Sulphuric Acid

Sulphuric acid (H2SO4) is a colourless liquid. It exists in a liquid form at room temperature; it is a stable liquid and is non-volatile. It is one of the most important industrial chemicals being manufactured in large quantities every year.

Uses of Sulphuric Acid

Sulphuric acid is the most important industrial chemical and is being used in a wide range of industries for the production of fertilisers, paints, soaps, plastics and so on.

Industrial Manufacturing of Sulphuric Acid

The industrial manufacturing process of sulphuric acid is called the contact process. The raw materials used are sulphur, air and water. This process is divided into three important stages as follows: i. ii. iii. Production of sulphur dioxide, SO2 Conversion of sulphur dioxide to sulphur trioxide, SO3 Production of sulphuric acid

The diagram below shows the three stages in the production of sulphuric acid.

The contact process of producing sulphuric acid

Sulphur Dioxide and Environmental Pollution

Sulphuric acid itself has no direct effect on the environment. This is because sulphuric acid is a non-volatile liquid. The environment is, however, affected when sulphur in the form of oxide gases, such as sulphur dioxide and sulphur trioxide, is produced by the industry and released into the environment. Many industrial processes release sulphur dioxide into the atmosphere. Examples are the burning of fuels with high sulphur contents, the extraction of metals from their sulphide ores, the release of SO2 produced in the industrial contact process and emission from vehicles. Sulphur dioxide will form acid rain when it reacts with rain water and oxygen in the air. The equations for the formation of acid rain are as follows:

Both sulphurous acid and sulphuric acid are acidic and poisonous. Their combination with nitric acid in the rain will cause a decrease, ranging between2.4 5.0, in the pH value of rain water. The high acidity of the rain will give rise to several environmental problems. Acid rain is chemically active and participates in chemical reactions. For example, it reacts with marble and sandstone which contain calcium

carbonate. As such, it will lead to the corrosion of buildings made of marble and sandstone. The reaction of the corrosion process is,

Acid rain will also corrode metal surfaces. It reacts with metals to form metal sulphate. The equation is,

Soil is the medium for the growth of plants. The optimal pH value of soil for plant growth is pH = 7 which is neutral. The presence of acid rain in the soil makes the pH value of the soil lower; it becomes more acidic and hence, less suitable for plant growth. Acid rain also reacts with the minerals in the soil. When the soil becomes acidic, the minerals in the soil cannot be absorbed by the roots of the plants. Plants will lack nutrients and become easily affected by viruses and parasites. In addition, acid rain forms soluble salts that are easily removable from the soil by rain water and these salts flow into lakes or rivers. The water in the lakes and rivers then become more acidic and are unable to support aquatic life. The aquatic organisms which cannot adapt to the changing environment will die.

Ammonia and Its Properties

Ammonia, NH3, is a very important raw material with many industrial usages. It is gaseous at room temperature and colorless with a pungent smell. The density of ammonia gas is lower than air. It is very soluble in water and has low boiling and melting points, -34C and -78C respectively. Ammonia has base properties when it dissolves in water and reacts with acid effectively. The neutralisation reaction of ammonia and acid produces ammonium salt. In the presence of water, the ammonia reacts with the metal ion to form the hydroxide metal. See the equation below.

Uses of Ammonia
Ammonia is used in several ways in industries. These include their usage in the production of fertilisers such as ammonium salts and urea, production of nitric acid and as electrolytes in dry cells. We shall at each of them in detail.

Fertilisers
The most important use of ammonia is in the fertiliser industry. Ammonia undergoes the neutralisation reaction with different acids to form ammonium salts which are fertilisers. The equations below shows an example of the production of ammonium salts used as fertilisers.

Production of urea
The urea fertiliser is also synthesised using ammonia. At a sufficiently high temperature and pressure, ammonia gas reacts with carbon dioxide gas to produce urea. Urea contains a high amount of nitrogen suitable for the healthy growth of plants. The equation for urea production is shown in the equation below.

Production of nitric acid

Nitric acid is also an important industrial chemical and is used in the production of nylons, explosives, paints, varnishes, etc. Ammonia is used as raw materials in the production of nitric acid and the process is called the Ostwald process. In this process, ammonia is oxidised in excess of oxygen to form nitrogen monoxide. Platinum is used as the catalyst. Subsequently, nitrogen momoxide is oxidised again to form nitrogen dioxide. The nitrogen dioxide and air are dissolved in water to form nitric acid. The equations describing the Ostwald process are shown below.

Electrolytes in dry cells

Ammonium chloride has good electrical conductivity. It can be used in dry cells as an electrolyte. Ammonium chloride is produced by the reaction of ammonia with hydrochloric acid.

Other Uses of Ammonia

The properties of ammonia it is a very volatile liquid and has a high heat capacity makes it suitable to be used as a cooling agent in refrigerators. Ammonia is also used in the rubber industry to prevent the coagulation of latex. This ensures that the rubber remains in its liquid form. Ammonia is also used to make explosive materials. Ammonia reacts with toluene to form trinitrotoluene (TNT) which is an explosive material.

The Manufacture of Ammonia in the Industries

The process of synthesising ammonia in the industries on a large scale is called the Haber process. The raw materials for the Haber process are hydrogen and nitrogen gas. They are combined directly to form ammonia. Nitrogen gas is obtained by the fractional distillation process of liquid air whereas hydrogen gas is obtained by the catalysed reaction of methane CH4 gas with steam. See the equation below for the production of hydrogen gas.

There are several optimal conditions required in the Haber process. The nitrogen and hydrogen are mixed at the ratio of 1:3 respectively. The mixture is compressed at a pressure of about 200 atm 500 atm and the temperature of the reaction is maintained at around 450C 500C. Iron filings are also

added in the reaction chamber to speed up the reaction. The equation for the Haber process is,

The ammonia is liquefied in the cooling chamber and it flows out from the chamber in liquid form. The diagram below shows the sequence of the Haber process.

The production of ammonia via the Haber process

Ammonium Fertilisers
The essential ingredients for plants to grow are carbon dioxide, light, water as well nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium and calcium. Nitrogen is the important ingredient for the synthesis of protein of plants at the leaves. Nitrogen is absorbed by the roots of the plants in the form of soluble nitrate ions. These nitrate ions are produced by bacteria from ammonium fertilisers such as ammonium nitrate, ammonium sulphate, urea and ammomium phosphate. We have seen above how these ammonium fertilisers can be produced. The amount of nitrogen in the fertilisers determines their effectiveness. The percentage of nitrogen, N, in the fertiliser can be calculated using the formula:

Pure Metals
A pure metal is made up of only one type of atoms. The atoms are of the same size and closely packed together. They are arranged in layers and form a three dimensional crystal lattice. Due to such an arrangement, the density of pure metals is high.

Arrangement of atoms in pure metals Pure metals have high melting and boiling points. This is because the attractive forces between the atoms are strong and hence, a large amount of energy is needed to overcome the attractive force and break the structure. Although pure metals have high melting and boiling points, they are ductile or can be stretched. This is because the atoms are arranged in layers and these layers can slide over one another when force is applied.

A pure metal can be stretch (ductile)

Pure metals are also malleable or can change their shapes. This is because there are many empty spaces between the atoms. When the metal is pressed, the group of atoms can move and settle into empty spaces.

Pure metals can change their shapes (malleable) As pure metals are soft, ductile and malleable, they are thus of little use for industrial purposes. To enhance the strength and hardness of pure metals, these metals have to be converted into alloys.

Alloys
An alloy is defined as a mixture of two or more elements. The major component of an alloy is a metal. The minor component (impurities) may be metals or non-metals. The composition of the mixture is fixed. For example, bronze is made up of 90% copper (major component) and 10% tin (minor component). The process of producing an alloy is called alloying.

Purposes of Alloy Production

There are several reasons for the production of alloys. They are produced for their following characteristics: i. ii. iii. Strength and hardness Resistance to corrosion Appearance

Increasing the strength and hardness of pure metals

The main purpose of producing an alloy is to improve the physical properties of pure metals. When atoms of the minor component are added, they change the arrangement of the atoms of the major component. This is because the sizes of the atoms of the major and minor components are different. The smaller atoms of the minor components enter the empty space between the atoms of the major component, thus preventing the layers of atoms of the major components from sliding over each other. This in turn, increases the strength and the hardness of the newly produced alloys.

The production of an alloy

Increasing resistance to corrosion of pure metals

Most pure metals, such as iron and copper, undergo oxidation when exposed to air and water and thus, they corrode readily. However, there are unreactive metals such as gold and silver which do not react with air and water. Alloying iron or copper with gold or silver can prevent corrosion from taking place and will enable the iron and copper to last longer without corrosion. Stainless steel is produced by adding carbon, chromium and nickel to iron. Stainless steel lasts longer as no corrosion can take place on the surface.

Enhancing the appearance of pure metals

Alloys improve appearances

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The surface of pure metals is susceptible to oxidation and thus over time, they lose their shine. Alloying can prevent the surface of pure metals from being oxidised, thus maintaining the appearance. The presence of atoms of the minor component prevents the formation of metal oxide. For example, the appearance of 9-carat gold can be improved by adding silver and copper to pure gold. As a result, the gold is more shiny and stronger. The table below shows examples of alloys, their special properties and their uses.

Properties and uses of some alloys

Polymers

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Polymers are large molecules with long-chain structures formed by joining and linking many identical sub-units and repeating these sub-units using covalent bonds. The repeating sub-units are called monomers. In other words, polymers are built by large numbers (thousands) of identical and repeating monomers. Polymerisation is the process of joining the monomers to form large and long-chain molecules. Since the structures of monomers and polymers are different, they have different physical properties. A polymer is formed via polymerisation as follows:

Polymerisation process There are two types of polymers. They are: i. Natural polymers

ii.

Synthetic polymers

Natural Polymers
Natural polymers are polymers that are synthesised by natural processes. Natural polymers are usually made by living organisms. Examples of natural polymers are listed in the table below:

Natural polymers and their respective monomers An example of a natural polymer is natural rubber. It is made by plants. The monomer of natural rubber is isoprene. The structure of natural rubber is shown below:

Monomers and polymers of natural rubber

Synthetic Polymers
Synthetic polymers are those produced by chemical reactions. Many of the raw materials used to make synthetic polymers are obtained from petroleum. The process of producing polymers by a chemical reaction is called polymerisation. There are two types of polymerisation processes. They are: i. ii. Addition polymerisation Condensation polymerisation

Addition Polymerisation
Addition polymerisation is a process that involves the double bond between carbon atoms. In this polymerisation, the double bond of the carbon atoms breaks and forms a covalent bond with the adjacent carbon atoms. This process continues and forms a long chain of polymers. An example is the formation of plastics using polythene as the polymer and ethene molecules as the monomer. The double bond of the ethene breaks and the carbon atoms of the adjacent ethene molecules link together to form a long polythene molecule. See below.

Additional polymerisation Examples of polymers that are synthesised by addition polymerisation are shown in table below.

Condensation Polymerisation
Condensation polymerisation involves the reaction between two monomers. As a result of the reaction, the polymer is formed and small molecules, such as water, hydrogen chloride and nitrogen gas, are released. Examples of polymers synthesised via this process are nylon and terylene. Nylon is produced by the reaction of carboxylic acid and amine monomers and in the process, water is released.

Uses of Synthetic Polymers

Synthetic polymers are widely used in our daily life. This is because of their special physical properties. Some physical properties of synthetic polymers are: i. ii. iii. iv. v. They are tough, flexible and can be moulded, e.g., PVC They are not easily torn, e.g., plastics They are strong and light, e.g., polypropene They are strong, long lasting and can be made into strings, e.g., nylon They are non-reactive and have non-sticking surfaces, e.g., TeflonCondensation polymerisation

Synthetic polymers are also widely used in industries. Packaging and building industries are the major users of synthetic polymers, for example, plastics are widely used in the packaging industries while in the building industries, synthetic polymers are used in pipes, windows and cables.

Effects of Synthetic Polymers on the Environment

The synthetic polymers are very stable. They do not rust, rot or decay. These properties are useful for various applications in our everyday life but they pose problems because they are difficult to dispose of and they are nonbiodegradable. This means they cannot be decomposed by microorganisms into simpler materials when they are in the ground and as such, they can remain there for an extremely long time. The unsystematic disposal of synthetic polymers contributes to the pollution of the environment. Hence, synthetic polymer wastes should be disposed of in the right way. There are many environmental effects if the disposal of the synthetic polymers is done indiscriminately. They float in drains, rivers or lakes and affect the aquatic organisms living in these habitats. If the synthetic polymers are burnt, they release toxic and poisonous gases such as sulphur dioxide and carbon monoxide. This causes pollution to the atmosphere and contributes to the formation of acid rain. The usage of synthetic polymers must be controlled. The disposal of these materials has to be managed properly. The best way is to recycle the synthetic polymers. Research into ways to make the synthetic polymers more bio-degradable must be promoted, thus ensuring that they can be decomposed and do not contribute to pollution.

Glass

Glass is a shiny, transparent material and is brittle, i.e., it breaks easily. It is also resistant to corrosion and chemically not active. The molecular structure of glass is similar to that of a liquid; this is why sometimes, glass is called a "supercooled liquid". But unlike liquids, the molecules in glass do not glide but vibrate at fixed positions just like in solids. Glass is made up of molten silica or silicon dioxide (SiO2) and exists naturally in sand. Other compounds, such as metal oxid, can also be added to glass to produce metal silicate glass of different properties. The equations for the formation of metal silicate glass are shown below.

Depending on the various silicates present in it, glass has, in general, the following properties: i. ii. iii. iv. v. It is hard and brittle It is transparent It is chemically inert It does not conduct electricity It does not conduct heat

vi. vii.

It does not allow liquids and gases to pass through It is resistant to corrosion

Types of Glass
There are, generally speaking, four types of glass. They are: i. ii. iii. iv. Fused glass Soda-lime glass Borosilicate glass Lead crystal glass

The types of glass are categorised based on their chemical compositions and properties.

Ceramics

Ceramic bricks, tiles, mugs and clay pots are all made from clay. Clay consists of ammonium sulphate, Al2SO3, that will react with silica dioxide at a high temperature to form ammonium silicate. At the high temperature, a series of chemical reactions takes place and when cooled, this clay will harden permanently to form ceramics. The properties of ceramics are almost similar to those of glass. However, most ceramics can withstand very high temperatures compared to glass. Ceramics are hard, brittle, have high melting points, chemically inert, do not corrode and are good insulators of heat and electricity. For these reasons, ceramics are mainly used as building materials such as tiles, bricks and roofs.

Since they are good electrical insulators, ceramics are also used in spark plugs and high tension cables. The properties and the corresponding uses of ceramics are listed in the table below. Properties and uses of ceramics

The Need for Composite Materials

The properties of conventional metals, metal alloys, glass and ceramics are useful to a certain extent. As we move into a new era where there are happenings such as space explorations, construction of modern high rise buildings and deep underwater explorations, we need new materials with diversified properties such as lightness, strength and resistance to heat and corrosion.

In this regard, scientists and materials engineers have undertaken the research and development of new materials by combining various metals, ceramics and polymers to produce a new generation of materials called composite materials.

Composite Materials
Composite materials are modified materials which are made from combining two or more materials such as metals, alloys, ceramics, glass or synthetic polymers to produce new and improved materials in terms of their physical properties. The composite materials select only special characteristics of the materials in the production such as strength, hardness and anti-corrosion. The weaknesses of the materials are eliminated. Thus the composite materials produced possess superior properties to those of the original components. There are many examples of composite materials which are widely used in everyday life. Examples of these are reinforced concrete, superconductors, optic fibres, glass fibres and photochromic glass. We shall look at each one of them in detail.

Reinforced Concrete

Reinforced concrete Concrete is made from sand, gravel and stones which are bound together with cement. On its own, concrete is hard and durable but brittle and weak in tensile strength and it is easily broken under heavy tension and stress. Hence, concrete is not suitable for use in building constructions. Steel, on the other hand, has a very tensile strength. So, when steel is combined with concrete, the resulting composite materials produced are hard, tough and of very high tensile strength. The combination of steel (in the form of wire netting or rods) with concrete is called reinforced concrete. The properties of reinforced concrete enable them to be of suitable use in the constructions of high rise and tall buildings, bridges and dams. Beside the

advantages of its strength, reinforced concrete is easily moulded and shaped and can be readily designed according to specific needs and requirements.

Superconductors

Superconductors are materials that have no resistance to the flow of electricity when cooled to particular temperatures. As a result, current flows efficiently without any energy loss (no heat is emitted). In contrast, the conventional flow of electricity uses copper cables resulting in about 20% energy loss (in the form of heat). Superconductors are composite materials. They are made from a mixture of ceramics or alloys. An example of a ceramic superconductor is the YBa2Cu3O7which becomes a superconductor at the temperature of lower than 95K. Superconductors are now used to supply electricity over long distances as well as in magnetically levitated trains, magnetic devices, transformers and generators which require high voltage consumptions.

Optic Fibres

Optic fibres are composite materials of glass. They consist of components of glass (SiO2) added to sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) and calcium oxide (CaO). The fibres consist of inner and outer cores. The outer core is a glass casing of

a higher refractive index. A light wave entering the inner core can propagate along the fibre using the mechanism of internal reflection. Optic fibres are used widely in telecommunications. They effectively transmit data using laser lights within the inner core over long distances. Optical fibres are also used in medical instruments to observe internal organs without surgery.

Glass Fibres

Glass fibres are composite materials produced by the mixture of plastics and glass. They have the characteristic of the hardness of glass combined with the elastic and flexible characteristics of plastics. They can also be easily shaped, are low in density and are chemically inert; they are resistant to impact, fire and water and can be moulded and shaped. Because of these special properties of glass fibres, they are used in making helmets, firefighter suits, tanks, boats and bodies of cars.

Photochromic Glass

Photochromic glass is glass produced by embedding silver chloride (AgCl) or silver bromide (AgBr). When it is exposed to ultraviolet light, photochromic glass becomes darkened but it turns transparent when there is no ultraviolet light. It is because the silver chloride in the glass is converted to silver in the presence of light. Conversely, silver is converted to silver chloride when light is absent. Photochromic glass is used to protect eyes from ultraviolet light by controlling

the amount of light transmiting through it. It is also used in optical lenses, the windshield windows of vehicles, camera lenses and light detectors.