One of the oldest surviving foreign descriptions of India comes from the Greco-Roman biographer of Alexander the Great,

Flavius Arrianus. He depended upon other Gree sources, such as !iarchus, "hich are no" lost. His short boo #he Indica, dealt "ith the $o%age of Alexander&s fleet from India to the !ear 'ast. (elo" is his general description of India.

Ancient India as described b% Arrian )'xcerpted from Arrian, *#he Indica* in Anabasis of Alexander, together with the Indica, '. +. ,hinnoc , tr. -.ondon/ (ohn, 01234, ch. 0-056 1. The district west of the river Indus as far as the river Cophen is inhabited by the Astacenians and the Assacenians, Indian tribes. But they are not so tall in stature or so courageous as those who dwell east of the Indus; nor are they so swarthy as the ma ority of the Indians. These were in ancient times sub ect to the Assyrians, afterwards to the !edes and finally they submitted to the "ersians, and paid tribute to Cyrus the son of Cambyses as ruler of their land. The #ysaeans are not an Indian race, but descended from the men who came into India with $ionysus%%perhaps from those &ree's who were rendered unfit for service in the wars which $ionysus waged with the Indians. "erhaps also he settled with the &ree's those of the natives who were willing to oin his colony. $ionysus named the city itself #ysa, and the land #ysaea, in honour of his nurse #ysa. The mountain near the city, at whose base #ysa was built, is called !eros (thigh) after the misfortune he e*perienced as soon as he was born. This is the story framed by the poets in regard to $ionysus, and let the writers of legends &recian and foreign e*pound it. Among the Assacenians is !assaca, a large city, where also is the stronghold of the land of Assacia; and there is also another large city, "eucelaitis, not far from the Indus. These tribes have been settled west of the Indus as far as the Cophen. +. ,et me call the country east of the Indus India, and the people Indians. Towards the north of India lies !ount Taurus; but in this land it is no longer called Taurus. This range commences from the sea near "amphylia, ,ycia, and Cilicia and e*tends as far as the -astern .ea, dividing the whole of Asia. It is called by various names in different districts; in one part it is called "arapamisus, in another -modus, in a third Imaus, and probably it has several other names. The !acedonians who accompanied Ale*ander/s e*pedition called it Caucasus. But this is 0uite a different Caucasus from that in .cythia. They called it by this name that the report might become current that

Ale*ander had marched even beyond the Caucasus. The river Indus bounds India on the west as far as the &reat .ea, into which it discharges its water by two mouths, not near each other li'e the five mouths of the Ister, but li'e those of the #ile, by which the -gyptian $elta is formed. Thus also the river Indus forms the $elta of India, which is not smaller than that of -gypt. This delta is called in the Indian tongue "attala. 1n the south India is bounded by the &reat .ea itself, and the same sea bounds it on the east. The part of the country towards the south near "attala and the outlets of the Indus was seen by Ale*ander and the !acedonians and by many &ree's; but into the part towards the east Ale*ander did not penetrate further than the river 2yphasis. A few authors have described the country as far as the river &anges, and where are the outlets of that river and near it "alimbothra, the largest city of the Indians. 3. I consider -ratosthenes the Cyrenaean the most trustworthy authority, because he is careful to trace the circumference of the country. This writer says that the side of India has a length of I,4+5 miles to one going from !ount Taurus, in which are the sources of the Indus, along that river itself as far as the &reat .ea and the outlets of the Indus. And opposite this he ma'es another side from the same mountain to the -astern .ea scarcely e0ual to this side; but he ma'es a peninsula stretch far into the sea to the e*tent of about 343 miles. Therefore according to him the side of India towards the east would e*tend I,66+ miles. This he considers the breadth of India. The length from west to east as far as the city of "alimbothra he says was measured in schoeni 7one schoenus e0ualled about 4 miles8,/ and he made a plan of it; for it was the royal road. 2e says that this e*tends to 1,19: miles. The districts beyond this have not been so accurately measured. But as many as have recorded rumours say that with the peninsula pro ecting into the sea it amounts to about I,+;; miles. .o that the length of India upward is about +,343 miles. Ctesias the Cnidian says that India is e0ual to the rest of Asia, but he tal's nonsense; and so does 1nesicritus, saying that it is the third part of all the earth. #earchus says that it is a ourney of four months through the plain alone of India. To !egasthenes the distance from the east to the west is the breadth of India, which others ma'e its length. 2e says that where it is shortest it e*tends 166+ miles, and that from north to south, which is its length according to him, it e*tends +,:+< miles, where it is narrowest. In the whole of the rest of Asia there are not so many rivers as in India. The largest are the &anges and the Indus, from the latter of which the country ta'es its name. Both of these are larger than the -gyptian #ile and the .cythian Ister, even if their waters came together into one. To me indeed it seems that even the Acesines is larger than the Ister or the #ile, where it falls into the Indus, after having ta'en up into its stream the 2ydaspes, the 2ydraotes, and the 2yphasis, so that at this place its breadth is three and one%half miles. "erhaps also many other larger rivers flow in India. <. I cannot be sure of the accuracy of any statements about the country beyond the river 2yphasis, because Ale*ander did not advance further than that river. 1f the two largest rivers themselves, the &anges and the Indus, !egasthenes has stated that the former e*cels much in si=e; and so say all other writers who mention it. 2e says that it rises great from its sources, and that it receives into itself the Cainas, the -rannoboas, and the Cossoanus, all navigable rivers; then the .onus .ittocatis, and .olomatis, which are also navigable; and besides these the Condochates, .ambus, !agon, Agoranis, and 1malis. A great river the Comminases, and the Cacouthis and Andomatis, which flows from the land of the !adyandinians, an Indian nation, fall into it. In addition to these the Amystis oins the &anges, near the city of Catadoupe, as do the 1*ymagis in the land of the people called "a=alaeans, and the -rrenysis in that of the !athaeans, an Indian nation. !egasthenes says that none of these is

inferior to the !aeander, where that river is navigable. 2e says that the breadth of the &anges in its narrowest part is about twelve miles; that in many places it forms la'es, so that the land opposite is not visible where it is flat and nowhere stands up in hills. The same is the case with the Indus. The 2ydraotes, having received the 2yphasis in the land of the Astrybaeans, the .aranges from that of the Cecians, and the #eudrus from that of the Attacenians, falls into the Acesines in the land of the Cambistholians. The 2ydaspes also falls into the Acesines in the land of the 1*ydracians, ta'ing with itself the .inarus in the land of the Arispians. The Acesines oins the Indus in the land of the !allians. The Toutapus also, a large river, falls into the Acesines. That river, with its water swollen by these, and giving its name to the united stream, itself falls into the Indus and surrenders its name to it. The Cophen falls into the Indus in the land called "eucelaitis, ta'ing with itself the !alantus .oastus, and &arroeas. Below these the "arenus and .aparnus, not far apart, fall into the Indus. The .oanus also falls into it, coming void of any other river from the mountainous land of the Abissarians. !egasthenes says that most of these are navigable. Therefore we ought not to disbelieve that the Ister and the water of the #ile are not comparable with the Indus and the &anges. >e 'now, indeed, that no river falls into the #ile, but that canals have been cut from it through the land of -gypt. The Ister rises small from its sources, and though it receives many rivers, they are not e0ual in number to the Indian rivers which flow into the Indus and the &anges. ?ery few of the tributaries of the Ister are navigable. Two of these, the -nus and .aus, I 'now, having seen them myself. The -nus mingles with the Ister on the confines of the country of the #oricans and @haetians, and the .aus in the territory of the "aeonians. The place where the Ister and .aus have their confluence is called Taurounus. .ome one may 'now another navigable river which falls into the Ister, but he does not 'now many I am sure. 4. >hoever wishes to consider the cause of the number and si=e of the Indian rivers let him consider; it is sufficient for me to have recorded these statements as reports. Aor !egasthenes has recorded the names of many other rivers, which fall into the eastern and southern e*ternal sea, apart from the &anges and Indus. 2e says that there are in all fifty%eight Indian rivers, all navigable. But even !egasthenes does not seem to me to have traversed much of the land of the Indians, though he visited more than those who went with Ale*ander the son of "hilip. Aor he says that he was intimate with .andracottus, a very great 'ing of the Indians, and with "orus, still greater than he. This !egasthenes, indeed, says that neither do the Indians wage war with any other men, nor any other men with them; and that .esostris the -gyptian, having subdued most part of Asia, and having marched with his army as far as -urope, returned bac' home without attac'ing India; that Idanthyrsus the .cythian started from .cythia, and subduing many nations in Asia, advanced even into the land of the -gyptians in his victorious career; that .emiramis the Assyrian undertoo' an e*pedition into the land the Indians, but that she died before she could complete her plans; and that Ale*ander alone led an invading army against the Indians. The tale is current that even before Ale*ander $ionysus led an e*pedition into India, and subdued the Indians. There is also a vague story about 2erades to the same effect. 1f the e*pedition of $ionysus, indeed, the city of #ysa is no mean monument, as also are the mountain !eros, the ivy which grows on this mountain, the Indians themselves also marching into battle to the sound of drums and cymbals, wearing spec'led garments li'e the bacchanals of $ionysus. But of 2eracles there are not many memorials. Aor the statement that Ale*ander forcibly subdued the roc' of Aornus, because 2eracles was not able to capture it, seems to me a piece of !acedonian boasting; ust as they called the "arapamisus Caucasus, though it has no connection with it. And having observed a certain cave in the land of the "arapamisadians, they said that it was the famous cave of "rometheus, the son of the Titan, in which he was hung for the theft of the fire. And besides, in the land of

the .ibians, an Indian race, because they saw the inhabitants clothed in s'ins, they said that the .ibians were those who had been left behind from the e*pedition of 2eracles. The .ibians also carry cudgels, and the figure of a club was branded upon their o*en; this too they e*plained to be a commemoration of the club of 2eracles. If anyone gives credit to these tales, this must have been another 2eracles, neither the Theban, nor the Tyrian, nor the -gyptian; but some great 'ing of a land situated in the interior not far from India :. ,et this be a digression on my part from the narrative, in order to show that what certain authors have recorded about the Indians on the other side of the 2yphasis does not appear credible; but those who too' part in Ale*ander/s e*pedition as far as the 2yphasis are not altogether unworthy of belief. Aor !egasthenes also says this about an Indian river, whose name is .ilas, that it flows from a spring with the same name as itself through the land of the .ilians, who derive their name from the river and the spring; that it supplies water of such a 'ind that there is nothing which it resists, that nothing either swims or floats upon it, but everything sin's to the bottom; and that water is wea'er and more mur'y than any other. India is visited by rain in the summer, especially the mountains, "arapamisus, -modus, and the Imaic range, and from these the rivers flow swollen and muddy. In the summer also the plains of India are visited by rain, so that a great part of them are covered with pools; and Ale*ander/s army had to avoid the river Acesines in the middle of the summer, because the water overflowed into the plains. >herefore from this it is possible to con ecture the cause of the similar condition of the #ile, because it is probable that the mountains of Aethiopia are visited by rain in the summer, and the #ile being filled from them overflows its ban's into the -gyptian country. Therefore the #ile at this season flows in a muddy state, as it would not flow from the melting of snow, or if its water were driven bac' by the annual winds blowing in the season of summer. Besides, the mountains of Aethiopia would not be snow%beaten on account of the heat. It is not beyond the bounds of probability that Aethiopia is visited by rain as India is%for in other respects India is not unli'e Aethiopia, and the Indian rivers produce crocodiles li'e the Aethiopian and -gyptian #ile. .ome of them also produce fish and water%monsters besides, li'e those of the #ile, e*cept the hippopotamus. 1nesicritus says they produce even hippopotami. The loo's of the people of India and Aethiopia are not entirely dissimilar. The Indians who live towards the south are more li'e the Aethiopians, they are blac' in their faces, and their hair is blac'; but they are not so flatnosed or so curly%headed as the Aethiopians. The more northern Indians would especially resemble the -gyptians in their bodies. 9. !egasthenes says that there are in all 116 Indian nations. I myself agree with him that there are many Indian nations; but I am not able to con ecture how he learned the e*act number and recorded it, for he only visited a mere fraction of India, nor do many of the races have any intercourse with each other. 2e says that in ancient times the Indians were nomads, li'e that section of the .cythians who are not agriculturists, but wandering about on waggons, live at one time in one part of .cythia and at another time in another part, neither inhabiting cities nor consecrating temples to the gods. .o the Indians had no cities or temples built for the gods. They clothed themselves in the s'ins of the wild beasts which they 'illed, and ate the inner bar' of certain trees, which are called tala in the Indian language, and, as upon the tops of palm%trees, there grow upon them things li'e clews of wool. They also fed upon the flesh of the wild beasts which they caught, eating it raw, until $ionysus came into their country. But when $ionysus came and con0uered them, he founded cities and made laws for them, and gave the Indians wine as he had given it to the &ree's. 2e also gave them seeds and taught them how to sow them in the earth; so that either Triptolemus did not come to this part when he was sent by $emeter to sow corn through the whole earth, or this $ionysus came to India before Triptolemus

and gave to the inhabitants the seeds of cultivated crops. $ionysus first taught them to yo'e o*en to the plough, and made most of them become husbandmen instead of being nomads, and armed them with martial weapons. 2e also taught them to worship the gods, and especially himself with the beating of drums and the clashing of cymbals. 2e taught the Indians the .atyr%dance which among the &ree's is called the corda*, and to let their hair grow long in honour of the god. 2e also showed them how to wear the turban, and taught them how to anoint themselves with unguents. >herefore even to the time of Ale*ander the Indians still advanced into battle with the sound of cymbals and drums. 6. >hen $ionysus had arranged these affairs and was about to leave India, he appointed as 'ing of the land .patembas, one of his companions, the man most versed in the mysteries of Bacchus. >hen this man died his son Boudyas succeeded to his 'ingdom. The father reigned fifty%two years, and the son twenty years. Cradeuas, the son of Boudyas, succeeded to the throne. Arom this time for the most part the 'ingdom passed in regular succession from father to son. If at any time direct heirs were wanting, then the Indians appointed 'ings according to merit. The 2eracles, who according to the current report came to India is said, among the Indians themselves, to have sprung from the earth. This 2eracles is especially worshipped by the .ourasenians, an Indian nation, in whose land are two great cities, !ethora and Cleisobora, and through it flows the navigable river Bobares. !egasthenes says, as the Indians themselves assert, that this 2eracles wore a similar dress to that of the Theban 2eracles. ?ery many male children, but only one daughter were born to him in India, for he married many women. The daughter/s name was "andaea, and the land where she was born, and over which 2eracles placed her as ruler, was named "andaea after her. Arom her father she received 4;; elephants, <,;;; cavalry, and 13;,;;; infantry. Certain of the Indians tell the following story about 2eracles, that when he had passed over every land and sea and had rid them of every evil beast, he found in the sea a woman/s ornament, such as up to the present day those who bring wares from India to us still buy with =eal and carry away. In former times the &ree's and now the @omans who are fortunate and wealthy with still greater =eal buy what is called in the Indian tongue the marine pearl. The ornament seemed so fine to 2eracles that he collected pearls li'e this from all the sea and brought them to India to be an adornment for his daughter. !egasthenes says that the mussel of it is caught in nets, and that many of them live in the sea at the same place, li'e bees, and that the pearl%mussels have a 'ing or 0ueen as bees have. >hoever has the good fortune to capture the 'ing, easily throws the net around the rest of the swarm of pearlmussels, but if the 'ing escapes the fishermen, the others are no longer to be caught by them. The men allow the flesh of those which are caught to rot, but they use the shell for ornament; for among the Indians the pearl is worth thrice its weight in refined gold. This metal is also dug up in India. 5. In this country, where the daughter of 2eracles reigned, the women at seven years of age become marriageable, and the men live forty years at most. In regard to this the following story is told among the Indians. This girl was born to 2eracles in his old age, when he perceived that his end was near. 2e could not find a man worthy to receive his daughter in marriage, and therefore he married her himself when she was seven years old, so that the family born from him and her might supply 'ings to the Indians. 2eracles therefore made her marriageable at that age; and from that time all this race over which "andaea ruled have this same gift from 2eracles. To me it seems that if 2eracles was able to accomplish such marvellous things, he would also have been able to ma'e himself longer lived, so that he might marry his daughter at a mature age. But if these statements about the maturity of the girls of this country are correct, to me at any rate they seem to have some analogy with what is said

about the age of the men, that the oldest of them do not live beyond forty years. Aor no doubt the flower of perfect manhood blooms sooner in proportion in those upon whom old age advances 0uic'er, and death with old age; so that among them men of thirty years of age would be, I suppose, fresh, active old men, striplings of twenty years old would be past their early manhood, and the prime of early manhood would be about fifteen years of age. @easoning from analogy the women would thus become marriageable at seven years of age. Aor this same !egasthenes has recorded that in this country the fruits ripen 0uic'er than those elsewhere, and sooner waste away. Arom $ionysus to .andracottus the Indians rec'oned 143 'ings, and :,;<+ years. $uring all these years they only twice asserted their freedom; the first time they en oyed it for 3;; years, and the second for 1+;. They say that $ionysus was earlier than 2eracles by fifteen generations, and that no other ever invaded India for war, not even Cyrus, the son of Cambyses, though he marched against the .cythians, and in other matters was the most meddlesome of the 'ings of Asia. 2owever they admit that Ale*ander came and overcame in battle all the nations whom he visited, and that he would have con0uered them all if his army had been willing. But none of the Indians ever marched out of their own country for war, being actuated by a respect for ustice. 1;. This also is said, that the Indians do not construct monuments for the dead, for they thin' that the virtues of men are sufficient to perpetuate their memory after their death, as well as the songs which they sing in their honour. It would not be possible to record with accuracy the number of their cities on account of their multiplicity. Those which are situated near the rivers or the sea are built of wood; for if they were built of bric' they could not long endure on account of the rain and because the rivers overflowing their ban's fill the plains with water. But those which have been founded in commanding places, lofty and raised above the ad acent country, are built of bric' and mortar. The largest city in India, named "alimbothra, is in the land of the "rasians, where is the confluence of the river -rannoboas and the &anges, which is the greatest of rivers. The -rannoboas would be third of the Indian rivers, being also larger than those elsewhere. But it yields itself up to the &anges when it has discharged its water into it. !egasthenes says that on one side where it is longest this city e*tends ten miles in length, and that its breadth is one and three0uarters miles; that the city has been surrounded with a ditch in breadth :;; feet, and in depth <4 feet; and that its wall has 49; towers and :< gates. This is a great thing in India, that all the inhabitants are free, not a single Indian being a slave. In this the ,acedaemonians and the Indians are ali'e. 2owever the 2elots are slaves to the ,acedaemonians and perform servile offices; but among the Indians no other Indian at any rate is a slave. 11. All the Indians have been divided into seven castes. Among them are the wise men, fewer in number than the others, but most esteemed in reputation and dignity. Aor no necessity is incumbent upon them to do any bodily labour; nor do they contribute anything to the commonwealth from the effects of their labour; nor in a word have they any compulsory duty e*cept to offer sacrifices to the gods on behalf of the commonwealth of India. >hoever sacrifices in his private capacity has one of these wise men as a director of the sacrifice, since otherwise he does not offer acceptable sacrifice to the gods. These also are the only Indians s'illed in divination; and it is not lawful for anyone to practise the art e*cept for a man who is a wise man. They practise divination in regard to the seasons of the year, and if any calamity befalls the commonwealth. It is not their business to practise their art in regard to the private affairs of individuals, either because the art of divination does not e*tend to smaller matters, or because it is not worthy of them to labour about such things.

>hoever has made three errors in his practise of divination receives no other punishment e*cept that for the future he is compelled to be silent; and there is no one who can compel that man to spea', upon whom the udgment of silence has been passed. These wise men pass their lives na'ed; in the winter in the sun under the open s'y, but in the summer, when the sun holds sway, they live in the meadows and in the marshes under great trees, the shadow of which #earchus says e*tends 4;; feet all round, and I;,;;; men could be shaded under one tree. .o large are these trees. They feed on the fruits of the seasons and the inner bar' of trees, which is both pleasant and nutritious; not less so than dates. After these the second caste are the agriculturalists, who are the most numerous class of Indians. These have no martial weapons, nor do they care for deeds of war, but till the soil. They pay dues to the 'ings or to those cities which are independent. If any war happens to brea' out among the Indians with each other it is not lawful for them to touch the tillers of the soil, or to lay waste the country itself by destroying the crops. But while others are waging war against each other and slaying each other as they find the chance, they are ploughing in peace and 0uietness near them, or are gathering in the vintage, or are pruning their vines, or are reaping their crops. The third caste of Indians are the shepherds and the cowherds, who dwell neither in cities nor in villages; but are nomads and live up and down the mountains. They pay a ta* from their floc's and herds. These men also catch birds and hunt wild beasts throughout the land. 1+. The fourth caste is that of the artisans and retail tradesmen. These men perform public duties at their own cost, and pay a ta* upon their wor', e*cept those who ma'e weapons of war. These receive pay from the commonwealth. In this caste are the shipwrights and sailors who sail up and down the rivers. The fifth caste of the Indians consists of the warriors, who in number come ne*t to the husbandmen and en oy very great freedom and good cheer. These men practise nothing but warli'e e*ercises. 1thers ma'e the weapons for them, others provide them with horses; and others serve them in the camp, who groom the horses for them, 'eep their weapons bright, manage the elephants, 'eep the chariots in order, and drive the horses. They themselves fight, as long as it is necessary to wage war; but when there is peace, they live with good cheer; and they receive such high pay from the state that they can easily support others from it. The si*th caste of Indians consists of men who are called overseers. These supervise what is done throughout the country and in the cities, and ma'e reports to the 'ing, where the Indians are ruled by a 'ing, or to the magistrates where the people have a democratic government. It is unlawful for these men to ma'e false reports; but no Indian has incurred the charge of falsehood. The seventh caste consists of those who assist the 'ing in deliberating on public affairs, or assist the officials in the cities which en oy a democratic government. This class is small in number, but in wisdom and ustice e*cels all the others. Arom them are chosen their rulers, governors of provinces, deputies, treasurers, generals, admirals, controllers of e*penditure, and superintendents of agriculture. It is not lawful for anyone to marry a woman from another caste; for e*ample, for husbandmen to marry from the class of artisans or the reverse. It is not lawful for the same man to e*ercise two trades, or to e*change from one caste into another; for instance, he may not cease to be a shepherd and become a husbandman, or cease to

be an artisan and become a shepherd. 1nly a man from any caste is allowed by them to become a wise man, because the duties of the wise men are not easy, but the most severely laborious of all. 13. The Indians hunt other wild animals li'e the &ree's; but the way they hunt elephants is 0uite different from any other 'ind of hunting, because these animals are li'e no other beasts. They choose a place that is level and e*posed to the sun/s heat, large enough for a great army to encamp in. They then dig a trench all round it. They ma'e the breadth of this trench about thirty feet, and the depth about twenty% four feet. The earth which they cast up from the ditch they heap up on each ban' of the trench and use it in place of a wall. In the mound upon the outer ban' of the trench they dig hiding%places for themselves, leaving holes in them, through which the light may enter for them, and to enable them to observe the beasts approaching and charging into the inclosure. There, within the inclosure, they place some three or four female elephants, who are especially tame in spirit, and leave only one entrance, made by bridging over the trench. They cover this with earth and thic' turf, in order that the beasts may not notice the bridge and thin' some tric' is being played them. The men, therefore, 'eep themselves out of the way, lur'ing in the hiding%places near the trench. The wild elephants by day do not approach inhabited places, but in the night they wander in all directions and gra=e in droves, following the largest and bravest of their number, ust as cows follow the bulls. >hen they approach the inclosure they hear the noise of the females and discerning them by the scent, they run at full speed towards the inclosed place. &oing 0uite round the ban' of the trench, as soon as they light upon the bridge, they rush forward into the inclosure over this. >hen the men perceive the entrance of the wild elephants, some of them 0uic'ly remove the bridge, others run to the neighbouring villages and tell the people that the elephants are shut up in the inclosure. >hen they hear this they mount the bravest and most tractable of their elephants and drive them towards the inclosure. >hen they arrive they do not immediately oin battle, but allow the wild elephants to be severely distressed with hunger and to be cowed by thirst As soon as they thin' they are in a wea' state, they then place the bridge over again and advance into the inclosure. At first an obstinate battle is fought between the tame elephants and those that have been caught .oon, as might be e*pected, the wild ones are overcome, being severely depressed by loss of spirit and want of food. The men, dismounting from the elephants, tie together the feet of the wild ones, which are now e*hausted. Then they order the tame ones to chastise them with many blows until they fall to the ground in their severe distress. .tanding near them they throw nooses round their nec's and mount upon them as they lie on the ground. And in order that they may not sha'e off their riders or do any other rec'less thing, they cut their nec's all round with a sharp 'nife and tie the noose round along the cut; so that on account of the wound they must 'eep their head and nec' 0uiet; for if they should turn their head round through rec'lessness, their wound is chafed under the rope. Then at length they 'eep 0uiet, and changing their minds of their own accord, they are now led by the tame ones into imprisonment. 1<. Those of them which are 0uite young, or through badness not worth possessing, are allowed to ta'e themselves off to their own haunts The captives are led into the villages and at first some green reeds and grass are given them to eat. They refuse to eat anything from loss of spirit; and the Indians stand round them and lull them to sleep by singing songs, beating drums and clashing cymbals. Aor, of all animals, the elephant is most naturally intelligent. .ome of them have of their own accord pic'ed up their riders who have been 'illed in battle and carried them away for burial; others have held the shield over them when lying on the ground; and others have incurred danger on their behalf when they have fallen wounded. 1ne, having 'illed his rider in a fit of passion died from remorse and de ection of spirit. I myself have seen an

elephant playing the cymbals, while others danced. Two cymbals were fastened to the forelegs of the playing elephant, and another to the trun'. >ith his trun' he struc' the cymbal alternately against each of his legs in regular time, and the others moved round him as in a dance. These also wal'ed, raising and bending their front legs alternately in regular time, ust as the one who played the cymbals directed them. The female elephant copulates in the season of spring, li'e the cow or mare, when the air%vents near the temples of the females being opened e*hale an odour. .he carries her young si*teen months at the least, and eighteen at the most, and brings forth one, li'e the mare. This she suc'les till the eighth year. Those which live longest live for +;; years; but many of them die before that age from disease. If they die from old age they reach that age. >hen their eyes are sore they are cured by pouring into them cow/s mil', and their other diseases by giving them dar'%coloured wine to drin'. "or' is roasted and the fat is sprin'led upon wounds to effect a cure. The Indians adopt these cures for them. 14. The Indians thin' the tiger much mightier than the elephant. #earchus says he saw a tiger/s s'in, but not the tiger itself; but that the Indians assured him that it is as large as the largest horse, and that no other animal can compare with it in swiftness and strength. >hen the tiger comes into conflict with an elephant he leaps upon his head and easily strangles him. Those which we see and call tigers are only spec'led ac'als, but larger than the ordinary ac'als. In regard to the ants, #earchus says that he himself did not see one li'e those which some other authors have described as e*isting in India; but that he saw many s'ins of these animals which had been brought into the !acedonian camp. But !egasthenes asserts that the story of these ants is correct; that these were the animals who dig up gold, not for the sa'e of the metal itself; but they burrow under the ground from instinct, in order that they may lie hidden in their holes, ust as our small ants burrow a little under the ground. These ants are larger than fo*es and therefore they burrow a distance proportionate to their si=e, and throw up the soil. As this contains gold ore the Indians obtain their gold from it. !egasthenes only relates hearsay, and as I myself am unable to say anything more certain than this, I willingly dismiss the story of the ants. #earchus relates as a wonder that parrots are bred in India, and describes what 'ind of a bird it is and how it utters human speech; but as I myself have seen many and I 'now others are ac0uainted with the bird I shall give no description of it as of a marvel. #or shall I spea' of the si=e of the mon'eys, or how beautiful those of India are, nor how they are caught. Aor these things are well 'nown, e*cept that mon'eys are beautiful anywhere. #earchus also says spec'led serpents are caught, though they are 0uic' in movement; and that "eithon, son of Antigenes, caught one twenty%four feet long. The Indians themselves said that the largest serpents are much larger than this. #one of the &ree' physicians found any cure for any one who was bitten by an Indian serpent; but the Indians themselves healed those who had been smitten. #earchus says, besides, that Ale*ander had collected around him all the Indians who were cleverest in the medical art, and had it proclaimed through the camp that whoever was bitten should come to the 'ing/s tent. These men were also curers of other diseases and infirmities. But among the Indians there are not many infirmities, because the seasons there are temperate. If anything worse than usual sei=ed them they communicated with the wise men; who seemed to cure whatever was curable, not without the help of god. 1:. The Indians use linen clothing, as says #earchus, made from the fla* ta'en from the trees, about which I have already spo'en. And this fla* is either whiter in colour than any other fla*, or the people being blac' ma'e the fla* appear whiter. They have a linen froc' reaching down halfway between the 'nee and the an'le, and a garment which is partly thrown round the shoulders and partly rolled round the head The Indians who are very well%off wear earrings of ivory; for they do not all wear

them. #earchus says that the Indians dye their beards various colours; some that they may appear white as the whitest, others dar' blue; others have them red, others purple, and others green. Those who are of any ran' have umbrellas held over them in the summer. They wear shoes of white leather, elaborately wor'ed, and the soles of their shoes are many%coloured and raised high, in order that they may appear taller. The Indians are not all armed in the same way; but their infantry have a bow e0ual in length to the man who carries it. "lacing this downward to the ground and stepping against it with the left foot, they discharge the arrow, drawing the string far bac'. Their arrows are little less than four and one%half feet long; and nothing can withstand one shot by an Indian archer, neither shield nor breast%plate nor anything else that is strong. They carry on their left arms targets of raw o*%hide, narrower than the men who carry them, but not much inferior in length. 1thers have Bavelins instead of arrows. All wear a sword which is broad, and not less than four and onehalf feet in length. >hen the battle is at close 0uarters, a thing which very rarely happens to be the case between Indians, they bring this sword down upon the antagonist with both hands, in order that the blow may be a mighty one. The cavalry have two darts li'e the darts called saunia, and a shield smaller than that of the infantry. Their horses are not saddled or bridled li'e those of the &ree's or &auls; but a piece of raw o*%hide stitched is fastened right round the front of the horse/s mouth, and in this there are brass or iron spi'es not very sharp, turned inwards. The rich men have ivory spi'es. In the mouth their horses have a piece of iron, li'e a spit, to which the reins are attached. >hen therefore they draw the rein, the spit curbs the horse and the spi'es which are fastened to it pric' him and do not allow him to do anything else than obey the rein. 19. The Indians are spare in body and tall and much lighter than other men. !ost of the Indians ride camels, horses, and asses, and those who are well off, elephants. Aor among the Indians royal personages ride on elephants. #e*t to this in honour is the four%horsed chariot, third camels. It is no honour to ride on horsebac'. Their women who are very chaste and would not go astray for any other reward, on the receipt of an elephant have intercourse with the donor. The Indians do not thin' it disgraceful for them to prostitute themselves for an elephant, and to the women it even seems an honour that their beauty should appear e0ual in value to an elephant. They marry, neither giving or receiving any dowry, but the fathers bring forward the girls who are of marriageable age and station them in a public place for the man who wins the pri=e for wrestling, bo*ing or running, or who has been ad udged winner in any manly contest, to ma'e his choice. The Indians are bread%eaters and agriculturalists, e*cept those who live in the mountains. These live upon the flesh of wild animals. 16. I thin' I have given sufficient information about the Indians. I have copied the very well%'nown statements made by #earchus and !egasthenes, two esteemed authors. As my design in compiling this boo' was not to describe the customs of the Indians, but to relate how Ale*ander/s fleet was conveyed from India into "ersia, let the preceding portion of it be considered a digression from my narrative.