UNIT IV

Introduction

Total Quality

Made up of the whole(or) Complete. Complete Degree of Excellence a product or service i provides id Act ,art or manner of handling, controlling, directing, etc.

Management

TQM is i the th art t of f managing i th whole the h l to t achieve hi excellence.

Introduction

Comprehensive approach to improving Quality Both a philosophy and a set of guiding principle Terms synonymous to TQM Continuous Quality Improvement (CQI) Quality Management (QM) Total Quality Control (TQC) Companywide Quality Assurance (CQA)

Example F dM Ford Motor t C Company Total T t l Quality Q lit Excellence E ll (TQE) Program P

Evolution of quality Era

Evolution

TQM

TQC &CWQC TQC SQC Inspection Foreman Craftsman

Years
1940 1960 1980 1990 2000

1900

1920

Basic Approach
Requires six basic concepts:

A committed and involved management to provide longt term t - to top t - bottom b tt organizational i ti l support. t An unwavering focus on the customer, customer both internally and externally. Effective involvement and utilization of the entire work force.

Basic Approach

C ti Continuous improvement i t of f the th b business i and d production process.

Treating supplier as partners. Establish performance measures for the processes.

Companies implemented TQM

TVS Group Boeing Aircraft Reliance Tata ITI L&T HMT

Gurus Guru s of TQM

Walter. A. Shewhart W. Edwards Deming Joseph. M. Juran A. Feiganbaum

TQC Q & PDSA 14 Points & PDCA Jurans Trilogy Customer requirement, CWQC, Employee Involvement, , TQC. Q

Gurus Guru s of TQM

Kaoru Ishikawa

Disciple p of Juran & Feigenbaum. g TQC in Japan, SPC, Cause & Effect Diagram, QC Four Absolutes-Quality, Prevention of NC, Zero Defects & Measure of NC Loss Function

Philips. B. Crosby -

Taguchi. G.

Quality Circle

What is Quality Circle..? Quality Circle is one of the employee participation methods It implies the development of skills, capabilities, confidence y of the p people p through g cumulative p process of and creativity education, training, work experience and participation.

It also implies the creation of facilitative conditions and environment of work, which creates and sustains their motivation and commitment towards work excellence.

Quality Circles have emerged as a mechanism to develop and utilize the tremendous potential of people for improvement in product quality and productivity.

Quality Circle

Quality circles were first established in Japan in 1962, and Kaoru Ishikawa has been credited with their creation. The movement in Japan was coordinated by the Japanese Union of Scientists and Engineers (JUSE) The use of quality circles then spread beyond Japan. Quality circles have been implemented even in educational sectors in India and QCFI (Quality Circle ) formulated in 1982, is p promoting g such Forum of India) activities.

Characteristics of QC

Small group of employees (optimum of 8-10 members) Members are from same work area or doing similar type of job.

Membership b h is voluntary l Meet regularly for an hour every week They meet to identify, analyze, and resolve work related problems leading improvement in their total problems, performance.

Quality circle enrich the work life of the employees

Structure of Quality Circle

Top management Steering committee Coordinator Facilitator Leader Members

Roles and Responsibility p y

Top management: The success of the quality circles depends solely on the attitude of the Top management and plays an important role to ensure the success of implementation of quality circles in the organization. Steering committee: Called middle management consists of chief executive heads of different divisions or a coordinator plays a positive role in quality circles activities for the success of the efforts

Roles and Responsibility

Coordinator: also acts as facilitators is an individual responsible for coordinating and directing the quality circles activities within an organization and carries out such functions.

Facilitator: Acts as a catalyst, innovator, promoter and teacher and is nominated by the management

Roles and Responsibility

Leader: Of the q quality y circles is chosen by y the members among g themselves and they may decide to have a leader by rotation since the members are the basic elements of the structure of quality circle Members: Of the quality circles are the small group of people from the same work area or doing similar type of work whereas non-members are those who are not members of the quality circle but may be involved in the circle recommendation.

THE IMPACT OF QUALITY CIRCLE

Improvement of human relations and workplace morale Promotion of work culture Enhancement of job interest Effective team work Reducing defects and improving quality Improvement of productivity Enhancing problem solving capacity Improving communication & interaction Catalyzing attitude change Promotion of personal & leadership development

Organizations Implementing Quality Circle

BHEL-1980 Mr. S.R. Udapa (GM Operations) 1st Indian to start quality circle Hero Honda motors Sunrise Quality circle Lucas TVS, Chennai honey bee quality circle Tata Refectories (located in Orissa) Niharika quality circle (saved Rs.4000 Crore p.a) Kudhremukh - Iron Ore Plant (located in Karnataka) Soorthy Quality Circle in 2001. Samsung India has bagged award in the Distinguished Category at the International Quality Circle Convention 2002 organised by the Quality Circle Forum of India in Lucknow

Quality Circles
Hindustan Antibiotics Durgapur steel plant Crompton greaves National textile corporation State bank of Hyderabad IIM Calcutta Air India Indian Airlines Apollo p hospital p chennai South Eastern Railways Bank Of Baroda State Bank of India

Different Names
Human Resource circles The quality seekers M circles Mac i l In India--Quality control circles (as per their origin in Japan) Productivity circles (Some Indian Organizations) Employees Participation circles (at Shriram Fibres chennai) Small group Activities (SGAs) (at Telco and Eicher) Shop Improvement teams (In some PSUs in India) Thinking at work Circles (at JK synthetics) Quality circles (at BHEL) Action circles Magic circle The Power Minded Circles E l Employees circles i l

Quality Circle Forum of India

Non Profit, National body, Established in April 1982

Journal Booklets
languages)

Quality circle India Quality circle at a glance

(in ten

Quality Circle Manual Video cassettes and CDs Training programs, Conferences, Workshops, In-plant presentations appreciation programmes presentations,

Quality Improvement

Problem solving Process

Identifying and selecting the Problem Analyzing the Problem Generating Potential Solutions

Evaluating the Solution

Implementin g the Solution

Selecting and Planning the Solution

Quality Q y Improvement p Tools

7 QC Tools Check sheet Histogram Pareto Chart Scatter Diagram Cause and Effect Diagram Run Charts Process Flow charts

CHECKSHEET
DESCRIPTION

A check sheet is a structured, prepared form for collecting and analyzing data. This i a generic is i tool t l that th t can be b adapted d t d for f a wide variety of purposes

Simplifying p y g and standardizing g manual data recording g

WHEN TO USE

When data can be observed and collected repeatedly by the same person or at the same l location. ti

When collecting data on the frequency or patterns of events, problems, defects, defect location, defect causes, etc.

When collecting data from a production process.

PROCEDURE

Decide what event or problem will be observed. Develop p operational p definitions. Decide when data will be collected and for how long. Design the form. form Set it up so that data can be recorded simply by making check marks or Xs or similar symbols and so that data do not have to be recopied for analysis analysis.

Label all spaces on the form. T t th Test the check h k sheet h t for f a short h t trial t i l period i d to t be b sure it collects ll t the appropriate data and is easy to use.

Each time the targeted event or problem occurs, record data on the check sheet.

EXAMPLE The figure below shows a check sheet used to collect data on telephone interruptions.

Example The paint bay team in a car manufacturer had the objective of discovering and removing the main causes of paint blemishes in doors. To achieve this, they concluded that they needed to determine the number and location of each type of blemish. They also defined the process to capture data on one form for each paint lot. They used a combination of a Defective Item Check Sheet and a Location Plot, as below. Paint bubbles were the most common problem, and were

investigated first. The grouping led the team to investigate the paint programming, where it was discovered that the paint robot was hesitating at corners. Reprogramming the robot significantly reduced the number of errors. Further analysis found that varying paint viscosity i it was causing i runs.

Other examples

A customer response group use a Check Sheet to track g the day y when each customer the time band during calls. They then ensure that there are enough people available to cope with the heavy load periods. This reduces fatigue and increases customer satisfaction.

A drinks retailer has a Check Sheet to log the types of purchase made, and changes her stock and displays to expand the range in the more popular types of wine. The result is a measurable increase in turnover.

Check Sheet to show pins within specification

HISTOGRAM
The most commonly used graph for showing frequency q y distributions, , or how often each different value in a set of data occurs

WHEN TO USE

The data are numerical values To see the shape of the datas distribution, especially when determining whether the output of a process is distributed approximately normally

Analyzing whether a process can meet the customers requirements Analyzing what the output from a suppliers process looks like Whether a process change has occurred from one time period to another

To determine whether the outputs of two or more processes are different

To communicate the distribution of data quickly and easily to others.

Grouping p g a set of measurements into a Histogram g

Histogram Shapes and Meaning

Normal. A common pattern is the bell-shaped curve known as the normal distribution. In a normal distribution, points are as likely to occur on one side of the average as on the other.

Histogram Shapes and Meaning

Skewed. The skewed distribution is asymmetrical because a natural limit p prevents outcomes on one side. The distributions peak is off center toward the limit and a tail stretches away from it it.

These distributions are called right- or left-skewed according to the direction of the tail.

Histogram Shapes and Meaning

Double-peaked or bimodal. The bimodal distribution l k like looks lik the th back b k of f a two-humped t h d camel. l The Th outcomes of two processes with different distributions are combined in one set of data. A two-shift operation might be bimodal.

Histogram Shapes and Meaning

Plateau. The plateau might be called a multimodal distribution. Several processes with normal distributions are combined. Because there are many peaks close together, the top of the distribution resembles a plateau. p

Histogram Shapes and Meaning

Dog food. The dog food distribution is missing somethingresults near the average. If a customer receives this kind of distribution, someone else is receiving a heart cut, and the customer is left with the dog g food, , the odds and ends left over after the masters meal

Histogram g

sufficient number of measurements to be able to give a usable shape to the distribution.

The number and width of the bars are also important; if the bars are too narrow, then insufficient measurements will fall into each bar to give it significant height.

Similarly, if the bars are too wide, there will be too few bars to give a useful shape to the distribution.

Histogram g

Find the range of observations Choose the no. no of classes, classes or cells (usually 5 to 20) if n= no. of data points, no of classes = n no.
Number of measurements Less than 50 50 to 100 100 to 250 Over 250 Number of bars 5 to 7 6 to 10 7 to 12 10 to 20

Determine the width of the classes (equal width) = Range/no. Range/no of classes

Determine the class boundaries Draw the frequency histogram (heights of the rectangles corresponds to the frequencies)

sample 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 50.04 49.96 50.01 49.95 50.00 50.02 50.01 50.02 50.06 49.96 50.01 50.04 49.97 50.00 49.97 49.98 50.03 49.98 50.07 49.99 50.03 49.99 50.01 49.97 50.01 50.05 49.99 50.00 49.93 49.93 49.96 49.94 49.90 50.01 49.98 50.00 50.04 49.98 50.00 50.06

Observations 50.02 50.03 50.01 50.02 50.00 49.97 49.96 50.04 49.99 50.08 49.98 50.00 49.98 49.95 50.03 49.97 50.03 49.99 50.02 49.95 50.00 50.01 50.00 50.10 50.00 50.02 49.99 50.02 49.99 49.92 50.00 50.03 50.01 49.97 50.08 49.96 50.01 50.05 49.99 49.99 49.94 49.98 49.92 50.02 50.09 50.09 50.00 50.00 49.95 50.03 50.02 49.92 49.95 49.94 49.96 49.97 50.01 50.00

49.93
50.02

Classes for sleeve dia X (in mm) dia. 49.89 X < 49.91 49 91 X < 49.93 49.91 49 93 49.93 X < 49.95

Tally

Frequency Relative frequency 1 3 6 11 14 23 21 11 4 0.01 0 03 0.03 0.06 0.11 0.14 0 23 0.23 0.21 0 11 0.11 0.04 0.03 0.03

Cumulative frequency 1 4 10 21 35 58 79 90 94 97 100

Cumulative relative frequency 0.01 0 04 0.04 0.10

0.21
0.35 0 58 0.58 0.79 0 90 0.90 0.94 0.97 1.00

50.07 X < 50.09 50.09 X < 50.11

3 3

Prob. 1. The following waiting times (in minutes) before being served in a local post office are observed for 50 randomly chosen customers: 2.1 0.5 0.8 0.4 4.8 2.8 1.6 2.5 3.5 5.2 1 9 2.4 1.9 24 4.6 3.8 5.5 2.5 2.1 2.8 3.5 5.2 1. 2. 3 3. 3.6 4.2 1.9 2.4 3.1 27 2.7 1.5 3.8 1.6 4.8 1.4 3.5 1.2 1.9 1.6 21 2.1 4.5 5.0 3.8 3.9 2.0 2.5 3.2 2.0 1.5 18 1.8 3.9 4.6 4.2 2.6

Construct a frequency histogram and a relative frequency histogram What conclusions can you draw? If the post offices office s goal is to have a waiting time of less than 4 4.0 0 min min, has this

goal been achieved? Comment on your conclusion.

Prob. 2. A random sample of 50 observations of the mileage per gallon (mpg) of a particular brand of gasoline p g is shown: 33.2 29.1 34 5 34.5 32.6 30.7 34.9 30.2 31.8 30.8 33.5 29.4 32.2 33 6 33.6 30.4 31.9 32.8 26.8 29.2 31.8 27.4 36.5 29.5 27 4 27.4 31.8 32.3 27.7 27.8 28.6 29.1 28.5 38.1 36.0 30 4 30.4 29.8 28.2 28.4 30.5 27.5 26.9 34.8 30.0 31.5 28 4 28.4 34.6 27.5 27.5 28.5 28.5 34.2 30.5

1 Construct a frequency histogram 1.Construct 2.Construct a relative frequency histogram and a cumulative frequency histogram 3.What conclusions can you draw regarding the product? 4.If the company has goal of a gas mileage of 31 mpg, is it achieving its objective?

Pareto Chart (or) Pareto diagram ( )P (or) Pareto t analysis l i

A Pareto chart is a bar graph. The lengths of the bars represent frequency or cost (time or money), and are arranged with longest bars on t o the e left eta and dt the es shortest o test to t the e right. g t

When to Use

When analyzing data about the frequency of problems or causes in a process

When there are many problems or causes and you want to focus on the most significant

When analyzing broad causes by looking at their p components p specific

When communicating with others about your data

PARETO DIAGRAM

To identify the VITAL FEW FROM TRIVIAL MANY and d to t concentrate t t on the th vital it l few f f for improvement.

A Pareto diagram indicates which problem we should solve first in eliminating defects and improving the operation.

The Pareto 80 / 20 rule 80 % of the problems are produced by 20 % of the causes. causes

Prob. Data is gathered regarding the types of nonconformance in a textile mill. The table below lists the p problem areas, , along g with p percentage g of occurrence of each and the associated annual cost. Which nonconformities should be addressed on priority by the Management. Types of Nonconformities in a Textile Mill Problem Type A B C D E F G Subpar quality of cotton Improper tension setting Inadequate operator training Bale storage problems Drop in hydraulic pressure Cutter not sharp Dye for use in color not adequate 40 20 14 10 8 5 3 Description % Occurrence Annual Cost (Rs. 1000) 20 6 3 2 2 1.5 1.8

Percentage of Occurence
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 A B C D E F G

PARETO DIAGRAM

Prob. The manager of a neighbourhood restaurant is concerned about the smaller numbers of customers patronising his place. The number of

complaints have been rising and he would like some means of finding out what issues to address and of presenting the findings in a way his employees can understand them The manager surveyed his customers over several weeks and collected the following data: Complaint Discourteous server Slow service Cold dinner Cramped tables Smoky y air Frequency 12 42 5 20 10

Present the data in a way that shows which complaints are the most relevant.

PARETO DIAGRAM
P e r c e n t o f t o t a l Slow service Cramped tables Discourteous Smoky server air Complaint type Cold dinner

Scatter Diagram (or) Scatter plot ( ) XY (or) X Y graph h

The scatter diagram graphs pairs of numerical data, with one variable on each axis, to look for a relationship between them. If the variables are , the p points will fall along g a line or correlated, curve. The better the correlation, the tighter the points will hug the line. line

When to Use

When you have paired numerical data. When your dependent variable may have multiple values for each value of your independent variable.

When trying to determine whether the two variables are related, such as when trying to identify potential root causes of problems.

After brainstorming causes and effects using a fishbone diagram, to determine objectively whether a particular cause and d effect ff t are related. l t d

Example Relationship between the depth of cut in a milling operation and the amount of tool wear
Depth Tool Depth Tool Depth Tool Depth Tool of cut Wear of cut Wear of cut Wear of cut Wear (in mm) (in mm) (in mm) (in mm) (in mm) (in mm) (in mm) (in mm)

2.1 4.2 1.5 1.8 2.3 3.8 2.6 4.3 3.4 4.5

0.035 0.041 0.031 0.027 0.033 0.045 0.038 0.047 0.04 0.058

2.6 5.2 4.1 3 2.2 4.6 4.8 5.3 3.9 3.5

0.039 0.056 0.048 0.037 0.028 0.057 0.06 0.068 0.048 0.036

5.6 4.7 1.9 2.4 3.2 3.4 2.8 2.2 2 2.9

0.073 0.064 0.03 0.029 0.039 0.038 0.04 0.031 0.033 0.035

3 3.6 1.9 5.1 4.7 5.2 4.1 4.3 3.8 3.6

0.032 0.038 0.032 0.052 0.05 0.058 0.048 0.049 0.042 0.045

Tool wear (in mm) 0.08 0 07 0.07 T o o L 0.06 0 05 0.05 0.04

w e 0.03 a r 0.02 0.01 0 0 1 2 3 Depth of Cut 4 5 6

Prob. A group of machine operators suspect that the machine speed affects the defect rate rate. To test this they keep track of the number of defects in same-sized batches produced at different machine speeds. The results are as follows:

Machine Speed (rpm)

1900 2450 1800 1850 2000 2350 2200

Number of Defects
10 17 12 14 6 15 7

Machine Speed (rpm)

2300 2550 2150 1950 2100 2400 2250

Number of Defects
9 16 6 7 6 12 7

Plot a scatter diagram. What does the diagram indicate?

18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000

Cause-and-effect diagram (I hik (Ishikawa or fi fishbone hb chart h t)

DESCRIPTION

The

fishbone

diagram

identifies

many

possible causes for an effect or problem. It can be used to structure a brainstorming session. sess o It t immediately ed ate y so sorts ts ideas deas into to use useful u categories.

WHEN TO USE

When identifying possible causes for a problem problem. Especially when a teams thinking tends to fall into ruts

PROCEDURE

MATERISLS REQUIRED: Flipchart (or) White Board, Marking Pens. Agree on a problem statement (effect). Write it at the center right of the h flipchart fli h or whiteboard. hi b d Draw D a box b around d it i and d draw d a horizontal arrow running to it.

Brainstorm the major categories of causes of the problem. If this is difficult use generic headings:
Methods Machines (equipment) People (manpower) Materials M t i l Measurement Environment

PROCEDURE

Write the categories of causes as branches from the main arrow. Brainstorm all the possible causes of the problem. problem Ask: Why Why does this happen? As each idea is given, the facilitator writes it as a branch from the appropriate category. Causes can be written in several places if they relate to several categories. Again ask why does this happen? about each cause. Write subcauses branching off the causes. Continue to ask Why? and generate deeper levels of causes. Layers of branches indicate causal relationships.

When the group runs out of ideas, focus attention to places on the chart where ideas are few.

Example

This fishbone diagram was drawn by a manufacturing team to try to understand the causes of variations in Bore size of tyres. The team used the seven major headings to prompt ideas. Layers of branches show thorough g thinking g about the causes of the p problem.

Operator Experience Education

Mixing Oven

Incoming M t i l Material Scrap Ash Time Density Bore size of tyres Vendor Selection

Accelerator Training

Skill

Temperature

Calibration Reproducibility Die Error detection Readability Measuring Equipment Filter

Pressure Die Needle Tool

Splicing M hi Machine Temperature Rate of feed Die Tubing g

Extrusion E t i Machine Pressure

Press

Splicing p g

Example: The operations manager of Checker Board Airlines at Port Columbus International Airport noticed an increase in the number of delayed flight departures. departures Analyse all possible causes of that problem to find the main source.

RUN CHART

Pl t of Plot f a quality lit Characteristic Ch t i ti as a function of time

Provide some idea of the general trend and degree of variability present in the process

Example: In a chemical process, the acidity of a compound used to dye fabrics is of interest. Twenty random observations are selected from the process, and their pH values measured. The data values are shown in table
Obser vation 1 2 3 4 5 pH 65 6.5 3.8 5.9 5.5 73 7.3 Obser vation 6 7 8 9 10 pH 61 6.1 6.5 5.2 5.8 60 6.0 Obser vation 11 12 13 14 15 pH 58 5.8 6.7 6.6 6.8 70 7.0 Obser vation 16 17 18 19 20 pH 66 6.6 5.5 5.2 5.2 48 4.8

PROCESS FLOW CHART

Sequence of events in the process Used for manufacturing and service operations Used to diagram operational procedures to simplify the system C identify Can id tif bottlenecks, b ttl k redundant d d t steps, t and d non-value added activities Example- Flow chart for processing incoming orders

Order received

Has purchase order for payment b been received?

No

Wait until purchase order is received

Yes Can order quantity be met from stock?

No

Produce according to specified demand

Yes Check due date against lead time

Package product

Ship product

Product received by customer