WritingGoodQuestions,HypothesesandMethodsforConservation Projects:AQuickReferenceGuide

Thisguideprovidesasetofbasictipsforstudentsandresearcherstoproposeandplana conservationinitiativethatisclearandconcise.Wehopethatthesesuggestionswillhelp applicantstoeffectivelyformulategoodconservationquestions,aswellasclearhypothesesand predictions.Thedocumentalsodescribestheinformationthatmustbeincludedinthemethods sectionofaconservationproject.Theserecommendationswillincreasetheprobabilityofa projectbeingevaluatedpositivelybythereviewers,whichwillultimatelyincreasethelikelihood oftheprojectbeingfunded.

Correctly Identify the Problem and Research Question

Everyprojectstartswithanobservedproblem(s),whichguidestheformulationofaquestion(s) tobeanswered.Typically,aquestionmuststartwithHow,What,When,Who,Which,Whyor Where.Identifyingtheproblemandthequestiontobeaddressedcorrectlyisfundamentalto thesuccessofaproject.Thisensuresthatreviewerswillknowtheapplicantsthinkingprocess. Themorespecificthequestion,theeasieritwillbetodeterminetheobjectives,hypothesesand predictionsoftheproject 1 . Tip:AskyourselfWhatismyQuestion?IfyoustartansweringthisbysayingIwanttoknow if.,thiswilltellyouthatyouhavenotidentifiedyourquestioncorrectly. Examplesofwellframedquestions: HowdoecologicalcorridorsaffectthepopulationsizeofspeciesXlivinginfragmented habitatY? HowdoesenvironmentaleducationinfluencethebehavioroflocalcommunityZ towardspeciesX? WhatbenefitscananecotourismprogrambringtolocalcommunityZ? HowareecotourismvisitorsinareaYaffectingthepopulationdensityofspeciesX? Examplesofquestionsthatarenotcorrectlyframed: WewanttoknowifpopulationsizeofspeciesXincreaseswiththenumberofcorridors betweenfragments.Thisisaprediction,notaquestion. WewanttoknowifspeciesXispresentinareaZ.Lackofinformationisnotitselfa conservationquestion. Thequestionmustaddresssomethingthatcanultimatelybemeasured.Thismeansthatthe questionhastobeanswerableonethatcanbeusedtoproposeasetofhypothesesthatcan

HailmanandStrier.2006.Planning,Proposing,andPresentingScienceEffectively.

betestedandasetofpredictionsagainstwhichonecancomparetheresultsfromthestudy 2 . Tip:Thequestionsthatyouproposetoaddressinyourprojectwillbecleariftheyareframedin termsofspecifichypothesesandpredictions.Wewilldiscusslaterinthedocumenthowtowrite goodhypothesesandpredictions.

Turning the Question(s) into an Overall Goal and Project Purpose

Oncethequestionisclearlywritten,theoverallgoalandthemainpurposeofthestudycanbe proposed.Theoverallgoalreferstothereasonableandexpectedcontributionofthestudyto broadconservationorsocialconcerns.Itrepresentsthevisionoftheproposalandshowsthat theapplicantthinksabouttheissuesfromaglobalperspective.Theoverallgoalisbasedonthe formalscientificorconservationcontextfromwhichthestudyisderivedandtowhichthe projectwillultimatelycontribute 3 . Theprojectpurposereferstothespecificcontributionthattheprojectishopingtoprovide,i.e. howtheapplicantenvisionsthingswillbedifferentoncetheprojectiscomplete.Contraryto theoverallgoal,theprojectpurposeisspecifictothespecies,habitatand/orconservationissue whichtheprojectwilladdress(RefertoAppendix1,CaseStudy,forspecificexamples).
Defining Project Objectives

Theprojectobjectivesarethemainresultsofthestudy;asetofconcisestatementsthatprovide enoughdetailtocommunicatethefocusoftheconservationinitiativeorquestion. Tip:Objectivesusuallystartwithverbslikedetermine,examine,investigate,explore,improve, developorevaluate. Examplesofobjectives: InvestigatetheeffectofecologicalcorridorsinthepopulationsizeofspeciesX Developanenvironmentaleducationprogramtoimplementwiththehuman communityintheareawherespeciesXsurvives ImprovethelivelihoodofthecommunityinareaYthroughthecreationofan ecotourismprogram REMEMBER:ObjectivesmustbeSMART:Specific,Measurable,Achievable,RealisticandTime bound. 4
Writing a Clear Hypothesis and Predictions

Carefullyconceivedhypothesesdemonstratethattheapplicantisawareofhowtheprojectfits intopriorconservationinitiativesandresearch.Italsoshowstothereviewerthattheapplicant knowswhatneedstobetested.Ahypothesisisatentativestatementthatproposesapossible explanationtothequestion.Thus,ausefulhypothesismustbeatestablestatement 5 .

2

Formoreinformation,refertosection3.3,problemanalysis,intheCLPprojectManual. http://www.conservationleadershipprogramme.org/UserDataWEB/ProjectManuals/ConservationProjectManual.pdf 3 FriedlandandFolt.2009.WritingSuccessfulScienceProposals. 4 Formoredetailsabouthowtocreateobjectivetrees,refertotheConservationLeadershipProgrammeProject Manual,Section3.4,http://www.conservationleadershipprogramme.org/ProjectManuals.asp 5 HailmanandStrier.2006.Planning,Proposing,andPresentingScienceEffectively.

 Eachoftheobjectivesmusthaveoneorasetofhypothesestotest,andeachhypothesisshould haveaprediction,typicallyderivedfromexistingknowledgereviewedinthebackground section.Apredictionisthewaythehypothesiswillbeacceptedorrejectedwhencomparedwith thecollecteddata. Tip:Predictionsshouldtellyouthevariablesthatyouaregoingtomeasure.Thinkaboutthemin termsoftheultimategraphoftherelationshipthatyouhopetoobserve.Ifyouwriteyour predictionsbutyoudonotknowwhatdatayouneedtocollectwhenyougettoyourmethods section,itmeansthatyourpredictionsarenotwellproposed. Examplesofhypothesesandpredictions: H1:ConnectivitybetweenfragmentsincreasesthepopulationsizeofspeciesA. Prediction:IfconnectivityaffectsthepopulationsizeofspeciesA,thenthenumberof individualsinanareawillbesmallerinfragmentswherenocorridorsaredevelopedthanin fragmentsconnectedthroughecologicalcorridors. H2:Environmentaleducationwillpositivelyinfluencethebehavioroflocalcommunitiestoward habitatdestruction. Prediction:Ifeducationinfluencesthebehaviorofhumancommunities,thenareasinwhich educationactivitiesareimplementedwillhavelowerratesofdeforestationinthenearfuture thanareaswherecommunitiesdonotreceiveeducation. Examplesofincorrecthypotheses: H1.SpeciesXisfoundinhabitatY. Althoughpresence/absencedatacanbeused,tofindaspeciesincertainareaisnotitself testableandwillnotprovideasolutiontothemainconservationproblem. H2.Surveysabouttheuse/consumptionofspeciesXwillbeansweredbythelocal community. Thisistoogeneraltobeahypothesisanditisalsonottestable.Specificityisimportant whenwritingahypothesis.Inthiscase,apredictioncannotbeproposedbecausethe hypothesisdoesnotclearlystatethepotentialvariablestomeasure. Tip:Apredictioniswhatisexpectedifthehypothesisistrue.Itisusefultostatethepredictions usingif/thenstatements.Ifthehypothesisistrue,thenthedatawillshowcertainrelationships.
Explain the Methods That Will be Used to Test the Hypothesis

Howoneplanstoobtainthenecessarydatatotestthehypothesisisjustasimportanttoa reviewerastheclarityofthequestions.Soundmethodswillstrengthenthecaseforasuccessful project.Themethodssectionshouldincludeinformationaboutthestudysite,thedurationof thestudy,theunitofsampling(e.g.plot,transect,region,pointcount)andthenumberofstudy subjectsandsamplingunits.Itisimportanttobeasdetailedaspossibleaboutthedata collectionmethods;itshouldincludethenumberofsites,groupsandcommunitieswithwhich theapplicantisplanningtowork.Onemustalsodetailhowdifferenceswillbeidentified betweensubjectsorareaswherethedatawillbecollected. 6

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Creswell.2009.Researchdesign:qualitative,quantitative,andmixedmethodsapproach

Thepredictionsmustbeusedtodeterminewhichdataareabsolutelynecessarytocollectin ordertotestthehypothesis.Establishedmethodsandprotocolsshouldalsobeusedwherever possible.Thiswillimprovethelikelihoodofcollectinggooddatasetsandwillfacilitatethe comparisonbetweentheprojectandotherrelatedconservationinitiatives,whileavoidingthe necessityofdetailedexplanations. Dependingonthedatathatwillbecollected,adescriptionofthetypeofstatisticalanalysesthat willbeusedtotestthehypothesisinthemethodssectionshouldbeincluded.Thesedonot needtobecompletelyspecified,butitisnotsufficienttosaythatstandardizedstatistical methodswillbeused.Findouthowotherstudieshaveanalyzedthetypeofdatathatwillbe collectedandwhichstatisticaltest(s)wereusedandreferencetheminthemethods.Thiswill demonstratetothereviewersthattheapplicantunderstandsthetopic,hasthoughtfully planneditandisawareofthetypeofdatathatneedstobeobtainedtoensuresolidresults, conclusionsandrecommendations. Wehopeapplicantsfindthesetipsandrecommendationsusefulandthatfollowingthemwill helptowritesuccessfulconservationorresearchprojects.Theliteraturebelowoffersmore detailedexplanationsaboutprojectwriting.Pleasereadthecasestudybelowforaspecific exampleofaconservationproject.
References

CreswellJW.2009.Researchdesign:qualitative,quantitative,andmixedmethods approach.Thirdedition.SagePublications.London FriedlandAandFoltC.2009.WritingSuccessfulScienceProposals.Secondedition.New Haven,CT:YaleUniversityPress. HailmanJPandStrierKB.2006.Planning,Proposing,andPresentingScienceEffectively. Secondedition.CambridgeUniversityPress

Further Reading

GranthamHS,BodeM,McdonaldMaddenE,GameET,KnightAT&PossinghamHP. 2010.Effectiveconservationplanningrequireslearningandadaptation.Frontiersin EcologyandEnvironment.8:431437. MitchellMLandJolleyJM.2009.ResearchDesignExplained.Seventhedition.Cengage Learningedts.BelmontCA.USA. OgdenTEandGoldenIA.2002.ResearchProposals:AguidetoSuccess.Thirdedition. NewYork:AcademicPress. SalafskyN,MargoulisR,RedfordK,RobinsonJ.2002.ImprovingthePracticeof Conservation:aConceptualFrameworkandResearchAgendaforConservationScience. ConservationBiology.16:14691479(http://www.fosonline.org/wordpress/wp content/uploads/2010/06/SalafaskyEtAl_ConsBiol_2002.pdf) SaundersC.2003.TheEmergingFieldofConservationPsychology.HumanEcology Review.10:137149(http://www.ibcperu.org/doc/isis/5630.pdf)

CaseStudy
Backgroundinformation Habitatfragmentationposesaseverethreattoprimatepopulationsaroundtheworld,with someofthemostunusualprimatecommunitiesnowsurvivinginhighlyfragmentedhabitats. TheAtlanticForestofBrazil,whichhassufferedgreatlyfromthecombinedeffectsofagriculture, forestryandurbanization,nowexistsonlyasacomplexofremnantfragmentsconstitutinga mere12%oftheoriginal1millionhectaresofforest.TheAtlanticForestisthehomeofthe criticallyendangeredNorthernMuriqui(Brachyteleshypoxanthus).OncevastpopulationsofB. hypoxanthusexistedintheAtlanticForestbuttodayonlyaboutathousandindividualssurvivein smallpopulationsinisolatedremainingfragments. CompetitionandrelativescarcityofresourcesinthefragmentsledtoarapiddeclineofB. hypoxanthus,eveninrelativelylargerfragments,duetodirectmortality.Althoughthepatternis nottypicalinotherfragmentedecosystems,studieshavesuggestedthatfragmentsinthe AtlanticForesttendtobeclosetooneanother,withabout98%ofthefragmentedforestarea within350mofanotherfragment.Thisprovidesauniqueopportunitytointerconnectisolated populationsofB.hypoxanthus,facilitatefemalemigrationtoincreasegenediversity,and increasethesurvivalprobabilityofthesepopulations. OverallGoal CreateaninterconnectedmatrixofremainingfragmentsofAtlanticForestwiththe collaborationoflandownersandlocalcommunitiestofacilitatethemigrationofyoungfemales ofB.hypoxanthus,increasegeneticvariability,andallowsmallpopulationswithfewindividuals toemigratetoareaswithmoreresources. Question HowdoecologicalcorridorsaffectthepopulationsizeofB.hypoxanthuslivinginfragmented AtlanticForestintheareaofGovernadorValadares,MinasGeraisBrazil? ProjectPurpose EvaluatethelikelihoodandeffectsofinterconnectingfourpopulationsofB.hypoxanthus isolatedinfragmentsofforeststhroughecologicalcorridors,intheareaofGovernador Valadares,MinasGerais,Brazil. ProjectObjectives O1.Evaluatethelikelihoodandefficiencyofusingnativeseedlingstobuildecologicalcorridors intheAtlanticForestvsforeign/commercialspeciesofseedlings. O2.DeterminetheeffectofinterconnectivityonthepopulationsofB.hypoxanthussurvivingin thefragments. O3.Developaneducationprogramwithlocalcommunitiesabouttheimportanceof connectivitybetweenforestfragmentsthroughecologicalcorridorsonthesurvivaloftheB. hypoxanthus. Hypotheses

H1.NativespeciesaremoreefficienttobuildecologicalcorridorsintheAtlanticforestthan foreign/commercialspecies. Prediction1.Ifnativespeciesaremoreefficienttobuildecologicalcorridorsthanforeign species,thencorridorsbuiltwithnativespecieswillshowlowerratesofmortalityofthe seedlingsthancorridorsbuiltusingforeign/commercialseedlings. H2.1:ConnectivitybetweenfragmentsincreasesthepopulationsizeofB.hypoxanthus. Prediction2.1:IfconnectivityaffectsthepopulationsizeofB.hypoxanthus,thenthenumberof individualsperareawillbesmallerinfragmentswherenocorridorsaredevelopedthanin fragmentsconnectedthroughecologicalcorridors. H2.2.ConnectivitybetweenfragmentsincreasesthemigrationopportunitiesforfemalesofB. hypoxanthus. Prediction2.2:IfconnectivityaffectsthemigrationopportunitiesforB.hypoxanthus,thenthe numberofyoungfemalesremainingintheirnatalgroupswillbehigherinfragmentswereno corridorsaredevelopedthaninfragmentsconnectedthroughecologicalcorridors. H3.1.Environmentaleducationwillpositivelyinfluencethebehavioroflocalcommunities towardhabitatdestructionandfragmentation. Prediction3.1.Ifeducationinfluencesthebehaviorofthehumancommunityinthefragmented AtlanticForest,thenareaswhereeducationisimplementedwillhavelowerratesof deforestationinthenearfuturethanareaswherecommunitiesdonotreceiveeducation. H3.2.Environmentaleducationwillprovideanincentivetolocalcommunitiestoprotectthe ecologicalcorridors. Prediction3.2.Ifenvironmentaleducationprovidesanincentivetolocalcommunitiestoprotect theecologicalcorridors,thenumberofseedlingsdamagedbyhumanactivityandtheratesof clearingofecologicalcorridorswillbelowerinareasinwhicheducationisimplementedthanin communitieswhereenvironmentaleducationisnotprovided.