. [15] for incipient
fluidization in an isothermal system. The oscillations were
assumed to be analogous to those in an organ pipe closed at
one end and open at the other. The relative motion between
particles and gas is neglected. The frequency of the
oscillation is f
0
=u
c
/k (k =4H being the wavelength of the
oscillations, H the characteristic dimension along the main
flow direction and u
c
the propagation velocity of pressure
waves), which, after introducing the expression for the wave
velocity, finally becomes
f
0

4H
u
c

je q
s
1 e q
g
e
_ _
q
g
_ _
1
: 7
To calculate the dominant frequency by Eq. (7), the
propagation velocity of pressure waves has to be
evaluated. Assuming that a gas solid mixture is a
continuous compressible medium, the wave velocity is
calculated in this work by using a separated flow theory
[8,15]. The theory takes into account the relative motion
between the phases and assumes the gas phase to be
S. Sasic et al. / Powder Technology 153 (2005) 176195 179
compressible and the particulate one to be incompressible.
This results in
u
c
c
0

q
f
q
s
e 1 e
1 x
2
s
2
P
B
1 x
2
s
2
P
B
2
_ _

;
where, B
q
g
e
q
s
1e q
g
e
, s
P
is a particle relaxation time
scale, in which the drag is assumed to follow Stokes law,
and x is the angular wave frequency (rad/s). The
separated flow model was derived for small perturbations
in a dispersed gas solid mixture, and therefore its
application for bubbling and especially circulating fluid-
ized beds remains questionable. Also, it is necessary to
know the angular frequency prior to the use of the model.
The analysis of Roy et al. [15] assumes that the pressure
waves are totally reflected at the air-distributor (the node is
assumed to be at the air-distributor, while the antinode is
located at the bed surface), and therefore Eq. (7) is limited to
Case a. Still, Cases b and c may be treated if the effect from
the interaction of the system is small (such as when the air-
plenum is relatively small). Also, it is worth noticing that
this is the only expression in literature where the frequency
is inversely proportional to H

q
p
.
As indicated in Table 1, the principal frequency may also
be derived from the models that express the response of a
fluidized bed to disturbances. Fan et al. [2] and Moritomi et
al. [6] provide identical expressions to the one of Davidson,
Eq. (5), for nondamped oscillations (assuming isothermal
conditions)
f
0

1
2p

P
ap
A
bed
q
mf
H
mf
V
ap

: 8
From Eq. (1) one obtains the fundamental frequency for
nondamped oscillations as
f
0

1
2p

q
fb
q
ap
_ _
g
H
eq
bP
ap

DP
fb
A
bed
A
ap
_ _

_
; 9
but there is also an influence on the frequency from the
damping that can be written as
f f
0

1
1
4
q
fb
q
ap
_ _
DP
2
dist
DP
fb
m
2
g
U
2
eq
H
eq
bP
ap

A
ap
A
bed
_ _

_
; 10
where f
0
is the frequency for nondamped oscillations (Eq.
(9)). It can be shown with some transformations (see
Appendix A) that Eq. (9) is similar to Eq. (8). Eq. (10),
however, shows for which parameters oscillations are
present. When the expression under the square root is less
than zero, the system is completely damped.
2.2. Identification of pressure waves in fluidized beds
In order to investigate the coupling between the fluidized
bed and the rest of the system, it is necessary to identify the
mechanisms through which this interaction is obtained. Van
der Schaaf et al. [16] proposed a method to recognize
pressure waves from pressure time series recorded in the
system. The power ( P
yy
) of the time series measured at
position y in the bed, is related to the time series simulta-
neously measured in the air-plenum (x) and expressed as the
sum of the coherent (COP
xy
) and incoherent (IOP
xy
) part as
P
yy
f COP
xy
f IOP
xy
f ; 11
with
COP
xy
f C
xy
P
yy
; 12
IOP
xy
f 1 C
xy
_ _
P
yy
: 13
The coherence between measurement positions (C
xy
) was
given
C
xy
f
P
xy
f P
4
xy
f
P
xx
f P
yy
f
; 0 C
xy
f 1: 14
The power spectrum of the coherent part identifies
pressure waves, originating in the bed and possibly
propagating through the entire system, whereas the incoher-
ent part expresses the effect of local events in the bed (gas
voids and turbulence).
3. Experiments
In order to illustrate the ability of Eq. (1) to reproduce
the dynamics of a fluidized bed system and the ability of
the method proposed (Eqs. (12) and (13)) to recognize
pressure waves from pressure signals in such a system,
experiments are designed to correspond to the Cases a, b,
and c. The experiments comprise measurements of in-bed
and air-plenum pressure together with flow fluctuations in
the air-supply part of a cold circulating fluidized bed
(CFB) unit. The system is outlined in Fig. 3 with the
operating conditions summarized in Table 2. A large
pressure drop over the air-distributor (a perforated plate
with 2 mm holes and 0.4 % open area) in Case a makes
the configuration of the air-supply system irrelevant for the
fluidization situation in the bed. For Cases b and c, the
flow can be controlled by a valve, which is located either
near the air-plenum (a gate valveValve 1, Fig. 3) or
upstream of the fan (a nozzle valveValve 2, Fig. 3),
air plenum
fluidized
bed
Pitot
tube
Valve 1 fan Valve 2
Fig. 3. Simplified sketch of the air-supply system of the fluidization unit.
S. Sasic et al. / Powder Technology 153 (2005) 176195 180
yielding one case with the air-supply system consisting of
the air-plenum only (L 0) and one case with a long air-
supply tube (L=30 m). The air was supplied by a radial,
high-pressure fan operated at constant speed. Its character-
istic curve for Cases b and c and the characteristics of
Valve 2 are given in Fig. 4a, with the stars indicating the
time-averaged operation points in the cases studied. The
characteristics of Valve 1 are given in Fig. 4b. Time
averaged pressure along the air-supply system (from the
fan to the bottom of the bed) is shown in Fig. 4c for Cases
b and c. The air-distributor was a perforated plate with 2
mm holes and 6.2% open area.
The pressure fluctuations were measured (Honeywell
pressure transducers, type 143PC03D) at the wall at 0.2 m
above the air-distributor and in the air-plenum. The in-bed
measurement position was within the bottom bed, but high
enough to avoid the influence from the entrance effects from
the air-distributor. The sampling frequency was 20 Hz
(enough to capture the main frequency content in fluidized
beds). The inflow of the air to the air-plenum was deduced
from the velocity as measured by a Pitot tube (Furnace
Control, FC014). Following the procedure suggested by van
Ommen et al. [17], the experimental setup was tested for
distortion of the amplitude and phase of fluctuations and no
significant influence was found for the range of frequencies
concerned in the study.
4. Experimental results
Fig. 5 presents power spectra of pressure fluctuations in
the bed and in the air-plenum when the unit is operated
with the high pressure drop air-distributor (Case a).
Compared to the other two cases, the power spectrum is
broad with an irregular peak region. The fluidization
regime was previously termed multiple bubble regime
[13] and is characterized by many bubbles, evenly
distributed over the cross-section of the bed. There are
no significant flow fluctuations recorded in the air-supply
duct in this case (pressure and flow waves are assumed to
be almost fully reflected from the air-distributor), since
the fluidized bed and the air-supply system are independ-
ent with respect to pressure fluctuations. Still, there is a
low amplitude peak of approximately 0.9 Hz in the
pressure spectrum of the plenum. The reason for this peak
is not known, but a possible explanation is that, in this
case, a standing wave was established in the air-supply
system due to operation of the fan against a nearly closed
valve [13].
Figs. 69 present power spectra of pressure fluctuations
in the bed and in the air-plenum, as well as the flow
fluctuations in the air-supply duct for Cases b and c. At
U=0.8 m/s and L 0 (Case b, the flow is controlled by
Valve 2, Fig. 2), one identifies a regime termed single
bubble regime [13]. A piston-like movement of the bed as
a whole and a strong periodicity of formation and eruption
of bubbles are observed. The bubble rises through the
centre of the bed. Fig. 6a or c reveals that the dominant
frequencies (the centre points of the spectra) of the
pressure signals in the bed and in the air-plenum are
identical. The flow fluctuations in the air-supply system
show a dominant peak at the same frequency as the
pressure fluctuations in the bed and in the air-plenum (1
Hz, Fig. 6b or d). At the same velocity and L=30 m (Case
c, flow control by Valve 2, while Valve 1 is fully open,
Fig. 2), it is not straightforward to recognize the fluid-
ization regime (Fig. 7a). Note that the vertical scale differs
from that in Fig. 6a. The dominant frequency in the bed
decreases to approximately 0.5 Hz, whereas the pressure
fluctuations in the air-plenum have two peaks, one that
coincides with the dominant frequency in the bed (0.5 Hz)
and one around 3 Hz that is not readily noticed in the bed
if linear scales are used on both axes. In logarithmic scales
one observes that the peak at 3 Hz is, indeed, present in
the bed, but with far lower energy than the 0.5 Hz peak
(Fig. 7c). The flow fluctuations show peaks which
coincide with the dominant frequencies identified above
(0.5 Hz and 3 Hz), Fig 7d. Since the natural frequency of
the duct is estimated to be around 3 Hz, it is likely that the
corresponding frequency content in the air-plenum and to
some extent in the bed represents effects from the air-
supply system. In this regime, visual observation reveals
that the bubbles are not as large as in the single bubble
regime, and also that they are less uniform, despite the
same fluidization velocity in both cases (b and c).
At U=2.2 m/s and L 0 (Case b), bubbles of an
exploding character, extended vertically all the way from the
air-distributor to the surface of the bed, dominate the flow
Table 2
Experimental data and operating conditions
Temperature Ambient
Cross-section of the bed (mm) 0.120.7
Cross-section of the air-plenum
(mm)
0.80.8
Height of the unit (m) 8.5
Bed material Silica sand
Particle diameter (mm) 0.32
Minimum fluidization velocity (m/s) 0.085
Terminal velocity of a single
particle (m/s)
2.0
Air-supply system Case a Case b: flow control
by Valve 1; Case c:
flow control by Valve 2
Fluidization velocity (m/s) 0.6 0.8; 2.20
Air-distributor pressure drop,
DP
dist
(Pa)
4200 1000 (at 0.80 m/s);
3200 (at 2.20 m/s)
Bed pressure drop, DP
fb
(Pa) 5050 5300 (Cases b and c)
Bottom bed height (m) 0.38 0.40 (at 0.80 m/s);
0.47 (at 2.20 m/s)
Volume, air-plenum (m
3
) 0.45
Volume, air-supply duct (m
3
)
(320 mm ID)
2.43
Flux of solids (kg/m
2
s) Non circulating conditions: 0,
Circulating conditions: 1
S. Sasic et al. / Powder Technology 153 (2005) 176195 181
field. A large portion of gas is in the form of a high
throughflow, exceeding the gas flow in the particulate phase
and in the visible bubble flow [18]. The dominant frequency
in the pressure fluctuations in the bed and the air-plenum
(Fig. 8a) coincides with the one observed in the single
bubble regime (1 Hz). The same can be said regarding the



0 2 4 6 8 10
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
x 10
5
frequency (Hz) frequency (Hz)
P
S
D

(
P
a
2
/
H
z
)
P
S
D

(
P
a
2
/
H
z
)
air-plenum
in-bed
10
-2
10
-1
10
0
10
1
10
0
10
5
air-plenum
in-bed
a) b)
Fig. 5. Case a, U=0.60 m/s. Power spectra of a) pressure fluctuations, b) pressure fluctuations (logarithmic scales).
a) b)
c)
Case b
20
16
12
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

[
k
P
a
]
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

[
k
P
a
]
16
12
8
4
0
0 10 20
Length [m]
Length [m] Length [m]
Length [m]
30
0 10 20 30
0
Flow control upstream of fan
Non-circulating conditions, u =0.8 m/s
Flow control near air-plenum
Non-circulating conditions, u =0.8 m/s
Flow control upstream of fan
Circulating conditions, u =2.2 m/s
Flow control near air-plenum
Circulating conditions, u =2.2 m/s
10 20 30
0 10 20 30
16
12
8
4
0
16
12
8
4
0
16
12
8
4
0 P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

[
k
P
a
]
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

[
k
P
a
]
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

[
k
P
a
]
Flow Q [m
3
/s] Flow Q [m
3
/s]
8
4
20
16
12

p
v

[
k
P
a
]
8
4
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2
Non-circulating conditions
Non-circulating conditions
Non-circulating
conditions
Circulating
conditions
Case b
Case b
Case c
Case c
Circulating conditions
Circulating conditions
p
v
p
v
p
v
p
fan
p
fan
Fig. 4. a: The characteristics of the fluidization fan and of Valve 2. The stars indicate time averaged operation points in the cases studied. b: The characteristics
of Valve 1. The stars indicate time averaged operation points in the cases studied. c: Time average pressure along the air-supply. The pressure drops at Valve 1
(left-hand diagrams) and Valve 2 (right-hand diagrams) and finally at the air-distributor.
S. Sasic et al. / Powder Technology 153 (2005) 176195 182
flow fluctuations in the air-supply system (Fig. 8b). Finally,
at U=2.2 m/s and L=30 m (Case c), the dominant
frequency of the pressure fluctuations in the bed and in
the air-plenum (Fig. 9a) remains at 1 Hz (i.e., it is not
changed with a change of the configuration of the air-supply
system as in the low velocity case). Again, as was observed
at the lower velocity for the same configuration, the
fluctuations in the air-plenum show the presence of another
peak at around 3 Hz (Fig. 9a), not seen in the bed, even in
logarithmic scales (Fig. 9c). Figs. 8d and 9d illustrate that
the flow fluctuations have the same frequency distribution
as the pressure fluctuations recorded in the air-plenum.
5. Comparison with models
Table 3 summarizes the results of the fundamental
frequencies as obtained from the different literature expres-
sions and from the general model (Eq. (10)). In the
expression of Roy et al. [15], the velocity of the pressure
wave, u
s
, was evaluated by the separated flow theory
discussed above.
All models yield a principal frequency lower than 3
Hz. In Case a there is no clear dominant bed frequency,
since there are many bubbles passing simultaneously
through the bed, all influencing the pressure measure-
ments. The maximum amplitude in the spectrum is around
3 Hz. The properties of this regime differ from the
assumptions of the models (with the dominant frequency
calculated by Eq. (5)) listed in Table 1 and of the model
(Eq. (6)) of Baskakov et al. [3], which is the reason why
the model results are not included in Table 3. In Case b
and at U=0.8 m/s, fair agreement is achieved, especially
with the model of Davidson. This is expected, since in
this case the model assumptions correspond to the
experimental configuration (insignificant damping and a
bed resting on an isolated air-plenum). The model of
Baskakov et al. [3] somewhat over-predicts the measured
frequency, although the derivation of the model was
similar to that of Davidson. The fundamental frequency
calculated by the model of Roy et al. [15] under-predicts
the measured one, the reasons probable being the
difficulty to correctly evaluate the propagation velocity
of the pressure waves and the wavelength of oscillations
(k). The general model (Eq. (1) or (10)) successfully
predicts the absence of periodicity in Case a (the system
is overdamped and there are no oscillations), and a good
agreement with measurements is achieved in Case b.
0 2 4 6 8 10
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
x 10
7
frequency (Hz)
P
S
D

(
P
a
2
/
H
z
)
air-plenum
in-bed
0 2 4 6 8 10
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
x 10
-3
frequency (Hz)
P
S
D

(
Q
2
/
H
z
)
flow into plenum
10
-2
10
-1
10
0
10
1
10
2
10
4
10
6
10
8
10
10
frequency (Hz)
P
S
D

(
P
a
2
/
H
z
)
air-plenum
in-bed
10
-2
10
-1
10
0
10
1
10
-6
10
-5
10
-4
10
-3
10
-2
frequency (Hz)
P
S
D

(
Q
2
/
H
z
)
flow into plenum
a) c)
b) d)
Fig. 6. Case b, U=0.80 m/s. Power spectra of a) pressure fluctuations, b) flow fluctuations, c) pressure fluctuations (logarithmic scales), d) flow fluctuations
(logarithmic scales).
S. Sasic et al. / Powder Technology 153 (2005) 176195 183
There is even a displacement of the principal frequency
because of the damping as seen in Eq. (10). In Case b
and at U=2.2 m/s, the model of Davidson (Eq. (5)) and
the present model (Eq. (10)) seem to yield the correct
dominant frequency of the in-bed pressure fluctuations,
although the fluidization regime and the pressure drop of
the air-distributor deviate from the assumptions of the
model (the model of Baskakov et al., Eq. (6), provides the
same result as in the low velocity case, since, according to
their model, the actual expanded bed height is irrelevant
for the calculation of the dominant frequency). In this
case, the exploding bubbles simply occur at approximately
the same frequency as the single bubbles. The properties
of the exploding bubbles are not well understood at
present and their position (frequency) is not accurately
predicted. In Case c and at U=0.8 m/s, only Eqs. (5) and
(10) obtain satisfactory results for the lower peak of the
measured in-bed frequency (0.5 Hz, Table 3, Fig. 7a or c),
but only when the effective gas volume, represented by
H
eq
, comprises the volume of the entire air-supply system.
However, none of the models is able to reproduce the
higher frequency peak (around 3Hz, Table 3, Fig. 7c),
which was shown to originate from the air-supply system.
Finally, in Case c and at U=2.2 m/s, the assumptions in
the models differ from the fluidization situation in the bed
(the dominance of short-cuts of gas), and therefore, an
agreement between the measured and calculated frequen-
cies may be regarded as a coincidence.
As a further step in the analysis, the general model (Eq.
(1)), expressing the response of a fluidized bed to
disturbances, is tested. Power spectra of measured and
simulated pressure fluctuations in the air-plenum (which in
most cases agree with the in-bed pressure fluctuations) are
compared (Figs. 10 and 11) for the two cases when there is
an interaction of the bed with other parts of the system.
There are two possibilities to directly introduce flow
fluctuations into Eq. (1), and both are investigated. First,
measured flow fluctuations are used as an input to
simulations (Fig. 10), although they cannot strictly be
regarded as independent signals, as requested by Eq. (1).
As far as frequency is concerned, the similarity between
Eq. (1) and the frequency models (Eqs. (5) (7)) reflects
itself in a very good agreement with measurements in Case
b (Fig. 10a and c). In Case c, the model either reproduces
the lower frequency peak only (U=0.8 m/s, Fig. 10b) or
does not reproduce the dynamics of the system at all
(U=2.2 m/s, Fig. 10d). Fig. 11 compares measurements
with simulations in Case b (single bubble regime) when
0 2 4 6 8 10
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
x 10
6
frequency (Hz)
P
S
D

(
P
a
2
/
H
z
)
air-plenum
in-bed
0 2 4 6 8 10
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
x 10
-3
frequency (Hz)
P
S
D

(
Q
2
/
H
z
)
flow into plenum
10
-2
10
-1
10
0
10
1
10
2
10
3
10
4
10
5
10
6
10
7
frequency (Hz)
P
S
D

(
P
a
2
/
H
z
)
air-plenum
in-bed
10
-2
10
-1
10
0
10
1
10
-6
10
-5
10
-4
10
-3
10
-2
frequency (Hz)
P
S
D

(
Q
2
/
H
z
)
flow into plenum
a)
b)
c)
d)
Fig. 7. Case c, U=0.80 m/s. Power spectra of a) pressure fluctuations, b) flow fluctuations, c) pressure fluctuations (logarithmic scales), d) flow fluctuations
(logarithmic scales).
S. Sasic et al. / Powder Technology 153 (2005) 176195 184
imposed signals are input to the simulations. Constant
amplitude of the signal and five frequencies from 0.3 to 4
Hz were arbitrarily chosen, as shown in the figure. The
fluctuations become significant only when the frequency of
the disturbances (1.1 Hz in this case) is close to the natural
frequency x
0
. This is a well known property of the
mechanical system described by Eq. (2). Similar results
were obtained for other cases.
Finally, a different approach from the ones used above is
tried. The general model (Eq. (1)) is understood as a linear
system with multiple inputs and a single output. Its response
can be investigated in the form of a transfer function. A
block diagram of the system is presented in Fig. 12a, with
the corresponding input output form
y G
1
; G
2

u
1
u
2
_ _
; 15
with y denoting the output of the system ( p
ap
), u
i
two inputs
(external and internal disturbances) and G
i
transfer func-
tions of the subsystems (e.g. G
1
represents the relation
between the first input and the output). The response of such
systems is usually illustrated by Bode plots, which show the
amplitude change (from the input to the output) as a
function of the frequency of the input. The corresponding
transfer functions from Eq. (1) read:
G
1
s
P
ap
s
Q
ex
s

C
3
C
1
s
C
4
C
1
s
2

C
2
C
1
s
1
C
1
16a
G
2
s
P
ap
s
P
in
s

1
C
1
s
2

C
2
C
1
s
1
C
1
16b
By using the data presented in Table 2, transfer functions
for the interaction cases (Cases b and c, for both velocities
used in this work) have been calculated. The corresponding
Bode plots are given in Fig. 12b (for the fluidization
velocity of 0.8 m/s) and 12c (for U=2.2 m/s) with the
contribution of each of the inputs presented separately. If we
compare Fig. 12b and c with a Bode plot of an idealized
second-order mechanical system (available in any textbook
dealing with system modeling and control, e.g. [19]), we
may realize the following: an intersection of low-frequency
and high-frequency asymptotes determines the natural
0 2 4 6 8 10
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
x 10
7
frequency (Hz)
P
S
D

(
P
a
2
/
H
z
)
air-plenum
in-bed
0 2 4 6 8 10
0
0.002
0.004
0.006
0.008
0.01
frequency (Hz)
P
S
D

(
Q
2
/
H
z
)
flow into the plenum
10
-2
10
-1
10
0
10
1
10
2
10
4
10
6
10
8
frequency (Hz)
P
S
D

(
P
a
2
/
H
z
)
air-plenum
in-bed
10
-2
10
-1
10
0
10
1
10
-6
10
-5
10
-4
10
-3
10
-2
frequency (Hz)
P
S
D

(
Q
2
/
H
z
)
flow into the plenum
a)
b)
c)
d)
Fig. 8. Case b, U=2.20 m/s. Power spectra of a) pressure fluctuations, b) flow fluctuations, c) pressure fluctuations (logarithmic scales), d) flow fluctuations
(logarithmic scales).
S. Sasic et al. / Powder Technology 153 (2005) 176195 185
frequency (in system control, this frequency is usually
referred to as cornering frequency), which corresponds to
the values obtained from Eq. (10) presented in Table 3.
Furthermore, from the shape of the curves, it is seen that in
all the cases studied the systems are dearly underdamped
(n b1) and finally, all curves experience a high-frequency
roll-off of 40 dB/decade (which is a general property of
second-order linear systems). The analysis presented is not
able to point out the existence of the higher-frequency peak
observed in the bed and the air-plenum in Case c (U=0.8
m/s) or in the air-plenum only (Case c, U=2.2 m/s).
In the end, the coherence analysis, Eqs. (11) (13), is
applied to cases where the interaction between bed and air-
supply system is expected. Fig. 13a and b show that in the
single bubble regime (Case b, U=0.8 m/s), pressure
fluctuations in the bed and in the air-supply system are
strongly coherent. At the same fluidization velocity, but
with a longer air-supply duct, Fig. 13c illustrates that the in-
bed and air-plenum pressure signals are predominantly
coherent at 0.5 Hz (there is also some incoherence at that
frequency too, Fig. 13d), but also that there is some
coherence at 3 Hz (effects from the air-supply system). At
0 2 4 6 8 10
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
x 10
6
frequency (Hz)
P
S
D

(
P
a
2
/
H
z
)
air-plenum
in-bed
0 2 4 6 8 10
0
0.005
0.01
0.015
0.02
0.025
0.03
frequency (Hz)
P
S
D

(
Q
2
/
H
z
)
flow into the plenum
10
-2
10
-1
10
0
10
1
10
2
10
3
10
4
10
5
10
6
10
7
frequency (Hz)
P
S
D

(
P
a
2
/
H
z
)
air-plenum
in-bed
10
-2
10
-1
10
0
10
1
10
-6
10
-5
10
-4
10
-3
10
-2
10
-1
frequency (Hz)
P
S
D

(
Q
2
/
H
z
)
flow into the plenum
a)
b)
c)
d)
Fig. 9. Case c, U=2.20 m/s. Power spectra of a) pressure fluctuations, b) flow fluctuations, c) pressure fluctuations (logarithmic scales), d) flow fluctuations
(logarithmic scales).
Table 3
Measured and modeled dominant frequencies for the cases investigated
Case Measured frequency (Figs. 59) Modeled frequency (Hz)
Fan et al.; Moritomi et al.;
Davidson; Eq. (5)
Baskakov et al.;
Eq. (6)
Roy et al.;
Eq. (7)
Eq. (10)
Case a No clear peak. Centre of spectrum at
3 Hz in the bed
/ / 0.63 No oscillations
Case b (0.8 m/s) 1 (bed and plenum) 1.10 1.57 0.60 1.06
Case b (2.20 m/s) 1 (bed and plenum) 1.10 1.57 0.60 1.04
Case c (0.8 m/s) 0.5 (bed and plenum) 3.5 (bed and plenum) 1.10
a
(0.44
b
) 1.57 0.51 1.06
a
(0.33
b
)
Case c (2.20 m/s) 1 (bed and plenum) 3.5 (air-plenum only) 1.10
a
(0.44
b
) 1.57 0.51 0.67
a
(0.27
b
)
a
Volume of the air-plenum.
b
Volume of the entire air-supply system.
S. Sasic et al. / Powder Technology 153 (2005) 176195 186
U=2.2 m/s and for both interaction Cases (b and c), the
signals are coherent at the frequency of the exploding
bubbles (Fig. 14a and c). Fig. 14a also reveals that the
coherence is almost zero at 3 Hz, indicating that the effects
from the air-supply system are not felt in the bed in this
case. It is likely that the air-distributor pressure drop is high
enough to almost eliminate the coupling between the bed
and the rest of the system at that frequency. Fig. 14b and d
simply show that the signals are not entirely coherent at the
frequency of the exploding bubbles.
6. Discussion
The application of Eqs. (57) shows that the dynamical
behavior of the fluidized-bed system is successfully
reproduced when the model assumptions correspond to the
configuration of the case treated. In other cases, the models
give only a part of the information about the events taking
place in the system (Case c, U=0.8 m/s), or do not provide
correct information at all. The question is: can the results be
improved? One reason for uncertainty is that the effective
gas volume to be used in calculations in Case c is not
necessarily the same as the one in Case b. It is physically
sound to take the entire air-supply system (air-plenum+
pipe) as an active volume in Case c, but it could be
questioned whether the entire volume is equally active, or if
it is necessary to include energy losses in long supply lines.
As indicated in Table 3, the inclusion of the entire volume
correctly predicts the frequency shift (from 1 Hz to 0.5 Hz)
0 2 4 6 8 10
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
x 10
7
frequency (Hz)
P
S
D

(
P
a
2
/
H
z
)
measured
simulated
0 2 4 6 8 10
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
x 10
6
frequency (Hz)
P
S
D

(
P
a
2
/
H
z
)
measured
simulated
0 2 4 6 8 10
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
x 10
7
frequency (Hz)
P
S
D

(
P
a
2
/
H
z
)
measured
simulated
0 2 4 6 8 10
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
x 10
6
frequency (Hz)
P
S
D

(
P
a
2
/
H
z
)
measured
simulated
a)
c)
b)
d)
Case b Case c
Case b Case c
Fig. 10. Power spectrum of air-plenum pressure fluctuations, a) U=0.80 m/s, Case b, b) U=0.80 m/s, Case c, c) U=2.20 m/s, Case b, d) U=2.20 m/s, Case c.
0 2 4 6 8 10
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
x 10
8
frequency (Hz)
P
S
D

(
P
a
2
/
H
z
)
solid line: measured
dashed lines: simulated
Case b
Fig. 11. Power spectrum of air-plenum pressure fluctuations, Case b.
Simulations with imposed disturbances.
S. Sasic et al. / Powder Technology 153 (2005) 176195 187
when the interaction of the bed with the entire air-supply
system is expected (Case c, U=0.8 m/s). A similar type of
uncertainty is encountered when the fundamental frequency
is calculated by the model (Eq. (7)) of [15]. The assumption
that k =4H, made in the derivation of the model, requires
that the node and the antinode be located at the air-
y
G
1
G
2
u
1
u
2
+
+
10
-2
10
-1
10
0
10
1
10
2
From: Input 2
Frequency (rad/s)
10
-2
10
-1
10
0
10
1
10
2
-40
0
40
80
120
From: Input 1
Frequency (rad/s)
M
a
g
n
i
t
u
d
e

(
d
B
)
solid line: Case b
dashed line: Case c
solid line: Case b
dashed line: Case c
U = 0.8 m/s
10
-2
10
-1
10
0
10
1
10
2
From: Input 2
Frequency (rad/s)
10
-2
10
-1
10
0
10
1
10
2
-40
0
40
80
120
From: Input 1
Frequency (rad/s)
M
a
g
n
i
t
u
d
e

(
d
B
)
solid line: Case b
dashed line: Case c
solid line: Case b
dashed line: Case c
U = 2.2 m/s
a)
b)
c)
Fig. 12. a: Block diagram representation of the dynamical system of Fig. 2. b: The frequency response of the linear dynamic model (Eq. (1)) in the cases where
interaction between the bed and the air-supply system is expected, b) U=0.8 m/s, c) U=2.2 m/s.
S. Sasic et al. / Powder Technology 153 (2005) 176195 188
distributor and at the bed surface, respectively. This is
fulfilled in Case a, since the high pressure drop over the air-
distributor gives rise to an almost complete reflection of
waves from the distributor. In Cases b and c, the air-
distributor is not a fixed boundary of the system as in Case
a, and the node is shifted from the air-distributor to a
position somewhere in the air-supply system. Then the
wavelength (k) becomes larger than 4H, and this decreases
the fundamental frequency. Furthermore, the inability of all
models treated to predict the presence of another peak of
measured pressure fluctuations in the bed and in the air-
plenum (at 3.5 Hz, Table 3) is not surprising, since the
system is more complex than assumed by the models.
Pressure and flow pulsations from the air-supply system and
their interaction with the waves from the bed, which may be
the cause for the change of the bed dynamics (shown by the
changes in the power spectrum compared to Case b), are not
accounted for in any of the models. Finally, the assumption
that the entire bed area is active introduces an uncertainty.
Perhaps only the part of the bed that is lifted by a bubble
should be considered [20].
The general model (Eq. (1)) takes influencing factors,
such as damping and disturbances, into account, but there is
still a significant disagreement with the measurements in
Case c. Although the model explicitly considers the flow
fluctuations ( q
ex
in Eq. (1)) in the air-supply system, their
effect is not readily observed in the power spectra of
simulated pressure fluctuations in the air-plenum (Fig. 10b).
Therefore, it seems that the fundamental frequency of the
system (measured both in the bed and in the air-plenum,
Table 3) is successfully reproduced by the model, whereas
the influence of the air-supply system is not. It may be
argued that this is a result of the linearization of the
governing equations (the inertial forces, responsible for the
onset of the instabilities in the system, are neglected), and
that thereby only small fluctuations of the relevant quantities
(listed in Table 1) may be studied. However, the principal
drawback with the modeling procedure is that the dis-
turbances, which are input to the model, are affected by the
bed itself. Therefore, it is not mathematically justified to use
the signals measured during operation as an external
disturbance. On the other hand, if fluctuations are imposed
as requested by the model, the information obtained (Fig.
11) is limited to what is conventional for this type of
mathematical descriptions (Eq. (2)). For this reason, despite
this deviation from the mathematical correctness, measured
0 2 4 6 8 10
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
x 10
6
frequency (Hz)
C
O
P
x
y

(
P
a
2
/
H
z
)
0 2 4 6 8 10
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
x 10
6
frequency (Hz)
I
O
P
x
y

(
P
a
2
/
H
z
)
0 2 4 6 8 10
0
1
2
3
4
5
x 10
5
frequency (Hz)
C
O
P
x
y

(
P
a
2
/
H
z
)
0 2 4 6 8 10
0
1
2
3
4
5
x 10
5
frequency (Hz)
I
O
P
x
y

(
P
a
2
/
H
z
)
a)
c)
b)
d)
Case b Case b
Case c Case c
Fig. 13. Decomposition of power spectrum of pressure fluctuations in the bed. U=0.80 m/s, a) coherent output (COP
xy
), Case b, b) incoherent output (IOP
xy
),
Case b, c) coherent output (COP
xy
), Case c, d) incoherent output (IOP
xy
), Case c.
S. Sasic et al. / Powder Technology 153 (2005) 176195 189
disturbances were applied as input and in one case (Case b)
an excellent agreement is found, whereas this cannot be said
about Case c. In the latter case, the transient effects from the
air-supply system, not accounted for in the model, may have
played an important role. The fluidized bed, the air-plenum,
the air-supply line and the fan, indeed form a coupled system,
as indicated by the dashed system limit in Fig. 3, but, because
of the very nature of the model (one differential equation with
predefined disturbances), it is not possible to extract any
additional information, although the models seem to be
formulated in a general way. Therefore, an understanding of
the interaction of the pressure waves generated in a bed with
pressure and flow pulsations from the air-supply system is
needed to solve the problems in Case c. In order to do so, a
method which would recognize the waves from measured
pressure fluctuations is required. For example, in the single
bubble regime, although the correct dominant frequency is
obtained by Eq. (10), the model does not provide a physical
explanation for the mechanisms responsible for the inter-
action between the bed and the remaining part of the system.
The reason for the interaction is probably the creation of a
pressure wave after the collapse of the bed. The wave may
propagate throughout the entire system, since the resistance
of the air-distributor is low. Existence of a sharp peak in the
coherent part of the power spectrum of in-bed pressure
fluctuations (Fig. 13a) indicates that a pressure wave is
indeed created in the bed. The wave is able to propagate both
upwards and downwards in the bed from the point of origin.
The amplitude of the wave does not decrease in the
downward direction [16] and thus, the wave is readily
detected in the air-plenum. Since the peaks in the power
spectrum of pressure fluctuations in Case b (Figs. 6a and 8a)
fully coincide with the peaks in the spectrum of the coherent
part (Figs. 13a and 14a), it is evident that in this case, the
interaction between the bed and the air-supply system is
determined exclusively by pressure waves created in the bed.
At the same fluidization velocity (0.80 m/s) but with a
different configuration of the air-supply system (Case c), the
fluidization situation is different, as shown before. This
implies that, apart from the pressure waves generated in the
bed (determined by the peak at 0.5 Hz in Fig. 7a or c), the
effects from the air-supply system (detected at the natural
frequency of the air-supply duct) significantly influence the
dynamics of the bed. This influence decreases as the
fluidization velocity increases (due to the increase of the
pressure drop over the air-distributor).
0 2 4 6 8 10
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
x 10
6
frequency (Hz)
C
O
P
x
y

(
P
a
2
/
H
z
)
0 2 4 6 8 10
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
x 10
6
frequency (Hz)
I
O
P
x
y

(
P
a
2
/
H
z
)
0 2 4 6 8 10
0
2
4
6
8
10
x 10
5
frequency (Hz)
C
O
P
x
y

(
P
a
2
/
H
z
)
0 2 4 6 8 10
0
2
4
6
8
10
x 10
5
frequency (Hz)
I
O
P
x
y

(
P
a
2
/
H
z
)
a)
c)
b)
d)
Case b Case b
Case c Case c
Fig. 14. Decomposition of power spectrum of pressure fluctuations in the bed. U=2.20 m/s, a) coherent output (COP
xy
), Case b, b) incoherent output (IOP
xy
),
Case b, c) coherent output (COP
xy
), Case c, d) incoherent output (IOP
xy
), Case c.
S. Sasic et al. / Powder Technology 153 (2005) 176195 190
The importance of flow waves on the dynamics of the
system also represents an important step in investigating the
Case c problems. Moritomi et al. [6] and Fan et al. [2]
introduced flow fluctuations in the air-supply system as an
external noise to the bed and investigated the influence of
flow fluctuations on the dynamical response of the system,
represented by a chosen (single) property (Table 1). A
strong correlation was found between the flow fluctuations
in the air-supply system and the fluctuations of pressure in
the plenum [6] or of bubble residence time [2]. Johnsson et
al. [11] investigated the dynamics of a complex system,
consisting of a fluidized bed, pipes, valves, a fan and a
plenum. They measured pressure fluctuations in the bed and
in the plenum, as well as the flow fluctuations in the air-
supply system. Pressure and flow fluctuations in the supply
system were also obtained from continuity and momentum
equations for one-dimensional non-stationary fluid flow.
However, all these studies have so far discussed the
influence of flow fluctuations on the fluidized beds
dynamics. The study of the interaction remains to be done
and would have to comprise also the feedback of the events
in the bed on the pressure and flow pulsations in the air-
supply system.
7. Conclusions
The purpose of this paper is twofold: firstly, to discuss
the present knowledge concerning the dynamical features
of gassolid fluidized beds expressed by models, and
secondly, to investigate whether these models are sufficient
to reproduce the dynamics of the system in a number of
cases with different configurations of air-supply system. A
general model describing the response of the bed to
disturbances is formulated and its applicability to three
distinct configurations of a chosen fluidization system is
studied. Also, expressions describing the fundamental
frequency of a fluidized-bed system are tested. It is shown
that these expressions are a special case of the general
models, when damping and disturbances are not accounted
for. Comparison of the results from the model with
experiments shows that the model can explain the
dynamics of the system when the bed is decoupled from
the other parts of the system (Case a), and when the bed
interacts with the air-plenum only (Case b). Experiments
show that in Case c, the dynamics of the bed (under non-
circulating conditions) are the result of the following
events: 1) pressure waves generated in the bed and felt
through the entire system, recognized as the coherent part
of the cross power spectra of measured in-bed and air-
plenum pressure fluctuations; 2) local phenomena not to be
felt in other parts of the system, represented by the
incoherent part of the cross power spectra of the signals
treated, and 3) the effects from the air-supply system
recorded at the natural frequency of the air-supply ducts.
The model only partially reproduces the dynamics of Case
c, since it does not reproduce the effects from the air-
supply system, although the flow fluctuations in the air-
supply ducts are explicitly taken into account. Also, it is
shown that no further information can be obtained from
the given models to cover such a case. Accordingly, there
is a need for further information. At high velocity (close to
the terminal velocity of a single particle), the bed
dynamics are dominated by structures (termed exploding
bubbles) which constitute a gas by-pass from the air-
distributor to the splash zone. The position of the peak that
represents the exploding bubbles does not depend on the
configuration of the air-supply system. The position (in the
frequency spectrum) of these bubbles cannot be predicted
at present. In some cases the exploding bubbles seem to be
superimposed on normal bubbles and they obtain the same
frequency. In high velocity cases, the effects from the air-
supply system are not felt in the bed, because of the
increased resistance of the air-distributor.
It seems that the understanding of the interaction of the
pressure waves, generated in the bed, with pressure and flow
pulsations from the air-supply system is a key to explain the
dynamic behavior of Case c problems. Hence, an analysis
should include all relevant components inside the boundary
defining the dynamical system (Fig. 3). Modeling of the
interaction between certain parts of a fluidized bed system
will then involve the coupling between phenomena, such as
two-phase turbulent flow, hydrodynamic instabilities and
the wave propagation.
Notation
A
ap
cross-sectional area of the air-plenum (m
2
)
A
bed
cross-sectional area of the bed (m
2
)
A
B
cross-sectional area of a bubble (m
2
)
c
0
speed of sound (m/s)
C
i
(i =l 4) coefficients (expressions (3) and (4))
C
xy
coherence between measurement positions
COP
xy
coherent part of the cross spectral density (Pa
2
/Hz)
d
p
particle diameter (m)
f
0
frequency of nondamped oscillations (Hz)
f frequency of oscillations (Hz), damping included
F(t) external excitations (Eq. (2))
g gravity (m/s
2
)
G transfer function of the system
G
i
(i =1,2) transfer functions between the output and the i-
th input, Eqs. (16a), (16b)
G
p
mass flow rate of bursting particles (kg/s/m
2
)
H
bed
bed height (m)
H
mf
bed height at minimum fluidization velocity (m)
H
eq
=V
ap
/A
ap
effective height of the plenum (m)
H
eq
=(V
ap
+V
pipe
)/A
ap
effective height of the entire air-
supply system (m)
IOP
xy
incoherent part of the cross spectral density
(Pa
2
/Hz)
K parameter (Eq. (A3))
m parameter (Eq. (A3)), (1<m<2), m=1.5 used in
simulations
S. Sasic et al. / Powder Technology 153 (2005) 176195 191
P pressure (Pa), (Eq. (A4))
P
ap
pressure in the air-plenum (Pa)
bP
ap
pressure in the air-plenum (Pa), mean value
p
ap
pressure in the air-plenum (Pa), fluctuating part
P
ex
pressure, external disturbances (Pa)
bP
ex
pressure, external disturbances (Pa), mean value
p
ex
pressure, external disturbances (Pa), fluctuating
part
P
fb
pressure in the bed (Pa)
bP
fb
pressure in the bed (Pa), mean value
p
fb
pressure in the bed (Pa), fluctuating part
P
in
pressure pulse from internal disturbances (Pa),
Eq. (1)
P
V
pressure in the freeboard (Pa), Fig. (A2)
P
xy
, P
yy
power spectral density of pressure signals from the
air-plenum and the bed, (Pa
2
/Hz)
P
xy
cross spectral density of pressure signals from the
air-plenum and the bed, (Pa
2
/Hz)
Q
ap
volume flow rate of air in the air-plenum (m
3
/s)
bQ
ap
volume flow rate of air in the air-plenum (m
3
/s),
mean value
q
ap
volume flow rate of air in the air-plenum (m
3
/s),
fluctuating part
Q
ex
volume flow rate of air, external disturbances
(m
3
/s)
bQ
ex
volume flow rate of air, external disturbances
(m
3
/s), mean value
q
ex
volume flow rate of air, external disturbances
(m
3
/s), fluctuating part
Q
fb
volume flow rate of air in the bed (m
3
/s)
bQ
fb
volume flow rate of air in the bed (m
3
/s), mean
value
q
fb
volume flow rate of air in the bed (m
3
/s),
fluctuating part
Q
mf
volume flow rate of air at minimum fluidization
velocity, (m
3
/s)
s Laplace operator
t time (s)
t
n
period of oscillations (s), Eq. (6)
u
c
velocity of pressure waves (m/s), compressive
waves
u
1
, u
2
inputs to a linear dynamical model, Eq. (15)
U
eq
equivalent gas velocity (m/s)
U
mf
gas velocity at minimum fluidization (m/s)
U
s
solids velocity (m/s), Eq. (A4)
V
ap
volume of the air-plenum (m
3
)
V
pipe
volume of the air-supply ducts (m
3
)
V
B
volume of the bubble (m
3
)
x vertical coordinate (s), Figs. (A1), (A2)
x(t) property of a mechanical system, Eq. (2)
Y output of a linear dynamical model, Eq. (15)
Greek symbols
Dp
fan
, Dp
v
pressure drop across fan and valve, respectively
(Pa), Fig. 4a and b
DP
dist
pressure drop over the air-distributor (Pa)
DP
fb
pressure drop over the bed (Pa)
e, e
mf
voidage, voidage at minimum fluidization
j ratio of specific heats
k the wavelength of the oscillations (m)
q
ap
, q
fb
density of air in the air-plenum and in the bed
(kg/m
3
)
q
bed
bulk density of the bed (kg/m
3
)
q
ex
density of air in the air-supply duct (kg/m
3
),
Eq. (A1)
q
g
density of gas (kg/m
3
), Eq. (7)
q
mf
density at minimum fluidization (kg/m
3
)
q
s
density of the solid material (kg/m
3
), Eq. (7)
s
P
particle relaxation time (s)
x
0
natural frequency of a mechanical system (rad/s)
x angular frequency of oscillations (waves) (rad/s)
n damping factor ( )
Acknowledgement
This work was financed by the Swedish Energy Agency.
Appendix A
A.1. Mathematical model of the response of a fluidized bed
to disturbances
The dynamical system of interest is presented in Fig. 2.
The main assumptions of the model are:
& Pressure fluctuations in the bed and in the air-plenum are
the result of external disturbances from the air-supply
system (flow fluctuations) and from the action of
bubbles.
air distributor
P
ex
, Q
ex
P
ap
, Q
ap
air plenum
x
Fig. A1. Mass balance over the air-plenum.
air distributor
Q
fb
x
fluidized bed
P
oo
+ P
in
H
mf
Fig. A2. Momentum balance-fluidized bed.
S. Sasic et al. / Powder Technology 153 (2005) 176195 192
& The entire bed mass is assumed to move vertically or to
move and expand at the same time, whereby the mass of
the bed remains constant.
& The model assumes a periodic eruption of bubbles (or of
a single bubble) at the surface of the bed.
The derivation procedure comprises the following
balances.
1) Mass balance over the air-plenum (Fig. A1)
V
ap
dq
ap
dt
q
ex
Q
ex
q
ap
Q
ap
A1
If isothermal flow is assumed, Eq. (A1) becomes
V
ap
dP
ap
dt
P
ex
Q
ex
P
ap
Q
ap
A2
By introducing mean and fluctuating quantities:
( Q
ex
=bQ
ex
+q
ex
; P
ex
=bP
ex
+p
ex
) and ( Q
ap
=bQ
ap
+q
ap
;
P
ap
=bP
ap
+p
ap
), assuming that bP
ex
=bP
ap
, bQ
ex
=bQ
ap

(mean values) and neglecting the product of fluctuating

components, Eq. (A2) finally becomes
V
ap
dp
ap
dt
bP
ap
q
ex
q
ap
_ _
bQ
ap
p
ex
p
ap
_ _
: A3
2) Momentum balance-fluidized bed (Fig. A2)
A 1-D model is adopted
q
bed
BU
s
Bt
U
s
BU
s
Bx
_ _

BP
Bx
q
bed
g A4
where q
bed
is defined as: q
bed
=q
s
(1q).
Neglecting the inertial forces due to the fluid motion in
Eq. (A4), we have (BU
s
/ Bt)Y(dU
s
/ dt) =(d/dt)(( Q
fb

Q
mf
) / A
bed
)). This expression indicates that the bed is
accelerated because of the bubble activity ( Q
fb
Q
mf
is
the difference of the flow of gas above the distributor in the
bed and that at minimum fluidization velocity. According to
the two-phase theory of fluidization, this flow is transported
as bubbles). Strictly speaking, because of the assumptions
made, the integration (with respect to the coordinate x,
where dx is understood as the displacement of the bed
because of bubbles) of such an equation will be valid only if
the bed height is close to the one at incipient fluidization
(H
mf
). In that case the bed density becomes q
mf
.
We have: q
mf
(1/ A
bed
)(dQ
fb
/ dt) = (dP/ dx) q
mf
g and
after integrating from 0 to H
mf
, the following expression is
obtained
q
mf
H
mf
A
bed
dQ
fb
dt
P
fb
P
V
P
in
q
mf
gH
mf
:
By introducing mean and fluctuating components for
pressure and volume flow rate in the bed ( Q
fb
=bQ
fb
+q
fb
;
P
fb
=bP
fb
+p
fb
) and assuming that bP
fb
P
V
=q
mf
gH
mf
,
we finally come to
q
mf
H
mf
A
b
dq
fb
dt
p
fb
P
in
: A5
The term P
in
in Eq. (A5), which represents the pressure
disturbance originating from the bubble eruption at the bed
surface [3], acts like a decelerating force in the model. The
model for P
in
is presented below.
3) Pressure drop over the air-distributor (Fig. A3)
P
ap
P
fb
KQ
m
ap
: A6
After introducing mean and fluctuating values and
linearizing Eq. (A6) (K(bQ
ap
+ q
ap
)
m
KbQ
m
ap
+mK
bQ
m1
ap
q
ap
), we arrive to
p
ap
p
fb
mKbQ
m1
ap
q
ap
: A7
The expression that will close the system of equations is
the link between the flows on both sides of the air-
distributor (q
ap
and q
fb
being the density of air in the
corresponding positions):
q
fb

q
ap
q
ap
q
fb
: A8
Therefore, the system of equations, which describes the
dynamic behavior of the fluidized bed under external and
internal disturbances, is
V
ap
dp
ap
dt
bP
ap
q
ex
q
ap
_ _
bQ
ap
p
ex
p
ap
_ _
:
q
mf
H
mf
A
b
dq
fb
dt
p
fb
p
in
:
p
ap
p
fb
mKbQ
m1
ap
q
ap
:
q
fb

q
ap
q
ap
q
fb
:
Finally, from the system of equations Eqs. (A3), (A5),
(A7), and (A8), the following linear differential equation for
the fluctuating pressure in the air-plenum is derived
q
ap
q
fb
H
mf
q
mf
A
bed
V
ap
bP
ap

d
2
p
ap
dt
2

V
ap
P
ap
mKbQ
m1
ap

dp
ap
dt
p
ap

q
ap
q
fb
H
mf
q
mf
A
bed
dq
ex
dt
mKbQ
m1
ap
q
ex
P
in
;
Having in mind that V
ap
=A
ap
H
eq
and DP
dist
=KbQ
m
ap
, the
coefficients (expressions (3) and (4)) are obtained. In
general, the ratio of the air densities (q
ap
/ q
fb
) is assumed
to be independent of time in the derivation procedure. For
ambient conditions this term is close to one.
Q
fb
Q
ap
air distributor
Fig. A3. Pressure drop over the air-distributor.
S. Sasic et al. / Powder Technology 153 (2005) 176195 193
A.2. Modeling of the internal disturbances
Internal disturbances are represented by the effect of a
bursting bubble at the surface of the bed. In this work, a
model similar to the one of [6] is used. By doing so, we do
not claim that bubble eruption is necessarily the only and
dominant source of pressure fluctuations in fluidized beds.
The exact origin of pressure fluctuations in freely bubbling
beds is still not straightforward in literature. In Ref. [16] it
has been shown that bubble formation and bubble coales-
cence are the dominant effects taking place in a bed with
respect to pressure fluctuations. On the other hand,
numerous publications (e.g., [1,2126], among others)
claim that the main sources of fluctuations are significantly
closer to the surface of the bed (the conclusions are
supported by presenting the dependence of the amplitude
of pressure fluctuations on the bed height). Furthermore, it
is well known that the information obtained significantly
depends on the type of the probe used (single vs. differential
pressure measurements, see [25] or [8]). In summary,
supported by this evidence, bubble eruption was chosen as
representative of internal effects in the bed. The existence of
other sources within the bed does not change the nature of
the model proposed.
The following quantities are introduced:
Bubble eruption at the surface (Fig. A4) generates the
pressure fluctuation, and the pressure pulse, as the differ-
ence between the pressure drop of the bed before and after
the event ( P
in
=DP
before
DP
after
), is assumed to have a
following form:
P
in

G
P
jG
P
j
q
b
A
B
A
bed
_ _
A9
The event of the bubble eruption in the time domain will
look according to the Fig. A5, where t
1
(s) is the duration of
the bubble eruption, while t
2
(s) represents the time interval
between two bubble eruptions.
Finally, assuming that only one bubble erupts at the time
at the surface of the bed (or many bubbles simultaneously),
the mass flow rate of the bursting particles is modeled as:
G
P

vq
bed
V
B
A
B
1
t
1
F t ; A10
where the function F(t) controls that: G
P
m0 while 2t
1
and
G
P
=0 outside 2t
1
.
This is achieved by using the Heaviside step function in
the following way:
H t nt
2
H t nt
2
2t
1

1; while 2t
1
0; otherwise:
_
The second part of the function F(t) from (A10) simply
has to reproduce the behavior represented by the graph
G
P
=f(t) (Fig. A5). Therefore, we have:
G
P

vq
bed
V
B
A
B
1
t
1
H t nt
2
H t nt
2
2t
1
f g

p
2
sin p
t nt
2
t
1
_ _
: A11
References
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A
B
cross-sectional area of a bubble (m
2
);
G
P
mass flow rate of bursting particles (kg/s/m
2
);
V
B
volume of the bubble (m
3
)
m the volumetric ratio of bursting particles to a bubble.
air distributor
fluidized bed P
before
bursting
bubble
P
after
Fig. A4. Bubble eruption at the bed surface.

t
G
P
2t
1
t
2
Fig. A5. Model: the event of bubble eruption in the time domain.
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