DESIGN CONSlDERATlONS FOR INDUCTION MACHINES FOR ELECTRIC VEHICLE

A. Harson, P. H. Mellor, D. Howe

University of Sheffield, UK

INTRODUCTION
Currently 3 phase induction motors with PWM inverter drives are being considered for use in battery powered electric vehicle drivetrains. In this application, the induction motor offers weight and efficiency advantages over the more conventional DC motor, in addition to its traditional advantages of robustness, low cost and well established manufacturing techniques. For an electric vehicle drive motor the properties of high efficiency, high power density and wide speed range are clearly desirable. This paper presents the design of an induction motor for a prototype electric vehicle, namely. a Fiat Cinquecento. It is apparent that the design requires a compromise between achieving low losses on one hand and high power density and wide speed range on the other. The vehicle drivetrain consists of a single motor driving the road wheels via a fixed ratio gearbox and differential. The mechanical arrangement of the transmission is simplified by the use of a fixed gear ratio, however this places a demanding specification on the drive motor torque speed requirements. Figure 1 shows the induction motor torque-speed envelope. At high speeds, rated current cannot be maintained due to the effect of leakage reactance and the maximum torque is limited by the pull out torque. Figure 1 Drive Motor Torque-Speed Envelope
200
150

speed range it is thus necessary to minimise the leakage reactance.

VEHICLE MODEL
The drive motor torque-speed requirements are determined by the vehicle parameters and performance specifications. Table 1 Vehicle Performance Specifications

I Maximum sueed
Maximum Incline Acceleration Table 2 Vehicle Parameters Mass Overall gear ratio

I 100km/hr 125% 0-50 km/hr in less than 8 s

I m 1 1260 I kg 1 n I 7.3 1
~~

I Transmission

efficiency

l n 1 0 . 9 1

5
J 100
U

2 %
0
0

1WO

2000

3WO

4000

5030

6coo

7KC

8coO

Speed (rpm)
.......

PeakTorque

-Maximum
Continuous Torque

Road LoadTorque

A simple vehicle model was employed to determine the drive motor rated power and base speed. In this model the force opposing motion of the vehicle consists of 3 components, i.e.: Rolling resistance Fk = k,mg cos 0 Aerodynamic resistance FA= 3pCdAfv2 Fc = mgsin0 Climbing force An equation of motion for the drive motor can be derived by relating vehicle forces to drive motor torques. do T = ko + k , 0 2 + k2 (1) dt 1 where: k,, = -(mgr, sin 0 + k,mgr, cos0)

nv

Evidently the speed range of the motor is limited by its pull out torque at high speed. This is proportional to the product of flux, which is proportional to V,,/f and the = V,,,/2X2 (Vm is maximum q axis rotor current, lZqMAX the voltage across the magnetising reactance). In the field weakening region of operation, flux falls with increasing frequency and the consequent reduction in pull out torque is exacerbated by the fall in Vm due to the effects of leakage reactance. To achieve a wide

8 = Angle of vehicle to horizontal

p = Air density = 1.225 kgm-3 JM = Moment of inertia of drive motor Jw = Moment of inertia of wheels From this equation, the motor torque required for climbing the maximum incline is given as 120 Nm and the torque for maximum speed on level ground is

Electrical Machines and Drives, 11-13 September 1995, Conference Publication No. 4 12,OIEE, 1995

14.5 Nm. The acceleration of the vehicle from rest to the specified final speed is considered to consist of a period with rated motor output torque (TReted), during which motor speed increases to the base speed (mBase),followed by a period with rated motor output power (PRated), during which speed increases to the final speed (wFind). Rated torque is taken as the value required for climbing the maximum incline, thus it remains to choose a value of base speed which allows the vehicle acceleration specification to be met without demanding excessive motor power. Equation 1 may be solved analytically, for the rated torque and rated power cases, by separating the variables and integrating. Solving (1) with T = TRnted gives the time to accelerate to base speed as: 1 aT f WBase tBase =-2aTbTlog,/ aT - O B ~ ~

MOTOR DESIGN METIHOD

The motor design process involves 3 stages: 1) Making appropriate choice:; for the pole number and slot numbers etc. 2) Designing the machine dimensions and winding parameters to provide the required power at base speed within a specified space envelope. 3 ) Simulating the machine performance over its full speed range. The choice of pole number involves a compromise between machine weight and (efficiency. Increasing the pole number reduces the flux per pole thereby allowing the back iron width to be reduced, at the expense of increased magnetisation current, greater harmonic content in the flux wave and higher supply frequency. The harmonic content of the stator mmf wave may be minimised by an appropriate choice of the stator slot number an,d coil pitch. The magnitude of the nth harmonic mmf component is proportional to the nth harmonic winding factor (kw,) and inversely proportional to n, thus the summation

For rated output power, T = PRated/a and from (I):

a3 + a p o 2+ bp dW=cpdt

(3)

x%

may be

By integrating ( 3 ) the time (tF,,,J to accelerate to the final speed is given as:
t

( 4 ) (a-a)is a simple factor of the denominator of (3), and a

is given by Tartaglias formula:

The relationship between tRn4 and wBaCdefined by (4) and ( 2 ) is plotted in figure 2 for a final speed corresponding to 50 k d h r . As rated torque is constant, rated power is proportional to base speed and is therefore minimised by choosing the smallest value of base speed which satisfies the acceleration specification. Figure 2 Time to Accelerate to 50 kmhr against Base Speed

used to provide a rough comparison between the total harmonic mmfs resulting from different slot number and coil pitch clombinations. A judicious choice of the rotor slot number is necessary to alleviate the undesirable effects of harmonic fluxes such as, iron loss, noise, vibration and cogging, crawling and synchronous torques. A number of empirical formulae have been proposed tiy various authors (Heller and Hamatfa (l), Say (2), Vick.ers ( 3 ) , Still and Siskind (4)) to denote suitable numbers of rotor bars. A pole number of 6 was chosen for the drive motor in order to meet the space constraints imposed by the vehicle layout. The stator winding is a conventional double layer fractional slot type in 45 slots with a coil pitch of 6 slots. The rotor winding is a copper squirrel cage type with 38 tapered bars. A design method based on the classical 6 element equivalent circuit was employed to produce a machine design to ]provide the specified rated power at base speed. Values of the circuit parameters are calculated during an iteration of the design process and the machine performance subsequently evaluated by analysis of the equivalent circuit. The process is illustrated by the flow chart of figure 3 and has been implemenkd using an interactive design program. The performance of the motor design produced by this process may be simulated over the full speed range using a technique based on the harmonic equivalent circuit.

500

IOW

15W

MW

25W

30W

35W

Bose Speed (ipm)

F T i m e to 50 km/hr

Rated Power

The motor base speed was chosen as 2000 rpm giving a rated output power of 26 kW and a time to accelerate to 50 k d h r of 7 s.

18

Figure 3 Design Process Flow Chart

(Start)

For a cage winding the slot leakage reactance per bar (XsB) may be expressed as a function of a permeance factor (P,) associated with leakage flux linking the bar. X S B = 2nfp()LPB XSB may be referred to the phase winding by the effective turns ratio between stator and rotor (b). N Xs2 = k$XsB

Approximate expressions giving the permeance factors PI,, P,,, PI, and P, in terms of the slot dimensions may be derived analytically by neglecting the field in the iron parts of the flux path and integrating the flux linkage due to an element of flux, assumed to cross the slot in the peripheral direction.

End Leakage
The end winding leakage reactance (X,) is difficult to calculate precisely due to the complex 3 dimensional flux pattern linking the end winding, and the influence of neighbouring permeable and conducting materials such as the stator core and frame. However an approximate expression for X, can be derived using a method based on that proposed by Alger (5). This involves resolving the endwinding current into axial and peripheral components, deriving expressions for the reactance due to each component and combining these using superposition. The axial component of the current produces a radial field pattern similar in nature to that in the core. The peripheral component produces an approximately torroidal field pattern. The end winding currents are modelled by sinusoidally distributed current sheets and the resulting flux is assumed to flow entirely in free space. The stator coils are modelled by an octagonal shape as shown in figure 4. Figure 4 Stator Coil Dimensions
Y'

GE REACTANCE CALCULATION

For an induction motor in an electric vehicle drivetrain it is necessary to limit the leakage reactances in order to achieve the desired speed range. In an interactive design process it is important to quickly access the effect on leakage reactance of varying certain machine dimensions and winding parameters, such as slot openings, airgap width, slot skew etc. Therefore an accurate and efficient method of calculating reactance is required. Evaluation of leakage reactance is facilitated by dividing it into a number of components, i.e. slot, end, harmonic and skew leakage. This allows the significance of each component, and the effects of varying machine dimensions and parameters to be appraised.

Slot Leakage
The phase value of the stator slot leakage reactance (X,,) may be determined from a knowledge of the permeance of the leakage flux paths of a single slot
(PSI>.

Xs1=

2nfldV2,"s ps,
NI

Peripheral section

For a double layer winding the total leakage flux linkage of the conductors in a slot consists of components due to the self flux linkage of the top and bottom coil sides and the mutual flux linkage between the 2 coil sides. PSImay be expressed as: Psi = ~ o L ( P i+2ksPi2 i +P22) The factors P,, and P,, represent the permeance of the flux paths associated with the self flux linkage of the top and bottom coil sides respectively, and P,, is related to the mutual flux linkage between the coil sides. The slot leakage factor ks represents a reduction in the phase EMF induced by mutual flux between the coil sides, due to the fact that a number of slots contain coil sides from different phases.

Angled , section

I Overhang

-Y

and p , are the coil pitch and the pitch of the peripheral section respectively in mechanical radians. An expression for the component of end leakage reactance due to axial current (X,,), may be derived by calculating the phase EMF induced by the flux driven by cos 8 ). The flux per pole per the axial mmf wave ( metre produced by this mmf wave is equal to: @ay = PoRy and the phase EMF induced, in an element of the endwinding of axial length dy, by this flux is:

-e,y

dVay= &xmPHs@'aykdk,ydy vary with distance y Both @'ay and the chording factor kCy from the core and the total EMF can be found by integration, leading to the following expression for XEA.
XM
= -

PZ

"'i

Zl,,k:+Y-ZY'cos p

The factor 1-

(F)'

[p(I-- 2YyOl [p (ZY )]}[)-(W]

sin

is introduced to account for the

effect of mutual coupling between the stator and rotor endwindings. D, and D2 are the diameters of the current sheets representing the axial components of the stator and rotor endwinding currents respectively, and the factor k, accounts for the dissimilar shape of the 2 endwindings. The reactance due to the peripheral component of the endwinding current may be evaluated by replacing the stator and rotor endwindings by single turn equivalent coils, illustrated in figure 5, whose inductance is given by standard formulae. Figure 5 Equivalent Coil Dimensions

leakage reactance. A cage winding can produce opposing nlmfs in response to the 'belt' harmonic mmfs thereby limiting the leakage fluxes to negligible levels. Consequently the harmonic leakage reactance (X,) is considered to be due solely to the 'zig-zag' harmonics, produced b'y the effects of slotling, and is estimated as a function of the unsaturated magnetising reactance using a standard formula, Alger (5). x2p2 where N = Slot number XH = ~ F X M " Skew Leakage

The decoupling effect of slot skew is modelled, in accordance with Bulter and Birch's treatment (6), by a skew reactance (X,,) included with the rotor leakage reactance, and the modification of the statodrotor turns ratio by a skew factor (ksK). X,, is a function of the magnetising reactance. X S K =(&-1)xM ks, represents the reduction in induced EMF between a skewed andl an unskewed conductor. 2sin-Y where y = skew angle ks, =----- 2 'Y

THEOREITICAL RESULTS
Values of the leakage reactance components, at base frequency (104 Hz), and peak torque at maximum speed are given in table 3 for 2 machine designs. In the 2'nd design which is otherwise identical to the l'st, the following features have been introduced with the object of reducing leakage reactance: 4 Open Rotor Slots and Increased Stator Slot Openings This reduces slot leakage but increases tooth permeance harmonics whiclh contribute to iron loss, noise and vibration. 4 Increased Airgap Width This reduces harmonic leakage but increases magnetising current. 4 Unskewed Rotor Slots This eliminates skew leakage but the benefits of skew in reducing harmonic cffects are forfeited. It is evident that a significant improvement in the available torque at maximum speed can be achieved by the methods described above. However power factor is reduced and certain deleterious harmonic effects will be incurred. An alternative approach would be to reduce the number of turns per phase in series (NpHs). This implies an increase in base speed as can be seen from the voltage equation aplplied with rated voltage and base frequency.
= JZn;fBaseNPHs~Ratedkwl
Harmonic Leakage A reduction in leakage reactance is effected, as this is

The value of phase reactance (X,,) can be determined by equating the reactive VA produced by the phase windings and the equivalent coils. kI;HX,p = 216xC The coil current I, is taken as the RMS value of the peripheral Ampere conductors wave. As the rotor and stator equivalent coils are linked by mutual flux, the effective leakage inductance of one coil equals its self inductance minus the mutual inductance, hence: Xc = 2 n f ( L c - M ) Using standard formulae for L, and M leads to the

where:

k A = &cos[ kx = fP

( !

1-&)]sin

Harmonic fluxes originating from stator mmf or tooth permeance harmonics induce EMF'S in the phase windings at supply frequency and therefore contribute to

proportional to N2,,, , However, as rated torque is fixed, rated power is increased in proportion to base speed.

Table 3 Comparison of Standard and Low Leakage Designs

5. Alger, P. L., 1970, "Induction Machines" Gordon and Breach Science Publishers Ltd., London

6. Butler, 0. I., Birch, T. S., "Comparison of alternative skew effect parameters of cage induction motors", Proc. IEE. 118, 879-883

leakage Total stator leakage Rotor slotleakage R o t o y d leakage Rotor harmonic leaka e Skew leakage Total rotor leakage p.f. at rated power Pull-out torque at 7500 mm

1 1.):; 1 1
I 0.237 I
I 0.148
0.099

0.203 0.132 :.010 0.071

I R I R

I 0.344
0.84 12.9

0.213 0.81 19.8

R
Nm

LIST OF SYMBOLS
Rotor diameter Frequency Acceleration due to gravity Number of phases Chording factor Distribution factor Stator winding factor Rotor winding factor Length of core Stator slot number Rotor slot number Number of pole pairs Rotor leakage reactance Permeability of free space m HZ 9.81 m s - ~

REFERENCES
1. Heller, B., Hamata, V., 1977, "Harmonic Field Effects in Induction Machines", Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company.

2. Say, M. G., 1983,

"Alternating Current Machines", Pitman Publishing Ltd., London. 3. Vickers, H., 1953, "The Induction Motor", Pitman Publishing Ltd., London.
4. Still, A., Siskind, C. S., 1954, "Elements of Electrical Machine Design", MCGraw-Hill.