The political structure of the ancient Indians appears to have started with semi-

nomadic tribal units called Jana (meaning subjects). Early Vedic texts attest
several Janas or tribes of the Aryans, living in semi-nomadic tribal state,
fighting among themselves and with other Non-Aryan tribes for cows, sheep and
green pastures. These early Vedic Janas later coalesced into Janapadas of the Epic
Age.

The term "Janapada" literally means the foothold of a tribe. The fact that
Janapada is derived from Jana points to an early stage of land-taking by the Jana
tribe for a settled way of life. This process of first settlement on land had
completed its final stage prior to the times of Buddha and Panini. The Pre-
Buddhist North-west region of Indian sub-continent was divided into several
Janapadas demarcated from each other by boundaries. In Panini, Janapada stands for
country and Janapadin for its citizenry. Each of these Janapadas was named after
the Kshatriya tribe (or the Kshatriya Jana) who had settled there-in.[2][3] The
Buddhist and other texts only incidentally refer to sixteen great nations (Solasa
Mahajanapadas) which were in existence before the time of Buddha. They do not give
any connected history except in the case of Magadha. The Buddhist Anguttara
Nikaya, at several places,[4] gives a list of sixteen great nations:

1. Kasi
2. Kosala
3. Anga
4. Magadha
5. Vajji (or Vriji)
6. Malla
7. Chedi
8. Vatsa (or Vamsa)
9. Kuru
10. Panchala
11. Machcha (or Matsya)
12. Surasena
13. Assaka
14. Avanti
15. Gandhara
16. Kamboja

Another Buddhist text Digha Nikaya mentions only first twelve Mahajanapadas and
omits the last four in the above list.[5]

Chulla-Niddesa, another ancient text of the Buddhist canon, adds Kalinga to the
list and substitutes Yona for Gandhara, thus listing the Kamboja and the Yona as
the only Mahajanapadas from Uttarapatha.[6][7]

The Jaina Bhagvati Sutra gives slightly different list of sixteen Mahajanapadas
viz: Anga, Banga (Vanga), Magadha, Malaya, Malavaka, Accha, Vaccha, Kochcha
(Kachcha?), Padha, Ladha (Lata), Bajji (Vajji), Moli (Malla), Kasi, Kosala, Avaha
and Sambhuttara. Obviously, the author of Bhagvati has a focus on the countries of
Madhydesa and of far east and south only. He omits the nations from Uttarapatha
like the Kamboja and Gandhara. The more extended horizon of the Bhagvati and the
omission of all countries from Uttarapatha "clearly shows that the Bhagvati list
is of later origin and therefore less reliable."[8]

The main idea in the minds of those who drew up the Janapada lists was basically
more tribal than geographical, since the lists include names of the people and not
the countries. As the Buddhist and Jaina texts only casually refer to the
Mahajanapadas with no details on history, the following few isolated facts, at
best, are gleaned from them and other ancient texts about these ancient nations.
[edit] Kasi
Main article: Kasi
This detailed map shows the locations of Kingdoms mentioned in the Indian epics.

The Kasis were Aryan people who had settled in the region around Varanasi (modern
Banaras). The capital of Kasi was at Varanasi. The city was bounded by rivers
Varuna and Asi on north and south which gave Varanasi its name. Before Buddha,
Kasi was the most powerful of the sixteen Mahajanapadas. Several Jatakas bear
witness to the superiority of its capital over other cities of India and speaks
high of its prosperity and opulence. The Jatakas speak of long rivalry of Kasi
with Kosala, Anga and Magadha. A struggle for supremacy went on among them for a
time.King Brihadratha of Kasi had conquered Kosala but Kasi was later incorporated
into Kosala by King Kansa during Buddha's time. The Kasis along with the Kosalas
and Videhans find mention in Vedic texts and appear to have been a closely allied
people. Matsya Purana and Alberuni read Kasi as Kausika and Kaushaka respectively.
All other ancient texts read Kasi.

[edit] Kosala
Main article: Kosala

The country of Kosalas was located to the north-west of Magadha with its capital
at Savatthi (Sravasti). It was located about 70 miles to north-west of Gorakhpur
and comprised territory corresponding to the modern Awadh (or Oudh) in Uttar
Pradesh. It had river Ganga for its southern, river Gandhak for its eastern and
the Himalaya mountains for its northern boundaries. The kingdom was ruled by king
Prasenjit followed by his son Vidudabha. There was struggle for supremacy between
king Pasenadi (Prasenjit) and king Ajatasatru of Magadha which was finally settled
once the confederation of Lichchavis became aligned with Magadha. Kosala was
ultimately merged into Magadha when Vidudabha was Kosala's ruler. Ayodhya, Saketa,
Benares and Sravasti were the chief cities of Kosala.

[edit] Anga
Ancient Cities of India during the time of Ramayana, Mahabharata and Buddha.
Main article: Anga

The first reference to the Angas is found in the Atharva-Veda where they find
mention along with the Magadhas, Gandharis and the Mujavats apparently as a
despised people. The Jaina Prajnapana ranks Angas and Vangas in the first group of
Aryan peoples. Based on Mahabharata evidence, the country of Anga roughly
corresponded to the region of Bhagalpur and Monghyr in Bihar and parts of Bengal.
River Champa formed the boundaries between the Magadha in the west and Anga in the
east. Anga was bounded by river Ganga on the north. Its capital Champa, formerly
known as Malini, was located on the right bank of river Ganga, near its junction
with river Champa. It was one of the very flourishing cities and is referred to as
one of six principal cities of ancient India (Digha Nikaya). It was also a great
center of trade and commerce and its merchants regularly sailed to distant
Suvarnabhumi. Anga was annexed by Magadha in the time of Bimbisara.

[edit] Magadha
Main article: Magadha

The first reference to the Magadhas occurs in the Atharva-Veda where they are
found listed along with the Angas, Gandharis and the Mujavats as a despised
people. The bards of Magadha are, however, referred to in early Vedic literature
and are spoken of in terms of contempt. The Vedic dislike of the Magadhas in early
times was due to the fact that the Magadhas were not yet wholly Brahmanised.
Rigveda mentions a king Pramaganda as a ruler of Kikata. Yasaka declares that
Kikata was a non-Aryan country. Later literature refers to Kikata as synonym of
Magadha.

With the exception of the Rigvedic Pramaganda, whose connection with Magadha is
very speculative, no other king of Magadha is mentioned in Vedic literature.
According to the Mahabharata and the Puranas, the earliest ruling dynasty of
Magadha was founded by king Brihadratha, but Magadha came into prominence only
under king Bimbisara and his son Ajatasatru. In the war of supremacy which went on
for long between the nations of Majjhimadesa, kingdom of Magadha finally emerged
victorious and became a predominant empire in Mid India.

The kingdom of the Magadhas roughly corresponded to the modern districts of Patna
and Gaya in southern Bihar, and parts of Bengal in the east. It was bounded on the
north by river Ganga, on the east by the river Champa, on the south by Vindhya
mountains and on the west by river Sona. During Buddha's time, its boundaries
included Anga. Its earliest capital was Girivraja or Rajagriha modern Rajgir in
Patna district of Bihar. The other names for the city were Magadhapura,
Brihadrathapura, Vasumati, Kushagrapura and Bimbisarapuri. It was an active center
of Jainism in ancient times. The first Buddhist Council was held in Rajagriha in
the Vaibhara Hills. Later on, Pataliputra became the capital of Magadha.

[edit] Vajji or Vriji

Main article: Vajji

The Vajjians or Virijis included eight or nine confederated clans of whom the
Licchhavis, the Videhans, the Jnatrikas and the Vajjis were the most important.
Mithila (modern Janakpur in district of Tirhut) was the capital of Videha which
became the important center of political and cultural activities of northern
India. It was in the time of king Janaka that Videha came into prominence. The
last king of Videha was Kalara who is said to have perished along with his kingdom
on account of his attempt on a Brahmin maiden. On the ruins of his kingdom arose
the republics of Lichchhavis, Videhans and seven other small republics. The
Lichchhavis were very independent people. Mother of Mahavira was a Lichchhavi
princess. Vaishali (modern Basarh in Vaishali District of North Bihar) was the
capital of Licchhavis and the political headquarters of powerful Varijian
confederacy. Vaishali was located 25 miles north of river Ganga and 38 miles from
Rajagriha and was a very prosperous town. The Second Buddhist Council was held at
Vaishali. The Licchhavis were followers of Buddha. Buddha is said to have visited
the Licchavis on many occasions. The Licchhavis were closely related by marriage
to the Magadhas and one branch of Lichhavis dynasty ruled Nepal until start of the
Middle Ages but have nothing to do with current ruling shah dynasty in Nepal. The
Licchavis are represented as (Vratya) Kshatriyas in Manusmriti. Vaishali, the
headquarters of the powerful Vajji republic and the capital of Lichchavis was
defeated by king Ajatasatru of Magadha.

[edit] Malla
Main article: Malla (India)

The Mallas are frequently mentioned in Buddhist and Jain works. They were a
powerful people dwelling in Eastern India. Panduputra Bhimasena is said to have
conquered the chief of the Mallas in course of his expedition of Eastern India.
Mahabharata mention Mallas along with the Angas, Vangas, and Kalingas as eastern
tribes. The Mallas were republican people with their dominion consisting of nine
territories (Kalpa Sutra; Nirayavali Sutra), one of each of the nine confederated
clans. Two of these confederations...one with Kusinara (modern Kasia near
Gorakhpur) as its capital, second with Pava (modern Padrauna, 12 miles from Kasia)
as the capital, had become very important at the time of Buddha. Kusinara and Pava
are very important in the history of Buddhism since Buddha took his last meal and
was taken ill at Pava and died at Kusinara.

The Mallas, like the Lichchhavis, are mentioned by Manusmriti as Vratya

Kshatriyas. They are called Vasishthas (Vasetthas) in the Mahapparnibbana
Suttanta. The Mallas originally had a monarchical form of government but later
they switched to Samgha (republic) of which the members called themselves rajas.
The Mallas were a brave and warlike people. Jainism and Buddhism found many
followers among the Mallas. The Mallas appeared to have formed alliance with
Lichchhavis for self defense. They however, lost their independence not long after
Buddha's death and their dominions were annexed to the Magadhan empire.

[edit] Chedi or Cheti

Main article: Chedi Kingdom

The Chedis, Chetis or Chetyas had two distinct settlements of which one was in the
mountains of Nepal and the other in Bundelkhand near Kausambi. According to old
authorities, Chedis lay near Yamuna midway between the kingdom of Kurus and
Vatsas. In the mediaeval period, the southern frontiers of Chedi extended to the
banks of river Narmada. Sotthivatnagara, the Sukti or Suktimati of Mahabharata,
was the capital of Chedi. The Chedis were an ancient peoples of India and are
mentioned in the Rigveda. A branch of Chedis found a royal dynasty in the kingdom
of Kalinga according to the Hathigumpha Inscription of Kharvela.

[edit] Vamsa or Vatsa

Main article: Vatsa

The Vatsas, Vamsas or Vachchas are stated to be an offshoot from the Kurus. The
Vatsa or Vamsa country corresponded with territory of modern Allahabad in Uttar
Pradesh. It had monarchical form of government with its capital at Kausambi
(identified with village Kosam, 38 miles from Allahabad). Kausambi had been a very
prosperous city where large number of millionaire merchants resided. It was the
most important entreport of goods and passengers from north-west and south.
Udayana was the ruler of Vatsa in sixth century BCE at the time of Buddha. He was
very powerful, warlike and fond of hunting. Initially king Udayana was opposed to
Buddhism but later on he became follower of Buddha and made Buddhism the state
religion.

[edit] Kuru
Main article: Kuru (India)

The Puranas trace the origin of Kurus from the Puru-Bharata family. Aitareya
Brahmana locates the Kurus in Madhyadesha and also refers to the Uttarakurus as
living beyond the Himalayas. According to Buddhist text Sumangavilasini (II. p
481), the people of Kururashtra (the Kurus) came from the Uttarakuru. Vayu Purana
attests that Kuru, son of Samvarsana of the Puru lineage, was the eponymous
ancestor of the Kurus and the founder of Kururashtra (Kuru Janapada) in
Kurukshetra. The country of the Kurus roughly corresponded to the modern
Thaneswer, union territory of Delhi and Meerut district of Uttar Pradesh.
According to Jatakas, the capital of Kurus was Indraprastha (Indapatta) near
modern Delhi which extended on seven leagues. At Buddha's time, the Kuru country
was ruled by a titular chieftain (king consul) named Korayvya. The Kurus of
Buddhist period did not occupy the same position as they did in the Vedic period
but they continued to enjoy their ancient reputation for deep wisdom and sound
health. The Kurus had matrimonial relations with Yadavas, the Bhojas and the
Panchalas. There is a Jataka reference to king Dhananjaya introduced as prince
from the race of Yudhishtra. Though a well known monarchical people in earlier
period, the Kurus are known to have switched to republic form of government during
sixth/fifth century BCE. Fourth century BCE Kautiliya's Arthashastra also attests
the Kurus following the Rajashabdopajivin (king consul) constitution.

[edit] Panchala
Main article: Panchala

The Panchalas occupied the country to the east of the Kurus between the mountains
and river Ganga. It roughly corresponded to modern Budaun, Farrukhabad and the
adjoining districts of Uttar Pradesh. The country was divided into Uttara-Panchala
and Dakshina-Panchala. The northern Panchala had its capital at Adhichhatra or
Chhatravati (modern Ramnagar in the Bareilly District), while southern Panchala
had it capital at Kampilya or Kampil in Farrukhabad District. The famous city of
Kanyakubja or Kanauj was situated in the kingdom of Panchala. Originally a
monarchical clan, the Panchals appear to have switched to republican corporation
in the sixth and fifth century BCE. Fourth century BCE Kautiliya's Arthashastra
also attests the Panchalas as following the Rajashabdopajivin (king consul)
constitution.

[edit] Machcha or Matsya

Main article: Matsya Kingdom

Country of Matsya or Machcha tribe lied to south of the Kurus and west of the
Yamuna which separated them from the Panchalas, It roughly corresponded to former
state of Jaipur in Rajasthan, and included the whole of Alwar with portions of
Bharatpur. The capital of Matsya was at Viratanagara (modern Bairat) which is said
to have been named after its founder king Virata. In Pali literature, the Matsyas
are usually associated with the Surasenas. The western Matsya was the hill tract
on the north bank of Chambal. A branch of Matsya is also found in later days in
Vizagapatam region. The Matsyas had not much political importance of their own
during the times of Buddha. King Sujata ruled over both the Chedis and Matsyas
thus showing that Matsya once formed a part of Chedi kingdom.

[edit] Surasena
Main article: Surasena

Country of the Surasenas lied to south-west of Matsya and west of Yamuna. It had
its capital at Madhura or Mathura. Avantiputra, the king of Surasena was the first
among the chief disciples of Buddha through whose help, Buddhism gained ground in
Mathura country. The Andhakas and Vrishnis of Mathura/Surasena are referred to in
the Ashtadhyayi of Panini. In Kautiliya's Arthashastra, the Vrishnis are described
as Samgha or republic. The Vrishnis, Andhakas and other allied tribes of the
Yadavas formed a Samgha and Vasudeva (Krishna) is described as the Samgha-mukhya.
Mathura, the capital of Surasena was also known at the time of Megasthenes as the
centre of Krishna worship. The Surasena kingdom had lost its independence on
annexation by Magadhan empire.

[edit] Assaka or Ashmaka

Main article: Assaka

The Country of Assaka or Ashmaka tribe was located in Dakshinapatha or southern

India. In Buddha's time, Assakas were located on the banks of river Godavari
(south of Vindhya mountains). The capital of Assakas was Potana or Potali which
corresponds to Paudanya of Mahabharata. The Ashmakas are also mentioned by Panini.
They are placed in the north-west in the Markendeya Purana and the Brhat Samhita.
River Godavari separated the country of Assakas from that of the Mulakas (or
Alakas). The commentator of Kautiliya's Arthashastra identifies Ashmaka with
Maharashtra. The country of Assaka lay outside the pale of Madhyadesa. It was
located on a southern high road, the Dakshinapatha. At one time, Assaka included
Mulaka and their country abutted with Avanti (Dr Bhandarkaar).

[edit] Avanti
Main article: Avanti (India)

Country of the Avantis was an important kingdom of western India and was one of
the four great monarchies in India when Buddhism arose, the other three being
Kosala, Vatsa and Magadha. Avanti was divided into north and south by river
Vetravati. Initially, Mahissati (Sanskrit Mahishamati) was the capital of Southern
Avanti, and Ujjaini (Sanskrit Ujjayini) was of northern Avanti, but at the times
of Mahavira and Buddha, Ujjaini was the capital of integrated Avanti. The country
of Avanti roughly corresponded to modern Malwa, Nimar and adjoining parts of the
Madhya Pradesh. Both Mahishmati and Ujjaini stood on the southern high road called
Dakshinapatha which extended from Rajagriha to Pratishthana (modern Paithan).
Avanti was an important center of Buddhism and some of the leading theras and
theirs were born and resided there. King Nandivardhana of Avanti was defeated by
king Shishunaga of Magadha. Avanti later became part of Magadhan empire.

[edit] Gandhara
Main article: Gandhara

The wool of Gandharis is referred to in the Rigveda. The Gandharis, along with the
Mujavantas, Angas and the Magadhas, are also mentioned in the Atharvaveda, but
apparently as a despised people. Gandharas are included in the Uttarapatha
division of Puranic and Buddhistic traditions. Aitareya Brahmana refers to king
Naganajit of Gandhara who was contemporary of raja Janaka of Videha. According to
Dr Zimmer, Gandharas were settled since the Vedic times on the south bank of river
Kubha (Kabol) up to its mouth into Indus itself. Later the Gandharas crossed Indus
and expanded into parts of north-west Panjab. Gandharas and their king figure
prominently as strong allies of the Kurus against the Pandavas in Mahabharata war.
The Gandharas were a furious people, well trained in the art of war. According to
Puranic traditions, this Janapada was founded by Gandhara, son of Aruddha, a
descendant of Yayati. The princes of this country are said to have come from the
line of Druhyu who was a famous king of Rigvedic period. The river Indus watered
the lands of Gandhara. Taksashila and Pushkalavati, the two cities of this
Mahajanapada, are said to have been named after Taksa and Pushkara, the two sons
of Bharata, a prince of Ayodhya. According to Vayu Purana (II.36.107), the
Gandharas were destroyed by Pramiti aka Kalika, at the end of Kaliyuga. Panini has
mentioned both Vedic form Gandhari as well as the later form Gandhara in his
Ashtadhyayi. The Gandhara kingdom sometimes also included Kashmira.[9] Hecataeus
of Miletus (549-468) refers to Kaspapyros (Kasyapura i.e Kashmira) as Gandharic
city. According to Gandhara Jataka, at one time, Gandhara formed a part of the
kingdom of Kashmir. Jataka also gives another name Chandahara for Gandhara.
Gandhara Mahajanapada of Buddhist traditions included territories of east
Afghanistan, and north-west of the Panjab (modern districts of Peshawar
(Purushapura) and Rawalpindi). Its capital was Takshasila (Prakrit Taxila). The
Taxila University was a renowned center of learning in ancient times, where
scholars from all over the world came to seek higher education. Panini, the Indian
genius of grammar and Kautiliya are the world renowned products of Taxila
University. King Pukkusati or Pushkarasarin of Gandhara in middle of sixth century
BCE was the contemporary of king Bimbisara of Magadha. Gandhara was located on the
grand northern high road (Uttarapatha) and was a centre of international
commercial activities. It was an important channel of communication with ancient
Iran and Central Asia. According to one school of scholars, the Gandharas and
Kambojas were cognate people.[10][11][12] It is also contended that the Kurus,
Kambojas, Gandharas and Bahlikas were cognate people and all had Iranian
affinities.[13] According to Dr T. L. Shah, the Gandhara and Kamboja were nothing
but two provinces of one empire and were located coterminously hence influencing
each others language.[14] Naturally, they may have once been a cognate
people.[15][16][17][18] Gandhara was often linked politically with the neighboring
regions of Kashmir and Kamboja.[19]

[edit] Kamboja
Main article: Kambojas

Kambojas are also included in the Uttarapatha. In ancient literature, the Kamboja
is variously associated with the Gandhara, Darada and the Bahlika (Bactria).
Ancient Kamboja is known to have comprised regions on either side of the
Hindukush. The original Kamboja was located in eastern Oxus country as neighbor to
Bahlika, but with time, some clans of Kambojas appear to have crossed Hindukush
and planted colonies on its southern side also. These latter Kambojas are
associated with the Daradas and Gandharas in Indian literature and also find
mention in the Edicts of Ashoka. The evidence in Mahabharata and in Ptolemy's
Geography distinctly supports two Kamboja settlements.[20] The cis-Hindukush
region from Nurestan up to Rajauri in southwest of Kashmir sharing borders with
the Daradas and the Gandharas constituted the Kamboja country.[21] The capital of
Kamboja was probably Rajapura (modern Rajori) in south-west of Kashmir. The
Kamboja Mahajanapada of the Buddhist traditions refers to this cis-Hindukush
branch of ancient Kambojas.[22]

The trans-Hindukush region including Pamirs and Badakhshan which shared borders
with the Bahlikas (Bactria) in the west and the Lohas and Rishikas of
Sogdiana/Fergana in the north, constituted the Parama-Kamboja country.[23]

The trans-Hindukush branch of the Kambojas remained pure Iranian but a large
section of the Kambojas of cis-Hindukush appears to have come under Indian
cultural influence. The Kambojas are known to have had both Iranian as well as
Indian affinities.[24][25][26][27][28][29][30][31] [32][33][34]

The Kambojas were also a well known republican people since Epic times.
Mahabharata refers to several Ganah (or Republics) of the Kambojas.[35]
Kautiliya's Arthashastra [36] and Ashoka's Edict No. XIII also attest that the
Kambojas followed republican constitution. Panini's Sutras,[37] though tend to
convey that the Kamboja of Panini was a Kshatriya Monarchy, but "the special rule
and the exceptional form of derivative" he gives to denote the ruler of the
Kambojas implies that the king of Kamboja was a titular head (king consul)
only.[38]

According to Buddhist texts, the first fourteen of the above Mahajanapadas belong
to Majjhimadesa (Mid India) while the last two belong to Uttarapatha or the north-
west division of Jambudvipa.

In a struggle for supremacy that followed in the sixth/fifth century BCE, the
growing state of Magadhas emerged as the most predominant power in ancient India
annexing several of the Janapadas of the Majjhimadesa. A bitter line in the
Brahmin Puranas laments that Magadhan emperor Mahapadma Nanda exterminated all
Kshatriyas, none worthy of the name Kshatrya being left thereafter. This obviously
refers to the Kasis, Kosalas, Kurus, Panchalas, Vatsyas and other neo-Vedic tribes
of the east Panjab of whom nothing was ever heard except in the legend and poetry.

The Kambojans and Gandharans, however, never came into direct contact with
Magadhan state until Chandragupta and Kautiliya arose on the scene. But these
nations also fell a prey to the Achaemenids of Persia during the reign of Cyrus
(558-530 BCE) or in the first year of Darius. Kamboja and Gandhara formed the
twentieth and richest strapy of Achaemenid Empire. Cyrus I is said to have
destroyed the famous Kamboja city called Kapisi (modern Begram) in Paropamisade.