Case Study

Int. J.
of Human Resource Management 17:3 March 2006 440– 463
Human resource development

of professionals in an emerging
economy: the case of the Tanzanian
construction industry
Yaw A. Debrah and George Ofori
Abstract The issues pertaining to human resource development (HRD) of professionals1

in emerging/developing economies have not received sufficient attention in the literature.
This is in spite of the strategic importance of the role of competent professionals in
economic development. Using the construction industry in Tanzania as a case study, this
study provides a review of the extent of the neglect of HRD for professionals in
emerging/developing economies and what needs to be done to address the problem.
In particular, it explores why there is no systematic integrated industry-wide training
programme for professionals in the industry. It reveals that the existing programmes are
fragmented and lack overall strategy and continuity, coordination and sustainable funding.
The lack of sustainable funding is identified as the main obstacle to both the creation and
sustainability of a training programme for professionals. To overcome this problem, the
study suggests the establishment of an industry-specific training levy for professionals.
But it warns that in an emerging/developing country environment there is the need to
ensure that both the training programme and the administration of finance are not derailed
by bureaucratic bottlenecks and other constraints, such as corruption. This study is of both
organization and public policy relevance and, in additions, attempts to fill the gap
(indicated above) in the HRD literature.
Keywords Emerging/developing economies; Africa; Tanzania; human resource

development; professionals; construction industry and training finance.
Introduction
In the 1990s, Tanzania initiated and implemented socio-economic and political changes
aimed at radically transforming the economy, organizations and human resource
management (HRM). In particular, it implemented IMF and World Bank Structural
Adjustment Programmes (SAPs) aimed at liberalizing the economy and improving
competition. The SAPs were also instituted to enable Tanzania to attract foreign direct
investment (FDI) and facilitate the development of the private sector (IHT, 1997; Turner,
2000; Turner and Holman, 2000). Initial assessment indicates that the liberalization
policies have helped Tanzania to increase the total value of FDI in the country from
US$47 million in 1990 to US$ 2.2 billion in 1999 (BOT, 2001).
Yaw A. Debrah, School of Business, Brunel University, Uxbridge, Middlesex, UB8 3PH, UK
(tel: 44-(0)1895-265239; fax: 44-(0)1895-269775; e-mail: Yaw.Debrah@Brunel.ac.uk); George
Ofori, School of Design & Environment, National University of Singapore, 4 Architecture Drive,
Singapore, 117566 (tel: 65-6516-3413; fax: 65-6775-5502; e-mail: bdgofori@nus.edu.sg).
The International Journal of Human Resource Management
ISSN 0958-5192 print/ISSN 1466-4399 online q 2006 Taylor & Francis
http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
DOI: 10.1080/09585190500521425
Debrah and Ofori: Human resource development in an emerging economy 441
The increasing FDI and an emerging competitive economy have precipitated the need
to develop employees in Tanzanian organizations. Consequently, the Tanzanian
government is overhauling HRM policies including human resource development (HRD)
practices in the public sector (Debrah, 2004). In particular, it has instituted a new Public
Service Management and Employment Policy (PSMEP) to enhance, among other things,
recruitment, retention, performance management, motivation and development of
employees. This policy aims to reverse the decline in investment in human resources
during the socialist period, make HRD the lynchpin of economic development and equip
Tanzanians with skills that organizations require to compete in a globalized market
(Debrah, 2004).
In line with this policy, the government has also been urging private-sector employers
to strengthen their HRM policies and practices in order to build competitive advantage.
This is necessary because in the construction industry, multinational firms are beating
local firms for major projects (Msita, 2001a). The inability of local firms to compete for
significant projects further means that they can neither accumulate the track record, nor
the technical and managerial experience, which would put them in a position to bid
for similar, or larger, more sophisticated projects. In the view of the National Construction
Council (NCC), the unavailability of training for professionals in the industry in Tanzania
is partly responsible for the lack of competitiveness of local firms (NCC, 2001).
The training problem

As in other developing countries, the construction industry in Tanzania is of national
strategic importance (Hillebrandt, 2000). In Tanzania, the contribution of the industry to
GDP ranged between 3.8 per cent and 5.7 per cent from 1987 to 2000 (NCC, 2001).
In spite of its significant role in the economy and the importance of quality human
resources to its performance, HRD is not accorded priority in the industry
(Regumyamheto and Batatia, 1994). This, is not peculiar to Tanzania, it is the case in
most construction firms globally (Fryer, 1990). In most countries, including developed
nations, the construction industry pays little attention to HRM including training and
development (Industry Science and Resources, 1999). In construction firms in most
countries, often the human resource (HR) department, if there is one, has a limited role
(Fryer, 1990). One reason for this is that most construction firms only maintain a small
core of professionals, managers and administrative staff (Ofori and Debrah, 1998) as
firms in the industry typically rely on sub-contractors for most non-core workers (Druker
and White, 1995a). Under such an arrangement, training of artisans is often pushed to the
sub-contractors who often shirk their non-statutory responsibilities in this area. Even in
firms with HR departments, the training of professionals is usually neglected, with
negative effects on both the quantity and quality of training (Briscoe, 1998; Debrah and
Ofori, 1997; Druker, and White, 1995b; Megji, 1996).
Training in the construction industry globally usually means provision of basic vocational
training in various construction skills (Druker and White, 1996) with a modicum of health
and safety training at firm level. In almost every country in sub-Saharan Africa there is a
body responsible for the organization of vocational/artisanal training. But, with the
exception of South Africa, there is no central body for the training of professionals in the
construction industry in sub-Saharan Africa. Thus, when it comes to approaches for
professionals to upgrade and enhance their skills and competencies, the attitude is sink or
swim. This lack of training impacts negatively on the performance of professionals and
firms, particularly in the areas of cost, quality and productivity (Kirmani and Baum, 1992;
442 The International Journal of Human Resource Management
Ofori, 1993, 1994, 2001). In addition, professionals cannot acquire the essential
competencies and skills required to enhance their firms’ performance (Hollway, 2000).
With increasing globalization and international competitiveness, firms in many
developing countries have realized the importance of well-trained and competent
professional staff in their quest for competitive advantage. Many construction firms in
developing countries are, however, small-to medium-sized organizations and, hence, do
not have the facilities to provide training and career development. In addition, the work
organization in the construction industry is such that different professionals, such as
architects, engineers (including civil, structural and building services engineers) and
quantity surveyors have to work together to achieve a common purpose of constructing a
product. Historically, it is the professional bodies that provide their members’ education
and training in the developed world. But, as Druker and White (1996) point out, this results
in compartmentalization of the various construction professions with the concomitant
demarcated system of employee development. Hence, given the range of professionals that
comprise a construction project team, some industry stakeholders have expressed the view
that it may be prudent, in developing countries, to develop national systematic and
coordinated training programmes for professionals, focusing on a unified approach to
common problems and standards in the industry (Msita, 2001b; NCC, 1992, 2000).
The development of such an approach requires research on HR issues in the industry.
But currently there is a paucity of research on training and development in the
construction industry in developing countries in general and Africa in particular
(Briscoe, 1998). Published research is mainly descriptive and covers, almost entirely,
issues on vocational/artisanal skills training (Dar, 1997). Issues pertaining to the training
of professionals in the industry in sub-Saharan African (SSA) countries remain relatively
unexplored (Budhwar and Debrah, 2005) because international organizations that
provide funding for research tend to focus on low level skills training as a means of
reducing unemployment. In SSA, professionals are considered privileged and should be
able to develop themselves and their careers. However, in recent years the link between
training and productivity of professionals, and hence competitiveness of firms, has been
highlighted in the industry (Lucas, 1997; NCC, 2001). Hence, the emerging interest in
research pertaining to professionals in the industry (Hollway, 2001a).
In many developing countries the exploration of the reasons for the absence of training
often focuses on external rather than internal industry factors. As Dougherty and Tan
(1991) point out, in developing countries it is assumed that the state should play a
dominant role in training provision. Where such provision does not exist, the
national government is blamed. However, in recent years economic recession and
shrinking government revenues have forced a reconsideration of this view, which has led
to a growing acknowledgement and appreciation of the need for the private sector to be
actively involved in the financing and provision of training (Herschbach, 1994). It is
argued that in developing countries a non-governmental source of training finance is a
necessary condition for the success of a training programme (Dougherty and Tan, 1997).
While agreeing with this view, Ziderman (2001) argues that, above all else,
sustainability of funding is the most important consideration in setting up a training
programme. He asserts that no matter how well a programme is designed, without
sustained and stable funding it is unlikely to survive, let alone achieve its objectives.
In Ziderman’s (2001) view, training fund sustainability over the long term constitutes a
serious problem in some countries, in particular where training funds have been launched
by donors and are funded, in the main, externally. In such a situation, over-generous
external financial support for training, without the planned, complementary development
of domestic funding, results in moribund training institutes and empty coffers.
Katz and Ziderman, (1999) Gasskov (1994), Gill, et al. (1999; 2000) attest to this in their
exploration of both the theoretical and practical issues relating to training finance in
developing countries. They assert that financing mechanisms depend on the policy
objectives they are designed to further and discuss the efficacy of different mechanisms
for meeting different objectives. Ashton and Green, (1996), Godfrey (1997) and Debrah
and Ofori (2001) also provide reviews of the various models and financing mechanisms
for training.
As a means of financing training, the levy-grant system is favoured in developing
countries (see, Cassen and Mavrotas, 1997; Edwards, 1997). In particular, Whalley and
Ziderman (1990) argue that, where formal sector firms under-train, as is the case in SSA
countries, the levy-grant system can be adopted to encourage firms to train their workers.
Middleton et al. (1993) assert that the levy-grant system can enhance the competitiveness
of firms as it makes it possible to build upon initial pre-employment knowledge gained
through the education system. The levy-grant system can be used as an instrument for
restructuring the economy by restructuring skills. Ziderman (2001) asserts that this is part
of its attractiveness as it encourages employers to upgrade the skills of their employees.
The Singapore system, based on the Skills Development Fund (SDF), is hailed as a
successful example (Ashton and Green, 1996; Ashton and Sung 1994).
Despite these potential benefits, even in countries where the levy-grant system is
favoured, there can be obstacles to its implementation and administration (Cassen and
Mavrotas, 1997). It is argued that developing countries face problems of fragmentation of
national and specific industrial sectors’ training systems, weak information links between
training providers and employers, and weak institutional capacity that can limit the
effectiveness of a levy-grant system. But while many studies on training in developing
countries focus on ways to overcome the constraints in improving the efficiency and
relevance of training, it is argued that they almost always stop short of proposing
strategies to overcome the constraints (Middleton et al., 1993). It is further asserted that
such studies often preclude systematic analysis of the training problems of formerly
socialist/communist countries whose transition gathered momentum in the 1990s
(Gill et al., 1999).
As the Tanzanian economy is in transition from a socialist to a free enterprise system,
this study attempts to systematically analyse the state of training2 of professionals in the
construction industry. It attempts to explore the perceptions of stakeholders in
the industry on four issues: first, whether professionals in the Tanzanian construction
industry have any training needs and deficiencies. If so, how are these training needs and
any deficiencies tackled?; second, whether there are any obstacles to addressing training
needs and resolving deficiencies; third, the importance of financing source to the
establishment and continuity of a training programme in a developing country like
Tanzania and; fourth, the sort of mechanism that can be adopted for financing training of
professionals, its merits and potential problems in its administration.
Research methodology
The study deploys a qualitative methodology with evidence gathered through semi-
structured interviews and analysis of documents and reports. As the focus of the research
was on professionals with expert knowledge of the industry, it was decided
a purposive/judgement sampling approach would be most appropriate. This decision
was also precipitated by our knowledge of the industry, knowledge of the population and
its elements. As indicated by Babbie (1995), with the purposive sampling it was possible
for us do a more intensive study by focusing on the key stakeholders in the industry with
knowledge of the issues pertaining to the study. With the help of the National
Construction Council (NCC) we were able to select the key institutions and organizations
that were in the position to provide data/information for the study from a list of major
stakeholders in the construction industry in Tanzania.
An advantage of this approach was that there was no critical need for an overall
sampling design to tell us in advance how many of each type of informants was needed
for the study (Bernard, 2000). Having arranged the interviews, the contact
persons/organizations suggested suitable informants for each interview. A disadvantage
of this approach is that it can result in a biased sample, but in this case, we made efforts to
avoid bias by selecting informants whose expertise cut across most sections of the
construction industry.
The semi-structured interview questions were formulated following a review of the
literature and preliminary discussions with key stakeholders. The semi-structured
interview approach was selected because it works well in research projects dealing with
managers, bureaucrats and elite members of a community who have little time to spare
(Bernard, 2000). Most of the interviews were face-to-face but group interviews were also
conducted. In both cases the interviews lasted between one-and-a-half hours and two
hours. Although the most popular language in Tanzania is Swahili, all the interviews
were conducted in English. With the high standard of English language competency of
the interviewees, there was no need for a translator. The interviews were hand written
and points were expanded in the evenings upon the return of both researchers to their
hotel. The semi-structured nature of the interviews allowed flexibility and latitude to both
the interviewer and the interviewees to probe or ask questions of clarification and follow
new leads (Burns, 2000). Because the interviews focused on the perspectives of
respondents from the same industry, the study avoided the potential drawback of lack
of comparability of information between respondents that is associated with semi-
structured interviews (Burns, 2000).
In all, 52 persons were interviewed from local and foreign construction firms (contracting
companies as well as architectural, engineering and quantity surveying consultancies);
institutional clients of the construction companies; educational institutions involved in the
training of construction professionals; the ministry responsible for construction; the agency
in charge of the development of the industry; the regulatory boards of the industry;
government departments; and professional institutions and trade associations were included.
The people and bodies interviewed were key in the construction business, the management
of the industry, the development of its personnel, or the maintenance of standards in the
various professions in the industry. The interviews took place in Dar es Salaam, the capital of
Tanzania, Arusha and Morogoro.
The researchers were also fortunate to be invited to some national conferences,
meetings and social functions held in Dar es Salaam during the fieldwork and these made
it possible for us to have informal chats with participants from other regions. The first
fieldwork took place from November to December 2001. In June 2002, one of the
researchers went back to Tanzania for further fieldwork. This made it possible
for the researchers to clarify ambiguous issues arising from the earlier field work.
As indicated above, information and data were also gathered from available literature
as well as documents provided by some of the organizations participating in the study.
In SSA context, this is significant, as public libraries are under-resourced and their
‘current’ books and periodicals often tend to be over a decade old. This, then, required
a laborious task of visiting all the pertinent institutions and plodding through their
publications, documents and other literature to extract the relevant information/data.
Often such information/data did not transcend the institution and were, therefore,
unknown to other institutions in the industry. In other words, there was no central point
that most of the information/data on the industry and pertaining to research could be
obtained. The difficulties encountered in the course of conducting this research were akin
to those described by Kamoche (2001) on doing research in developing countries.
Content analysis method was used to analyze the data/information. The key and
substantive points derived from the empirical fieldwork were categorized according
to themes as suggested by Gillham (2000). Miles and Huberman’s (1994) approach of
‘transcendental realism’ and its components of data reduction, data display and drawing
of conclusions was applied in the content analysis. As indicated by Punch (1998), all three
components were interwoven and concurrently applied throughout the data analysis.
Research evidence and findings

Training needs and deficiencies
The interviewees were asked whether construction professionals had any training needs
and to express their views on training opportunities for industry professionals. On these
issues, the interviewees talked in gloomy terms about both the lack of any structured
Continuing Professional Development (CPD),3 including a structured and supervised
Initial Professional Development (IPD) programme to assess professional competence
and continuing professional development for any of the professional bodies in the
country. They pointed out that most construction firms are small to medium-sized
enterprises and do not have the facilities to provide formal internal/on-the-job training.
There are few opportunities for external training for professionals in the industry, and
equally limited opportunities for postgraduate training for professionals. Concerning
this, an interviewee remarked that:
Currently professionals have no formal means of acquiring new techniques and competencies.
They further observed that the lack of formal post-graduate training is a major
limitation on the performance of professionals. At both the firm and industry levels:
Professionals in the industry have few opportunities for training ... Currently, there is not even
one coordinated training programme that cuts across disciplines and professions in the industry
in this country.
These views suggest that, in the main, training is not considered important in the
activities of the professional bodies.
The interviewees regarded the lack of a coordinated, structured, integrated training
programme for local construction professionals as one of the greatest problems facing the
industry. The construction process involves participants with different professional
backgrounds achieving the common aim of completing the project within cost, on time
and to the appropriate level of quality of workmanship. Thus, it is necessary for the
participants to understand their own roles and those of other participants. Integrated,
post-qualification training of professionals would help to achieve this. The interviewees
appreciated the merits of such a programme.
In the view of the professionals interviewed, the lack of a coordinated, structured,
integrated training programme has negatively impacted on the skills upgrading and
competencies of professionals in a rapidly and constantly changing technological,
economic, political and social environment. The interviewees talked about professionals
lacking skills and competencies in both technical and non-technical areas. They spoke
of their anxieties and fear of not being able to rise to future challenges posed by globalization,
regionalization, privatization and competitive pressures. One group of interviewees
commented that:
We [engineers] are now going global, with WTO coming, we are facing a serious problem because
people sitting in Washington can say “unless you are registered to our standards. . .” (sic)
Here, the interviewees were alluding to the WTO General Agreement on Trade and
Services (GATS2000) which requires common standards for the free movement of
professional services, including construction professional services, across international
boundaries. The title, International Engineer, will be used by engineers who meet the
required international standards.
Nearer home, the free trade agreement under the East African Economic Community
requires free movement of professionals in the member countries: Tanzania, Uganda and
Kenya. These globalization and regionalization trends pose threats to the job prospects of
Tanzanian professionals in the industry because they cannot work towards recognition
of competence; thus putting them at a disadvantage relative to foreign professionals, both
at home and abroad.
This threat was perceived as real as most interviewees noted that some local
contractors (firms) currently have difficulties in meeting standards set by the consultants
even on medium-sized projects. The interviewees were also painfully aware of the
problems and dangers involved in neglecting professional training as it can result in
difficulties in delivering good quality projects which meet global standards as demanded
by foreign donors and the World Bank. On this, one interviewee observed:
The whole thing is that you must come up to international standards (sic)
Interviewees also warned that if standards and performance issues are not tackled
properly this would have dire consequences for the industry and professionals. One
commented that:
The problem is performance and if we are not able to face it as an industry, we will play marginal
roles as sub-contractors and sub-sub-contractors.
On the challenges posed by privatization and the change from socialism to a free enterprise
economy, it was indicated that professionals need to acquire the knowledge and skills
necessary for winning and running the private-sector projects that form an increasingly large
proportion of projects in Tanzania. With regard to IT skills, a group of interviewees noted that:
A major issue is that of change; in particular, changes in technology. This requires the constant
updating of skills. There are many professionals and technicians in Tanzania without the
necessary IT skills to perform their design and management tasks. Thus, they are not taking
advantage of the possibilities of enhancing their productivity and the quality of their services.
At another level, interviewees stated that, as a result of the transformation from
socialism to free enterprise, professionals need to acquire new competencies and skills
for working in a competitive environment. For instance, they mentioned the need to be
competent in information and communications technology (ICT) tools to enable them
keep up with current techniques in designing, planning and management of projects, and
also to be familiar with technical innovations in the construction industry.
The deficiencies in skills and competencies mentioned by the interviewees have, in the
past, been reported to the appropriate authorities in the industry but no major effort has been
made to rectify the problems (Ministry of Works, 1977; Msita, 2001b; NCC, 2001). Table 1
provides a summary of the training needs of professionals in some local construction firms in
Tanzania identified by Meghji (1996), Norenco (1996) and Hollway (2001b).
Table 1 Areas of training deficiencies of construction professionals, identified by Meghji (1996), Norenco (1996) and Hollway (2001b)
Meghji (1996) Norenco (1996) Hollway (2001b)

Business development Business practice and management
† Marketing of consulting services † Basic consulting skills † Marketing
† Business development – from † Business management † Business management
marketing to shortlisting
† Business development – from † Strategic business planning † Financial management
shortlisting to successful contract
Business practice † English language and communication skills † Presentation skills
† Development of consulting practice † Marketing
† Strategic management † Proposal writing
† Setting up consultancy practice † Human resources management
† Joint ventures and associations † Bookkeeping and accounting
† Financial management
Finance and accounting
† Engineering economy † Financial management
† Financial control of business
† Project cash flow and profitability
Computer aided design and drafting Computer technology

† CADD basic and detailed design † Basic computer technology
† GPS – basics, and principles and application † Computer analysis/design
† Engineering computer software † Basic and advanced CADD
† Information technology – introduction to the Internet
Project management Project management

† Engineering specifications † Project management (overall) † Conditions of contract
† Contracts interpretation / administration † Quality assurance † Safety management
† Construction supervision † Time management
† Contract administration † Management of people
† Labour-based road construction and maintenance
Table 1 (Continued)
Meghji (1996) Norenco (1996) Hollway (2001b)

Quality assurance
† General, project management † Quality management
† Planning and design, and
construction supervision
† General engineering consultancy services
Technical (engineering) Technical (engineering)
† Soils and materials engineering † Road engineering
† Highway design and maintenance models † Highway design and maintenance
methods
† Highway maintenance management systems † Highway maintenance management systems
† Other non-traditional transportation engineering † Civil engineering materials: pre-design
models investigations
† Highway and railway bridge † Civil engineering materials: construction
design engineering and quality control
† Technical report writing
† Environmental issues
The interviewees asserted that, without up-to-date skills and competencies among their
professionals and managers, acquired through postgraduate training, local construction
firms are finding it tough to meet the standards set by clients through their consultants. They
are finding it even more difficult to compete with foreign firms for projects. They added that
designing a training programme alone is not enough. The lack of a systematic coordinated
training programme for professionals and the consequent lack of skills, competencies and
competitiveness are all symptomatic of the absence of strategic HRM in the industry. A view
emerged from one of the group interviews that the industry needed to adopt a strategic HRM
approach to integrate training of professionals with other aspects of HRM such as the
assessment of needs, HR planning, career management and compensation. Interviewees also
commented that training of professionals required a high profile in the industry and
recommended that this should be made a national priority issue, encouraging both firms and
individuals to train.
Fragmented nature of training

Interviewees attributed the lack of an industry-wide, coordinated postgraduate training
programme to the professional bodies’ failing to cooperate to develop such a programme (with
some of them deciding to go it alone). This, to some extent, is a reflection of hidden rivalries
contributing to a lack of cooperation between the various professional groups in the industry.
This has resulted in the development of fragmented training programmes in the industry. These
comments precipitated a review and discussion of existing training programmes for
professionals (for reasons of brevity, only the main features are discussed here).
(a) Professional training programmes The Contractors’ Registration Board (CRB) was
established to register contractors and monitor standards. Its main objective is to ensure that the
industry is served by competent contractors who meet ethical standards and care for the quality
of work, the environment and the safety of workmen and the public at large (Materu, 2001).
To achieve this, the CRB undertakes regulatory and developmental activities. Its strategy in
developing contractors includes: promotion of training on aspects of construction business;
dissemination of information and networking; promotion of partnership and joint ventures
between local and foreign contractors; research on construction business; and promotion of a
cooperative approach in addressing issues of credit and equipment. In response to persistent
complaints about lack of training for contactors revealed by annual surveys (e.g. a study by the
CRB found that only 28 per cent of contractors were training their personnel) it launched its
Sustainable Structured Training Programme (SSTP) in 2001 (Uriyo, 2001). It was designed
(after assessment of training needs) in response to contractors’ lack of appropriate knowledge
in tendering procedures and pricing of tenders; lack of knowledge of contract management;
lack of knowledge of finance; poor management of sites; and poor management of hired
equipment, resulting in cost overruns. The contractors also wanted regular training to be
provided on these topics (Muhegi, 2001). The training programme is aimed at enhancing the
capacity of contractors to participate effectively in infrastructure development to address core
contractor competencies (The Contractor, 2001a). It is designed to equip contractors with the
necessary technical and management skills to make them more competitive in local and
regional markets (CRB, 2001).
Previous efforts by the CRB to train contractors had been donor-dependent, short term
and project-specific in nature; and had not been properly targeted (relating the type of
training provided to the firm’s registration category). The current programme focuses on
three categories of contractors: (a) Level I – Small Contractors (Classes VI and VII; or Class
III Specialist); (b) Level II – Medium Contractors (Classes III and IV; or Class II Specialist);
and, (c) Level III – Large Contractors (Classes I and II; or Class I Specialist). The target
trainees in each of these groups are the Directors or Partners (DP), Top Executives (TE) and
Technical Supervisory staff (TS). SSTP comprises 20 modules under seven basic subjects:
(a) corporate governance; (c) construction pre-contract practice; (c) resource management;
(d) contract management; (e) construction planning, organization and control; (f) equipment
management; and, (g) occupational health and safety (OHS) on construction sites.
The training courses are offered in the major cities in Tanzania. Participants who
successfully complete the programmes are awarded Certificates of Competency
recognized by the Board as evidence of upgrading and continuing education.
(b) NCC training programme Another contractor training programme was initiated by
the NCC in 1996 as a response to the lack of training for engineers and other
professionals. Although this programme is open to all professionals in the industry it is an
initiative of the NCC only. It provides specific training on issues such as cost estimating;
contract documents and management, and financial management (Saitabau, 1999). Ad
hoc seminars are also held for contractors to develop knowledge on specific issues such
as effective pricing and bidding (Construction Business, 1997; Kinasha, 2001). The main
courses conducted by the NCC since 1996 are shown in Table 2.
The NCC also provides a training programme for consultants in the industry
(Hollway, 2001c). Under the NCC’s programme, training has extended beyond
construction industry practitioners. Since 1997, the NCC has run a programme funded by
the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) to develop the
procurement and contract administration capacity of local government authorities by
training the officials who administer projects, and the councillors who have to evaluate
the recommendations of the technical personnel.
(c) Tanzania Civil Engineering Contractors Association (TACECA) training A further

training programme is provided by the Tanzania Civil Engineering Contractors
Association (TACECA). TACECA was formally registered in October 1996. Its main
objectives are to foster cooperation among members and protect their interests; to
maintain a high standard of conduct; to combat unfair practices in the industry; to
promote the quality of civil engineering works and products through education and
training; and to encourage cooperative action in matters affecting the common interests
of its members. TACECA believes that achieving its objectives would lead to: an
increased share of construction projects undertaken by local contractors; increased
confidence in the association and its members by clients; efficient and cost effective
project implementation; and better and longer lasting civil engineering infrastructure
systems. In furtherance of this objective, TACECA introduced a postgraduation training
programme for engineers in March 2001. It comprises classroom training, demonstration
of the techniques imparted on site, and the award of trial contracts to successful trainees.
With the Swiss Agency for Development Cooperation’s (SDC) support, the capacity
of TACECA has been strengthened by designing a combined programme for contractors
and consultants. The goal, here, is to ensure that an adequate number of capable
consultants and contractors is available for road works in Tanzania. The objectives are
improvement of competence, capacities and the business footing of contractors and
consultants and improvement of the performance of local consultants in design
and supervision of road and bridge works. This training programme is a demand-driven
approach, with the local consultants and contractors, as clients, working through their
professional associations to identify training themes and to manage the programme.
Table 2 Contractor training courses organized by NCC
Centre Programme No. of trainees Source of funds Nature of training Works
completed
Kilimanjaro Labour-based contractor 29 contractors United States Agency for Classroom and field studies, and 80 km of roads;
Centre training in road rehabilitation International Development trial contracts 317 culverts
and maintenance rehabilitated
Morogoro Gravel and bituminous roads 27 contractors Swiss Agency for Classroom and field studies, and 276 km of
Centre and bridges maintenance (17 on roads; 10 Development Corporation trial contracts roads;
on bridges) 24 bridges
rehabilitated
Mwanza Labour-based contractor 12 contractors United Nations Capital Classroom and field studies in 26 km or roads;
Centre training in road rehabilitation Development Fund 1995/96; trial contracts in 1998 79 culverts
and maintenance (in 1998) rehabilitated
Nachingwea Training of petty contractors 22 contractors Finnish International Classroom and field studies, and 72 km of roads
Centre in labour-based technology Development Agency trial contracts
Source: Compiled from Kinasha (2001) and interview data

(d) Association of Consulting Engineers (ACET) training The Association of
Consulting Engineers (ACET) has, in conjunction with the Tanzania Roads Agency
(TANROADS) and SDC, developed a training programme for consulting engineers in
design, planning and supervision of road works to address the issue of the relatively low
capacity of engineering consultants in Tanzania. Respondents to a training needs survey
pointed to the need for top priority to be accorded to the technical training of young graduate
engineers (with up to 5 years experience), in the design, planning and supervision of road
works. Hence, the training programme has been linked to the TACECA programme for
contractors, and the same maintenance projects are used for training both consultants and
contractors. Whereas SDC provides the funding, employers pay a fee for each trainee. Fees
paid by the employers are used to cover the costs of the venue and the administration of the
training programme.
Assessment of professional training programmes (a) to (c) outlined above A review of

the existing training programmes for professionals in the construction industry in
Tanzania revealed that the strength of the ACET programme is the direct support it
receives from the key industry stakeholders and the opportunity for trainees to apply their
knowledge in real work situations. Its administration was not, however, effective owing
to under-funding. On the NCC programme, while it had been professionally developed
and was strong in business and management content, there was a lack of a sense of
industry ownership of it. Accordingly, it was proposed by the interviewees that there
should be cooperation between the ACET and NCC programmes to avoid duplication,
build on their strengths, and ameliorate their weaknesses. It was further suggested that
the two programmes should be integrated in terms of subjects covered, but ACET should
retain control of consultants’ training which should be extended to other construction
practitioners such as architects and quantity surveyors.
Similarly, the CRB training programme also appears to suffer from duplication when
compared to the other training programmes and the lack of on-the-job training to enable
trainees to apply the knowledge they acquire was considered a negative attribute. Also
the interviewees noted that a suitable means for evaluating the training programme needs
to be developed to demonstrate its cost-effectiveness.
Lack of sustainable funding. In almost all the interviews the interviewees attributed the
lack of coordinated, structured training to the absence of sustainable funding. This is not
limited to Tanzania as in many developing countries where the professional bodies are
not strong and are also financially weak, their capacity to provide such training may be
limited. In this study, the interviewees at the CRB mentioned that previous contractor
training programmes were discontinued because of financial difficulties. They were
mainly short-term and project-specific training programmes supported by foreign donors.
In almost all cases, local funding could not be secured to continue the training after the
external funding ended. Without funding, however, it is difficult to attract participants
because most prospective trainees and their employers cannot afford the fees. The
interviewees at the CRB mentioned that an 80 per cent subsidy of fees is provided to
members who participate in CRB’s training programmes, but even at this highly
subsidized rate some participants complained about the cost of the training.
Similarly, the NCC’s training programme suffers from lack of continuity in funding. The
financing of the training programmes is project based and dependent on donors.
The interviewees pointed out that sometimes advertised programmes are cancelled because
of donors’ inability or unwillingness to provide financial support. For example, recently the
World Bank withdrew support for training of contractors in Dodoma, Singida, Tabora,
Kigoma, Mara and Rukwa regions. Likewise the UK Department for International
Development (DFID) withdrew financial assistance from a training programme for paved
road resealing contractors (Kinasha, 2001).
Likewise, the TACECA objective of promoting the quality of civil engineering works
and products through education and training is seriously undermined by lack of
funds. The TACECA training programme was initiated with the assistance of the SDC as
part of the agency’s support for Tanzania’s road rehabilitation and development
programme. At the request of TACECA, the Tanzania Roads Agency (TANROADS)
agreed to provide road projects which could be used as demonstration and trial contracts
in the training while the funding is provided by SDC. These and other training initiatives
organized by TACECA are all dependent on donor support (Construction Business
2001a; Sengenge, 2001; TACECA, 2001).
The interviewees pointed out that without donor support the professional associations
are unable to provide training to their members. They also suggested that, in order to ensure
sustainability of training programmes, some means of permanent funding should be
established.
Need for a training fund. In view of the detrimental effects of the lack of sustainable
funding on postgraduate training, almost all interviewees supported the establishment of
a fund for training construction professionals. However, they disagreed on what form the
fund should take and the basis of the fund. Most of the interviewees favoured a form of
levy system. Indeed, it was disclosed that the Institution of Engineers Tanzania (IET)
had, for many years, discussed setting up such a training fund but the authorities
disagreed with the suggestion that is should be built up through mandatory contributions.
The objection was on the basis that there are already too many construction-related
levies. Similarly, the interviewees mentioned that the Architects and Quantity Surveyors
Registration Board (AQRB) has also considered the introduction of a training levy. As
one group of interviewees noted:
The need for training has been around for almost two decades. Naturally, in a place where
people are not trained, we need to train them. But, a force to push training is needed. The
establishment of a training fund can be such a force.
The few interviewees who did not support a training fund gave various reasons for their
views. But generally they argued that existing funds such as the Vocational Education
Training (VET) Levy (the payroll-based levy paid by all sizeable employers for funding
training at trades level) should be used more effectively by broadening its functions to
include postgraduation training of professionals. Others argued that the newly established
Education Fund should also be used to cover postgraduation training of professionals in the
construction industry. Yet others argued that it is too early to set up such a fund in the industry
as there are no proper mechanisms for its administration. Although only a small number of
interviewees opposed the establishment of a training fund they were, nevertheless, a
vociferous group as the following two comments illustrate. First:
The 6 per cent training levy [i.e., VET] is enough. Everyone should get a share of it. The sector is
entitled to a certain proportion of it. I’m not in favour of another levy. Anybody legitimately
undertaking training which would develop professionals of all sectors should benefit from it [VET].
Second:
The amount of money (6 per cent now) being collected, where one-third is given to VETA and
two-thirds remains with the government, that money, if properly disbursed, could be used for
training.
One interviewee also alluded to the fact that the VETA fund is more than sufficient to
pay for the postgraduation training of professionals because he had heard that VETA was
planning to purchase bonds with its surplus funds. Some interviewees did, however,
argue that the VETA fund should not be used to train professionals because it finances
trades training which is critical to the industry.
In spite of these opposing views, one interviewee’s comment epitomizes views of those
who supported the establishment of a fund based on mandatory contributions from some of
the stakeholders to provide postgraduation training of professionals:
In a small economy, you can never do without levies. People will get used to it.
This discussion implies that the establishment of a training fund is a necessary tool in
the quest to develop the skills and competencies of professionals but the question that
looms large is who should pay for it.
Basis of training fund. The key suggestions made by the interviewees concerning the
basis of the construction training fund were that contributions to the fund should be based on: (a)
a percentage of the employer’s total payroll, payable by the industry players (clients, consultants
and contractors); (b) a percentage of the company’s turnover, payable by all the industry players
(clients, consultants, contractors); (c) a percentage of the contract sum of each project (value of
the project awarded), payable by the client; or, (d) on a proportion of annual registration fees for
companies, consultants and contractors, and individual professionals.
Several interviewees also proposed that the construction training fund should be user
based. The sources suggested for the contributions to a user-based fund included: (a) 0.1
per cent of the Roads Fund; (b) a percentage of the revenue from the usage of
infrastructure and public services such as water, to be paid by consumers; or, (c) funding
from the government alone, at least in the initial stages, as there is market failure with
respect to training. Some of the interviewees who opposed new mandatory contributions
to a training fund suggested that the fund should be: (a) taken from the then existing 6 per
cent VET Levy; (b) the previous housing levy of 4 per cent of the labour component of
costs; or, (c) taken from existing CRB fees and funds.
Administration of training fund. There was no consensus among respondents on

which agency should be responsible for the administration of the training fund, if it is set up.
The NCC was, however, the agency most frequently mentioned by about
half the interviewees as being the most suitable to administer the training fund
as the management of the fund should be an integral part of promoting the industry;
a task which the NCC is considered to be doing very well. As one interviewee observed, the:
NCC is the champion of the whole industry.
Another noted:
Of course, the NCC. That is the purpose of it. NCC should be coordinating all the Boards. There
should be a way of tying all of them to the NCC. Its Act requires it to coordinate the entire
industry.
Another practitioner made a similar observation, but in less formal terms:
NCC is the only friend of everybody: consultants, contractors, suppliers. Some can still train
under CRB, ACET, TACECA but the NCC should be responsible for an industry-wide
integrated training for professionals.
One interviewee went even further as he noted:
I have a lot of respect for the NCC. It is one of the finest, very independent institutions... its
reports are very honest, very fair, very straight.
Other interviewees suggested that the industry’s stakeholders should decide on the
organization which should administer the fund. Other possible administrators included:
MoW, VETA (after the VET Act has been amended); a new, independent organization
such as a Construction Training Board. Yet others suggested that the most sustainable
way is for the fund to be established and administered by the industry itself. A final
suggestion was that the fund should be managed by a private-sector financial institution
or a non-governmental organization (NGO). Here, the interviewees were hinting at
possible fraud, misuse of funds and corruption that can occur if existing bureaucratic
institutions are allowed to administer the fund without proper checks, balances and
controls in place. This is not unfounded as corruption is highlighted as a problem in the
industry (Msita, 1999, 2001). In fact, in Tanzania corruption is seen as the most damaging
challenge facing the industry in the new millennium (Construction Business, 2000).
Interviewees therefore emphasized the importance of close supervision of the
administration of any fund created, and the need to set up a framework with strict
guidelines. Moreover, they suggested that, regardless of whatever agency is selected to
administer such a fund, there should be a supervisory committee comprising
representatives from all the stakeholders. As noted by one practitioner:
Establishing a fund by itself will not help. First, we need to establish what we need, then allocate
money to this, and [that]. Also, we need to supervise the system, with very strict control. Each
step or stage should be properly defined. It should be very transparent, very accountable, and
then there should be an external supervisor.
Some possible problems in establishing and administering a training fund were
highlighted by some interviewees who supported the establishment of a fund and
some who did not. First, it was observed that the targeted contributors may not pay. Some
thought the Tanzanian government, and donors which fund the bulk of construction
projects, may not be willing to contribute to a training fund for professionals. Second,
it was thought that, in the private sector, there would be instances of under-declaration
and other forms of cheating. Finally, it was suggested that the cost of collecting and
administering the fund should be considered in any decision regarding the establishment
of a training fund. There was, however, no consensus on how the fund should be
established and who should take the leading role in establishing it.
Discussion
The study has revealed that the professionals in the Tanzanian construction industry have
training needs mainly in the following areas: (a) business development, practice and
management; (b) finance and accounting; (c) IT; (d) environmental impact management;
(e) project management; and (f) quality management and technical engineering. They
have skill deficiencies in these areas and they need training in current technological,
economic and social developments in the industry. But the study has revealed that there is
virtually no training provided either on-the-job or off-the-job by the firms because they
are usually small-to medium-sized firms and as such do not have the training facilities.
This being the case, one would have expected the existence of an industry-wide
integrated training programme for professionals. But this is conspicuous by its absence.
Evidence from the study also points to rather inadequate training programmes for
professionals. In particular, the study reveals that training for construction professionals
in Tanzania is fragmented – some professional groups have some element of training but
it falls far short of what structured programmes aim to achieve, while others have no
provision. The existing training focuses on engineers, contractors and consultants but
there are no programmes for architects and quantity surveyors. Although the regulatory
bodies such as the Architects and Quantity Surveyors Registration Board and the
Engineers Registration Board are required by law to provide CPD, as yet they have not
instituted such a programme. Moreover, there is no overall training strategy or
programme, no central responsibility or coordination and no national training recognition
system for professionals. There is also limited or no continuity in the provision of the
training. There is no distance learning or correspondence training programme, and no
nationally recognized training programme either.
Arguably, this is not a desirable position to be in and hence there is the need for a
strategic industry-wide approach to address the training needs of professionals in the
construction industry in Tanzania. If the absence of such a training programme erodes
the competitiveness of local firms it, then, stands to reason that every effort should be
made to set up such a programme.
Perhaps, Tanzania and indeed other SSA countries can learn from the experience of
other developing countries. For example, in Singapore, Hong Kong and South Africa the
issue of nurturing a professional workforce has gained momentum in recent years. There
are attempts to reinforce the need for an integrated construction industry that is capable
of continuous improvement towards excellence in a market-driven environment
(Construction Industry Review Committee, 2001). The necessity for the construction
workforce to seek to build its expertise and keep abreast with latest developments is
emphasized. Thus, accent is placed on life-long learning and sharing of knowledge
within the industry. This view stresses the importance of structured CPD, including IPD,
but the implementation approach differs from country to country. Whereas Singapore has
made it a mandatory requirement for the annual renewal of the practising licence of
professional architects and engineers, Hong Kong urges the professional institutions
to make CPD a requirement for membership.
The construction industry in Tanzania could emulate the examples of other countries
to enhance the knowledge, skills and competencies of professionals through the
development of programmes seeking to impart acceptable best practices to professionals
in the industry in order to maintain high professional standards. As Marress (2001) and
Hollway (2000) point out, this involves building upon the initial formal higher education
system to develop professional knowledge; a period of structured training followed by an
assessment of professional competence; and continuing professional development
throughout the professional’s working life to keep him/her in touch with developments
in knowledge. The question thus arises, who should take the lead for this training in
construction industry in Tanzania?
The stakeholders in the industry would like to see the introduction of an integrated
training programme but they see sustainable funding as the greatest obstacle to the
achievement of that objective. There is no sustainable funding scheme for the existing
programmes. They depend on funding from foreign donor agencies but this is often short
term with no built-in continuity. For this reason most of the interviewees indicated that
they would like to see the introduction of a levy system to finance integrated, structured
training for professionals. The advantages of the existence of such a training programme
for individuals, clients and organizations cannot be disputed. The use of a levy system to
finance a structured training programme can help individuals to avoid obsolescence, and
respond rapidly to changes, in both business and technological environments (Kaufman,
1978; 1989; Lam, 1996). A levy system can tackle problems relating to lack of training
due to fear of poaching. More importantly, it can motivate employers to take a serious
approach to career and performance management as any performance deficiencies can be
tackled through levy financed training (Cassen and Mavrotas, 1997; Edwards, 1997).
A levy system can create incentive for firms to invest more in the skills and competencies
of their staff, be it in the area of on-the-job training or external training (Ziderman, 2001).
Clients and society in general also benefit from the assurance that construction
professionals are being constantly trained and developed to meet required professional
standards (Hollway, 2000).
The findings of the study shed light on an important but hidden (or overlooked) aspect of
training financing in developing countries. In spite of assertions in the literature that the state
can play a useful leading or activist role in developing training programmes and linking
training to national economic development strategies (Ashton and Green, 1996; Ashton and
Sung 1994) the findings suggest that the majority of the interviewees would like the training
problems and the financing of training to be tackled by the industry itself rather than the
government. This is contrary to what prevails in most developing countries where training
and skills development are financed from general government revenue. But this, according
to Whalley and Ziderman (1990), may not be a good approach as central government
budgets may constitute a vulnerable source of finance in view of the severe budgetary
constraints and instability that are typical in many developing countries.
Perhaps, it is for this reason that the professionals in the Tanzanian construction
industry would like to have an industry solution to the training problem. They would,
however, appreciate legislative backing by the government to set up the levy. While the
majority of the interviewees were aware of the benefits and in favour of the establishment
of a levy system they were not wholly convinced that the state should take the leading
role in setting up and administering the fund. This relates to the fear of corruption in the
administration of training funds.
In Tanzania, as in many other SSA countries, corruption appears to be a critical issue
in the construction industry (Construction Business, 2000; 2001b) and negates efforts to
encourage employers to train their personnel. For example, if quality standards are not
enforced because of corruption, training does not have much merit. It is argued that
corruption is partly responsible for the marginalization of local Tanzanian contractors
because the procurement procedure and/or tendering process is not always transparent.
There is also much canvassing and backdoor dealing which render the whole
construction process unfair (Construction Business, 2000; The Contractor, 2001b). As in
other SSA countries, corruption thrives in a bureaucratic environment and this is partly
the reason why the interviewees expressed concerns about the administration of the fund
by a bureaucratic organization. It could thus be argued that, although in theory a levy
system offers potential benefits, in practice effective implementation and administration
of the system can be problematic in developing countries with corrupt bureaucracies.
The findings of the study also have some policy implications as they provide insights
for the design of training programmes for professionals in the Tanzanian construction
industry and indeed in other SSA countries. For instance, Table 3 shows the current state
of training and the desired approach to address the unsatisfactory state of training for
construction professionals.
Following this we propose that goals should be established for postgraduate training
of construction professionals in Tanzania. Table 4 shows the key objectives (goals) with
the main processes and possible outcomes.
These goals are necessary in order to combat any threats from the external
environment and to be in a position to tap the opportunities arising from it. The
external pressures include: competition arising from globalization; regionalization;
the transition from socialism to a free enterprise economy; as well as legislation requiring
professional bodies to provide training to their members. Arguably, the external
environment poses tremendous challenges for local firms. The ability of local firms to
rise to the challenges, however, depends on how well the internal environmental factors
are managed and mobilized to respond proactively and strategically to the external
environment. We argue that the training problem arises from inadequate and reactive
internal responses to gigantic external pressures rather than the severity of the external
pressures themselves. In other words, the training problem is a manifestation of the
reactive response by the industry to the external threats.
This brings us to Dougherty and Tan’s (1997) argument that in many developing
countries, the exploration of the reasons for the absence of training focuses on external
rather than internal factors. That is, training is seen as the responsibility of the
government and, where such provision does not exist, the government is blamed. Based
on the evidence from the study, it can be stated that the reasons for the lack of an
integrated training programme for professionals lie in internal rather than external
factors. Arguably, the lack of sustainable funding is the result of the inability of the
professional bodies to come together to devise a strategy on training and its appropriate
funding. Equally, the poor record of training in the industry cannot be blamed on external
forces but rather on weaknesses within the industry itself. These factors are highlighted in
Table 3. In light of these factors, we believe it is mandatory for the stakeholders in the
industry to develop key objectives/goals (see Table 4) to galvanize them into action and
to adopt meaningful measures to tackle the training problem. In order for the industry to
be able to equip its human resources with current skills and competencies and thus make
them capable of mounting a meaningful competition for contracts with foreign firms,
there must be a strategic or proactive response to the external pressures.
In this respect, this study has illuminated our understanding of the challenges posed by
environmental factors on training in SSA. The conventional wisdom is that the
challenges of managing human resources (including training) in Africa are compounded
by external environmental uncertainties such as governmental interference and socio-
cultural factors that impede planning (Kamoche, 1997, 2002; Kamoche et al., 2004;
Munene, 1991). This view assumes that the external environment is overwhelming and
nothing can be done to mitigate its harmful effects. However, evidence from this study
Table 3 Current and desired approaches to training professionals

Current approach (weaknesses) Desired approach
Lacks overall policy, strategy and Training for professionals should be based on
continuity strategic human resource development
needs of professionals.
Fragmented Professional bodies should relate their training
programmes to each other and collaborate
where possible
Lacks coordination Address training needs of professionals in all
the various construction professions
and integrate the provision of training
Lacks sustainable funding; excessive reliance Establish a funding mechanism, e.g., levy
on donor funds system for training
No accreditation or national recognition Establish a national recognition and
system accreditation system to encourage
professionals to undergo training.
Source: Developed from research evidence

Table 4 Key objectives of professional training

Goal Processes Outcomes
1. Strategic approach Strategic HRD linked to HR Coordinated, harmonized,
to training planning, performance systematic, industry-wide
management, career management. training.
Central management of training.
2. A culture of Education, promotion; incentives A desire to train
life-long learning to train (both internal and (organizational and
external training). individuals).
3. Effective training Demand-driven and based on needs Comprehensive, incremental,
assessment; meeting market integrated, synergistic
demands for skills and training.
competencies; long-term
programme; high quality in
infrastructure and delivery;
assessment, accreditation
and certification.
4. Funding for training Beneficiary pays (e.g., levy, up-front A sustainable funding
fees, etc.). mechanism.
Source: Developed from research evidence
indicates that, at least in the construction industry in Tanzania, the stakeholders are aware
of these problematic issues and recognize that they are not insurmountable. They have
realized that external environmental uncertainties need not always be detrimental to
industries as this problem can be tamed by the adoption of appropriate and desirable
strategic responses. In the case of the construction industry an appropriate strategic
response is the mobilization of funds internally to create a sustainable training
programme for professionals. In a sense, the realization of this issue is one step towards a
solution to the training problem.
Conclusion
The study has reviewed the current state of training of professionals in the construction
industry in Tanzania. It has discussed the reasons why there is currently no structured
postgraduate programme for professionals in the industry. The study shows that training
programmes and training finance are inextricably linked and that any attempt to
introduce a training programme in a developing country should determine whether there
is a sustainable source of funding. We also argue that in a developing country
environment there is the need to ensure that both the training programme and the finance
are not derailed by bureaucratic bottlenecks and corruption.
Also, we argue that there is the need for the industry to develop a CPD programme for
professionals. We recognize that setting up a CPD programme in an environment without
strong HR planning, training and development is a difficult but not insurmountable task.
We further argue that this can begin from the firm level where a programme can be mounted
to encourage construction firms to train their personnel. The firms need to be educated on
the economic merits of training and to develop internal capabilities for training. In this
regard, a national awards scheme for companies excelling in their commitment to training
can be instituted. A training accreditation and certification scheme for the various groups
of construction professionals could be introduced, giving recognition to a graduation of
skills which professionals in each group can attain as they progress through their careers.
Companies could then be encouraged to use these as a basis for the promotion of their
personnel. Companies could also use the certification records as evidence of their
commitment to training. We argue that, wherever possible, and where the subject matter to
be covered allows it, the training of professionals from various backgrounds should be
integrated. This would help to reduce fragmentation in the industry and foster in trainees an
understanding of the roles of their compatriots from other backgrounds.
Notes
1 The term ‘professional’ is used in this paper to refer to architects, engineers and quantity
surveyors who work in managerial and/or professional roles in construction and construction
related firms in the Tanzanian construction industry.
2 The study focuses on training as a sub-component of Human Resource Development.
3 CPD is defined as: the systematic maintenance, improvement and broadening of knowledge and
skill, and the development of personal qualities necessary for the execution of professional
and technical duties throughout a person’s working life (see Hollway, 2000).
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Int. J.

of Human Resource Management 17:3 March 2006 440– 463

Human resource development

Yaw A. Debrah and George Ofori

Abstract The issues pertaining to human resource development (HRD) of professionals1

Keywords Emerging/developing economies; Africa; Tanzania; human resource

The training problem

Research evidence and findings

Debrah and Ofori: Human resource development in an emerging economy 447

Computer aided design and drafting Computer technology

Project management Project management

Meghji (1996) Norenco (1996) Hollway (2001b)

Fragmented nature of training

(c) Tanzania Civil Engineering Contractors Association (TACECA) training A further

Source: Compiled from Kinasha (2001) and interview data

Assessment of professional training programmes (a) to (c) outlined above A review of

Administration of training fund. There was no consensus among respondents on

Table 3 Current and desired approaches to training professionals

Source: Developed from research evidence

Table 4 Key objectives of professional training

Source: Developed from research evidence

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