Appendix A A Historical Introduction to Calculus

Isaac Newton first introduced the mathematical subject we now call calculus in connection with his theory of universal gravity in the book Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathmatica first published in 1687. Calculus involves the mathematics of infinitesimals. For example, if a quantity (x) varies with time (t) as follows: Eq. (A-1) x = At2

where A is a constant. An infinitesimal change in x may be expressed as: Eq. (A-2) x = A(t + t)2 - At2 = A(t2 + 2t t + [t]2) - At2 where t is a very small change in t. Dividing both sides by t and letting t approach zero: Eq. (A-3) x/t = 2At

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. Newton called x/t the fluxion of x which he designated x Similarly, if x = At3, x = A(t + t)2 - At3, then:

Eq. (A-4)

Lim x/t = 3At2 t 0

= nAtn -1. This also holds when n is negative. In general, if x = Atn, x = -2At-3. It also follows that if x = At-3, That is, if x = A/t2 = At-2, then x -4 x = -3At .

1.0 DERIVATIVE CALCULUS

Soon after Newton invented calculus, Gottfried Leibnitz (a German mathematician) independently introduced a similar line of reasoning using to denote the fluxion of x, he different terminology. Instead of using x expressed it as dx/dt and called this the derivative of x. Despite the difference in terminology, the two systems are the same. Today, the , but derivative of a quantity (s) with respect to time is sometimes written s when the independent variable is some other variable such as x, the Leibnitz notation is used (i.e., ds/dx). If s is a function of x as in Fig. A-1, then physically the derivative ds/dx at a given value of x1 is the slope of the curve at x1. Similarly, if displacement ( y) is a function of time (t) as in Fig. A-2, then the derivative dy/dt at time (t1) is the velocity (v1) at this point. Also, if velocity (v) is a function of time (t) as in Fig. A-3, then the derivative dv/dt at a given point t2 is the acceleration at this point. This is also equal to d(dy/dt)/dt and is called the second derivative of y with respect to t, and is written d 2y/dt2, or . Figure A-4 shows the variation of a quantity (q) relative to a variable (x) having a maximum at (1) and a minimum at (2). The slopes of the q vs x curve at (1) and (2) will be zero (i.e., dq/dx at 1 and 2 will be zero).

Appendix A

443

Figure A-1.

Figure A-2.

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Engineering Problem Solving: A Classical Perspective

Figure A-3.

Figure A-4.

Appendix A

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When derivatives other than those involving Aqn or Aq-n are required, they are not derived from scratch, but a table of derivatives found in many handbooks is consulted. A few of the more common derivatives are given below (where A is a constant, q represents some variable such as x, y, or t, and u and v are functions of some variable). Eq. (A-5) Eq. (A-6) Eq. (A-7) Eq. (A-8) Eq. (A-9) Eq. (A-10) Eq. (A-11) Eq. (A-12) Eq. (A-13) Eq. (A-14) Eq. (A-15) dA = 0 d(Aqn) = nAqn-1dq d(Aq-n) = -nAq-(n + 1)dq d(u + v) = du + dv d(A + u) = du d(uv) = udv + vdu d(u/v) = (vdu - udv)/v2 du0.5 = 0.5u-0.5du d(lnu) = du/u d(sin u) = (cos u)du d(cos u) = (sin u)du

At the end of the article on electronics in Ch.10, the derivative of E 2R/(R + r)2 with respect to R was required (E and r being held constant). This is called a partial derivative and is designated [(E2)/(R + r)2]/R. This may be evaluated by use of Eq. (A-11) as follows:

[(E 2R)/(R + r)2]/R = [(R + r)2(E 2R)/R - (E 2R)(R + r)2/R]/(R + r)4 = [E 2(R + r)2 - 2E 2R(R + r)]/(R + r)4 (Eq. 10.30)

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2.0 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

Integration is the inverse of differentiation. If we know the acceleration of a particle is a constant (a0), and wish to know the change in velocity (v) between two times (t1) and (t2) (Fig. A-5), this will correspond to the sum of the incremental velocity differences (a0t) extending from t = t1 to t = t2. That is,
v1 2 =

Eq. (A-16)
2

(a0 J)
1

where indicates that the sum of the incremental values (a0t) is to be taken from t = t1 to t = t2. This would be written in the terminology of calculus as follows:
1

Eq. (A-17)
L12 = a0 dt = a0 (t2 t1 ) [from the inverse of Eq. (A-6)]

where resembles a S for summation and is called the integral sign. When the limits over which the summation is to be taken are indicated below and above the integral sign, this is called a definite integral. When limits are not specified, this is called an indefinite integral and a constant must be added since the derivative of a constant is zero [Eq. (A5)]. Thus, Eq. (A-18)

L1 2 =

( a dt + C )
0

1 2

= a0 t2 + C (a0 t1 + C ) = a0 (t2 t1 )

This is the same as the result from the definite integral [Eq. (A-17)]. Just as tables of derivatives are to be found in engineering handbooks, tables of integrals are also available. A few of the more common integrals are given below.

Appendix A
Eq. (A-19)

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adu = a du
(u + v )dx = udx + vdx

Eq. (A-20)

Eq. (A-21)

udv = uv vdu

Eq. (A-22)

dx/x = ln x + C = ln C x
e x dx = e x + C
sin x dx = cos x + C
cos x dx = sin x + C
dx /x 2 = 1/x + C

Eq. (A-23)

Eq. (A-24)

Eq. (A-25)

Eq. (A-26)

3.0 EXAMPLES INVOLVING INTEGRATION

In Ch. 2, it was found that: Eq. (2.14) dT/T = fs d

where fs is a static coefficient of friction. Integrating both sides of this equation, using Eq. (A-24): Eq. (2.15) ln T1 - ln T2 = fs(2 - 1) = fs

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and Eq. (2.16) T1/T2 = e fs

In Ch. 2, the motion of a projectile is considered. This will now be reconsidered in terms of definite integrals. Ignoring air drag, the projectile in Fig. 2.10 will be subjected to a constant deceleration due to gravity equal to -g, and: Eq. (A-27) d 2y/dt2 = -g

Its velocity will be: Eq. (A-28)

dy / dt = gdt = gt

where time is taken to be zero at launch and t is some later time of interest. The vertical displacement ( y) at time (t) will be:
y = gtdt = (gt 2 )/ 2 + Ct
C t

Eq. (A-29)

where C is the vertical velocity of the projectile at t = 0 (= v0 sin ), i.e., Eq. (2.24) y = -(gt2)/2 + v0 sin