Cap1 AE

Introduo Qumica
QMC1059
1 Monday, April 15, 13
1. Qumica
biochemistry
|e .pp||c.t|cr c| c|en|st.y
tc t|e stuJy c| b|c|cg|c.|
p.ccesses.
vaiious uses. Physicists take advantage of the piopeities of substances to detect new subatomic
paiticles. Astionomeis use chemical signatuies to deteimine the age and distance of stais and thus an-
swei questions about how stais foim and how old the univeise is. The entiie subject of enviionmental
science depends on chemistiy to explain the oiigin and impacts of phenomena such as aii pollution,
ozone layei depletion, and global waiming.
The disciplines that focus on living oiganisms and theii inteiactions with the physical woild iely
heavily on biochemistry, the application of chemistiy to the study of biological piocesses. A living cell
contains a laige collection of complex molecules that caiiy out thousands of chemical ieactions, in-
cluding those that aie necessaiy foi the cell to iepioduce. Biological phenomena such as vision, taste,
smell, and movement iesult fiom numeious chemical ieactions. Fields such as medicine, phaimaco-
logy, nutiition, and toxicology focus specifcally on how the chemical substances that entei oui bodies
inteiact with the chemical components of the body to maintain oui health and well-being. Foi ex-
ample, in the specialized aiea of spoits medicine, a knowledge of chemistiy is needed to undeistand
why muscles get soie aftei exeicise as well as how piolonged exeicise pioduces the euphoiic feeling
known as iunnei's high."
Examples of the piactical applications of chemistiy aie eveiywheie (Figuie 1.1). Engineeis need to
undeistand the chemical piopeities of the substances when designing biologically compatible implants
foi joint ieplacements oi designing ioads, biidges, buildings, and nucleai ieactois that do not collapse
because of weakened stiuctuial mateiials such as steel and cement. Aichaeology and paleontology iely
on chemical techniques to date bones and aitifacts and identify theii oiigins. Although law is not noi-
mally consideied a feld ielated to chemistiy, foiensic scientists use chemical methods to analyze blood,
fbeis, and othei evidence as they investigate ciimes. In paiticulai, DNA matching-compaiing biolo-
gical samples of genetic mateiial to see whethei they could have come fiom the same peison-has been
used to solve many high-piofle ciiminal cases as well as cleai innocent people who have been wiongly
accused oi convicted. Foiensics is a iapidly giowing aiea of applied chemistiy. In addition, the piolifei-
ation of chemical and biochemical innovations in industiy is pioducing iapid giowth in the aiea of
patent law. Ultimately, the dispeisal of infoimation in all the felds in which chemistiy plays a pait ie-
quiies expeits who aie able to explain complex chemical issues to the public thiough television, piint
jouinalism, the Inteinet, and populai books.
II CUR 1. 1 Chemistry in veryday Life
A|t|cug| ncst pecp|e Jc rct .eccgr|.e |t, c|en|st.y .rJ c|en|c.| ccnpcurJs ..e c.uc|.| |rg.eJ|erts |r .|ncst
eve.yt||rg .e e.t, .e.., .rJ use.
By this point, it shouldn't suipiise you to leain that chemistiy was essential in explaining a pivotal
event in the histoiy of Eaith: the disappeaiance of the dinosauis. Although dinosauis iuled Eaith foi
moie than 130 million yeais, fossil evidence suggests that they became extinct iathei abiuptly appiox-
imately 66 million yeais ago. Pioposed explanations foi theii extinction have ianged fiom an epidemic
caused by some deadly miciobe oi viius to moie giadual phenomena such as massive climate changes.
In 1978 Luis Alvaiez (a Nobel Piize-winning physicist), the geologist Waltei Alvaiez (Luis's son), and
theii cowoikeis discoveied a thin layei of sedimentaiy iock foimed 66 million yeais ago that contained
unusually high concentiations of iiidium, a iathei iaie metal (pait (a) in Figuie 1.2). This layei was de-
posited at about the time dinosauis disappeaied fiom the fossil iecoid. Although iiidium is veiy iaie in
8 CNRAL CHMIS7RY

2013 Flat World Knowledge, Inc. All rights reserved.
Created exclusively for vaneschmidt@gmail.com
Qumica no cotidiano
2. O Mtodo Cientco
scientic method
|e p.cceJu.e t|.t sc|ert|sts
use tc se..c| |c. .rs.e.s tc
,uest|crs .rJ sc|ut|crs tc
p.cb|ens.
pioblems oi as an infoimed obseivei who is able to paiticipate in public debates that will ceitainly aiise
as society giapples with scientifc issues.
Summary
Chemistry |s t|e stuJy c| n.tte. .rJ t|e c|.rges n.te.|.| subst.rces urJe.gc. |t |s essert|.| |c. urJe.st.rJ
|rg nuc| c| t|e r.tu..| .c.|J .rJ cert..| tc n.ry ct|e. sc|ert||c J|sc|p||res, |rc|uJ|rg .st.crcny, gec|cgy,
p.|ecrtc|cgy, b|c|cgy, .rJ neJ|c|re.
k Y 7 A k A W A Y
! Ar urJe.st.rJ|rg c| c|en|st.y |s essert|.| |c. urJe.st.rJ|rg nuc| c| t|e r.tu..| .c.|J .rJ |s cert..| tc
n.ry ct|e. J|sc|p||res.
2. THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
L A R N I N C O 8 1 C 7 I V
1. 7o identify the components of the scientic method.
Scientists seaich foi answeis to questions and solutions to pioblems by using a pioceduie called the
scientinc method. This pioceduie consists of making observations, foimulating hypotheses, and
designing experiments, which in tuin lead to additional obseivations, hypotheses, and expeiiments in
iepeated cycles (Figuie 1.4).
II CUR 1. 4 7he Scientific Method
As Jep|cteJ |r t||s |c.c|..t, t|e sc|ert||c net|cJ ccrs|sts c| n.k|rg cbse.v.t|crs, |c.nu|.t|rg |ypct|eses, .rJ
Jes|gr|rg expe.|nerts. A sc|ert|st n.y erte. t|e cyc|e .t .ry pc|rt.
Obseivations can be qualitative oi quantitative. Qualitative observations desciibe piopeities oi occui-
iences in ways that do not iely on numbeis. Examples of qualitative obseivations include the following:
the outside aii tempeiatuie is coolei duiing the wintei season, table salt is a ciystalline solid, sulfui
ciystals aie yellow, and dissolving a penny in dilute nitiic acid foims a blue solution and a biown gas.
Quantitative observations aie measuiements, which by defnition consist of both a number and a unit.
Examples of quantitative obseivations include the following: the melting point of ciystalline sulfui is
113.21 degiees Celsius, and 33.9 giams of table salt-whose chemical name is sodium
10 CNRAL CHMIS7RY

OBSERVAO
HIPTESE
EXPERIMENTO
Lei
Teoria (modelo)
Experimento
Modicaes
3. Descrio da Matria
Os trs estados da matria
matter
Aryt||rg t|.t cccup|es sp.ce
.rJ |.s n.ss.
mass
A |urJ.nert.| p.cpe.ty t|.t
Jces rct JeperJ cr .r
cbects |cc.t|cr, |t |s t|e
,u.rt|ty c| n.tte. .r cbect
ccrt.|rs.
weight
A |c.ce c.useJ by t|e
g..v|t.t|cr.| .tt..ct|cr t|.t
cpe..tes cr .r cbect. |e
.e|g|t c| .r cbect JeperJs
cr |ts |cc.t|cr (c.|. n.ss).
soIid
Ore c| t|.ee J|st|rct st.tes c|
n.tte. t|.t, urJe. rc.n.|
ccrJ|t|crs, |s .e|.t|ve|y .|g|J
.rJ |.s . |xeJ vc|une.
Iiquid
ccrJ|tcrs, |.s . |xeJ vc|une
but |c.s tc .ssune t|e
s|.pe c| |ts ccrt.|re..
gas
ccrJ|t|crs, |.s re|t|e. . |xeJ
s|.pe rc. . |xeJ vc|une .rJ
exp.rJs tc ccnp|ete|y ||| |ts
ccrt.|re..
pressure
|e .ncurt c| |c.ce exe.teJ
cr . g|ver ..e..
physicaI change
A c|.rge c| st.te t|.t Jces
rct .|ect t|e c|en|c.|
ccnpcs|t|cr c| . subst.rce.
3. A DESCRIPTION OF MATTER
1. 7o cIassify matter.
Chemists study the stiuctuies, physical piopeities, and chemical piopeities of mateiial substances.
These consist of matter, which is anything that occupies space and has mass. Gold and iiidium aie
mattei, as aie peanuts, people, and postage stamps. Smoke, smog, and laughing gas aie mattei. Eneigy,
light, and sound, howevei, aie not mattei; ideas and emotions aie also not mattei.
The mass of an object is the quantity of mattei it contains. Do not confuse an object's mass with
its weight, which is a foice caused by the giavitational attiaction that opeiates on the object. Mass is a
fundamental piopeity of an object that does not depend on its location.
[2]
Weight, on the othei hand,
depends on the location of an object. An astionaut whose mass is 93 kg weighs about 210 lb on Eaith
but only about 33 lb on the moon because the giavitational foice he oi she expeiiences on the moon is
appioximately one-sixth the foice expeiienced on Eaith. Foi piactical puiposes, weight and mass aie
often used inteichangeably in laboiatoiies. Because the foice of giavity is consideied to be the same
eveiywheie on Eaith's suiface, 2.2 lb (a weight) equals 1.0 kg (a mass), iegaidless of the location of the
laboiatoiy on Eaith.
Undei noimal conditions, theie aie thiee distinct : solids, liquids, and gases (Figuie
1.6). Solids aie ielatively iigid and have fxed shapes and volumes. A iock, foi example, is a solid. In
contiast, liquids have fxed volumes but fow to assume the shape of theii containeis, such as a bevei-
age in a can. Gases, such as aii in an automobile tiie, have neithei fxed shapes noi fxed volumes and
expand to completely fll theii containeis. Wheieas the volume of gases stiongly depends on theii tem-
peiatuie and pressure (the amount of foice exeited on a given aiea), the volumes of liquids and solids
aie viitually independent of tempeiatuie and piessuie. Mattei can often change fiom one physical state
to anothei in a piocess called a physical change. Foi example, liquid watei can be heated to foim a
gas called steam, oi steam can be cooled to foim liquid watei. Howevei, such changes of state do not
afect the chemical composition of the substance.
II CUR 1. 6 7he 7hree States of Matter
Sc||Js |.ve . Je|reJ s|.pe .rJ vc|une. ||,u|Js |.ve . |xeJ vc|une but |c. tc .ssune t|e s|.pe c| t|e|.
ccrt.|re.s. .ses ccnp|ete|y ||| t|e|. ccrt.|re.s, .eg..J|ess c| vc|une.
CHAP7R 1 IN7RODUC7ION 7O CHMIS7RY 15

Iodo slido Bromo lquido Cloro gasoso
3.1. Substncias Puras e Misturas
mixture
A ccnb|r.t|cr c| t.c c.
nc.e pu.e subst.rces |r
v..|.b|e p.cpc.t|crs |r .||c|
t|e |rJ|v|Ju.| subst.rces
.et.|r t|e|. .espect|ve
|Jert|t|es.
homogeneous mixture
A n|xtu.e |r .||c| .||
pc.t|crs c| . n.te.|.| ..e |r
t|e s.ne st.te, |.ve rc
v|s|b|e bcurJ..|es, .rJ ..e
ur||c.n t|.cug|cut.
heterogeneous mixture
A n|xtu.e |r .||c| . n.te.|.|
|s rct ccnp|ete|y ur||c.n
t|.cug|cut.
II CUR 1. 7 A Heterogeneous Mixture
|rJe. . n|c.csccpe, .|c|e n||k |s .ctu.||y .
|ete.cgerecus n|xtu.e ccnpcseJ c| g|cbu|es
c| |.t .rJ p.cte|r J|spe.seJ |r ..te..
distiIIation
A p|ys|c.| p.ccess useJ tc
sep...te |cncgerecus
n|xtu.es (sc|ut|crs) |rtc t|e|.
ccnpcrert subst.rces.
||st|||.t|cr n.kes use c|
J||e.erces |r t|e vc|.t|||t|es
c| t|e ccnpcrert
subst.rces.
3.1 Puie Substances and Mixtuies
A pure chemical substance is any mattei that has a fxed chemical composition and chaiacteiistic piop-
eities. Oxygen, foi example, is a puie chemical substance that is a coloiless, odoiless gas at 23C. Veiy
few samples of mattei consist of puie substances; instead, most aie mixtures, which aie combinations
of two oi moie puie substances in vaiiable piopoitions in which the individual substances ietain theii
identity. Aii, tap watei, milk, blue cheese, biead, and diit aie all mixtuies. If all poitions of a mateiial
aie in the same state, have no visible boundaiies, and aie unifoim thioughout, then the mateiial is ho-
mogeneous. Examples of homogeneous mixtuies aie the aii we bieathe and the tap watei we diink.
Homogeneous mixtuies aie also called solutions. Thus aii is a solution of nitiogen, oxygen, watei va-
poi, caibon dioxide, and seveial othei gases; tap watei is a solution of small amounts of seveial sub-
stances in watei. The specifc compositions of both of these solutions aie not fxed, howevei, but de-
pend on both souice and location; foi example, the composition of tap watei in Boise, Idaho, is not the
same as the composition of tap watei in Bufalo, New Yoik. Although most solutions we encountei aie
liquid, solutions can also be solid. The giay substance still used by some dentists to fll tooth cavities is a
complex solid solution that contains 30 meicuiy and 30 of a powdei that contains mostly silvei, tin,
and coppei, with small amounts of zinc and meicuiy. Solid solutions of two oi moie metals aie com-
monly called alloys.
If the composition of a mateiial is not completely unifoim, then it is heterogeneous (e.g., chocol-
ate chip cookie dough, blue cheese, and diit). Mixtuies that appeai to be homogeneous aie often found
to be heteiogeneous aftei micioscopic examination. Milk, foi example, appeais to be homogeneous,
but when examined undei a micioscope, it cleaily consists of tiny globules of fat and piotein dispeised
in watei (Figuie 1.7). The components of heteiogeneous mixtuies can usually be sepaiated by simple
means. Solid-liquid mixtuies such as sand in watei oi tea leaves in tea aie ieadily sepaiated by fltra-
tion, which consists of passing the mixtuie thiough a baiiiei, such as a stiainei, with holes oi poies that
aie smallei than the solid paiticles. In piinciple, mixtuies of two oi moie solids, such as sugai and salt,
can be sepaiated by micioscopic inspection and soiting. Moie complex opeiations aie usually neces-
saiy, though, such as when sepaiating gold nuggets fiom iivei giavel by panning. Fiist solid mateiial is
flteied fiom iivei watei; then the solids aie sepaiated by inspection. If gold is embedded in iock, it
may have to be isolated using chemical methods.
Homogeneous mixtuies (solutions) can be sepaiated into theii component sub-
stances by physical piocesses that iely on difeiences in some physical piopeity, such as
difeiences in theii boiling points. Two of these sepaiation methods aie distillation and
ciystallization. Distillation makes use of difeiences in volatility, a measuie of how
easily a substance is conveited to a gas at a given tempeiatuie. Figuie 1.8 shows a
simple distillation appaiatus foi sepaiating a mixtuie of substances, at least one of
which is a liquid. The most volatile component boils fist and is condensed back to a li-
quid in the watei-cooled condensei, fiom which it fows into the ieceiving fask. If a
solution of salt and watei is distilled, foi example, the moie volatile component, puie
watei, collects in the ieceiving fask, while the salt iemains in the distillation fask.
16 CNRAL CHMIS7RY

Leite: Uma mistura heterognea.
Destilao de uma soluo de sal de cozinha.
crystaIIization
A p|ys|c.| p.ccess useJ tc
sep...te |cncgerecus
n|xtu.es (sc|ut|crs) |rtc t|e|.
ccnpcrert subst.rces.
.yst.|||..t|cr sep...tes
n|xtu.es b.seJ cr
J||e.erces |r t|e|.
sc|ub|||t|es.
II CUR 1. 8 7he DistiIIation of a SoIution of 7abIe SaIt in Water
|e sc|ut|cr c| s.|t |r ..te. |s |e.teJ |r t|e J|st||||rg |.sk urt|| |t bc||s. |e .esu|t|rg v.pc. |s er.|c|eJ |r t|e nc.e
vc|.t||e ccnpcrert (..te.), .||c| ccrJerses tc . ||,u|J |r t|e cc|J ccrJerse. .rJ |s t|er cc||ecteJ |r t|e
.ece|v|rg |.sk.
Mixtuies of two oi moie liquids with difeient boiling points can be sepaiated with a moie complex
distillation appaiatus. One example is the iefning of ciude petioleum into a iange of useful pioducts:
aviation fuel, gasoline, keiosene, diesel fuel, and lubiicating oil (in the appioximate oidei of decieasing
volatility). Anothei example is the distillation of alcoholic spiiits such as biandy oi whiskey. This ielat-
ively simple pioceduie caused moie than a few headaches foi fedeial authoiities in the 1920s duiing
the eia of Piohibition, when illegal stills piolifeiated in iemote iegions of the United States.
Crystallization sepaiates mixtuies based on difeiences in solubility, a measuie of how much sol-
id substance iemains dissolved in a given amount of a specifed liquid. Most substances aie moie sol-
uble at highei tempeiatuies, so a mixtuie of two oi moie substances can be dissolved at an elevated
tempeiatuie and then allowed to cool slowly. Alteinatively, the liquid, called the solvent, may be al-
lowed to evapoiate. In eithei case, the least soluble of the dissolved substances, the one that is least
likely to iemain in solution, usually foims ciystals fist, and these ciystals can be iemoved fiom the ie-
maining solution by fltiation. Figuie 1.9 diamatically illustiates the piocess of ciystallization.

Condensador
Balo Coletor
gua Pura
Balo de Destilao
gua Salgada
Bico de Bunsen
Entrada
gua fria
Sada
gua
quente
eIement
A pu.e subst.rce t|.t c.rrct
be b.cker Jc.r |rtc .
s|np|e. subst.rce by
c|en|c.| c|.rges.
compound
A pu.e subst.rce t|.t
ccrt.|rs t.c c. nc.e
e|enerts .rJ |.s c|en|c.|
.rJ p|ys|c.| p.cpe.t|es t|.t
..e usu.||y J||e.ert |.cn
t|cse c| t|e e|enerts c|
.||c| |t |s ccnpcseJ.
chemicaI change
A p.ccess |r .||c| t|e
c|en|c.| ccnpcs|t|cr c| cre
c. nc.e subst.rces |s .|te.eJ.
II CUR 1. 9 7he CrystaIIization of Sodium Acetate from a Concentrated SoIution of Sodium Acetate in
Water
|e .JJ|t|cr c| . sn.|| seeJ c.yst.| (.) c.uses t|e ccnpcurJ tc |c.n .||te c.yst.|s, .||c| g.c. .rJ evertu.||y
cccupy ncst c| t|e |.sk (b).
Most mixtuies can be sepaiated into puie substances, which may be eithei elements oi compounds. An
element, such as giay, metallic sodium, is a substance that cannot be bioken down into simplei ones
by chemical changes; a compound, such as white, ciystalline sodium chloiide, contains two oi moie
elements and has chemical and physical piopeities that aie usually difeient fiom those of the elements
of which it is composed. With only a few exceptions, a paiticulai compound has the same elemental
composition (the same elements in the same piopoitions) iegaidless of its souice oi histoiy. The
chemical composition of a substance is alteied in a piocess called a chemical change. The conveision
of two oi moie elements, such as sodium and chloiine, to a chemical compound, sodium chloiide, is an
example of a chemical change, often called a chemical ieaction. Cuiiently, about 113 elements aie
known, but millions of chemical compounds have been piepaied fiom these 113 elements. The known
elements aie listed in the peiiodic table (see Chaptei 32).
In geneial, a ieveise chemical piocess bieaks down compounds into theii elements. Foi example,
watei (a compound) can be decomposed into hydiogen and oxygen (both elements) by a piocess called
electrolysis. In electiolysis, electiicity piovides the eneigy needed to sepaiate a compound into its con-
stituent elements (Figuie 1.10). A similai technique is used on a vast scale to obtain puie aluminum, an
element, fiom its oies, which aie mixtuies of compounds. Because a gieat deal of eneigy is iequiied foi
electiolysis, the cost of electiicity is by fai the gieatest expense incuiied in manufactuiing puie alumin-
um. Thus iecycling aluminum is both cost-efective and ecologically sound.
18 CNRAL CHMIS7RY

Cristalizao do Acetato de Sdio partir de uma soluo
concentrada de Acetato de Sdio em gua.
Decomposio da gua por eletrlise para formar
oxignio e hidrognio.
II CUR 1. 10 7he Decomposition of Water to Hydrogen and Oxygen by IectroIysis
\.te. |s . c|en|c.| ccnpcurJ, |yJ.cger .rJ cxyger ..e e|enerts.
The oveiall oiganization of mattei and the methods used to sepaiate mixtuies aie summaiized in
Figuie 1.11.
II CUR 1. 11 ReIationships between the 7ypes of Matter and the Methods Used to Separate Mixtures

Produto:
elemento
Produto:
elemento
Reagente: composto
oxignio gasoso
hidrognio gasoso
gua lquida
Relao entre os Tipos de Matria e os Mtodos Usados
para Separar Misturas.
II CUR 1. 10 7he Decomposition of Water to Hydrogen and Oxygen by IectroIysis
\.te. |s . c|en|c.| ccnpcurJ, |yJ.cger .rJ cxyger ..e e|enerts.
The oveiall oiganization of mattei and the methods used to sepaiate mixtuies aie summaiized in
Figuie 1.11.
II CUR 1. 11 ReIationships between the 7ypes of Matter and the Methods Used to Separate Mixtures

2013 Flat World Knowledge, Inc. All rights reserved. Created exclusively for vaneschmidt@gmail.com
Mistura
Homognea
Heterognea
Substncia
Pura
Composto Elemento
Matria
Mtodos qumicos de separao Mtodos fsicos de separao
3.2. Propriedades da Matria
Diferena entre propriedades extensivas e intensivas da
matria
extensive property
A p|ys|c.| p.cpe.ty t|.t
v..|es .|t| t|e .ncurt c| .
subst.rce.
intensive property
A p|ys|c.| p.cpe.ty t|.t Jces
rct JeperJ cr t|e .ncurt
c| t|e subst.rce .rJ p|ys|c.|
st.te .t . g|ver tenpe..tu.e
.rJ p.essu.e.
density (!)
Ar |rters|ve p.cpe.ty c|
n.tte., Jers|ty |s t|e n.ss
pe. ur|t vc|une (usu.||y
exp.esseJ |r g/cn
3
). At .
g|ver tenpe..tu.e, t|e
Jers|ty c| . subst.rce |s .
ccrst.rt.
Physical piopeities can be extensive oi intensive. Extensive properties vaiy with the amount of
the substance and include mass, weight, and volume. Intensive properties, in contiast, do not de-
pend on the amount of the substance; they include coloi, melting point, boiling point, electiical con-
ductivity, and physical state at a given tempeiatuie. Foi example, elemental sulfui is a yellow ciystalline
solid that does not conduct electiicity and has a melting point of 113.2C, no mattei what amount is
examined (Figuie 1.12). Scientists commonly measuie intensive piopeities to deteimine a substance's
identity, wheieas extensive piopeities convey infoimation about the amount of the substance in a
sample.
II CUR 1. 12 7he Difference between xtensive and Intensive Properties of Matter
bec.use t|ey J||e. |r s|.e, t|e t.c s.np|es c| su||u. |.ve J||e.ert exters|ve p.cpe.t|es, suc| .s n.ss .rJ vc|une.
|r ccrt..st, t|e|. |rters|ve p.cpe.t|es, |rc|uJ|rg cc|c., ne|t|rg pc|rt, .rJ e|ect.|c.| ccrJuct|v|ty, ..e |Jert|c.|.
Although mass and volume aie both extensive piopeities, theii iatio is an impoitant intensive piopeity
called density (). Density is defned as mass pei unit volume and is usually expiessed in giams pei
cubic centimetei (g/cm
3
). As mass incieases in a given volume, density also incieases. Foi example,
lead, with its gieatei mass, has a fai gieatei density than the same volume of aii, just as a biick has a
gieatei density than the same volume of Styiofoam. At a given tempeiatuie and piessuie, the density of
a puie substance is a constant:
QUA7I ON 1. 1
density
mass
volume

Puie watei, foi example, has a density of 0.998 g/cm

3
at 23C.
The aveiage densities of some common substances aie in Table 1.1. Notice that coin oil has a
lowei mass to volume iatio than watei. This means that when added to watei, coin oil will foat."
Example 3 shows how density measuiements can be used to identify puie substances.
7A8L 1. 1 Densities of Common Substances
Substance Density at 25C (g/cm
3
)
b|ccJ 1.035
bcJy |.t 0.918
.|c|e n||k 1.030
cc.r c|| 0.922
n.ycrr.|se 0.910
|crey 1.420

Extensiva
(depende da quantidade de substncia)
Intensiva
(no depende da quantidade de substncia)
Cristais de enxofre
Enxofre em p
massa
volume
cor
ponto de fuso
4. Histria da Qumica
atom
|e |urJ.nert.|, |rJ|v|Ju.|
p..t|c|es c| .||c| n.tte. |s
ccnpcseJ.
transmutation
|e p.ccess c| ccrve.t|rg
cre e|enert tc .rct|e..
II CUR 1. 13
An AIchemist at Work
A|c|eny ..s . |c.n c|
c|en|st.y t|.t |cu.|s|eJ
Ju.|rg t|e V|JJ|e Ages .rJ
|er.|ss.rce. A|t|cug| scne
.|c|en|sts .e.e |..uJs,
ct|e.s n.Je n.c.
ccrt.|but|crs, |rc|uJ|rg t|e
J|sccve.y c| seve..|
e|enerts .rJ t|e
p.ep...t|cr c| st.crg .c|Js.
combustion
|e bu.r|rg c| . n.te.|.| |r
.r cxyger .tncsp|e.e.
4. A BRIEF HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY
1. 7o understand the deveIopment of the atomic modeI.
It was not until the eia of the ancient Gieeks that we have any iecoid of how people tiied to explain the
chemical changes they obseived and used. At that time, natuial objects weie thought to consist of only
foui basic elements: eaith, aii, fie, and watei. Then, in the fouith centuiy BC, two Gieek philosopheis,
Demociitus and Leucippus, suggested that mattei was not infnitely divisible into smallei paiticles but
instead consisted of fundamental, indivisible paiticles called atoms. Unfoitunately, these eaily philo-
sopheis did not have the technology to test theii hypothesis. They would have been unlikely to do so in
any case because the ancient Gieeks did not conduct expeiiments oi use the scientifc method. They
believed that the natuie of the univeise could be discoveied by iational thought alone.
Ovei the next two millennia, alchemists, who engaged in a foim of chemistiy and speculative
philosophy duiing the Middle Ages and Renaissance, achieved many advances in chemistiy. Theii ma-
joi goal was to conveit ceitain elements into otheis by a piocess they called transmutation (Figuie
1.13). In paiticulai, alchemists wanted to fnd a way to tiansfoim cheapei metals into gold. Although
most alchemists did not appioach chemistiy systematically and many appeai to have been outiight
fiauds, alchemists in China, the Aiab kingdoms, and medieval Euiope made majoi contiibutions, in-
cluding the discoveiy of elements such as quicksilvei (meicuiy) and the piepaiation of seveial stiong
acids.
4.1 Modein Chemistiy
The 16th and 17th centuiies saw the beginnings of what we now iecognize as modein chemistiy. Dui-
ing this peiiod, gieat advances weie made in metallurgy, the extiaction of metals fiom oies, and the
fist systematic quantitative expeiiments weie caiiied out. In 1661, the Englishman Robeit Boyle
(1627-91) published The Sceptical Chymist, which desciibed the ielationship between the piessuie and
the volume of aii. Moie impoitant, Boyle defned an element as a substance that cannot be bioken
down into two oi moie simplei substances by chemical means. This led to the identifcation of a laige
numbei of elements, many of which weie metals. Iionically, Boyle himself nevei thought that metals
weie elements.
In the 18th centuiy, the English cleigyman Joseph Piiestley (1733-1804) discoveied oxygen gas
and found that many caibon-containing mateiials buin vigoiously in an oxygen atmospheie, a piocess
called combustion. Piiestley also discoveied that the gas pioduced by feimenting beei, which we now
know to be caibon dioxide, is the same as one of the gaseous pioducts of combustion. Piiestley's stud-
ies of this gas did not continue as he would have liked, howevei. Aftei he fell into a vat of feimenting
beei, bieweis piohibited him fiom woiking in theii factoiies. Although Piiestley did not undeistand its
identity, he found that caibon dioxide dissolved in watei to pioduce seltzei watei. In essence, he may
be consideied the foundei of the multibillion-dollai caibonated soft diink industiy.
1oseph PriestIey (1733-1804)
|.|est|ey ..s . pc||t|c.| t|ec.|st .rJ . |e.J|rg |r|t..|.r n|r|ste.. |e ..s .ppc|rteJ tc \...|rgtcr Ac.Jeny |r
|.rc.s||.e, |rg|.rJ, .|e.e |e Jeve|cpeJ re. ccu.ses cr ||stc.y, sc|erce, .rJ t|e ..ts. |u.|rg v|s|ts tc |cr
Jcr, |.|est|ey net t|e |e.J|rg ner c| sc|erce, |rc|uJ|rg ber.n|r |..rk||r, .|c erccu..geJ |.|est|eys |r
te.est |r e|ect.|c|ty. |.|est|eys .c.k cr g.ses beg.r .|||e |e ..s ||v|rg rext tc . b.e.e.y |r |eeJs, .|e.e |e
rct|ceJ |xeJ .|. bubb||rg cut c| v.ts c| |e.nert|rg bee. .rJ .|e. ||s sc|ert||c J|sccve.|es |rc|uJeJ t|e .e|.
t|crs||p bet.eer e|ect.|c|ty .rJ c|en|c.| c|.rge, 10 re. .|.s, .rJ cbse.v.t|crs t|.t |eJ tc t|e J|sccve.y c|
p|ctcsyrt|es|s. |ue tc ||s suppc.t |c. t|e p.|rc|p|es c| t|e |.erc| |evc|ut|cr, |.|est|eys |cuse, ||b...y, .rJ
|.bc..tc.y .e.e Jest.cyeJ by . ncb |r 191. |e .rJ ||s .||e en|g..teJ tc t|e |r|teJ St.tes |r 194 tc c|r
t|e|. t|.ee scrs, .|c |.J p.ev|cus|y en|g..teJ tc |errsy|v.r|.. |.|est|ey reve. .etu.reJ tc |rg|.rJ .rJ J|eJ
|r ||s re. |cne |r |errsy|v.r|..
26 CNRAL CHMIS7RY

Alquimistas durante a
Idade Mdia e
Renascensa
4.4. Hiptese de Avogadro
Compound Mass of IIuorine (g)
3.54
2.96
2.36
0.59
.. |ete.n|re t|e ..t|cs c| t|e n.sses c| |uc.|re t|.t ccnb|re .|t| 1 g c| su||u. |r t|ese ccnpcurJs. A.e
t|ese J.t. ccrs|stert .|t| t|e |.. c| nu|t|p|e p.cpc.t|crs`
b. .|cu|.te t|e n.ss c| |uc.|re t|.t .cu|J ccnb|re .|t| 1 g c| su||u. tc |c.n t|e rext t.c ccnpcurJs |r
t|e se.|es. .rJ .
Answer:
.. / 6.0 c. 6/1, / - 5.0, c. 5/1, / 4.0, c. 4/1, yes
b. |.t|cs c| 3.0 .rJ 2.0 g|ve 1.8 g .rJ 1.2 g c| |uc.|re/g..n c| su||u., .espect|ve|y. (|e|t|e. c| t|ese
ccnpcurJs |s yet krc.r.)
4.4 Avogadio's Hypothesis
In a fuithei attempt to establish the foimulas of chemical compounds, the Fiench chemist Joseph Gay-
Lussac (1778-1830) caiiied out a seiies of expeiiments using volume measuiements. Undei conditions
of constant tempeiatuie and piessuie, he caiefully measuied the volumes of gases that ieacted to make
a given chemical compound, togethei with the volumes of the pioducts if they weie gases. Gay-Lussac
found, foi example, that one volume of chloiine gas always ieacted with one volume of hydiogen gas to
pioduce two volumes of hydiogen chloiide gas. Similaily, one volume of oxygen gas always ieacted
with two volumes of hydiogen gas to pioduce two volumes of watei vapoi (pait (a) in Figuie 1.14).
II CUR 1. 14 Cay-Lussac's xperiments with ChIorine Cas and Hydrogen Cas
(.) Ore vc|une c| c||c.|re g.s .e.cteJ .|t| cre vc|une c| |yJ.cger g.s tc p.cJuce t.c vc|unes c| |yJ.cger
c||c.|Je g.s, .rJ cre vc|une c| cxyger g.s .e.cteJ .|t| t.c vc|unes c| |yJ.cger g.s tc p.cJuce t.c vc|unes
c| ..te. v.pc.. (b) A sunn..y c| Avcg.J.cs |ypct|es|s, .||c| |rte.p.eteJ .y|uss.cs .esu|ts |r te.ns c| .tcns.
|cte t|.t t|e s|np|est ..y |c. t.c nc|ecu|es c| |yJ.cger c||c.|Je tc be p.cJuceJ |s || |yJ.cger .rJ c||c.|re
e.c| ccrs|st c| nc|ecu|es t|.t ccrt.|r t.c .tcns c| t|e e|enert.
Gay-Lussac's iesults did not by themselves ieveal the foimulas foi hydiogen chloiide and watei. The
Italian chemist Amadeo Avogadio (1776-1836) developed the key insight that led to the exact foimu-
las. He pioposed that when gases aie measuied at the same tempeiatuie and piessuie, equal volumes of
diperent gases contain equal numbers of gas particles. Avogadros hypothesis, which explained Gay-Lus-
sac's iesults, is summaiized heie and in pait (b) in Figuie 1.14:

Experimentos de Gay Lussac com cloro e hidrognio
gasosos
II CUR 1. 15 A Summary of the HistoricaI DeveIopment of the Concept of the Atom

Desenvolvimento histrio do conceito de tomo
5. O tomo
eIectron
A sub.tcn|c p..t|c|e .|t| .
reg.t|ve c|..ge t|.t .es|Jes
..curJ t|e ruc|eus c| .||
.tcns.
proton
A sub.tcn|c p..t|c|e .|t| .
pcs|t|ve c|..ge t|.t .es|Jes |r
t|e ruc|eus c| .|| .tcns.
neutron
A sub.tcn|c p..t|c|e .|t| rc
c|..ge t|.t .es|Jes |r t|e
ruc|eus c| .|ncst .|| .tcns.
4. |.ee ccnpcurJs ccrt.|r|rg t|t.r|un,
n.gres|un, .rJ cxyger ..e krc.r. |e
|c||c.|rg t.b|e g|ves t|e n.sses c|
t|t.r|un .rJ n.gres|un t|.t .e.ct .|t|
5.00 g c| cxyger tc |c.n e.c| ccnpcurJ.
Compound Mass of
7itanium
(g)
Mass of
Magnesium
(g)
4.99 2.53
3.4 3.80
.. |ete.n|re t|e ..t|cs c| t|e n.sses c|

t|t.r|un .rJ n.gres|un t|.t ccnb|re
.|t| 5.00 g c| cxyger |r t|ese
ccnpcurJs.
b. |.eJ|ct t|e n.sses c| t|t.r|un .rJ
n.gres|un t|.t .cu|J ccnb|re .|t|
5.00 g c| cxyger tc |c.n .rct|e.
pcss|b|e ccnpcurJ |r t|e se.|es. .
3. THE ATOM
1. 7o become famiIiar with the components and structure of the atom.
To date, about 113 difeient elements have been discoveied; by defnition, each is chemically unique.
To undeistand why they aie unique, you need to undeistand the stiuctuie of the atom (the fundament-
al, individual paiticle of an element) and the chaiacteiistics of its components.
Atoms consist of electrons, protons, and neutrons.
[4]
Some piopeities of these subatomic
paiticles aie summaiized in Table 1.3, which illustiates thiee impoitant points.
1. Elections and piotons have electiical chaiges that aie identical in magnitude but opposite in sign.
We usually assign chaiges of 1 and +1 to the election and pioton, iespectively.
2. Neutions have appioximately the same mass as piotons but no chaige. They aie electiically
neutial.
3. The mass of a pioton oi a neution is about 1836 times gieatei than the mass of an election.
Piotons and neutions constitute by fai the bulk of the mass of atoms.
The discoveiy of the election and the pioton was ciucial to the development of the modein model of
the atom and piovides an excellent case study in the application of the scientifc method. In fact, the
elucidation of the atom's stiuctuie is one of the gieatest detective stoiies in the histoiy of science.
7A8L 1. 3 Properties of Subatomic ParticIes"
ParticIe Mass (g) Atomic Mass (amu) IectricaI Charge (couIombs) ReIative Charge
e|ect.cr 9.109 10
28
0.0005486 1.602 10
19
1
p.ctcr 1.63 10
24
1.0026 +1.602 10
19
+1
reut.cr 1.65 10
24
1.008665 0 0
" Ior a review of using scientic notation and units of measurement, see ssentiaI SkiIIs 1 (Section 9).

Propriedades das partculas subatmicas.
Partcula Massa (g) Massa atmica (uma) Carga eltrica (coulombs) Carga relativa
eltron
prtron
neutron
5.1. O Eltron
II CUR 1. 16 A Cas Discharge 7ube
Producing Cathode Rays
\|er . ||g| vc|t.ge |s .pp||eJ tc . g.s
ccrt.|reJ .t |c. p.essu.e |r . g.s J|sc|..ge
tube, e|ect.|c|ty |c.s t|.cug| t|e g.s, .rJ
ere.gy |s en|tteJ |r t|e |c.n c| ||g|t.
radioactivity
|e spcrt.recus en|ss|cr c|
ere.gy ..ys (..J|.t|cr) by
n.tte..
3.1 The Election
Long befoie the end of the 19th centuiy, it was well known that applying a high voltage
to a gas contained at low piessuie in a sealed tube (called a gas dischaige tube) caused
electiicity to fow thiough the gas, which then emitted light (Figuie 1.16). Reseaicheis
tiying to undeistand this phenomenon found that an unusual foim of eneigy was also
emitted fiom the cathode, oi negatively chaiged electiode; hence this foim of eneigy
was called cathode rays. In 1897, the Biitish physicist J. J. Thomson (1836-1940)
pioved that atoms weie not the ultimate foim of mattei. He demonstiated that cathode
iays could be defected, oi bent, by magnetic oi electiic felds, which indicated that
cathode iays consist of chaiged paiticles (Figuie 1.17). Moie impoitant, by measuiing
the extent of the defection of the cathode iays in magnetic oi electiic felds of vaiious
stiengths, Thomson was able to calculate the mass-to-charge ratio of the paiticles.
These paiticles weie emitted by the negatively chaiged cathode and iepelled by the neg-
ative teiminal of an electiic feld. Because like chaiges iepel each othei and opposite
chaiges attiact, Thomson concluded that the paiticles had a net negative chaige; we
now call these paiticles electrons. Most impoitant foi chemistiy, Thomson found that
the mass-to-chaige iatio of cathode iays was independent of the natuie of the metal
electiodes oi the gas, which suggested that elections weie fundamental components of
all atoms.
II CUR 1. 17 DefIection of Cathode Rays by an Iectric IieId
As t|e c.t|cJe ..ys t..ve| tc...J t|e .|g|t, t|ey ..e Je|ecteJ tc...J t|e pcs|t|ve e|ect.cJe (+), Jencrst..t|rg
t|.t t|ey ..e reg.t|ve|y c|..geJ.
Subsequently, the Ameiican scientist Robeit Millikan (1868-1933) caiiied out a seiies of expeiiments
using electiically chaiged oil dioplets, which allowed him to calculate the chaige on a single election.
With this infoimation and Thomson's mass-to-chaige iatio, Millikan deteimined the mass of an
election:
mass
charge
charge mass
It was at this point that two sepaiate lines of investigation began to conveige, both aimed at deteimin-
ing how and why mattei emits eneigy.
3.2 Radioactivity
The second line of investigation began in 1896, when the Fiench physicist Henii Becqueiel
(1832-1908) discoveied that ceitain mineials, such as uianium salts, emitted a new foim of eneigy.
Becqueiel's woik was gieatly extended by Maiie Cuiie (1867-1934) and hei husband, Pieiie
(1834-1906); all thiee shaied the Nobel Piize in Physics in 1903. Maiie Cuiie coined the teim radio-
activity (fiom the Latin radius, meaning iay") to desciibe the emission of eneigy iays by mattei. She
found that one paiticulai uianium oie, pitchblende, was substantially moie iadioactive than most,
which suggested that it contained one oi moie highly iadioactive impuiities. Staiting with seveial tons
of pitchblende, the Cuiies isolated two new iadioactive elements aftei months of woik: polonium,
which was named foi Maiie's native Poland, and iadium, which was named foi its intense iadioactiv-
ity. Pieiie Cuiie caiiied a vial of iadium in his coat pocket to demonstiate its gieenish glow, a habit
34 CNRAL CHMIS7RY

Tubo de discarga
produzindo
raios catdicos
Deeco dos raios catdicos na presena de um campo eltrico
II CUR 1. 16 A Cas Discharge 7ube
Producing Cathode Rays
\|er . ||g| vc|t.ge |s .pp||eJ tc . g.s
ccrt.|reJ .t |c. p.essu.e |r . g.s J|sc|..ge
tube, e|ect.|c|ty |c.s t|.cug| t|e g.s, .rJ
ere.gy |s en|tteJ |r t|e |c.n c| ||g|t.
radioactivity
|e spcrt.recus en|ss|cr c|
ere.gy ..ys (..J|.t|cr) by
n.tte..
3.1 The Election
Long befoie the end of the 19th centuiy, it was well known that applying a high voltage
to a gas contained at low piessuie in a sealed tube (called a gas dischaige tube) caused
electiicity to fow thiough the gas, which then emitted light (Figuie 1.16). Reseaicheis
tiying to undeistand this phenomenon found that an unusual foim of eneigy was also
emitted fiom the cathode, oi negatively chaiged electiode; hence this foim of eneigy
was called cathode rays. In 1897, the Biitish physicist J. J. Thomson (1836-1940)
pioved that atoms weie not the ultimate foim of mattei. He demonstiated that cathode
iays could be defected, oi bent, by magnetic oi electiic felds, which indicated that
cathode iays consist of chaiged paiticles (Figuie 1.17). Moie impoitant, by measuiing
the extent of the defection of the cathode iays in magnetic oi electiic felds of vaiious
stiengths, Thomson was able to calculate the mass-to-charge ratio of the paiticles.
These paiticles weie emitted by the negatively chaiged cathode and iepelled by the neg-
ative teiminal of an electiic feld. Because like chaiges iepel each othei and opposite
chaiges attiact, Thomson concluded that the paiticles had a net negative chaige; we
now call these paiticles electrons. Most impoitant foi chemistiy, Thomson found that
the mass-to-chaige iatio of cathode iays was independent of the natuie of the metal
electiodes oi the gas, which suggested that elections weie fundamental components of
all atoms.
II CUR 1. 17 DefIection of Cathode Rays by an Iectric IieId
As t|e c.t|cJe ..ys t..ve| tc...J t|e .|g|t, t|ey ..e Je|ecteJ tc...J t|e pcs|t|ve e|ect.cJe (+), Jencrst..t|rg
t|.t t|ey ..e reg.t|ve|y c|..geJ.
Subsequently, the Ameiican scientist Robeit Millikan (1868-1933) caiiied out a seiies of expeiiments
using electiically chaiged oil dioplets, which allowed him to calculate the chaige on a single election.
With this infoimation and Thomson's mass-to-chaige iatio, Millikan deteimined the mass of an
election:
mass
charge
charge mass
It was at this point that two sepaiate lines of investigation began to conveige, both aimed at deteimin-
ing how and why mattei emits eneigy.
3.2 Radioactivity
The second line of investigation began in 1896, when the Fiench physicist Henii Becqueiel
(1832-1908) discoveied that ceitain mineials, such as uianium salts, emitted a new foim of eneigy.
Becqueiel's woik was gieatly extended by Maiie Cuiie (1867-1934) and hei husband, Pieiie
(1834-1906); all thiee shaied the Nobel Piize in Physics in 1903. Maiie Cuiie coined the teim radio-
activity (fiom the Latin radius, meaning iay") to desciibe the emission of eneigy iays by mattei. She
found that one paiticulai uianium oie, pitchblende, was substantially moie iadioactive than most,
which suggested that it contained one oi moie highly iadioactive impuiities. Staiting with seveial tons
of pitchblende, the Cuiies isolated two new iadioactive elements aftei months of woik: polonium,
which was named foi Maiie's native Poland, and iadium, which was named foi its intense iadioactiv-
ity. Pieiie Cuiie caiiied a vial of iadium in his coat pocket to demonstiate its gieenish glow, a habit
34 CNRAL CHMIS7RY

voltagem
ctodo
nodo
eletrodos que
geram raios-X
eletrodos que
desviam raios-X
placa
negativo
placa
positiva
deeco
raios catdicos
tubo sob vcuo
gas at a very low pressure. When a high voltage is applied, current flows and rays are
given off by the cathode (negative electrode). These rays travel in straight lines toward
the anode (positive electrode) and cause the walls opposite the cathode to glow. An object
placed in the path of the cathode rays casts a shadow on a zinc sulfide screen placed near
the anode. The shadow shows that the rays travel from the cathode toward the anode.
The rays must therefore be negatively charged. Furthermore, they are deflected by elec-
tric and magnetic fields in the directions expected for negatively charged particles.
In 1897 J. J. Thomson (18561940) studied these negatively charged particles more
carefully. He called them electrons, the name Stoney had suggested in 1891. By studying
the degree of deflections of cathode rays in different electric and magnetic fields, Thomson
determined the ratio of the charge (e) of the electron to its mass (m). The modern value
for this ratio is
e/m 1.75882 10
8
coulomb (C)/gram
This ratio is the same regardless of the type of gas in the tube, the composition of the
electrodes, or the nature of the electric power source. The clear implication of Thomsons
work was that electrons are fundamental particles present in all atoms. We now know that
this is true and that all atoms contain integral numbers of electrons.
Once the charge-to-mass ratio for the electron had been determined, additional exper-
iments were necessary to determine the value of either its mass or its charge, so that the
other could be calculated. In 1909, Robert Millikan (18681953) solved this dilemma with
the famous oil-drop experiment, in which he determined the charge of the electron.
This experiment is described in Figure 5-2. All of the charges measured by Millikan turned
The coulomb (C) is the standard unit
of quantity of electric charge. It is
defined as the quantity of electricity
transported in one second by a current
of one ampere. It corresponds to the
amount of electricity that will deposit
0.00111798 g of silver in an apparatus
set up for plating silver.
5-2 The Discovery of Electrons 179
Figure 5-2 The Millikan oil-drop experiment. Tiny spherical oil droplets are produced by
an atomizer. The mass of the spherical drop can be calculated from its volume (obtained
from a measurement of the radius of the drop with a microscope) and the known density
of the oil. A few droplets fall through the hole in the upper plate. Irradiation with X-rays
gives some of these oil droplets a negative charge. When the voltage between the plates is
increased, a negatively charged drop falls more slowly because it is attracted by the positively
charged upper plate and repelled by the negatively charged lower plate. At one particular
voltage, the electrical force (up) and the gravitational force (down) on the drop are exactly
balanced, and the drop remains stationary. Knowing this voltage and the mass of the drop,
we can calculate the charge on the drop.
Oil droplets
Atomizer
Microscope
Oil droplet
under observation
Charged plate (+)
Small hole
X-ray beam
Charged plate ()
Robert A. Millikan (left) was an
American physicist who was a
professor at the University of
Chicago and later director of the
physics laboratory at the California
Institute of Technology. He won the
1923 Nobel Prize in physics.
X-rays are a form of radiation of much
shorter wavelength than visible light
(see Section 5-10). They are
sufficiently energetic to knock
electrons out of the atoms in the air.
In Millikans experiment these free
electrons became attached to some of
the oil droplets.
gas at a very low pressure. When a high voltage is applied, current flows and rays are
given off by the cathode (negative electrode). These rays travel in straight lines toward
the anode (positive electrode) and cause the walls opposite the cathode to glow. An object
placed in the path of the cathode rays casts a shadow on a zinc sulfide screen placed near
the anode. The shadow shows that the rays travel from the cathode toward the anode.
The rays must therefore be negatively charged. Furthermore, they are deflected by elec-
tric and magnetic fields in the directions expected for negatively charged particles.
In 1897 J. J. Thomson (18561940) studied these negatively charged particles more
carefully. He called them electrons, the name Stoney had suggested in 1891. By studying
the degree of deflections of cathode rays in different electric and magnetic fields, Thomson
determined the ratio of the charge (e) of the electron to its mass (m). The modern value
for this ratio is
e/m 1.75882 10
8
coulomb (C)/gram
This ratio is the same regardless of the type of gas in the tube, the composition of the
electrodes, or the nature of the electric power source. The clear implication of Thomsons
work was that electrons are fundamental particles present in all atoms. We now know that
this is true and that all atoms contain integral numbers of electrons.
Once the charge-to-mass ratio for the electron had been determined, additional exper-
iments were necessary to determine the value of either its mass or its charge, so that the
other could be calculated. In 1909, Robert Millikan (18681953) solved this dilemma with
the famous oil-drop experiment, in which he determined the charge of the electron.
This experiment is described in Figure 5-2. All of the charges measured by Millikan turned
The coulomb (C) is the standard unit
of quantity of electric charge. It is
defined as the quantity of electricity
transported in one second by a current
of one ampere. It corresponds to the
amount of electricity that will deposit
0.00111798 g of silver in an apparatus
set up for plating silver.
5-2 The Discovery of Electrons 179
Figure 5-2 The Millikan oil-drop experiment. Tiny spherical oil droplets are produced by
an atomizer. The mass of the spherical drop can be calculated from its volume (obtained
from a measurement of the radius of the drop with a microscope) and the known density
of the oil. A few droplets fall through the hole in the upper plate. Irradiation with X-rays
gives some of these oil droplets a negative charge. When the voltage between the plates is
increased, a negatively charged drop falls more slowly because it is attracted by the positively
charged upper plate and repelled by the negatively charged lower plate. At one particular
voltage, the electrical force (up) and the gravitational force (down) on the drop are exactly
balanced, and the drop remains stationary. Knowing this voltage and the mass of the drop,
we can calculate the charge on the drop.
Oil droplets
Atomizer
Microscope
Oil droplet
under observation
Charged plate (+)
Small hole
X-ray beam
Charged plate ()
Robert A. Millikan (left) was an
American physicist who was a
professor at the University of
Chicago and later director of the
physics laboratory at the California
Institute of Technology. He won the
1923 Nobel Prize in physics.
X-rays are a form of radiation of much
shorter wavelength than visible light
(see Section 5-10). They are
sufficiently energetic to knock
electrons out of the atoms in the air.
In Millikans experiment these free
electrons became attached to some of
the oil droplets.
5.2. Radioatividade
Radium bromide iIIuminated by its own
radioactive gIow. ||s 1922 p|ctc ..s t.ker
|r t|e J..k |r t|e u.|e |.bc..tc.y.
that caused him to become ill fiom iadiation poisoning well befoie he was iun ovei by a hoise-diawn
wagon and killed instantly in 1906. Maiie Cuiie, in tuin, died of what was almost ceitainly iadiation
poisoning.
Building on the Cuiies' woik, the Biitish physicist Einest Rutheifoid (1871-1937) pei-
foimed decisive expeiiments that led to the modein view of the stiuctuie of the atom.
While woiking in Thomson's laboiatoiy shoitly aftei Thomson discoveied the elec-
tion, Rutheifoid showed that compounds of uianium and othei elements emitted at
least two distinct types of iadiation. One was ieadily absoibed by mattei and seemed to
consist of paiticles that had a positive chaige and weie massive compaied to elections.
Because it was the fist kind of iadiation to be discoveied, Rutheifoid called these sub-
stances o particles. Rutheifoid also showed that the paiticles in the second type of iadi-
ation, particles, had the same chaige and mass-to-chaige iatio as Thomson's elec-
tions; they aie now known to be high-speed elections. A thiid type of iadiation, y rays,
was discoveied somewhat latei and found to be similai to a lowei-eneigy foim of iadi-
ation called x-iays, now used to pioduce images of bones and teeth.
These thiee kinds of iadiation-o paiticles, paiticles, and y iays-aie ieadily dis-
tinguished by the way they aie defected by an electiic feld and by the degiee to which
they penetiate mattei. As Figuie 1.18 illustiates, o paiticles and paiticles aie defected
in opposite diiections; o paiticles aie defected to a much lessei extent because of theii
highei mass-to-chaige iatio. In contiast, y iays have no chaige, so they aie not defec-
ted by electiic oi magnetic felds. Figuie 1.19 shows that o paiticles have the least pen-
etiating powei and aie stopped by a sheet of papei, wheieas paiticles can pass
thiough thin sheets of metal but aie absoibed by lead foil oi even thick glass. In
contiast, y-iays can ieadily penetiate mattei; thick blocks of lead oi conciete aie needed to stop them.
II CUR 1. 18 ffect of an Iectric IieId on u ParticIes, ParticIes, and y Rays
A reg.t|ve e|ect.cJe Je|ects reg.t|ve|y c|..geJ p..t|c|es, .|e.e.s . pcs|t|ve e|ect.cJe Je|ects pcs|t|ve|y
c|..geJ o p..t|c|es. |rc|..geJ , ..ys ..e ur.|ecteJ by .r e|ect.|c |e|J. (|e|.t|ve Je|ect|crs ..e rct s|c.r tc
sc.|e.)

Brometo de Rdio iluminado pelo seu
brilho radioativo.
II CUR 1. 20 7homson's PIum Pudding
or ChocoIate Chip Cookie ModeI of the
Atom
|r t||s ncJe|, t|e e|ect.crs ..e enbeJJeJ |r .
ur||c.n sp|e.e c| pcs|t|ve c|..ge.
II CUR 1. 19 ReIative Penetrating Power of the 7hree 7ypes of Radiation
A s|eet c| p.pe. stcps ccnp...t|ve|y n.ss|ve o p..t|c|es, .|e.e.s p..t|c|es e.s||y peret..te p.pe. but ..e
stcppeJ by . t||r p|ece c| |e.J |c||. |rc|..geJ , ..ys peret..te t|e p.pe. .rJ |e.J |c||, . nuc| t||cke. p|ece c|
|e.J c. ccrc.ete |s reeJeJ tc .bsc.b t|en.
3.3 The Atomic Model
Once scientists concluded that all mattei contains negatively chaiged elections, it became cleai that
atoms, which aie electiically neutial, must also contain positive chaiges to balance the negative ones.
Thomson pioposed that the elections weie embedded in a unifoim spheie that contained both the pos-
itive chaige and most of the mass of the atom, much like iaisins in plum pudding oi chocolate chips in
a cookie (Figuie 1.20).
In a single famous expeiiment, howevei, Rutheifoid showed unambiguously that
Thomson's model of the atom was impossible. Rutheifoid aimed a stieam of o paiticles
at a veiy thin gold foil taiget (pait (a) in Figuie 1.21) and examined how the o paiticles
weie scatteied by the foil. Gold was chosen because it could be easily hammeied into
extiemely thin sheets with a thickness that minimized the numbei of atoms in the tai-
get. If Thomson's model of the atom weie coiiect, the positively chaiged o paiticles
should ciash thiough the unifoimly distiibuted mass of the gold taiget like cannonballs
thiough the side of a wooden house. They might be moving a little slowei when they
emeiged, but they should pass essentially stiaight thiough the taiget (pait (b) in Figuie
1.21). To Rutheifoid's amazement, a small fiaction of the o paiticles weie defected at
laige angles, and some weie iefected diiectly back at the souice (pait (c) in Figuie
1.21). Accoiding to Rutheifoid, It was almost as inciedible as if you fied a 13-inch
shell at a piece of tissue papei and it came back and hit you."
36 CNRAL CHMIS7RY

raios !
partculas "
partculas #
Papel
0,5 cm de
chumbo
10 cm de
chumbo
Radium bromide iIIuminated by its own
radioactive gIow. ||s 1922 p|ctc ..s t.ker
|r t|e J..k |r t|e u.|e |.bc..tc.y.
that caused him to become ill fiom iadiation poisoning well befoie he was iun ovei by a hoise-diawn
wagon and killed instantly in 1906. Maiie Cuiie, in tuin, died of what was almost ceitainly iadiation
poisoning.
Building on the Cuiies' woik, the Biitish physicist Einest Rutheifoid (1871-1937) pei-
foimed decisive expeiiments that led to the modein view of the stiuctuie of the atom.
While woiking in Thomson's laboiatoiy shoitly aftei Thomson discoveied the elec-
tion, Rutheifoid showed that compounds of uianium and othei elements emitted at
least two distinct types of iadiation. One was ieadily absoibed by mattei and seemed to
consist of paiticles that had a positive chaige and weie massive compaied to elections.
Because it was the fist kind of iadiation to be discoveied, Rutheifoid called these sub-
stances o particles. Rutheifoid also showed that the paiticles in the second type of iadi-
ation, particles, had the same chaige and mass-to-chaige iatio as Thomson's elec-
tions; they aie now known to be high-speed elections. A thiid type of iadiation, y rays,
was discoveied somewhat latei and found to be similai to a lowei-eneigy foim of iadi-
ation called x-iays, now used to pioduce images of bones and teeth.
These thiee kinds of iadiation-o paiticles, paiticles, and y iays-aie ieadily dis-
tinguished by the way they aie defected by an electiic feld and by the degiee to which
they penetiate mattei. As Figuie 1.18 illustiates, o paiticles and paiticles aie defected
in opposite diiections; o paiticles aie defected to a much lessei extent because of theii
highei mass-to-chaige iatio. In contiast, y iays have no chaige, so they aie not defec-
ted by electiic oi magnetic felds. Figuie 1.19 shows that o paiticles have the least pen-
etiating powei and aie stopped by a sheet of papei, wheieas paiticles can pass
thiough thin sheets of metal but aie absoibed by lead foil oi even thick glass. In
contiast, y-iays can ieadily penetiate mattei; thick blocks of lead oi conciete aie needed to stop them.
II CUR 1. 18 ffect of an Iectric IieId on u ParticIes, ParticIes, and y Rays
A reg.t|ve e|ect.cJe Je|ects reg.t|ve|y c|..geJ p..t|c|es, .|e.e.s . pcs|t|ve e|ect.cJe Je|ects pcs|t|ve|y
c|..geJ o p..t|c|es. |rc|..geJ , ..ys ..e ur.|ecteJ by .r e|ect.|c |e|J. (|e|.t|ve Je|ect|crs ..e rct s|c.r tc
sc.|e.)

elemento
radioativo
container
de
chumbo
placa
negativa
placa
positiva
lme fotogrco ou tela
luminescente
partculas !:
carga negativa,
alta deeco devido
baixa massa
raios-X:
sem carga; sem deeco
partculas ":
carga positiva,
pequena deeco
devido alta massa
fendas
Poder de penetrao dos trs tipos de
radiao.
Efeito do campo eltrico nos trs tipos de
partculas.
5.3. Modelo Atmico
II CUR 1. 20 7homson's PIum Pudding
or ChocoIate Chip Cookie ModeI of the
Atom
|r t||s ncJe|, t|e e|ect.crs ..e enbeJJeJ |r .
ur||c.n sp|e.e c| pcs|t|ve c|..ge.
II CUR 1. 19 ReIative Penetrating Power of the 7hree 7ypes of Radiation
A s|eet c| p.pe. stcps ccnp...t|ve|y n.ss|ve o p..t|c|es, .|e.e.s p..t|c|es e.s||y peret..te p.pe. but ..e
stcppeJ by . t||r p|ece c| |e.J |c||. |rc|..geJ , ..ys peret..te t|e p.pe. .rJ |e.J |c||, . nuc| t||cke. p|ece c|
|e.J c. ccrc.ete |s reeJeJ tc .bsc.b t|en.
3.3 The Atomic Model
Once scientists concluded that all mattei contains negatively chaiged elections, it became cleai that
atoms, which aie electiically neutial, must also contain positive chaiges to balance the negative ones.
Thomson pioposed that the elections weie embedded in a unifoim spheie that contained both the pos-
itive chaige and most of the mass of the atom, much like iaisins in plum pudding oi chocolate chips in
a cookie (Figuie 1.20).
In a single famous expeiiment, howevei, Rutheifoid showed unambiguously that
Thomson's model of the atom was impossible. Rutheifoid aimed a stieam of o paiticles
at a veiy thin gold foil taiget (pait (a) in Figuie 1.21) and examined how the o paiticles
weie scatteied by the foil. Gold was chosen because it could be easily hammeied into
extiemely thin sheets with a thickness that minimized the numbei of atoms in the tai-
get. If Thomson's model of the atom weie coiiect, the positively chaiged o paiticles
should ciash thiough the unifoimly distiibuted mass of the gold taiget like cannonballs
thiough the side of a wooden house. They might be moving a little slowei when they
emeiged, but they should pass essentially stiaight thiough the taiget (pait (b) in Figuie
1.21). To Rutheifoid's amazement, a small fiaction of the o paiticles weie defected at
laige angles, and some weie iefected diiectly back at the souice (pait (c) in Figuie
1.21). Accoiding to Rutheifoid, It was almost as inciedible as if you fied a 13-inch
shell at a piece of tissue papei and it came back and hit you."
36 CNRAL CHMIS7RY

matria com
carga positiva
eltrons com
carga negativa
Modelo Atmico de
Thomson
(Pudim de Passas)
Experimento de Rutherford
nucIeus
|e cert..| cc.e c| .r .tcn
.|e.e p.ctcrs .rJ .ry
reut.crs .es|Je.
II CUR 1. 21 A Summary of Rutherford's xperiments
(.) A .ep.esert.t|cr c| t|e .pp...tus |ut|e.|c.J useJ tc Jetect Je|ect|crs |r . st.e.n c| o p..t|c|es .|neJ .t . t||r
gc|J |c|| t..get. |e p..t|c|es .e.e p.cJuceJ by . s.np|e c| ..J|un. (b) || |cnscrs ncJe| c| t|e .tcn .e.e
cc..ect, t|e o p..t|c|es s|cu|J |.ve p.sseJ st..|g|t t|.cug| t|e gc|J |c||. (c) but . sn.|| runbe. c| o p..t|c|es .e.e
Je|ecteJ |r v..|cus J|.ect|crs, |rc|uJ|rg .|g|t b.ck .t t|e scu.ce. ||s ccu|J be t.ue cr|y || t|e pcs|t|ve c|..ge
.e.e nuc| nc.e n.ss|ve t|.r t|e o p..t|c|e. |t suggesteJ t|.t t|e n.ss c| t|e gc|J .tcn |s ccrcert..teJ |r . ve.y
sn.|| .eg|cr c| sp.ce, .||c| |e c.||eJ t|e ruc|eus.
Rutheifoid's iesults weie consistent with a model in which the mass and positive chaige aie dis-
tiibuted unifoimly thioughout the volume of an atom. Instead, they stiongly suggested that both the
mass and positive chaige aie concentiated in a tiny fiaction of the volume of an atom, which Ruthei-
foid called the . It made sense that a small fiaction of the o paiticles collided with the dense,
positively chaiged nuclei in eithei a glancing fashion, iesulting in laige defections, oi almost head-on,
causing them to be iefected stiaight back at the souice.
Although Rutheifoid could not explain why iepulsions between the positive chaiges in nuclei that
contained moie than one positive chaige did not cause the nucleus to disintegiate, he ieasoned that ie-
pulsions between negatively chaiged elections would cause the elections to be unifoimly distiibuted
thioughout the atom's volume.
[3]
Foi this and othei insights, Rutheifoid was awaided the Nobel Piize
in Chemistiy in 1908. Unfoitunately, Rutheifoid would have piefeiied to ieceive the Nobel Piize in
Physics because he thought that physics was supeiioi to chemistiy. In his opinion, All science is eithei
physics oi stamp collecting." (The authois of this text do shaie Rutheifoid's view!)
Subsequently, Rutheifoid established that the nucleus of the hydiogen atom was a positively
chaiged paiticle, foi which he coined the name in 1920. He also suggested that the nuclei of ele-
ments othei than hydiogen must contain electiically neutial paiticles with appioximately the same
mass as the pioton. The neution, howevei, was not discoveied until 1932, when James Chadwick
(1891-1974, a student of Rutheifoid; Nobel Piize in Physics, 1933) discoveied it. As a iesult of Ruthei-
foid's woik, it became cleai that an o paiticle contains two piotons and neutions and is theiefoie
simply the nucleus of a helium atom.
The histoiical development of the difeient models of the atom's stiuctuie is summaiized in Figuie
1.22. Rutheifoid's model of the atom is essentially the same as the modein one, except that we now
know that elections aie unifoimly distiibuted thioughout an atom's volume. Instead, they aie dis-
tiibuted accoiding to a set of piinciples desciibed in Chaptei 6. Figuie 1.23 shows how the model of the
atom has evolved ovei time fiom the indivisible unit of Dalton to the modein view taught today.

container
de
chumbo
lme fotogrco ou
tela luminescente
rdio
uxo de partculas #
na lmina de
ouro
a) Experimento de Rutherford
b) Resultado esperado por Rutherford se
o modelo de Thomson estivesse correto.
c) Resultado observado por Rutherford.
partculas # tomos de ouro
tomos de ouro
ncleo com
carga positiva
II CUR 1. 22 A Summary of the HistoricaI DeveIopment of ModeIs of the Components and Structure of
the Atom
|e J.tes |r p..ert|eses ..e t|e ye..s |r .||c| t|e key expe.|nerts .e.e pe.|c.neJ.
II CUR 1. 23 7he voIution of Atomic 7heory, as IIIustrated by ModeIs of the Oxygen Atom
bc|.s ncJe| .rJ t|e cu..ert ncJe| ..e Jesc.|beJ |r |.pte. 6.
Summary
Atcns, t|e sn.||est p..t|c|es c| .r e|enert t|.t ex||b|t t|e p.cpe.t|es c| t|.t e|enert, ccrs|st c| reg.t|ve|y
c|..geJ eIectrons ..curJ . cert..| nucIeus ccnpcseJ c| nc.e n.ss|ve pcs|t|ve|y c|..geJ protons .rJ
e|ect.|c.||y reut..| neutrons. Radioactivity |s t|e en|ss|cr c| ere.get|c p..t|c|es .rJ ..ys (..J|.t|cr) by scne
subst.rces. |.ee |npc.t.rt k|rJs c| ..J|.t|cr ..e o p..t|c|es (|e||un ruc|e|), p..t|c|es (e|ect.crs t..ve||rg .t
||g| speeJ), .rJ , ..ys (s|n||.. tc x..ys but ||g|e. |r ere.gy).
k Y 7 A k A W A Y
! |e .tcn ccrs|sts c| J|sc.ete p..t|c|es t|.t gcve.r |ts c|en|c.| .rJ p|ys|c.| be|.v|c..
38 CNRAL CHMIS7RY

Resumo do desenvolvimento histrico do modelo atmico e da
estrutura do tomo
II CUR 1. 22 A Summary of the HistoricaI DeveIopment of ModeIs of the Components and Structure of
the Atom
|e J.tes |r p..ert|eses ..e t|e ye..s |r .||c| t|e key expe.|nerts .e.e pe.|c.neJ.
II CUR 1. 23 7he voIution of Atomic 7heory, as IIIustrated by ModeIs of the Oxygen Atom
bc|.s ncJe| .rJ t|e cu..ert ncJe| ..e Jesc.|beJ |r |.pte. 6.
Summary
Atcns, t|e sn.||est p..t|c|es c| .r e|enert t|.t ex||b|t t|e p.cpe.t|es c| t|.t e|enert, ccrs|st c| reg.t|ve|y
c|..geJ eIectrons ..curJ . cert..| nucIeus ccnpcseJ c| nc.e n.ss|ve pcs|t|ve|y c|..geJ protons .rJ
e|ect.|c.||y reut..| neutrons. Radioactivity |s t|e en|ss|cr c| ere.get|c p..t|c|es .rJ ..ys (..J|.t|cr) by scne
subst.rces. |.ee |npc.t.rt k|rJs c| ..J|.t|cr ..e o p..t|c|es (|e||un ruc|e|), p..t|c|es (e|ect.crs t..ve||rg .t
||g| speeJ), .rJ , ..ys (s|n||.. tc x..ys but ||g|e. |r ere.gy).
k Y 7 A k A W A Y
! |e .tcn ccrs|sts c| J|sc.ete p..t|c|es t|.t gcve.r |ts c|en|c.| .rJ p|ys|c.| be|.v|c..
38 CNRAL CHMIS7RY

Dalton propem que a
unidade indivisvel de um
elemento o tomo.
Thomson discobre os eltrons e
acredita que o mesmo reside em
uma esfera com carga positiva
uniforme (pudim de passas).
Rutherford demonstra a existncia
de partculas com carga positiva no
ncleo do tomo, o qual contm
toda a massa do tomo.
Bohr porpem orbitais circulares
xos ao redor do ncleo para os
eltrons.
No modelo atmico atual, os
eltrons ocupam regies do espao
(orbitais) ao redor do ncleo
determinadas por suas energias.
Evoluo da Teoria Atmica ilustrada pelo modelo do tomo de
oxignio.
6. Istopos e Massas
Atmicas
7A8L 1. 5 Properties of SeIected Isotopes
Iement SymboI Atomic Mass
(amu)
Isotope Mass
Number
Isotope Masses
(amu)
Percent Abundances
(%)
1 1.00825 99.9855 |yJ.cger | 1.009
2 2.014102 0.0115
10 10.01293 19.91 bc.cr b 10.81
11 11.009305 80.09
12 12 (Je|reJ) 99.89 c..bcr 12.011
13 13.003355 1.11
16 15.994915 99.5
1 16.999132 0.038
cxyger O 15.9994
18 1.999161 0.205
54 53.939611 5.82
56 55.934938 91.66
5 56.935394 2.19
|.cr |e 55.845
58 5.93326 0.33
234 234.040952 0.0054
235 235.043930 0.204
u..r|un | 238.03
238 238.05088 99.24
Sources of isotope data G. Audi et al., ^uclear Physics A 729 (2003) 337-7, j. C. Kotz and K. F. Purcell, Chemistry and Chemical Reactivity, 2nd
ed., 1991.
X A M P L 5
Ar e|enert .|t| t|.ee st.b|e |sctcpes |.s 82 p.ctcrs. |e sep...te |sctcpes ccrt.|r 124, 125, .rJ 126 reut
.crs. |Jert||y t|e e|enert .rJ ..|te synbc|s |c. t|e |sctcpes.
Civen: runbe. c| p.ctcrs .rJ reut.crs
Asked for: e|enert .rJ .tcn|c synbc|
Strategy:
A |e|e. tc t|e pe.|cJ|c t.b|e (see |.pte. 32) .rJ use t|e runbe. c| p.ctcrs tc |Jert||y t|e e|enert.
8 .|cu|.te t|e n.ss runbe. c| e.c| |sctcpe by .JJ|rg tcget|e. t|e runbe.s c| p.ctcrs .rJ reut.crs.
C |ve t|e synbc| c| e.c| |sctcpe .|t| t|e n.ss runbe. .s t|e supe.sc.|pt .rJ t|e runbe. c| p.ctcrs .s t|e
subsc.|pt, bct| ..|tter tc t|e |e|t c| t|e synbc| c| t|e e|enert.
SoIution:
A |e e|enert .|t| 82 p.ctcrs (.tcn|c runbe. c| 82) |s |e.J. |b.
8 |c. t|e |.st |sctcpe, 82 p.ctcrs + 124 reut.crs 206. S|n||..|y, 82 + 125 20 .rJ 82 + 126
208 |c. t|e seccrJ .rJ t||.J |sctcpes, .espect|ve|y. |e synbc|s |c. t|ese |sctcpes ..e
82
206
Pb,
82
207
Pb,
.rJ
82
208
Pb,
.||c| ..e usu.||y .bb.ev|.teJ .s
206
|b,
20
|b, .rJ
208
|b.
xercise
|Jert||y t|e e|enert .|t| 35 p.ctcrs .rJ ..|te t|e synbc|s |c. |ts |sctcpes .|t| 44 .rJ 46 reut.crs.
Answer:
35
79
Br
.rJ
35
81
Br
c., nc.e ccnncr|y,
9
b. .rJ
81
b..
Although the masses of the election, the pioton, and the neution aie known to a high degiee of pieci-
sion (Table 1.3), the mass of any given atom is not simply the sum of the masses of its elections, pio-
tons, and neutions. Foi example, the iatio of the masses of
1
H (hydiogen) and
2
H (deuteiium) is actu-
ally 0.300384, iathei than 0.49979 as piedicted fiom the numbeis of neutions and piotons piesent. Al-
though the difeience in mass is small, it is extiemely impoitant because it is the souice of the huge
amounts of eneigy ieleased in nucleai ieactions (Chaptei 20).
42 CNRAL CHMIS7RY

isotopes
Atcns t|.t |.ve t|e s.ne
runbe.s c| p.ctcrs but
J||e.ert runbe.s c|
reut.crs.
mass number (!)
|e runbe. c| p.ctcrs .rJ
reut.crs |r t|e ruc|eus c| .r
.tcn c| .r e|enert.
7A8L 1. 4 Iement SymboIs 8ased on Names No Longer in Use
Iement SymboI Derivation Meaning
.rt|ncry Sb ||:|o |.t|r |c. n..k
ccppe. u coo |.cn ,|o, |.t|r r.ne |c. t|e |s|.rJ c| yp.us, t|e n.c. scu.ce c| ccppe.
c.e |r t|e |cn.r |np|.e
gc|J Au ooo |.t|r |c. gc|J
|.cr |e |eo |.t|r |c. |.cr
|e.J |b |o:o |.t|r |c. |e.vy
ne.cu.y |g |,Jo,o |.t|r |c. ||,u|J s||ve.
pct.ss|un | |o||o |.cn t|e A..b|c o||||, .|k.||
s||ve. Ag oe|o |.t|r |c. s||ve.
scJ|un |. o||o |.t|r |c. scJ|un
t|r Sr |oo |.t|r |c. t|r
turgster \ .o||o e.n.r |c. .c|| stcre bec.use |t |rte.|e.eJ .|t| t|e sne|t|rg c| t|r .rJ ..s
t|cug|t tc Jevcu. t|e t|r
Recall fiom Section 3 that the nuclei of most atoms contain neutions as well as piotons. Unlike pio-
tons, the numbei of neutions is not absolutely fxed foi most elements. Atoms that have the same num-
ber of protons, and hence the same atomic numbei, but diperent numbers of neutrons aie called iso-
topes. All isotopes of an element have the same numbei of piotons and elections, which means they
exhibit the same chemistiy. The isotopes of an element difei only in theii atomic mass, which is given
by the mass number (A), the sum of the numbeis of piotons and neutions.
The element caibon (C) has an atomic numbei of 6, which means that all neutial caibon atoms
contain 6 piotons and 6 elections. In a typical sample of caibon-containing mateiial, 98.89 of the cai-
bon atoms also contain 6 neutions, so each has a mass numbei of 12. An isotope of any element can be
uniquely iepiesented as

X,
wheie X is the atomic symbol of the element. The isotope of caibon that
has 6 neutions is theiefoie
6
12
C.
The subsciipt indicating the atomic numbei is actually iedundant be-
cause the atomic symbol alieady uniquely specifes Z. Consequently,
6
12
C
is moie often wiitten as
12
C,
which is iead as caibon-12." Neveitheless, the value of Z is commonly included in the notation foi
nuclear ieactions because these ieactions involve changes in Z, as desciibed in Chaptei 20.
In addition to
12
C, a typical sample of caibon contains 1.11
6
13
C
(
13
C), with 7 neutions and 6 piotons,
and a tiace of
6
14
C
(
14
C), with 8 neutions and 6 piotons. The nucleus of
14
C is not stable, howevei, but
undeigoes a slow iadioactive decay that is the basis of the caibon-14 dating technique used in aichae-
ology (see Chaptei 14). Many elements othei than caibon have moie than one stable isotope; tin, foi
example, has 10 isotopes. The piopeities of some common isotopes aie in Table 1.3.

Nmero de massa
Nmero de prtons e
neutrons no tomo.
Smbolo atmico
Abreviao usada
para reprentar
tomos em frmulas
qumicas.
Nmero atmico
Nmero de prtons no
tomo.
6 prtons
6 neutrons
6 eltrons
Determinao da massa atmica relativa usando espectroscopia
de massas.
ion
A c|..geJ p..t|c|e p.cJuceJ
.|er cre c. nc.e e|ect.crs
|s .encveJ |.cn c. .JJeJ tc
.r .tcn c. nc|ecu|e.
atomic mass unit (amu)
Oret.e||t| c| t|e n.ss c|
cre .tcn c|
12
C
,
1 amu 1.66 10
24
g
.
Because atoms aie much too small to measuie individually and do not have a chaige, theie is no
convenient way to accuiately measuie absolute atomic masses. Scientists can measuie relative atomic
masses veiy accuiately, howevei, using an instiument called a mass spectrometer. The technique is con-
ceptually similai to the one Thomson used to deteimine the mass-to-chaige iatio of the election. Fiist,
elections aie iemoved fiom oi added to atoms oi molecules, thus pioducing chaiged paiticles called
ions. When an electiic feld is applied, the ions aie acceleiated into a sepaiate chambei wheie they aie
defected fiom theii initial tiajectoiy by a magnetic feld, like the elections in Thomson's expeiiment.
The extent of the defection depends on the mass-to-chaige iatio of the ion. By measuiing the ielative
defection of ions that have the same chaige, scientists can deteimine theii ielative masses (Figuie
1.23). Thus it is not possible to calculate absolute atomic masses accuiately by simply adding togethei
the masses of the elections, the piotons, and the neutions, and absolute atomic masses cannot be meas-
uied, but relative masses can be measuied veiy accuiately. It is actually iathei common in chemistiy to
encountei a quantity whose magnitude can be measuied only ielative to some othei quantity, iathei
than absolutely. We will encountei many othei examples latei in this text. In such cases, chemists usu-
ally defne a standaid by aibitiaiily assigning a numeiical value to one of the quantities, which allows
them to calculate numeiical values foi the iest.
II CUR 1. 25 Determining ReIative Atomic Masses Using a Mass Spectrometer
||c.|re ccrs|sts c| t.c |sctcpes,
35
| .rJ
3
|, |r .pp.cx|n.te|y . 3.1 ..t|c. (.) \|er . s.np|e c| e|enert.|
c||c.|re |s |recteJ |rtc t|e n.ss spect.cnete., e|ect.|c.| ere.gy |s useJ tc J|sscc|.te t|e |
2
nc|ecu|es |rtc
c||c.|re .tcns .rJ ccrve.t t|e c||c.|re .tcns tc |
+
|crs. |e |crs ..e t|er .cce|e..teJ |rtc . n.gret|c |e|J. |e
extert tc .||c| t|e |crs ..e Je|ecteJ by t|e n.gret|c |e|J JeperJs cr t|e|. .e|.t|ve n.sstcc|..ge ..t|cs. |cte
t|.t t|e ||g|te.
35
|
+
|crs ..e Je|ecteJ nc.e t|.r t|e |e.v|e.
3
|
+
|crs. by ne.su.|rg t|e .e|.t|ve Je|ect|crs c|
t|e |crs, c|en|sts c.r Jete.n|re t|e|. n.sstcc|..ge ..t|cs .rJ t|us t|e|. n.sses. (b) |.c| pe.k |r t|e n.ss
spect.un cc..espcrJs tc .r |cr .|t| . p..t|cu|.. n.sstcc|..ge ..t|c. |e .burJ.rce c| t|e t.c |sctcpes c.r be
Jete.n|reJ |.cn t|e |e|g|ts c| t|e pe.ks.
The aibitiaiy standaid that has been established foi desciibing atomic mass is the atomic mass unit
(amu), defned as one-twelfth of the mass of one atom of
12
C. Because the masses of all othei atoms
aie calculated ielative to the
12
C standaid,
12
C is the only atom listed in Table 1.3 whose exact atomic
mass is equal to the mass numbei. Expeiiments have shown that 1 amu = 1.66 10
24
g.
Mass spectiometiic expeiiments give a value of 0.167842 foi the iatio of the mass of
2
H to the
mass of
12
C, so the absolute mass of
2
H is
mass oI
2
H
mass oI
12
C
mass oI
12
C 0.167842 12 amu 2.104104 amu
The masses of the othei elements aie deteimined in a similai way.
The peiiodic table (see Chaptei 32) lists the atomic masses of all the elements. If you compaie
these values with those given foi some of the isotopes in Table 1.3, you can see that the atomic masses
given in the peiiodic table nevei coiiespond exactly to those of any of the isotopes. Because most ele-
ments exist as mixtuies of seveial stable isotopes, the atomic mass of an element is defned as the
weighted aveiage of the masses of the isotopes. Foi example, natuially occuiiing caibon is laigely a
mixtuie of two isotopes: 98.89
12
C (mass = 12 amu by defnition) and 1.11
13
C (mass = 13.003333
amu). The peicent abundance of
14
C is so low that it can be ignoied in this calculation. The average
atomic mass of caibon is then calculated as
(0.9889 12 amu) (0.0111 13.003355 amu) 12.01 amu

a) espectrmetro de massas
b) espectro de massas
feixe de
eltrons
Dissociao;
ionizao.
Acelerao
Deeco
Deeco
feixe de
ons
Aplicao
de campo
magntico
bomba de vcuo
razo massa/carga
abundncia
relativa
7. Tabela Peridica
II CUR 1. 24 7he Periodic 7abIe Showing the Iements in Order of Increasing
As Jesc.|beJ |r Sect|cr , t|e net.|s ..e cr t|e bcttcn |e|t |r t|e pe.|cJ|c t.b|e, .rJ t|e rcrnet.|s ..e .t t|e tcp .|g|t. |e sen|net.|s ||e .|crg .
J|.gcr.| ||re sep...t|rg t|e net.|s .rJ rcrnet.|s.
In most cases, the symbols foi the elements aie deiived diiectly fiom each element's name, such as C
foi caibon, U foi uianium, Ca foi calcium, and Po foi polonium. Elements have also been named foi
theii piopeities [such as iadium (Ra) foi its iadioactivity], foi the native countiy of the scientist(s) who
discoveied them [polonium (Po) foi Poland], foi eminent scientists [cuiium (Cm) foi the Cuiies], foi
gods and goddesses [selenium (Se) foi the Gieek goddess of the moon, Selene], and foi othei poetic oi
histoiical ieasons. Some of the symbols used foi elements that have been known since antiquity aie de-
iived fiom histoiical names that aie no longei in use; only the symbols iemain to iemind us of theii
oiigin. Examples aie Fe foi iion, fiom the Latin ferrum; Na foi sodium, fiom the Latin natrium; and W
foi tungsten, fiom the Geiman wolfram. Examples aie in Table 1.4. As you woik thiough this text, you
will encountei the names and symbols of the elements iepeatedly, and much as you become familiai
with chaiacteis in a play oi a flm, theii names and symbols will become familiai.
40 CNRAL CHMIS7RY

Metais Semimetais No-metais
Alta condutividade eltrica e
trmica
Baixa condutividade eltrica e
trmica
Isolantes
Resistncia eltrica aumenta
com o aumento da temperatura
Resistncia eltrica diminui com
o aumento da temperatura
Resistncia insensvel
temperatura
Maleveis e dcteis Quebradios No-maleveis e no-dcteis
No-volteis e formam xidos,
haletos e hidretos com alto
ponto de fuso
Volteis e formam haletos e
hidretos com baixo ponto de
fuso
Volteis e formam xidos,
haletos e hidretos com baixo
ponto de fuso
Comparao entre as propriedades fsicas dos
metais, semimetais e no-metais
Exemplo prtico - Datao com carbono-14
For example, say a fossil is found that has 35% carbon 14 compared to the living sample. How old is the fossil?
We can use a formula for carbon 14 dating to find the answer.
Where t1/2 is the half-life of the isotope carbon 14, t is the age of the fossil (or the date of death) and ln() is the natural
logarithm function. If the fossil has 35% of its carbon 14 still, then we can substitute values into our equation.
So, the fossil is 8,680 years old, meaning the living organism died 8,680 years ago.

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Puie watei, foi example, has a density of 0.998 g/cm

.. |ete.n|re t|e ..t|cs c| t|e n.sses c|

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