l

FIsk Assessment

THE FSK DF |ASS ATFDCTES N SF LANKA

January 2014



""











THE SENTNEL PFDJECT FDF CENDC0E PFE7ENTDN
S A NDNPFDFT DFCANZATDN 0E7DTE0 TD
EFFECT7E EAFLY WAFNNC DF CENDC0E AN0 THE
|PLE|ENTATDN DF PFE7ENT7E |EASUFES 8EFDFE
L7ES AFE LDST.

WE WLL ACHE7E THS THFDUCH THE CFEAT7E USE
DF TECHNDLDCY AN0 CDDPEFATDN WTH
THFEATENE0 CFDUPS.


"""
!"#$% '( )'*+%*+,
-./ 010)2!340 5266789 ........................................................................................... -
:./ 3;!8<=2)!3<; ..................................................................................................... >
:./ ?35!<83)7@ A7)BC8<2;= .................................................................................... D
E.- 5<)3<)2@!287@ ................................................................................................... F
4.1.1 LxlsLence of ulsLlncLlve Croups SeparaLed by Soclal ulvlslons ......................... 7
4.1.2 LLhnlc naLlonallsm ............................................................................................. 8
4.1.3 Legacy of lnLergroup PaLred or Crlevance ........................................................ 9
4.1.4 rlor ersecuLlon of CuLgroup(s) ....................................................................... 9
4.1.3 CulLural uevaluaLlon of CuLgroup(s) ............................................................... 10
4.1.6 CuLgroup(s) vlewed as an CbsLacle Lo Lconomlc rogress............................. 10
4.1.7 opulaLlon CrowLh and ?ouLh 8ulge ............................................................... 10
E.: 0)<;<63) G7)!<85 ........................................................................................... -:
4.2.1 Long-1erm ulfflculL Llfe CondlLlons ................................................................. 12
4.2.2 Socloeconomlc ueprlvaLlon Comblned wlLh Croup-based lnequallLy ............ 13
4.2.3 Sudden and Severe Lconomlc Pardshlp .......................................................... 14
4.2.4 Lconomlc SLaLus of Lhe 8eglme ....................................................................... 13
E.> H<@3!3)7@ 3;5!3!2!3<;7@ ................................................................................ -I
4.3.1 Low uegree of uemocracy ............................................................................... 16
4.3.2 SLaLe SecurlLy Agencles CperaLlng WlLh a lew ConsLralnLs ............................ 18
4.3.3 lsolaLlon from Lhe lnLernaLlonal CommunlLy .................................................. 22
4.3.4 Plgh Level of MlllLary LxpendlLure .................................................................. 23
4.3.3 lrequenL Changes ln ollLlcal Leadershlp ........................................................ 24
E.E H<@3!3)7@ 80C360 J 3=0<@<C9 ....................................................................... :D
4.4.1 Lxcluslve Croup-8ased 8ule ............................................................................. 23
4.4.2 Severe CovernmenL ulscrlmlnaLlon or AcLlve 8epresslon AgalnsL Communal
Croups ....................................................................................................................... 23
4.4.3 8ullng Croup ueems CuLgroup(s) Lo be uangerous ........................................ 26
4.4.4 CharlsmaLlc Leadershlp LhaL CeneraLes Mass lollowershlp ........................... 27
4.4.3 CrlenLaLlon 1owards lorce and Coerclon Lo Selze and MalnLaln ower ........ 28
4.4.6 lnsLallaLlon of a newly-CreaLed 8eglme .......................................................... 29



lv
4.4.7 CommlLmenL Lo a Parmful ldeology ................................................................ 30
4.4.8 Low uegree of lreedom of Speech .................................................................. 31
E.D )<;G@3)! 7;= 2H?0747@ ................................................................................... >>
4.3.1 PlsLory of ConfllcL ............................................................................................ 33
4.3.2 PlsLory of Cenoclde ......................................................................................... 34
4.3.3 ollLlcal upheaval ............................................................................................ 37
4.3.4 Cngolng lnsurgency of Clvll War ...................................................................... 38
4.3.3 Large-Scale non-vlolenL, AnLl-CovernmenL roLesL ....................................... 39
4.3.6 ConfllcL Cver SLaLus, ower and 8lghLs ........................................................... 40
D./ <4087@@ 75505560;! ........................................................................................ E:



1
-./ 010)2!340 5266789

1he rlsk of mass aLroclLles ln Srl Lanka reached a crlLlcal Lhreshold from !anuary
Lhrough May 2009, when Lhe governmenL of Srl Lanka lnLenslfled efforLs Lo mlllLarlly
ellmlnaLe Lhe LlberaLlon 1lgers of 1amll Lelam (L11L) who had been flghLlng for an
lndependenL 1amll homeland slnce 1983. As hosLlllLles escalaLed ln Lhe confllcL zone,
clvlllans Lrapped beLween Lhe L11L and Lhe Srl Lankan governmenL's armed forces
became vlcLlms of mass aLroclLy crlmes.

ln Aprll 2009, leadlng human rlghLs advocaLes called on Lhe un SecurlLy Councll
Lo Lake lmmedlaLe acLlon Lo prevenL human rlghLs vlolaLlons ln Srl Lanka. 1hey urged Lhe
SecurlLy Councll Lo uphold Lhe 'responslblllLy Lo proLecL' 100, 000 clvlllans aL rlsk of mass
aLroclLles ln norLhern Srl Lanka.
1


AlmosL flve years laLer, Lhe rlsk of mass aLroclLles ln Srl Lanka remalns hlgh. 1hls
reporL addresses some of Lhe underlylng sources of Lhe rlsk of mass aLroclLles LhaL
represenL a LhreaL Lo human securlLy ln Srl Lanka.

under resldenL 8a[apaksa's mandaLe, Lhe operaLlonal freedom of sLaLe securlLy
agencles has been relnforced wlLh an ever-greaLer concenLraLlon of power.
ConsequenLly, Lhe mlllLary has been Lasked wlLh Lhe reconsLrucLlon of devasLaLed 1amll
areas ln Lhe norLh, Lhe heavy mlllLarlzaLlon of whlch remalns one of Lhe maln obsLacles
Lo Lhe reglon's recovery slnce Lhe Srl Lankan mlllLary has assumed an economlc role ln
noL only overseelng buL also approvlng developmenL efforLs. 1he mlllLary's freedom of
acLlon represenLs a poLenL example of socloeconomlc deprlvaLlon of a speclflc group
based on Lhe LreaLmenL of 1amlls as second-class clLlzens by Lhe Srl Lankan governmenL.

1he hlgh lncremenL of Lhe 2013 mlllLary budgeL has fueled concerns LhaL have
been ralsed by boLh eLhnlc 1amlls and lnLernaLlonal human rlghLs groups abouL Lhe
lncreaslng presence of Lhe mlllLary ln Lhe norLh. Moreover, mlllLary presence hlnders Lhe
resoluLlon of Lenslons beLween 1amlls and Lhe Srl Lankan governmenL, especlally ln lLs
lncreaslng rellance on vlolence Lo quell pollLlcal dlssldence.

AddlLlonally, Lhe defeaL of Lhe L11L ln 2009 has done llLLle Lo address Lhe
concerns and fears of Lhe 1amlls as Lhey relaLe Lo Slnhalese domlnaLlon. lnsLead of
formlng more lncluslve relaLlonshlps wlLh Lhe mlnorlLy, Lhe Slnhalese governmenL has
used Lhls LranslLlonal perlod Lo reasserL Slnhalese power. 1he subsequenL
SlnhallsaLlon" of Lhe norLh rlsks renewlng Lenslons beLween 1amlls and Lhe Slnhalese
governmenL as lL falls Lo address Lhe old grlevances LhaL preclplLaLed Lhe clvll war. ln Lhe
Srl Lankan case, Lhe conLlnued appeal Lo Slnhalese naLlonallsm by resldenL 8a[apaksa

1
Leadlng human rlghLs' advocaLes urge Lhe SecurlLy Councll Lo uphold Lhe responslblllLy Lo proLecL 100, 000 clvlllans aL rlsk of mass
aLroclLles ln Srl Lanka", !"#$%" '()*+( ,#+ *-( .(/0#)/1$1"1*2 *# 3+#*(4*. hLLp://www.globalr2p.org/reglons/srl_lanka accessed
uecember 27, 2013.



2
has done llLLle Lo lmprove eLhnlc relaLlons beLween Lhe Slnhalese and 1amll eLhnlc
groups.

1he 8a[apaksa governmenL conLlnues Lo undermlne any power sharlng efforLs
LhaL have been proposed by 1amll moderaLes who are seeklng a peaceful resoluLlon Lo
Lhelr grlevances. AlLhough Lhe 1amll naLlonal Alllance (1nA) has emerged as a
formldable volce for 1amlls ln Srl Lanka, Lhe federal governmenL conslsLenLly refuses Lo
concede any slgnlflcanL power Lo Lhem, even resorLlng Lo vlolenL aLLacks on 1nA
supporLers perpeLraLed by pollce ln order Lo sllence Lhem. AddlLlonally, pollce and
mlllLary forces, as well as Slnhalese mlllLlas, conLlnue Lo resorL vlolence, lncludlng
lnLlmldaLlon, dlsappearances, arblLrary arresLs, LorLure, and even murder Lo resLraln any
opposlLlon Lo Lhe governmenL.

1he lncreaslng consolldaLlon of power by Lhe presldenL and hls famlly has furLher
eroded Lhe remalnlng semblance of democracy ln Srl Lanka by gradually ellmlnaLlng any
persons or sysLems of accounLablllLy. 1he governmenL has refused Lo lnvesLlgaLe war
crlmes and oLher aLroclLles commlLLed by lLs mlllLary forces durlng Lhe lasL phase of Lhe
clvll war.

vlolence remalns a real rlsk for [ournallsLs, whlch ls only helghLened by Lhe
lmpunlLy LhaL perpeLraLors en[oy. Moreover, Lhe Srl Lankan governmenL conLlnues Lo
rely on resLrlcLlve leglslaLlon enacLed durlng Lhe clvll war ln order Lo suppress Lhe
freedom of expresslon ln peaceLlme.

WlLhln Srl Lanka, numerous commlsslons of lnqulry have falled Lo lnvesLlgaLe
Lhese flndlngs durlng Lhe lasL decade. AddlLlonally, genulne lnvesLlgaLlons or facL-flndlng
mlsslons have yeL Lo be esLabllshed, and Lhere ls no slgn of lmprovemenL regardlng
naLlonal efforLs. 8oLh Lhe Srl Lankan governmenL's mlllLary sLraLegy Lo flghL Lhe L11L ln
norLhern Srl Lanka as well as Lhe L11L's counLer-sLraLegy consLlLuLed vlolaLlons of
lnLernaLlonal law and sLandards and ofLen amounLed Lo crlmlnal conducL.

Srl Lanka's culLure of lmpunlLy manlfesLs as Lhe under-enforcemenL of
lnLernaLlonal human rlghLs law. 1he operaLlonal freedom glven Lo Lhe mlllLary and pollce
poses a rlsk of mass aLroclLles slnce lL presenLs Lhe opporLunlLy for boLh Lhe esLabllshed
reglme and lLs challengers Lo elLher forLlfy or Lransform Lhe exlsLlng order by ellmlnaLlng
LhreaLs and consolldaLlng power.

1he dlsplacemenL of 470,000 people from Lhe norLhern provlnces durlng Lhe clvll
war has also lncreased resenLmenL by eLhnlc 1amlls agalnsL Lhe Srl Lankan governmenL
and mlllLary. 1hls resenLmenL could manlfesL lnLo lncreased anLl-governmenL proLesLs,
whlch wlll undoubLedly lead Lo vlolenL clashes beLween Lhe Lwo eLhnlc groups and
subsequenLly exLreme measures Lo subdue furLher challenges Lo governmenL auLhorlLy.



3
:./ 3;!8<=2)!3<;


lronL page of Lhe lndlcLmenL documenL flled under Lhe
uS Cenoclde AccounLablllLy AcL of 2007 by Lhe uS-based
nCC 1amlls AgalnsL Cenoclde (1AC) and Lhe
1amll Legal uefense lund (1Lul) ln 2009.

1he end of Lhree decades of war beLween Lhe Srl Lankan governmenL and Lhe
LlberaLlon 1lgers of 1amll Lelam (L11L) ln May 2009 creaLed an opporLunlLy for Lhe Srl
Lankan sLaLe Lo recognlze Lhe mulLl-eLhnlc and mulLl-rellglous naLure of Lhe counLry.
Powever, Lhe governmenL's euphorla aL wlnnlng Lhe war was followed by Lhe
esLabllshmenL of a culLure of lmpunlLy, parLlcularly wlLh respecL Lo Lhe mlllLary, as a
reward for defeaLlng Lhe L11L.

AfLer Lhe clvll war, many hoped LhaL Lhe governmenL would end lnsLlLuLlonallzed
lmpunlLy for human rlghLs vlolaLlons and creaLe a pollLlcal space for dlssenL, adopLlng a
more democraLlc sLyle of governance. Powever, followlng Lhe 2010 naLlonal elecLlons,
Srl Lanka wlLnessed Lhe lnauguraLlon of a new pollLlcal reglme LhaL has been descrlbed
as a hybrld reglme," ln whlch formal democraLlc processes, such as perlodlc elecLlons,
are comblned wlLh a sLrong lncumbenL parLy Lo llmlL Lhe organlzaLlonal capaclLy of Lhe
pollLlcal opposlLlon. 1hls mlxLure of auLhorlLarlan and democraLlc elemenLs has allowed
sLaLe securlLy agencles Lo operaLe wlLh mlnlmal consLralnLs, especlally ln Lhe norLhern
reglons of Lhe counLry lnhablLed by 1amlls.

1he lnLernaLlonal communlLy also had hlgh expecLaLlons of change aL Lhe end of
Lhe clvll war, when lL was LhoughL LhaL resldenL Mahlnda 8a[apaksa would reLurn
subsLanLlal power Lo Lhe norLhern and easLern provlnces ln order Lo address Lhe
longsLandlng pollLlcal marglnallzaLlon of 1amlls. 1he lnLernaLlonal communlLy called on
Lhe Srl Lankan governmenL Lo shrlnk Lhe slze and role of Lhe mlllLary, relax Lhe grlp of lLs



4
securlLy apparaLus and begln Lo repalr Lhe damage caused Lo lLs democraLlc lnsLlLuLlons
by almosL LhlrLy years of war, parLlcularly Lhe damage caused Lo Lhe pollce and [udlclary.

unforLunaLely, hopes for reconclllaLlon have noL been meL. As a resulL, Lhls rlsk
assessmenL analyzes Lhe socloculLural, economlc, and pollLlcal facLors LhaL conLlnue Lo
generaLe vlolenL clashes beLween Slnhalese and 1amlls LhaL could escalaLe Lo mass
aLroclLles. 1he lnformaLlon presenLed below has been gaLhered from lnLernaLlonal
organlzaLlons, lnLernaLlonal human rlghLs nCCs, and boLh Srl Lankan and lnLernaLlonal
medla. 1hrough a deLalled evaluaLlon of Lhe sources, Lhls reporL lllusLraLes and examlnes
Lhe concenLraLlon of power ln Lhe execuLlve and mlllLary, Lhe lack of accounLablllLy for
human rlghLs vlolaLlons and Lhe culLure of lmpunlLy proclalmed by Lhe governmenL as
some of Lhe maln rlsk facLors for mass aLroclLles.

ln Lhe flnal chapLer, Lhls rlsk assessmenL conslders Lhe hlsLorlcal rooLs of Lhe
confllcL and provldes an accounL of some of Lhe clalms made by lnLernaLlonal human
rlghLs organlzaLlons concernlng Lhe perpeLraLlon of mass aLroclLles, lncludlng
accusaLlons of genoclde agalnsL 1amlls by Lhe Srl Lankan governmenL, especlally wlLh
regard Lo Lhe 40,000 clvlllans kllled ln Lhe lasL monLhs of Lhe war.



3
:./ ?35!<83)7@ A7)BC8<2;=

Srl Lanka, an lsland naLlon locaLed ln Lhe lndlan Ccean, was seLLled by waves of
mlgraLlon from lndla sLarLlng ln Lhe flfLh cenLury 8CL. Slnhalese 8uddhlsL klngdoms were
esLabllshed ln Lhe cenLral parL of Lhe lsland by lndo-Aryans from norLhern lndla, whlle
1amll Plndus comlng from souLhern lndla seLLled ln Lhe norLheasLern coasLal areas and
esLabllshed a klngdom ln Lhe penlnsula. 8eglnnlng ln Lhe slxLeenLh cenLury, Srl Lanka
was colonlzed by Lhe orLuguese, uuLch and 8rlLlsh emplres, flnally becomlng Lhe 8rlLlsh
crown colony of Ceylon ln 1813.
2


ln 1948, Ceylon peacefully galned lLs lndependence from 8rlLaln Lhrough Lhe
Ceylon lndependence AcL of 1947.
3
Powever, ever slnce LhaL Llme, Lhe counLry has been
marred by eLhnlc confllcL beLween Lhe Slnhalese ma[orlLy clusLered ln Lhe very densely
populaLed souLh and wesL, and Lhe largely Plndu 1amll mlnorlLy llvlng ln Lhe norLhern
and easLern provlnces.
4
lL ls lmporLanL Lo noLe LhaL durlng 8rlLlsh rule, Lhe 1amlls were
Lhe preferred eLhnlc group by Lhe 8rlLlsh and held bureaucraLlc poslLlons (Lhls wlll be
furLher addressed laLer ln Lhls reporL).

lollowlng lndependence, Lhe mosL lmmedlaLe problem faclng Ceylon was called
Lhe lndlan quesLlon" and lL concerned Lhe pollLlcal sLaLus of lndlan 1amll lmmlgranLs
who worked on Lhe abovemenLloned Lea planLaLlons. 1hree pleces of leglslaLlon came
lnLo play whlch dlsenfranchlsed Lhe lndlan 1amll mlnorlLy: Lhe Ceylon ClLlzenshlp AcL of
1948, Lhe lndlan and aklsLanl 8esldenLs AcL no. 3 of 1948, and Lhe Ceylon
arllamenLary LlecLlons AmendmenL AcL no. 48 of 1949. 1hese laws creaLed a deeper
eLhnlc rlfL beLween Slnhalese and 1amlls.
3


1he unlLed naLlonal arLy (un), whlch was Lhe governmenL ln place afLer
lndependence, promoLed Slnhalese lnLeresLs, maklng lL Lhe offlclal language and offered
members of LhaL eLhnlc group Lhe besL poslLlons ln governmenL. AL Lhe same Llme, Lhe
1amll Plndu mlnorlLy began Lo ask for greaLer auLonomy ln Lhe norLhern and easLern
reglons.
6


ln 1972, Ceylon was renamed Srl Lanka, meanlng resplendenL land" ln SanskrlL.
7

LLhnlc Lenslons conLlnued Lo escalaLe ln Lhe 1970s wlLh clvll unresL leadlng Lo a sLaLe of
emergency ln 1amll-populaLed areas and Lo Lhe creaLlon of a secesslonlsL 1amll
movemenL, Lhe 1amll new 1lgers mlllLla, formed ln 1972. 1he mlllLla's ob[ecLlve was Lo

2
Srl Lanka: 8ackground and u.S. 8elaLlons", '#)5+(//1#)%" .(/(%+4- 6(+714( .(0#+* ,#+ '#)5+(//, p.4 (u8L accessed CcLober 10Lh
2013) hLLp://www.dLlc.mll/cgl-bln/CeL18uoc?LocaLlon=u2&doc=CeL18uoc.pdf&Au=AuA48624
3
osL Colonlal PlsLory", 6+1 8%)9% :1+*;%" 81$+%+2 (u8L accessed CcLober 10Lh 2013)
hLLp://www.lankallbrary.com/geo/posLcolonlal_hlsLory.hLm
4
Srl Lanka: 8ackground and u.S. 8elaLlons", C#)5+(//1#)%" .(/(%+4- 6(+714( .(0#+* ,#+ '#)5+(//, p.4
3
6+1 8%)9% :1+*;%" 81$+%+2, osL Colonlal PlsLory".
6
1he PlsLory of Srl Lanka", '%)%<1%) =+#%<4%/*1)5 '#>0%)2, 18 AugusL 2010, (u8L accessed CcLober 11Lh 2013).
hLLp://www.cbc.ca/news/world/Lhe-hlsLory-of-srl-lanka-1.776937
7
Srl Lanka: 8ackground and u.S. 8elaLlons", '#)5+(//1#)%" .(/(%+4- 6(+714( .(0#+* ,#+ '#)5+(//, p. 4



6
galn an lndependenL homeland for eLhnlc 1amlls ln Lhe norLh and easL. 1he group laLer
changed lLs name Lo Lhe LlberaLlon 1lgers of 1amll Lelam (L11L). Members of Lhe L11L,
as Lhey are commonly called, parLlclpaLed ln numerous vlolenL confllcLs, such as
massacrlng an army paLrol ln Lhe norLh ln 1983. 1hls led Lo revolLs by Lhe Slnhalese, who
wenL on a Lwo-day rampage, kllllng several Lhousand 1amlls and desLroylng Lhelr
properLy. MosL of Lhe flghLlng over Lhe years Look place ln Lhe norLh, buL was noL
conflned Lo lL, wlLh lncldenLs such as sulclde bomblngs Laklng place ln Colombo, Lhe
caplLal. 1he unlLed naLlons esLlmaLes LhaL Lhe vlolence cosL beLween 80,000-100,000
llves, lncludlng acLlvlsLs, pollLlclans, hlgh-proflle 1amlls who re[ecLed Lhe vlolence, and
clvlllans.
8


Many ceaseflres were aLLempLed, flrsL ln uecember 2001 Lhrough norweglan
lnLermedlarles, who helped Lo broker Lhe flrsL ceaseflre ln seven years ln Lhe hope of
endlng Lhe clvll war. Powever, Lhe Lruce was ended by renewed vlolence, especlally
followlng Lhe 1sunaml ln 2004 LhaL kllled more Lhan 30,000 people, wlLh consLanLly
presenL Lenslons furLherlng Lhe confllcL. ln !anuary 2008, Lhe governmenL of Srl Lanka
formally wlLhdrew from Lhe Lruce wlLh boLh sldes were accused of vlolaLlng Lhe rule of
law by kllllng clvlllans and Lhe governmenL accused of LargeLlng [ournallsLs who Lrled Lo
reporL on Lhe slLuaLlon.
9


8y Lhe end of 2008, Lhe L11L were mosLly defeaLed and by 2009 Lhe governmenL
offlclally announced Lhe defeaL of Lhe rebel group and Lhe deaLh of Lhelr leader,
veluplllal rabhakaran. AL Lhe end of Lhe 26-year clvll war, some 300,000 1amll clvlllans
were placed ln lnLernmenL camps, where many remaln Loday. ln !anuary 2010, early
presldenLlal elecLlons were held and Mahlnda 8a[apaska became Lhe new presldenL
amld accusaLlons of rlgged elecLlons.
10




8
1he PlsLory of Srl Lanka". '%)%<1%) =+#%<4%/*1)5 '#>0%)2, hLLp://www.cbc.ca/news/world/Lhe-hlsLory-of-srl-lanka-1.776937.
9
lbld.
10
lbld.



7
E.- 5<)3<)2@!287@

E.-.- 0KL,+%*M% '( =L,+L*M+LN% CO'PQ, 5%Q"O"+%R #S 5'ML"$ =LNL,L'*,

1he Slnhalese and 1amll eLhnlc groups conslder Lhemselves Lo be dlsLlncL
communlLles and are largely dlvlded geographlcally as well as culLurally. As prevlously
menLloned, Srl Lankan 1amlls occupy Lhe norLhern and easLern reglons of Lhe counLry
and are mosLly concenLraLed ln norLhern rovlnce whlle Lhe Slnhalese communlLy ls
spread ouL across Lhe souLhern parL of Lhe counLry. WlLh regards Lo rellglous
dlfferences, 1amlls are predomlnanLly Plndu and Slnhalese are largely 8uddhlsL. Slnhala
people speak Slnhalese, whlch has long been Lhe offlclal sLaLe language of Srl Lanka,
whereas 1amlls speak 1amll. Slnce Srl Lanka galned lndependence ln 1948, Lhe Slnhalese
and 1amll communlLles have also pursued dlvergenL pollLlcal goals. 1he Slnhalese
ma[orlLy, whlch assumed power aL lndependence, has long pursued pollcles LhaL asserL
Slnhalese superlorlLy over 1amll culLure, whereas 1amlls have slnce soughL Lo achleve
auLonomy and self-deLermlnaLlon. 8oLh groups even have dlvergenL accounLs of Srl
Lankan hlsLory ln supporL of Lhelr clalms Lo parLlcular rlghLs and LerrlLory.
11
Accordlng Lo
Lhe llLeraLure on mass aLroclLles, Lhls emphasls on group coheslveness faclllLaLes
lnLergroup confllcL and posslble mass vlolence by encouraglng members of each group
Lo vlew ouLslde groups as Lhe oLher." 1hls has long been Lhe case ln Srl Lanka slnce
boLh groups have developed a narraLlve LhaL deplcLs Lhe oLher as Lhe enemy. 1he
Slnhalese governmenL, for example, has long assoclaLed 1amll grlevances wlLh Lerrorlsm
and 1amlls conLlnue Lo percelve Slnhalese pollcles as dlscrlmlnaLory and even genocldal
ln exLreme cases. 1hls ls furLher dlscussed ln Lhe PlsLory of Cenoclde" secLlon below.
12


AnoLher growlng case of dlsLlncLlve groups separaLed by soclal dlvlslons comes ln
Lhe form of rellglous moLlvaLlon as hardllne 8uddhlsLs wage a Lerror-based war agalnsL
1amll-speaklng Musllms ln Srl Lanka.
13
1here has been mob vlolence and an lncreaslng
number of bomb aLLacks ln Musllm areas of Lhe counLry. lor example, ln !anuary 2013 a
crowd of 8uddhlsL monks vlolenLly sLormed a college, furlously shouLlng LhaL exams
were dlsLorLed Lo favour Musllms. Many slmllar lncldenLs have occurred LhroughouL Srl
Lanka on Lhe basls of rumours and lles, whlch are spread Lo lnsLll fear and paranola
Lowards Lhe counLry's Musllms. lor example, a new hardllne group of 8uddhlsLs has
encouraged Lhe Slnhalese ma[orlLy noL Lo renL properLy Lo Musllms. Musllms were noL
dlrecLly lnvolved ln Lhe 26-year clvll war beLween Lhe 8uddhlsL Slnhalese governmenL
and Plndu 1amll rebels, and Lhey were seen as remalnlng largely loyal Lo Lhe sLaLe

11
MlnorlLles aL 8lsk ro[ecL, AssessmenL for Srl Lankan 1amlls ln Srl Lanka," '()*+( ,#+ ?)*(+)%*1#)%" @(7("#0>()* %)< '#),"14*
A%)%5(>()* B)17(+/1*2 #, A%+2"%)<, uecember 31, 2006, (u8L Accessed CcLober 3, 2012)
hLLp://www.cldcm.umd.edu/mar/assessmenL.asp?groupld=78002
12
1amllneL, Cenoclde needs lnvesLlgaLlon buL SeparaLlon ConLexLually unwlse: Allan keenan", C%>1" D(E/ D(*E#+9F4#>G CcLober
12, 2012 (u8L Accessed november 10, 2012) hLLp://www.LamllnewsneLwork.com/2012/10/10/genoclde-needs-lnvesLlgaLlon-buL-
separaLlon-conLexLually-unwlse-alan-keenan/.
13
1he Pardllne 8uddhlsLs 1argeLlng Srl Lanka's Musllms", ==' D(E/, 24 March 2013, (u8L accessed !uly 30
2013) hLLp://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asla-21840600 and MarLln, nlk. vlolence ln Lhe name of 8uddhlsm", @(;*/4-( H(""(,
!uly 4, 2013, (u8L Accessed !uly 30 2013) hLLp://www.dw.de/vlolence-ln-Lhe-name-of-buddhlsm/a-16929981



8
durlng Lhe confllcL buL are now belng LargeLed. 1he reason behlnd Lhese aLLacks ls LhaL
Slnhalese 8uddhlsLs belleve LhaL Lhe Musllms are golng Lo Lake over Lhe counLry
pollLlcally and economlcally. 1hese 8uddhlsL naLlonallsLs belleve LhaL Musllms are
consplrlng Lo Lake over Lhe counLry demographlcally by lncreaslng Lhelr blrLh raLe and
sLerlllzlng Lhe Slnhalese. lL ls worLh underllnlng LhaL Musllms currenLly accounL for 9 per
cenL of Lhe populaLlon, whlle Lhe Slnhalese 8uddhlsLs make up 70 per cenL.
14
As
explalned by soclal acLlvlsL San[ana PaLLoLuwa, 1he counLry ls seen Loday as Slnhalese
8uddhlsL. Lverybody else has a rlghLful place. lf Lhey arLlculaLe concerns LhaL quesLlon
Lhe domlnanL narraLlve Lhen Lhey should be puL lnLo Lhelr place. So Lhe war lronlcally
has glven Lhe space for new soclal faulL llnes."
13
lL ls lmporLanL Lo noLe LhaL Lhls Lype of
vlolence ls noL speclflc Lo Srl Lanka and has also been seen recenLly ln places llke
1halland and, mosL noLably, 8urma.
16
Powever, lL wlll be lmporLanL Lo monlLor Lhe
slLuaLlon ln Srl Lanka, because dependlng on Lhe exLenL of Lhe vlolence and regularlLy of
such occurrences, mass vlolence agalnsL Musllms LhroughouL SouLheasL Asla ls a very
sLrong posslblllLy.


Members of Lhe hardllne 8uddhlsL group called 8odhu 8ala Sena" proLesLlng agalnsL Musllms.
(source: hLLp://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asla-21920733)

E.-.: 0+T*LM ;"+L'*"$L,U

As a resulL of Lhe clvll war, hundreds of Lhousands of 1amlls have lefL Srl Lanka
and conLlnue Lo leave ln large numbers. Whlle Lhere are no offlclal sLaLlsLlcs on Lhe
exodus, lL ls known LhaL 6,000 1amlls arrlved ln AusLralla ln 2012, a number 33 Llmes

14
Curfew ln Srl Lankan CaplLal afLer Mosque ALLack", I//#41%*(< 3+(//, AugusL 10 2013, (u8L accessed CcLober 10Lh
2013) hLLp://blgsLory.ap.org/arLlcle/offlclal-7-ln[ured-srl-lanka-mosque-aLLack
13
1he Pardllne 8uddhlsLs 1argeLlng Srl Lanka's Musllms", ==' D(E/
16
MarLln, nlk. vlolence ln Lhe name of 8uddhlsm"



9
hlgher Lhan 2011.
17
ln addlLlon Lo drlvlng 1amlls Lo flee Srl Lanka and seek refuge
elsewhere, eLhnlc naLlonallsm could also once agaln Lrlgger confllcL ln Lhe counLry. WlLh
Lhe governmenL mlllLary presenL ln Lhe norLhern 1amll sLaLes and unquesLlonably
superlor Lo any domesLlc challengers, Lhere ls a serlous rlsk LhaL any group of 1amll
naLlonallsLs who sLage anoLher lnsurgency would provoke a dlsproporLlonaLe response
LhaL would LargeL clvlllans ln Lhelr supporL base, wheLher LhaL supporL ls real or
percelved.

E.-.> @%V"MS '( 3*+%OVO'PQ ?"+O%R 'O COL%N"*M%

1he hlsLory of confllcL ln Srl Lanka daLes back Lo Lhe fourLh cenLury 8CL,
accordlng Lo Lhe 8uddhlsL legend A%-%7%>/%, whlch Lells Lhe Lale of how a young
8uddhlsL prlnce led 200 monks ln an assaulL agalnsL lnvadlng 1amlls. ln more recenL
hlsLory, scholars aLLrlbuLe Lhe legacy of lnLergroup haLred beLween Lhe Slnhalese and
1amlls Lo 8rlLlsh colonlal dlvlde and conquer" pollcles LhaL elevaLed 1amlls above
Slnhalese only for Lhe Slnhalese Lo counLer wlLh Lhe suppresslon of 1amlls and Lhelr
culLure when Srl Lanka achleved lndependence. Leaders ln boLh groups have
conLlnuously appealed Lo Lhls legacy of lnLergroup haLred for pollLlcal supporL. 1he L11L
appealed Lo Lhe repeaLed oppresslon of 1amll culLure aL Lhe hands of Lhe Slnhalese
governmenL Lo launch Lhe clvll war, whereas Lhe Slnhalese governmenL conLlnues Lo use
Lhe LhreaL of 1amll Lerrorlsm Lo [usLlfy represslve pollcles. A 2011 unlLed naLlons reporL
accused boLh sldes of commlLLlng gross human rlghLs vlolaLlons durlng Lhe lasL phase of
Lhe clvll war. lurLhermore, Lhe reporL lndlcaLes LhaL boLh 1amll and Slnhalese leaders
are wllllng Lo resorL Lo exLreme measures ln order Lo defend Lhelr groups, such as
engaglng ln mass aLroclLles ln Lhe course of whaL Lhey percelve Lo be collecLlve self-
defence.
18
1hls wlll be furLher examlned ln Lhe PlsLory of Cenoclde" secLlon below.

E.-.E HOL'O H%O,%MP+L'* '( <P+VO'PQW,X

1he lmposlLlon of 8rlLlsh rule over Srl Lanka ln 1796 effecLlvely unlfled Lhe
oLherwlse lndependenL 1amll naLlon wlLh Lhe Slnhalese under one governmenL.

Srl
Lankan 1amlls, as a mlnorlLy group represenLlng abouL 12 per cenL of Lhe populaLlon,
were elevaLed Lo bureaucraLlc poslLlons by Lhe 8rlLlsh rulers whlle Lhe Slnhalese were
relegaLed Lo more subservlenL poslLlons, whlch resulLed ln severe backlash afLer
lndependence ln 1948.
19
Slnhalese pollLlcal candldaLes generally won elecLlons due Lo
Lhe much larger slze of Lhelr eLhnlc supporL base and when ln power Lhe Slnhalese Srl
Lanka lreedom arLy passed a law ln 1936 replaclng Lngllsh wlLh Slnhalese as Lhe offlclal
language, whlch excluded mlnorlLy groups such as Lngllsh-speaklng Slnhalese and
8urgher communlLles, along wlLh 1amlls and 1amll-speaklng Musllms.

17
Mahr, krlsLa. Amld Abuse and lear, 1amlls ConLlnue Lo llea Srl Lanka" 1lme World, 13 Aprll 2013, (u8L accessed !uly 30
2013) hLLp://world.Llme.com/2013/04/13/krlsLa-srl-lanka-drafL/
18
unlLed naLlons, 8eporL of Lhe SecreLary-Ceneral's anel of LxperLs on AccounLablllLy ln Srl Lanka", 31 March 2011, (u8L accessed
!uly 28 2013) hLLp://www.un.org/news/dh/lnfocus/Srl_Lanka/CL_8eporL_lull.pdf
19
MlnorlLles aL 8lsk, Srl Lankan 1amlls."



10

Slnhalese pollLlcal domlnance also marked Lhe beglnnlng of severe persecuLlon
of 1amlls, who were forced ouL of lnfluenLlal publlc servlce poslLlons, leavlng many
young 1amlls wlLhouL employmenL. AddlLlonally, Lhe governmenL soughL Lo naLlonallze
much of Lhe economy, Lhus furLher resLrlcLlng Lhe ablllLy of 1amlls Lo work even ln Lhe
prlvaLe secLor. ln 1972, when Ceylon became Srl Lanka, 8uddhlsm was declared Lhe
sLaLe rellglon. 1hese excluslonary moves were followed by a perlod of vlolenL eLhnlc
Lenslon LhaL culmlnaLed ln 1986 wlLh Lhe beglnnlng of full-fledged clvll war (see PlsLory
of ConfllcL" secLlon below).
20
ln addlLlon Lo anLl-1amll abuses, Lhere ls also growlng
persecuLlon of Musllm communlLles ln Srl Lanka, as menLloned above. WheLher or noL
Lhls persecuLlon wlll glve rlse Lo new Lenslons remalns Lo be seen.

E.-.D )P$+PO"$ =%N"$P"+L'* '( <P+VO'PQW,X

1he clvll war saw slgnlflcanL muLual devaluaLlon by boLh Lhe Slnhalese and 1amlls
on rellglous and culLural grounds. WlLh Lhe Slnhalese governmenL and mlllLary now
flrmly ln conLrol of Lhe 1amlls ln Lhe norLh, Lhe slLuaLlon ls changlng very gradually.
8ecenLly, Lhe Srl Lankan army dlsmlssed a call for Lhe demlllLarlzaLlon of Lhe norLh by
Lhe Lessons LearnL and 8econclllaLlon CommlLLee (a commlsslon of lnqulry appolnLed by
resldenL 8a[apaksa). 1hey opLed Lo re-evaluaLe Lhe slLuaLlon and creaLe new docLrlnes
lnsLead of followlng Lhe recommendaLlon Lo sLarL leavlng Lhe area and allow 1amlls Lo
reLurn Lo normal llfe.
21
1he culLural devaluaLlon of 1amlls ls sLlll presenL and malnly
commlLLed by governmenL Lroops.

E.-.I <P+VO'PQW,X 4L%Y%R ", "* <#,+"M$% +' 0M'*'ULM HO'VO%,,

As seen ln Lhe Sudden and Severe Lconomlc Pardshlps" secLlon below, Lhe Srl
Lankans who currenLly suffer Lhe mosL from economlc hardshlp are 1amlls ln Lhe
mlllLarlzed norLhern sLaLes. Powever, Lhe case ls less LhaL Lhe ouLgroup - 1amlls - are
belng vlewed as an obsLacle Lo economlc progress and more LhaL Lhey are noL glven a
chance Lo provlde any economlc supporL Lo Lhe sLaLe or Lhemselves.

E.-.F H'QP$"+L'* CO'Y+T "*R 9'P+T AP$V%

Srl Lanka has a relaLlvely low populaLlon growLh raLe and acLually has a decllnlng
youLh populaLlon. Accordlng Lo daLa obLalned from Lhe World 8ank, Srl Lanka's
populaLlon growLh raLe has been sLeadlly decreaslng slnce 2004, when lL was aL 2.4 per
cenL, and reached lLs lowesL raLe aL 0.92 per cenL ln 2010.
22
uesplLe Lhls decllnlng

20
MlnorlLles aL 8lsk, Srl Lanka: 1he lallure of Lhe eace rocess", Asla reporL #124, 28 november 2006, pp.2-3 (u8L accessed !uly 30
2013)
21
1he ress 1rusL of lndla, Srl Lankan Army ulsmlsses Call for uemlllLarlzaLlon", !anuary 24 2013 (u8L accessed SepLember 28
Lh

2013) hLLp://www.buslness-sLandard.com/arLlcle/pLl-sLorles/srl-lanka-army-dlsmlsses-calls-for-demlllLarlsaL20lon-
113012400493_1.hLml
22
Coogle ubllc uaLa, opulaLlon CrowLh 8aLe - Srl Lanka," 1he World 8ank, november 9, 2011, (u8L accessed november 11,
2012), hLLp://www.google.com/publlcdaLa.



11
growLh raLe, Srl Lanka has a large populaLlon of 21,673,648 people
23
ln a relaLlvely small
area, whlch makes Srl Lanka one of Lhe mosL densely populaLed counLrles ln Lhe world
wlLh 324 people/square kllomeLer.
24
1hls hlgh denslLy does noL necessarlly presenL a
mass aLroclLles rlsk agalnsL 1amlls slnce Lhey are largely concenLraLed ln Lhe norLh,
whlch ls one of Lhe leasL populaLed areas ln Srl Lanka.

Srl Lanka's youLh comprlse 26 per cenL of lLs enLlre populaLlon.
23
As a
consequence of Lhe clvll war, Lhe youLh populaLlon decllned slgnlflcanLly from 33.2 per
cenL of Lhe LoLal populaLlon ln 1981 Lo 26.3 per cenL ln 2001.
26
1hls mlghL be a fuLure
area of concern because, as Lhe World 8ank lndlcaLes, by 2036 a ma[orlLy of Lhe currenL
youLh populaLlon of Srl Lanka wlll be over 60 years old, whlch wlll mosL llkely puL a
slgnlflcanL sLraln on Lhe labour force, unless Lhe governmenL ls able Lo adapL lLs
educaLlon, healLhcare, LransporLaLlon, and urbanlzaLlon secLors accordlngly.
27
Mlsplaced
lnLernal economlc pressures rlsk revlvlng eLhnlc grlevances ln Srl Lanka lf 1amlls were Lo
be furLher economlcally marglnallzed or scapegoaLed Lo compensaLe for a sufferlng
economy.


23
CenLral lnLelllgence Agency, Srl Lanka", (u8L accessed SepLmeber 28
Lh
2013) hLLps://www.cla.gov/llbrary/publlcaLlons/Lhe-world-
facLbook/geos/ce.hLml
24
lndex Mundl, opulaLlon uenslLy (number of people per square kllomeLer)," lndex Mundl, !anuary 1, 2011, accessed CcLober 12,
2012, (hLLp://www.lndexmundl.com/g/g.aspx?v=21000&c=ce&l=en), CovernmenL of Srl Lanka, 8rlef Analysls of opulaLlon and
Pouslng CharacLerlsLlcs: opulaLlon and Pouslng Census ln Srl Lanka," uecember 6, 2011, accessed uecember 13, 2012,
(hLLp://www.sLaLlsLlcs.gov.lk/opPouSaL/ul/p720populaLlon20and20Pouslng201exL-11-12-06.pdf).
23
lbld.
26
lbld.
27
1he World 8ank, Srl Lanka Cvervlew," C-( H#+"< =%)9 !+#;0G (u8L accessed uecember 3, 2012,)
(hLLp://www.worldbank.org/en/counLry/srllanka/overvlew).



12
E.: 0)<;<63) G7)!<85

E.:.- @'*VZ!%OU =L((LMP$+ @L(% )'*RL+L'*,

Slnce Lhe end of Lhe clvll war, Lhe Srl Lankan governmenL has made slgnlflcanL
sLrldes ln ensurlng human and maLerlal securlLy. 1he unemploymenL raLe has decllned
conslderably, whlle unlversal prlmary educaLlon has slgnlflcanLly lmproved Lhe naLlonal
llLeracy raLe. Srl Lanka has also greaLly lmproved lLs healLhcare servlces and Lhe naLlonal
llfe expecLancy of 73 years now compares Lo LhaL of hlgh-lncome counLrles. 1hls
achlevemenL has been largely faclllLaLed by lLs free prevenLaLlve and curaLlve"
healLhcare servlces. 1he avallablllLy of clean drlnklng waLer ln rural areas also lmproved
sllghLly from 71 per cenL ln 2008 Lo 74 per cenL ln 2011 wlLh Lhe help of Lhe World
8ank.
28


8ased on daLa from Lhe World 1rade CrganlzaLlon, Srl Lanka saw a 23 per cenL
lncrease ln exporLed goods and servlces from 2010 Lo 2011, as well as a 20 per cenL
lncrease ln lmporLs of goods and servlces.
29
unemploymenL has decllned from 3.9 per
cenL ln 2009 Lo 4.2 per cenL ln 2011.
30
Powever, Lhere remalns a hlgh unemploymenL
raLe of 19.4 per cenL amongsL youLh aged 13-24 buL llLeracy raLes are hlgh aL 91.2 per
cenL of Lhe LoLal populaLlon.
31
Srl Lanka has also made slgnlflcanL progress ln
lmplemenLlng mosL of Lhe un Mlllennlum uevelopmenL Coals and Lhe counLry ls on
Lrack Lo halvlng Lhe naLlonal poverLy raLe Lo 14.1 per cenL before 2013. lL has also
achleved a 97.3 per cenL prlmary school enrolmenL raLe, wlLh Lhe raLlo of women Lo
men ln secondary and posL-secondary lnsLlLuLlons exceeded 100 per cenL.
32


Srl Lanka has also made slgnlflcanL progress ln rebulldlng Lhe norLhern and
easLern provlnces LhaL were mosL affecLed by Lhe clvll war. Accordlng Lo Lhe World
8ank, close Lo 200,000 of Lhe lnLernally dlsplaced persons from Lhe confllcL have
reLurned back Lo Lhelr respecLlve homes, a feaL LhaL exceeded Lhe orlglnal LargeL of
100,000. AbouL 700,000 were LhoughL Lo be lnLernally dlsplaced durlng Lhe clvll war, and
anoLher 700,000 had emlgraLed.
33
1he sLaLe has also generaLed employmenL
opporLunlLles LhaL exceed Lhe orlglnal LargeL.
34
1he households beneflLlng from an
lncreased lncome and vlllage level soclal and economlc lnfrasLrucLure durlng Lhe
reconsLrucLlon efforLs are numbered aL abouL 300,000 whereas Lhe orlglnal LargeL was

28
lbld.
29
World 1rade CrganlzaLlon, Srl Lanka", (u8L accessed CcLober 1, 2012)
hLLp://sLaL.wLo.org/CounLryroflle/WSu8CounLrylvlew.aspx?Language=L&CounLry=Lk.
30
lndex Mundl, unemploymenL 8aLe ()," (u8L accessed CcLober 10, 2012) hLLp://www.lndexmundl.com/g/g.aspx?c=ce&v=74.
31
ClA lacLbook, Srl Lanka".
32
1he World 8ank, Srl Lanka Cvervlew," and Srl Lanka Puman uevelopmenL 8eporL: 8rldglng Puman ulsparlLles for Puman
uevelopmenL" , unlLed naLlons uevelopmenL rogram, 2012 (u8L accessed !uly 13 2013)
hLLp://www.lk.undp.org/conLenL/dam/srllanka/docs/localpubllcaLlons/Srl20Lanka20Puman20uevelopmenL208eporL20201
2.pdf
33
uhanan[ayan Srlskandara[ah ,Srl Lanka", lorced MlgraLlons, (u8L accessed !uly 13 2013)
hLLp://www.forcedmlgraLlon.org/research-resources/experL-guldes/srl-lanka/fmo032.pdf
34
1he World 8ank, Srl Lanka Cvervlew."



13
213,000.
33
AlLhough developmenL has noL been unlform across Srl Lanka, Lhe World
8ank and Lhe LconomlsL lnLelllgence unlL (Llu) seem confldenL ln Lhe sLaLe's ablllLy Lo
generaLe and susLaln programs LhaL address long-Lerm economlc problems LhaL would
oLherwlse be a source of Lenslon beLween 1amlls and Slnhalese eLhnlc groups.
Accordlng Lo Lhe Llu, Lhe economlc forecasL for Srl Lanka ls poslLlve due Lo lLs presenL
peace dlvldend" followlng Lhe end of Lhe clvll war ln 2009.
36
1he generally prosperous
currenL sLaLe of Lhe Srl Lankan economy appears Lo mlLlgaLe Lhe rlsk of mass aLroclLles.
E.:.: 5'ML'%M'*'ULM =%QOLN"+L'* )'U#L*%R YL+T CO'PQZ#",%R 3*%[P"$L+S

1he reconsLrucLlon of devasLaLed 1amll areas ln Lhe norLh followlng Lhe end of
Lhe clvll war ls provlng Lo be a prlme example of socloeconomlc deprlvaLlon of a speclflc
group based on Lhe LreaLmenL of 1amlls as second-class clLlzens by Lhe Srl Lankan
governmenL. 1he heavy mlllLarlzaLlon of Lhe norLh ls one of Lhe maln obsLacles Lo Lhe
reglon's reconsLrucLlon slnce Lhe Srl Lankan mlllLary has assumed an economlc role ln
noL only overseelng, buL also approvlng developmenL efforLs. Accordlng Lo a recenL
reporL released by Lhe lnLernal ulsplacemenL MonlLorlng CenLre (luMC), Lhe prevalence
of mlllLary forces ln Lhe area has made Lhem a compeLlLor agalnsL local 1amlls ln Lerms
of agrlculLural developmenL, flshlng, Lrade and Lourlsm.
37
1he mlllLary also conLlnues Lo
provlde economlc advanLages Lo Slnhalese buslnessmen and flshermen whllsL denylng
1amll locals Lhe same prlvlleges.
38
lL has also been one Lhe maln execuLors of Lhe
SlnhallsaLlon of Lhe norLh, erecLlng monumenLs and museums Lo Slnhalese war heroes
ln 1amll-populaLed areas, changlng 1amll-language road slgns Lo Slnhalese, and
encouraglng Slnhalese seLLlers Lo mlgraLe Lo 1amll-populaLed reglons.
39


AlLhough one of Lhe maln obsLacles Lo rebulldlng efforLs ln norLhern rovlnce
has been a lack of lnLernaLlonal fundlng, Lhe Srl Lankan governmenL ls also Lo blame due
Lo lLs fallure Lo prlorlLlze Lhe rebulldlng process over Lhe reglon's mlllLarlzaLlon. As Lhe
luMC reporL lndlcaLes, Lhe Srl Lankan governmenL allocaLes a slgnlflcanL porLlon of lLs
budgeL Lo Lhe MlnlsLry of uefence, and consequenLly leaves oLher mlnlsLrles LhaL
address Lhe economlc, soclal, and admlnlsLraLlve aspecLs of Lhe reconsLrucLlon efforLs
underfunded.
40



33
SeenlLhamby Monaharan, CommunlLy Llvellhoods ln ConfllcL AffecLed Areas ro[ecL (?all lbedemu vlyapruLhlya) (Maru
LluchchlLhlLLum)," World 8ank, (u8L accessed CcLober 13, 2012) hLLp://www.worldbank.org/pro[ecLs/086747/communlLy-
llvellhoods-confllcL-affecLed-areas-pro[ecL-yall-plbedemu-vlyapruLhlya-maru-eluchchlLhlLLum?lang=en
36
LconomlsL lnLelllgence unlL, Srl Lanka aL a Clance: 2012-16," C-( J4#)#>1/*G SepLember 13, 2012, (u8L accessed CcLober 13,
2012)
hLLp://counLry.elu.com/arLlcle.aspx?arLlcleld=1339389340&CounLry=Srl20Lanka&Loplc=Summary&subLoplc=AL+a+glance&old=61
9947246&ald=1
37
lnLernal ulsplacemenL MonlLorlng CenLre, Srl Lanka: A Pldden ulsplacemenL Crlsls," C-( D#+E(51%) .(,;5(( '#;)41"G CcLober 31,
2012, (u8L accessed november 12, 2012) hLLp://lnLernal-
dlsplacemenL.org/8023708l0048L381/(hLLplnfollles)/0l7746346306lC83C1237AA8003843A6/$flle/srllanka-overvlew-ocL2012.pdf
38
lnLernaLlonal Crlsls Croup, MlnorlLy 8lghLs."
39
lbld.
40
lnLernal ulsplacemenL MonlLorlng CenLre, Srl Lanka" p.13.



14
8esearch on economlc deprlvaLlon suggesLs LhaL lnLer-group vlolence ls more
llkely when one group ls percelved Lo have an economlc advanLage over anoLher and
LhaL relaLlve deprlvaLlon and Lhe encompasslng resenLmenL can Lhen be explolLed by
ellLes ln order Lo lnsLlgaLe confllcL. 1hls rlsk seems Lo be arlslng from Lhe mlllLarlzaLlon of
Lhe norLh, especlally as lL enLalls Lhe SlnhallsaLlon of Lhe area. 1here ls evldence Lo
suggesL LhaL Lhe presence of Lhe mlllLary and lLs dlscrlmlnaLory pracLlces have lncreased
Lenslons beLween boLh groups. lf Lhe governmenL conLlnues on Lhls Lra[ecLory, lL rlsks
lnsplrlng exLremlsL 1amll naLlonallsL groups LhaL wlll use governmenL dlscrlmlnaLlon and
eLhnlc grlevances Lo appeal for 1amll supporL. 1he encroachmenL of Slnhalese seLLlers
on 1amll LerrlLory and mlllLary land grabs could lnsplre eLhnlc cleanslng as 1amlls seek Lo
reclalm Lhelr land. 1he resumpLlon of clvll war ls hlghly llkely ln such a case.
E.:.> 5PRR%* "*R 5%N%O% 0M'*'ULM ?"OR,TLQ

1he Srl Lankan economy remalned relaLlvely sLable LhroughouL Lhe 26-year clvll
war. 1he economlcally hardesL-hlL people durlng Lhls Llme were Lhe dlsplaced 1amlls
who llved (and ln some cases are sLlll llvlng) ln makeshlfL refugee and lnLernmenL
camps.
41
ln Lhe hlghly mlllLarlzed norLhern areas of Lhe counLry, Lhe mlllLary has become
an lmporLanL economlc player and compeLlLor wlLh local 1amlls, lncludlng reLurnlng
refugees, ln areas relaLlng Lo agrlculLure, flshlng, Lourlsm and Lrade. 1he mlllLary has
become lnvolved ln areas LhaL would oLherwlse be under clvlllan admlnlsLraLlon, and
have been occupylng Lhelr land. 8eLurnees someLlmes cannoL regaln Lhelr land under
Lhe preLexL LhaL Lhere are land mlnes, ln reallLy, Lhe mlllLary has Laken Lhe land for
culLlvaLlon or oLher purposes. Accordlng Lo reporLs, Lhe army ls operaLlng on Lhe basls
LhaL any properLy capLured from Lhe guerrlllas now rlghLfully belongs Lo lL."
42
ln some
lnsLances, Lhe mlllLary manages Lo sell Lhelr producLs aL a much lower prlce Lhan a local
farmer would, Lhereby creaLlng a large economlc dlsparlLy beLween Lhe 1amlls of Lhe
reglon and Lhe mlllLary.
43


ln addlLlon Lo agrlculLure, Lhe mlllLary ls also lnvolved ln many commerclal
acLlvlLles ln Lhe norLh such as resLauranLs, shops, and even LourlsL-relaLed enLerprlses,
wlLh Lhe navy managlng lLs own ferry servlces. 1hls undermlnes local enLrepreneurshlp
and llmlLs opporLunlLles for Lhe resldenLs of Lhe area. lurLhermore, Lhe army has
announced LhaL lL wlll form a prlvaLe consLrucLlon company for developmenL conLracLs
ln Lhe reglon.
44


Whlle Lhe resL of Srl Lanka ls lmprovlng economlcally, Lhe same cannoL be sald of
1amlls, who face dlfflculL prospecLs due Lo Lhe sLrong llmlLaLlons placed on Lhelr
economlc acLlvlLles. lnsLances of Lhe governmenL prevenLlng Lhls mlnorlLy from havlng a

41
lbld.
42
lnLernaLlonal Crlsls Croup, Srl Lanka's norLh ll: 8ebulldlng under Lhe MlllLary, Asla 8eporL n220, 16 March 2012, p.22 (u8L
accessed CcLober 18 2012) hLLp://www.crlslsgroup.org/~/medla/llles/asla/souLh-asla/srl-lanka/220-srl-lankas-norLh-ll-rebulldlng-
under-Lhe-mlllLary.
43
lbld, pp. 22-23.
44
lbld, p. 23



13
falr chance aL subslsLence may lead Lo lncreased frusLraLlons whlch can, ln Lurn, lead Lo
escalaLlng hosLlllLles and lnLer-group vlolence.
E.:.E 0M'*'ULM 5+"+P, '( +T% 8%VLU%

Accordlng Lo Lhe World 8ank, Srl Lanka ranks as a lower mlddle-lncome
counLry.
43
1he lower a counLry's lncome, Lhe more aLLenLlon lL recelves from Lhe
lnLernaLlonal communlLy as lL becomes dependenL on more developed counLrles for
supporL. 1herefore, Lhe governmenLs of lower-lncome counLrles have less freedom of
acLlon Lo respond Lo real or percelved LhreaLs, even wlLhln Lhelr own borders. As a lower
mlddle-lncome counLry, Srl Lanka ls slowly becomlng less dependenL on Lhe
lnLernaLlonal communlLy, whlch lncreases Lhe freedom for lLs governmenL Lo deal wlLh
lnLernal opponenLs as lL pleases. Cn Lhe oLher hand, Lhe rlsk of mass aLroclLles subsldes
wlLh a growlng economy.

1he daLa on Srl Lanka lndlcaLes LhaL, alLhough Lhe counLry remalns
underdeveloped, lL has seen conslderable economlc growLh slnce Lhe end of Lhe clvll
war ln 2009. Lven durlng Lhe clvll war, Srl Lanka's economy remalned relaLlvely sLable
wlLh sLeady growLh of abouL 3 per cenL annually, Lhough Lhls number decllned sllghLly ln
2009 durlng Lhe lasL phase of Lhe war, whlch also colnclded wlLh Lhe global flnanclal
crlsls. Analysls of lLs performance slnce boLh Lhe end of Lhe war and Lhe global flnanclal
crlsls shows LhaL Srl Lanka has malnLalned a sLeady growLh of approxlmaLely 8 per cenL
annually ln 2010 and 2011. Ma[or endeavours, such as Lhe creaLlon of mulLl-mllllon
dollar caslnos ln Colombo Lo boosL Lhe Lourlsm lndusLry, have also been ln
developmenL.
46
Whlle lL ls noL yeL a prosperous counLry, Lhe World 8ank daLa suggesLs
LhaL Lhe Srl Lankan economy ls on a sLable lncllne
47
and ln 2011 lL dlsplayed Lhe hlghesL
growLh ln SouLhern Asla.
48


43
1he World 8ank, Srl Lanka Cvervlew."
46
!ayaslnghe, Amal, Srl Lanka 8eLs on Plgh Lnd Caslnos Lo 8oosL Lconomy", 1alpel 1lmes, !uly 21 2013 (u8L accessed AugusL 13
2013), hLLp://www.LalpelLlmes.com/news/blz/archlves/2013/07/21/2003367783
47
1he World 8ank, Srl Lanka Cvervlew."
48
lbld.



16
E.> H<@3!3)7@ 3;5!3!2!3<;7@
E.>.- @'Y =%VO%% '( =%U'MO"MS

Cne of Lhe known lmpedlmenLs Lo Lhe perpeLraLlon of mass aLroclLles ls
governmenL adherence Lo democraLlc norms, lncludlng Lhe proLecLlon of clLlzen rlghLs
and freedoms as well as ensurlng Lhelr parLlclpaLlon ln governmenL.
49
ln Lhls regard, Srl
Lanka has made some sLrldes ln re-esLabllshlng lLself as a democraLlc sLaLe followlng Lhe
end of Lhe clvll war ln 2009. Powever, Lhe adopLlon of values conduclve Lo an aLroclLy-
free LranslLlon Lo permanenL peace remalns a challenge.

Accordlng Lo Lhe 2012 LconomlsL lnLelllgence unlL (Llu) uemocracy lndex, whlch
measures Lhe sLaLe of democracy ln soverelgn counLrles, Srl Lanka ranked 89 ouL of a llsL
of 167 sLaLes. ln addlLlon Lo Lhe ranklng, Lhe lndex caLegorlzes counLrles as one of four
reglme Lypes ,;"" <(>#4+%41(/, ,"%E(< <(>#4+%41(/, -2$+1< +(51>(/, and %;*-#+1*%+1%)
+(51>(/F
30
lollowlng Lhls caLegorlzaLlon, Lhe 2012 lndex classlfled Srl Lanka as a -2$+1<
+(51>(.
31
Slmllarly, counLry raLlngs from lreedom Pouse's K+((<#> 1) *-( H#+"< LMNO
survey concernlng Lhe sLaLe of world freedom ln 2012 classlfled Srl Lanka as parLly
free."
32


Cne of Lhe characLerlsLlcs of a hybrld reglme" or a parLly free" sLaLe ls
harassmenL of [ournallsLs. ln Lhe case of Srl Lanka, Lhe 8a[apaksa governmenL has a long
hlsLory of medla harassmenL and aLLacks on [ournallsLs who are crlLlcal of Lhe
governmenL. lnLernaLlonal human rlghLs organlzaLlons, lncludlng Puman 8lghLs WaLch
(P8W) and lreedom Pouse, have repeaLedly called on Lhe Srl Lankan governmenL Lo
sLop harasslng medla and [ournallsLs Lo no avall.
33


vlolence remalns a real rlsk for [ournallsLs, whlch ls helghLened by Lhe lmpunlLy
LhaL perpeLraLors en[oy. lor example, Lhere have been no slgnlflcanL developmenLs ln
Lhe 2010 dlsappearance of rageeLh Lknellgoda, a conLrlbuLor Lo 8%)9% JP)(E/, or ln Lhe
murder of 6;)<%2 8(%<(+ edlLor LasanLha WlckremaLunge, who was gunned down ln
broad dayllghL near a pollce sLaLlon ln 2009.
34


49
SenLlnel ro[ecL for Cenoclde revenLlon, Larly Warnlng Manual," p. 34.
30
1he classlflcaLlon ls based on flve caLegorles: elecLoral process and plurallsm, clvll llberLles, Lhe funcLlonlng of governmenL,
pollLlcal parLlclpaLlon, and pollLlcal culLure. 1he flve caLegorles are lnLerrelaLed. See 1he LconomlsL, uemocracy lndex 2012:
uemocracy ls aL a sLandsLlll", (u8L accessed SepLember 9, 2013).
hLLps://www.elu.com/publlc/Loplcal_reporL.aspx?campalgnld=uemocracylndex12
31
Accordlng Lo Lhls Lype of reglme, elecLlons have subsLanLlal lrregularlLles LhaL ofLen prevenL Lhem from belng boLh free and falr.
CovernmenL pressure on opposlLlon parLles and candldaLes may be common. CorrupLlon Lends Lo be wldespread and Lhe rule of law
ls weak. Clvll socleLy ls weak. 1yplcally Lhere ls harassmenL of and pressure on [ournallsLs, and Lhe [udlclary ls noL lndependenL.
32
1he lreedom Pouse pollLlcal freedom measure covers pollLlcal rlghLs and clvll llberLles. lreedom Pouse measures Lhe concepL of
elecLoral democracy. See lreedom Pouse, lreedom ln Lhe World 2013: uemocraLlc 8reakLhroughs ln Lhe 8alance"
hLLp://www.freedomhouse.org/reporL/freedom-world/freedom-world-2013 (u8L accessed SepLember 9, 2013).
33
1he AssoclaLed ress, 8lghLs Croup urges Srl Lanka Lo SLop Parasslng !ournallsLs, Medla CuLleLs," C-( I//#41%*(< 3+(//, !uly 3,
2012,( u8L accessed CcLober 10, 2012)
hLLp://www.genocldewaLch.org/lmages/Srl_lanka_12_07_04_8lghLs_group_urges_Srl_Lanka_Lo_sLop_harasslng_[ournallsLs.pdf
34
Puman 8lghLs WaLch, 'Srl Lanka: roposed Medla Code 1hreaLens lree Speech', !une 18 , 2013, (u8L accessed !uly 30 2013)
hLLp://www.hrw.org/news/2013/06/18/srl-lanka-proposed-medla-code-LhreaLens-free-speech



17

Moreover, Lhe Srl Lankan governmenL conLlnues Lo rely on resLrlcLlve leglslaLlon
enacLed durlng Lhe clvll war ln order Lo suppress Lhe freedom of expresslon ln
peaceLlme, lncludlng Lhe Cfflclal SecreLs AcL as well as Lhe revenLlon of 1errorlsm AcL
(2006), whlch allows pollce Lo deLaln suspecLs for as long as elghLeen monLhs.
33


ln addlLlon Lo noL recognlzlng Lhe freedom of expresslon, Lhe Srl Lankan
governmenL has falled Lo ablde by democraLlc prlnclples ln lLs lack of accounLablllLy.
uesplLe a un reporL released ln 2011 acknowledglng Lhe deaLhs of Lhousands of clvlllans
durlng Lhe lasL phase of Lhe war, Lhe federal governmenL has vehemenLly denled Lhese
accusaLlons.
36
1he MlnlsLry of uefence laLer released lLs own reporL recognlzlng lLs role
ln Lhe deaLhs of some clvlllans, buL dlsmlssed Lhe deaLhs as collaLeral damage and
clalmed LhaL Lhey numbered much less Lhan Lhe flgures ln Lhe un reporL.
37
Slnce Lhen,
Lhe Srl Lankan governmenL has falled Lo launch an lnvesLlgaLlon lnLo Lhe crlmes LhaL
were commlLLed by boLh sldes durlng Lhe lasL phase of Lhe war.

1he 8a[apaksa governmenL conLlnues Lo undermlne any power sharlng efforLs
LhaL have been proposed by 1amll moderaLes who are seeklng a peaceful resoluLlon Lo
Lhelr grlevances. AlLhough Lhe 1amll naLlonal Alllance (1nA) has emerged as Lhe
formldable volce of 1amlls ln Srl Lanka, Lhe federal governmenL conslsLenLly refuses Lo
concede any slgnlflcanL power Lo Lhem, even resorLlng Lo vlolenL aLLacks on 1nA
supporLers perpeLraLed by pollce Lo sllence Lhem.
38
1he lncreaslng consolldaLlon of
power Lo Lhe presldenL and hls famlly has furLher eroded Lhe remalnlng semblance of
democracy by gradually ellmlnaLlng any persons or sysLems of accounLablllLy.
39


Accordlng Lo Lhe lnLernaLlonal Commlsslon of !urlsLs (lC!), Srl Lanka has a crlsls of
lmpunlLy because of Lhe dlfflculLles faced by vlcLlms of serlous human rlghLs vlolaLlons
when seeklng [usLlce and accounLablllLy. 1he deflnlLlon of lmpunlLy comprlses Lhe fallure
by publlc auLhorlLles, wheLher due Lo legal obsLacles or lack of pollLlcal wlll, Lo fulflll
lnLernaLlonal obllgaLlons and brlng perpeLraLors of human rlghLs vlolaLlons Lo accounL.
60

1he Srl Lankan governmenL has shown lLself Lo be unwllllng Lo comply wlLh Lhe rule of
law ln accordance wlLh Lhe expecLaLlons seL ouL ln lnLernaLlonal sLandards.

1he Srl Lankan governmenL mlssed a unlque opporLunlLy Lo lmprove Lhe
counLry's human rlghLs slLuaLlon afLer lLs vlcLory over Lhe L11L ln 2009. 1he L11L

33
lreedom Pouse, lreedom ln Lhe World: Srl Lanka 2012," lreedom Pouse, (u8l accessed CcLober 12, 2012)
hLLp://www.freedomhouse.org/reporL/freedom-world/2012/srl-lanka
36
88C news, C&A: osL-War Srl Lanka," ==' news, november 13, 2012, accessed uecember 12, 2012,
(hLLp://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-souLh-asla-11393438).
37
Puman 8lghLs WaLch, World 8eporL 2013: Srl Lanka," Q;>%) .15-*/ H%*4-, (hLLp://www.hrw.org/world-reporL/2013/counLry-
chapLers/srl-lanka) accessed SepLember 2, 2013.
38
lnLernaLlonal Crlsls Croup, Srl Lanka's norLh 1: 1he uenlal of MlnorlLy 8lghLs," lnLernaLlonal Crlsls Croup, March 16, 2012,
(hLLp://www.crlslsgroup.org/en/reglons/asla/souLh-asla/srl-lanka/219-srl-lankas-norLh-l-Lhe-denlal-of-mlnorlLy-rlghLs.aspx).
39
lnLernaLlonal Crlsls Croup, MlnorlLy 8lghLs."
60
1he lnLernaLlonal sLandards governlng lmpunlLy are seL forLh ln Lhe B)1*(< D%*1#)/ B0<%*(< 6(* #, 3+1)410"(/ ,#+ *-( 3+#*(4*1#) %)<
3+#>#*1#) #, Q;>%) .15-*/ *-+#;5- I4*1#) *# '#>$%* ?>0;)1*2, un uoc. L/Cn.4/2003/102/Add.1, (B0<%*(< 6(* #, 3+1)410"(/ *#
'#>$%* ?>0;)1*2R.



18
operaLed an essenLlally auLonomous mlnl sLaLe ln Lhe norLh and easL of Srl Lanka wlLh a
horrlflc record of vlolaLlng human rlghLs as well as lnLernaLlonal humanlLarlan law,
lncludlng vlolaLlons such as unlawful kllllngs, LargeLlng of clvlllans, abducLlons, forced
recrulLmenL of chlld combaLanLs, and forced labour. needless Lo say, Lhe L11L's conducL
slgnlflcanLly harmed Lhe rule of law and respecL for due process ln Lhe areas under Lhelr
conLrol.

1he Srl Lankan governmenL soughL Lo address demands for [usLlce by
esLabllshlng a Lessons Learned and 8econclllaLlon Commlsslon (LL8C) whlch was
expllclLly sLaLed Lo noL be an accounLablllLy mechanlsm and was wldely crlLlclzed as
belng faulLy ln lLs mandaLe, lLs membershlp, and lLs conducL. 1he LL8C emphaslzed Lhe
need for an lndependenL [udlclary, a LransparenL legal process, and sLrlcL adherence Lo
Lhe rule of law, sLaLlng LhaL Lhese were necessary for esLabllshlng and malnLalnlng peace
and sLablllLy ln Lhe counLry. 1hese recommendaLlons remaln unfulfllled Lo daLe.

lor 40 years, Srl Lanka malnLalned an almosL conLlnuous sLaLe of emergency.
Lmergency rule noL only undermlned Lhe crlmlnal [usLlce sysLem buL also eroded sLaLe
accounLablllLy and undermlned human rlghLs. 1he emergency reglme vlolaLed Lhe
prohlblLlon on arblLrary deLenLlon and lmposed unreasonable resLrlcLlons on Lhe
freedom of expresslon, Lhe freedom of movemenL, and Lhe rlghL Lo prlvacy. 1he use of
emergency laws also faclllLaLed exLra[udlclal kllllngs, enforced dlsappearances, and Lhe
wldespread use of LorLure and lll LreaLmenL. 1he rlghL Lo [udlclally revlew orders made
under Lhe emergency laws was resLrlcLed, lf noL alLogeLher ellmlnaLed. lour decades of
lnsLlLuLlonallzed emergency rule led Lo a serlous eroslon of Lhe mechanlsms of sLaLe
accounLablllLy and Lhe esLabllshmenL of a dangerous culLure of lmpunlLy ln Srl Lanka.

AnoLher desLrucLlve developmenL was Lhe enacLmenL of lmmunlLy provlslons for
Lhe presldenL under Lhe 1978 ConsLlLuLlon and Lhe conferral of lmmunlLy on sLaLe
offlclals under Lhe emergency laws - ln Srl Lanka, Lhe presldenL ls glven lmmunlLy for
acLlons Laken durlng hls or her Lerm.
61
SLaLe offlclals are glven broad lmmunlLles under
Lhe ubllc SecurlLy Crdlnance no. 23 of 1947 and Lhe revenLlon of 1errorlsm
(1emporary rovlslons) AcL no. 48 of 1979 amendmenL Lo Lhe ConsLlLuLlon as well as
under Lhe lndemnlLy AcL. 1he presldenL plays a plvoLal role wlLhln Lhe emergency
reglme and was empowered by Lhe 1978 ConsLlLuLlon Lo declare sLaLes of emergency,
order Lhe armed forces Lo malnLaln law and order under Lhe ubllc SecurlLy Crdlnance
no.23 of 1947 (SC), and absorb Lhe role of MlnlsLer of uefence and lssue deLenLlon
orders under Lhe revenLlon of 1errorlsm (1emporary rovlslons) AcL no. 48 of 1979
ConsLlLuLlon (as amended).



61
lor Lhe full LexL of Lhe Srl Lankan ConsLlLuLlon see hLLp://www.prlu.gov.lk/Cons/1978ConsLlLuLlon/lnLroducLlon.hLm, accessed !uly
29, 2013.



19
E.>.: 5+"+% 5%MPOL+S 7V%*ML%, <Q%O"+L*V \L+T " G%Y )'*,+O"L*+,

1he Srl Lankan mlllLary and pollce operaLe wlLh mlnlmal resLralnLs, whlch
lncreases Lhe llkellhood of Lhese agencles commlLLlng gross vlolaLlons of human rlghLs
and golng unpunlshed.
62
As menLloned above, Lhe Srl Lankan governmenL has refused Lo
lnvesLlgaLe war crlmes and oLher aLroclLles commlLLed by lLs mlllLary forces durlng Lhe
lasL phase of Lhe clvll war. AddlLlonally, pollce and mlllLary forces, as well as Slnhalese
mlllLlas, conLlnue Lo resorL Lo vlolence, lncludlng lnLlmldaLlon, dlsappearances, arblLrary
arresLs, LorLure, and even murder Lo resLraln any opposlLlon Lo Lhe governmenL.
63
Whlle
some cases have galned naLlonal aLLenLlon and warranLed calls for furLher lnvesLlgaLlon
by Lhe pollce, Lhere have been mlnlmal, lf any, resoluLlons Lo Lhese cases.



Srl Lankan Lroops durlng mlllLary operaLlons ln norLhern Srl Lanka.

1he Srl Lankan mlllLary also operaLes wlLh mlnlmal consLralnLs ln Lhe norLhern
reglons of Lhe counLry LhaL are lnhablLed by 1amlls, and also where a ma[orlLy of Lhe
confllcL Look place. 1he mlllLary conLlnues Lo selze prlvaLe and publlc land Lo bulld new
mlllLary bases, esLabllshlng lLself as a permanenL flxLure ln Lhe reglon. 1he mlllLary has
also Laken charge of economlc and agrlculLural reconsLrucLlon efforLs, curLalllng local,
1amll-orlenLed rebulldlng programs by small buslnesses and local farmers. Any publlc
proLesL by locals has been meL wlLh vlolence, lncludlng dlsappearances and exLreme

62
SenLlnel ro[ecL, Larly Warnlng Manual," p. 34.
63
lreedom Pouse, lreedom ln Lhe World 2013: Srl Lanka", (hLLp://www.freedomhouse.org/reporL/freedom-world/2013/srl-lanka)
accessed SepLember 10, 2013.



20
forms of punlshmenL meanL Lo lnLlmldaLe local 1amlls lnLo submlsslon. 8ecause Lhe
mlllLary ls overseelng reconsLrucLlon efforLs ln Lhe norLh under Lhe resldenLlal 1ask
lorce on 8eseLLlemenL, 8econsLrucLlon and SecurlLy ln Lhe norLhern rovlnce, Lhelr
acLlons are [usLlfled by a presldenLlal mandaLe LhaL conLlnues Lo promoLe pro-Slnhalese
excluslonary ldeology.
64


1he fallure Lo prosecuLe mlllLary offlclals for war crlmes durlng Lhe confllcL,
comblned wlLh Lhe mlllLary's unresLrlcLed domlnance ln Lhe norLh and lLs excluslon of
1amlls from Lhe rebulldlng process, conLlnues Lo fosLer deep-seaLed mlsLrusL and anger
Lowards Lhe Slnhalese governmenL LhaL may lncrease 1amll proLesLs, whlch may ln Lurn
lead Lo deeper mlsLrusL and mlllLarlzaLlon of Lhe norLh, Lhus preclplLaLlng furLher
vlolence from boLh sldes.
63
1he facL LhaL Lhese securlLy agencles are wllllng Lo resorL Lo
such exLreme measures Lo sub[ugaLe 1amlls, ln addlLlon Lo Lhelr lack of accounLablllLy,
lncreases Lhe rlsk of Lhem commlLLlng mass aLroclLles ln Lhe fuLure ln an efforL Lo
reasserL Slnhalese domlnaLlon.
66


AmnesLy lnLernaLlonal has raLed Srl Lanka as a 3 (Lhe hlghesL level) on Lhe
ollLlcal 1error Scale because lLs leaders place no llmlLs on Lhe means or Lhoroughness
wlLh whlch Lhey pursue personal or ldeologlcal goals."
67
1he uS SLaLe ueparLmenL gave
lL a more favourable raLlng of 4. AL level 4 Lerror affecLs Lhose who lnLeresL Lhemselves
ln pollLlcs or ldeas, whereas level 3 means LhaL Lerror has expanded Lo Lhe whole
populaLlon.



64
lnLernaLlonal Crlsls Croup, Srl Lanka's norLh ll: 8ebulldlng under Lhe MlllLary," March 16, 2012, accessed CcLober 12, 2012,
(hLLp://www.crlslsgroup.org/en/reglons/asla/souLh-asla/srl-lanka/220-srl-lankas-norLh-ll-rebulldlng-under-Lhe-mlllLary.aspx).
63
lbld.
66
SenLlnel ro[ecL, Larly Warnlng Manual," p. 34.
67
ollLlcal 1error Scale, Srl Lanka," ollLlcal 1error Scale, 2011, accessed CcLober 14, 2012,
hLLp://www.pollLlcalLerrorscale.org/counLrles.php?reglon+Lurasla&counLry=Srl20Lanka.



21
1amlls kllled by Srl Lankan armed forces May 2009.


erhaps Lhe ma[or lndlcaLor of Srl Lanka's culLure of lmpunlLy remalns ln Lhe
under-enforcemenL of lnLernaLlonal human rlghLs law. Srl Lanka raLlfled Lhe
lnLernaLlonal CovenanL on Clvll and ollLlcal 8lghLs (lCC8) ln 1980, whlch means LhaL
Lhe counLry agreed Lo lnLegraLe Lhe prlnclples lL embodles lnLo Lhe domesLlc code of
baslc clvll and pollLlcal rlghLs. 1he sLaLe commlLLed lLself Lo affordlng lLs clLlzens an
ob[ecLlve body of sLandards upon whlch Lo esLabllsh Lhelr rlghLs, meanlng LhaL when
clLlzens have dlfflculLy reallzlng Lhelr rlghLs Lhey can refer Lo Lhe norms lald ouL ln Lhe
lCC8 and make demands for Lhe necessary lnsLlLuLlonal or oLher changes. ln Lhls way,
Lhe lCC8 provldes a seL of benchmarks agalnsL whlch Lhe growLh or degeneraLlon of
domesLlc law and pracLlces may be measured. Srl Lanka ls also obllged Lo reporL
perlodlcally Lo Lhe un Puman 8lghLs CommlLLee on lLs progress Lowards compllance
wlLh Lhe CovenanL.

Srl Lanka also raLlfled Lhe flrsL CpLlonal roLocol Lo Lhe lCC8 ln 1998, whlch
obllges sLaLe parLles Lo puL ln place measures LhaL wlll glve effecL Lo Lhe rlghLs lL
guaranLees and afford remedles where Lhey are vlolaLed. 1o ensure Lhls, ArLlcle 2
sLlpulaLes LhaL persons who belleve Lhelr rlghLs have been vlolaLed should be able Lo lay
clalms before compeLenL [udlclal, admlnlsLraLlve, and legal auLhorlLles, and LhaL where
remedles are granLed Lhey should be enforced.

8y becomlng a sLaLe parLy Lo Lhe flrsL CpLlonal roLocol, Srl Lanka has glven lLs
clLlzens Lhe opporLunlLy Lo appeal dlrecLly Lo Lhe un Puman 8lghLs CommlLLee (unP8C)
when Lhelr rlghLs under Lhe CovenanL are vlolaLed and when Lhey have Laken all
posslble sLeps Lo obLaln a remedy Lhrough domesLlc law and lnsLlLuLlons. 1he
CommlLLee assesses grlevances ln accordance wlLh Lhe sLandards lald ouL ln Lhe
CovenanL, glvlng clLlzens Lhe chance Lo LesL wheLher Lhese are well founded and
wheLher Lhelr rlghLs could be beLLer safeguarded.

Powever, Lhe governmenL's denlal of human rlghLs mechanlsms deblllLaLes Lhe
rule of law ln Lhe counLry. ConLrary Lo Lhe prlnclples of lnLernaLlonal law, Lhe Supreme
CourL of Srl Lanka ruled ln Lhe Slngarasa Case (2006)
68
LhaL Lhe vlews of Lhe unP8C had
no force or effecL ln Srl Lanka. 1he courL also held LhaL Srl Lanka's very accesslon Lo Lhe
roLocol was unconsLlLuLlonal. 1hls was based on an assumpLlon LhaL Lhe unP8C
exerclses [udlclal power wlLhln Srl Lanka's LerrlLorlal boundarles, whlch however, was
paLenLly noL Lhe case. 8uL Lhe flllng of lndlvldual appllcaLlons before Lhe CommlLLee dld
noL cease as a resulL of Lhe Slngarasa declslon. 1he appllcaLlons had a common Lhread of
lmpunlLy afforded Lo perpeLraLors.


68
See hLLp://www1.umn.edu/humanrLs/undocs/hLml/1033-2001.hLml, accessed !uly 30, 2013.



22
ln Lhe landmark aLhmlnl lerls's complalnL flled on 6 lebruary 2009, Lhe unP8C
concluded ln favour of Lhe appllcanL (26 CcLober 2011). 1he unP8C observed LhaL Lhe
sLaLe was under a sLrlcL duLy Lo effecLlvely lnvesLlgaLe and prosecuLe ln all cases of
vlolaLlons of llfe, regardless of who Lhe alleged perpeLraLors are. uesplLe several pleas
for wlLness proLecLlon, no acLlon had been Laken by sLaLe auLhorlLles.
69

E.>.> 3,'$"+L'* (O'U +T% 3*+%O*"+L'*"$ )'UUP*L+S

1he Srl Lankan governmenL conLlnues Lo lsolaLe lLself from Lhe lnLernaLlonal
communlLy, especlally as lL perLalns Lo lnLernaLlonal human rlghLs regulaLlons and
accounLablllLy. Speaklng aL Lhe LwenLleLh sesslon of Lhe unP8C, Lhe Srl Lankan
represenLaLlve challenged Lhe unlversallLy of un human rlghLs sLandards, argulng LhaL
lower Lhresholds should be seL for developlng counLrles. Cenoclde WaLch ldenLlfled Lhls
as parL of an ongolng aLLempL by Lhe Srl Lankan governmenL Lo manoeuvre lnLernaLlonal
humanlLarlan and human rlghLs codes Lo ensure LhaL serlous vlolaLlons do noL enLall
lnLernaLlonal repercusslons.
70


1he Srl Lankan governmenL has also lsolaLed lLself from Lhe lnLernaLlonal
communlLy Lhrough lLs repeaLed refusal Lo Lry boLh lLs army and Lhe L11L for gross
human rlghLs vlolaLlons commlLLed durlng Lhe lasL phase of Lhe war. ln Aprll 2011, un
SecreLary-Ceneral 8an kl-Moon released a reporL accuslng Lhe Srl Lankan Army and Lhe
L11L of conducLlng mlllLary operaLlons wlLh flagranL dlsregard for Lhe proLecLlon,
rlghLs, welfare, and llves of clvlllans and falled Lo respecL Lhe norms of lnLernaLlonal
law."
71
1he governmenL responded by creaLlng Lhe Lessons Learned and 8econclllaLlon
Commlsslon (LL8C) Lo address Lhe alleged crlmes. Powever, local and lnLernaLlonal
human rlghLs groups have conLlnued Lo accuse Lhe commlsslon of belng lneffecLlve due
Lo lLs fallure Lo meeL lnLernaLlonal regulaLlons as well as lLs fallure Lo lnvesLlgaLe Lhe
alleged aLroclLles. Srl Lanka ls also noL a slgnaLory member of Lhe lnLernaLlonal Crlmlnal
CourL, whlch greaLly llmlLs Lhe avenues Lhrough whlch Lhe lnLernaLlonal communlLy can
lnLervene Lo brlng [usLlce Lo perpeLraLors and prevenL fuLure aLroclLles.

Cn 21 March 2013, Lhe unP8C adopLed a resoluLlon LlLled romoLlng
8econclllaLlon and AccounLablllLy ln Srl Lanka." 1he resoluLlon expresses Lhe unP8C
concern over conLlnulng reporLs of vlolaLlons of human rlghLs ln Srl Lanka:

lncludlng enforced dlsappearances, exLra[udlclal kllllngs, LorLure, and vlolaLlons
of Lhe rlghLs Lo freedom of expresslon, assoclaLlon, and peaceful assembly, as
well as lnLlmldaLlon of - and reprlsals agalnsL - human rlghLs defenders, members

69
hLLp://www.redress.org/downloads/lernando20-20vlews20of20Puman208lghLs20CommlLLee20221211.pdf accessed
SepLember 13, 2013.
70
Aslan Puman 8lghLs Commlsslon, Srl Lanka: CovernmenL 8e[ecLs unlversallLy of Puman 8lghLs," Cenoclde WaLch, !une 23, 2012,
accessed CcLober 10, 2012, (hLLp://www.genocldewaLch.org/lmages/Srl_Lanka_12_06_23_Srl_Lanka-
_CovernmenL_re[ecLs_unlversallLy_of_Puman_8lghLs.pdf).
71
Puman 8lghLs WaLch, un: AcL on lalllngs ln Srl Lanka," Puman 8lghLs WaLch, november 14, 2012, accessed november 30, 2012,
(hLLp://hrw.org/news/2012/11/14/un-acL-falllngs-srl-lanka).



23
of clvll socleLy, and [ournallsLs, LhreaLs Lo [udlclal lndependence and Lhe rule of
law, and dlscrlmlnaLlon on Lhe basls of rellglon or bellef.
72


Moreover, Lhe resoluLlon relLeraLes lLs call upon Lhe Srl Lankan governmenL Lo
effecLlvely lmplemenL Lhe recommendaLlons made ln Lhe reporL of Lhe LL8C, and Lo Lake
all necessary addlLlonal sLeps Lo fulflll lLs relevanL legal obllgaLlons and lLs commlLmenL
Lo lnlLlaLe credlble and lndependenL acLlons Lo ensure [usLlce, equlLy, accounLablllLy, and
reconclllaLlon for all Srl Lankans.
E.>.E ?LVT @%N%$ '( 6L$L+"OS 0KQ%*RL+PO%

ln local currency, Lhe value for mlllLary expendlLure ln Srl Lanka was 172 bllllon
rupees (uSu 1,403 mllllon) as of 2011.
73
Cver Lhe pasL 23 years, Lhls lndlcaLor reached a
maxlmum value of 173 bllllon rupees (uSu 1,640 mllllon) ln 2009 and a mlnlmum value
of 4.3 bllllon rupees (uSu 333 mllllon) ln 1989.
74


1he lndlcaLors presenLed above show LhaL Lhere has been a sLeady decrease ln
mlllLary expendlLure for Srl Lanka slnce 2008, accordlng Lo World 8ank records as of 31
CcLober 2012. Slnce 1983, when mlllLary expendlLure peaked aL 3.86 per cenL of Lhe
Cu, lL has been slowly decreaslng Lo a low of 2.63 per cenL ln 2011, Lhe lowesL slnce
1989's 1.79 per cenL of Cu. 1he numbers seem Lo remaln Lhe same when Lhe caLegory
of armed forces personnel ls Laken lnLo conslderaLlon. AL Lhe helghL of Lhe confllcL ln
2009, armed personnel comprlsed 2.6 per cenL of Lhe LoLal labour force, wlLh Lhe
percenLage lncreaslng only by 0.1 per cenL ln 2010.
73
1he lack of a decrease ln armed
forces personnel may be an lndlcaLlon of Lhe prevalence of armed personnel ln Srl
Lankan socleLy, even ln peaceLlme. 1hls daLa ls conslsLenL wlLh Lhe seemlngly
permanenL presence of Lhe Srl Lankan mlllLary ln Lhe norLh as Lhe reglon undergoes
resLoraLlon" efforLs.

1he 26 per cenL lncrease ln Srl Lanka's mlllLary budgeL from 2012 Lo 2013 ls a
maLLer of concern.
76
AlLhough Lhe governmenL has [usLlfled lncreases ln Lhe pasL as
necessary Lo repay army debLs lncurred durlng Lhe clvll war, lncludlng ouLsLandlng
repaymenLs for arms and allowances for mlllLary personnel, lL has yeL Lo defend Lhe
sharp lncrease ln Lhe 2013 mlllLary budgeL.
77
1hls hlgh lncremenL wlll llkely fuel concerns

72
unP8C 8esoluLlon (A/P8C/22/L.1/8ev.1) on romoLlng 8econclllaLlon and AccounLablllLy ln Srl Lanka.
73
1he mlllLary expendlLure flgures presenLed here are from Lhe SLockholm lnLernaLlonal eace 8esearch lnsLlLuLe (Sl8l). MlllLary
expendlLures daLa from Sl8l are derlved from Lhe nA1C deflnlLlon, whlch lncludes all currenL and caplLal expendlLures on Lhe
armed forces, lf Lhese are [udged Lo be Lralned and equlpped for mlllLary operaLlons, and mlllLary space acLlvlLles.
74
Source: SLockholm lnLernaLlonal eace 8esearch lnsLlLuLe (Sl8l), (hLLp://mllexdaLa.slprl.org/flles/?flle=Sl8l+mllex+daLa+1988-
2011.xls).
73
1he World 8ank, MlllLary LxpendlLure ( of Cu)," 1he World 8ank, accessed CcLober 6, 2012,
daLa.worldbank.org/lndlcaLor/MS.MlL.xnu.Cu.ZS, 1he World 8ank, Armed lorces ersonnel ( of 1oLal Labor lorce," accessed
november 10, 2012, daLa.worldbank.org/lndlcaLor/MS.MlL.1C1L.1l.ZS.
76
uefence MarkeLlng lnLelllgence, Srl Lanka, 2013 uefense 8udgeL Approved," uefence MarkeLlng lnLelllgence, november 21, 2012,
accessed november 30, 2012, dmllL.com/lndex.php?opLlon=com_conLenL&vlew+arLlcle&ld+4827=srl-lanka-2013-defence-budgeL-
approved&caLld=3:asla&lLemld=36.
77
!ane's lnformaLlon Croup, uefence 8udgeL (Srl Lanka) uefence 8udgeL," PlS, May 13, 2012, accessed uecember 10, 2012,
arLlcles.[anes.com/[anes-senLlenLl-securlLy-assessmenL-souLh-asla/defence-budgeL-srl-lanka.hLml.



24
LhaL have been ralsed by boLh eLhnlc 1amlls and lnLernaLlonal human rlghLs groups
abouL Lhe lncreaslng mlllLarlzaLlon of Lhe norLh and does noLhlng Lo resolve Lenslons
beLween 1amlls and Lhe Srl Lankan governmenL, especlally ln lLs lncreaslng resorL Lo
vlolence ln order Lo quell pollLlcal dlssldence.
E.>.D GO%[P%*+ )T"*V%, L* H'$L+LM"$ @%"R%O,TLQ

AlLhough Srl Lanka has noL experlenced frequenL changes ln pollLlcal leadershlp
LhaL would prompL compeLlng ellLes Lo resorL Lo mass vlolence ln order Lo reLaln power,
Lhe sLrucLure of Lhe Srl Lankan governmenL conLlnues Lo change ln a manner LhaL
awards unprecedenLed consolldaLed powers Lo resldenL 8a[apaksa and Lhe Slnhalese
eLhnlc group. Slnce Lhe clvll war ended, 8a[apaksa has Lransformed Srl Lanka from an
elecLoral democracy lnLo an auLhorlLarlan ollgarchy.
78
Accordlng Lo lreedom Pouse
lnLernaLlonal, 8a[apaksa, along wlLh hls broLhers who hold Lhe poslLlons of defence
secreLary, mlnlsLer of economlc developmenL, and speaker of parllamenL respecLlvely,
noL Lo menLlon oLher relaLlves who hold promlnenL poslLlons ln governmenL, conLrol 70
per cenL of Lhe naLlonal budgeL.
79


1hls rapld concenLraLlon of power ln one famlly dlmlnlshes any accounLablllLy
measures LhaL a democraLlc governmenL could oLherwlse lmpose agalnsL presldenLlal
abuses of power. AlLhough Lhe llLeraLure lndlcaLes LhaL frequenL changes ln pollLlcal
leadershlp lncreases Lhe llkellhood of mass aLroclLles due Lo ellLe compeLlLlon and Lhe
deslre Lo consolldaLe power Lhrough whaLever means necessary, a varlaLlon of LhaL
argumenL can be made for Lhe Srl Lankan case.
80
1he Lremendous concenLraLlon of
power ln Lhe 8a[apaksa famlly could equally lead Lhem Lo resorL Lo exLreme vlolence ln
order Lo malnLaln Lhelr power lf LhreaLened. 1he repeaLed use of vlolence Lo sLlfle any
opposlLlon ls lndlcaLlve of Lhls.


78
lreedom Pouse, Srl Lanka" (hLLp://freedomhouse.org/reporL/counLrles-crossroads/2012/srl-lanka)
79
lbld.
80
SenLlnel ro[ecL, Larly Warnlng Manual, 34.



23
E.E H<@3!3)7@ 80C360 J 3=0<@<C9
E.E.- 0KM$P,LN% CO'PQZA",%R 8P$%

Srl Lanka has a long hlsLory of excluslve group-based rule daLlng back Lo 8rlLlsh
colonlzaLlon 1796, wlLh Lhe 1amlls belng favored by 8rlLlsh rule and comprlslng a
ma[orlLy of clvll servanLs even Lhough Lhey were a mlnorlLy group and Lhe Slnhalese
were Lhe ma[orlLy (see rlor ersecuLlon of Lhe CuLgroup(s)"). When Srl Lanka achleved
lndependence ln 1948, Lhe roles were reversed. Lver slnce Lhen, 1amlls have
unsuccessfully soughL proporLlonaLe recognlLlon and adequaLe represenLaLlon. 1he
creaLlon of Lhe L11L ln 1976 came ln response Lo Lhls percelved pollLlcal and culLural
sub[ugaLlon by Lhe Slnhalese ma[orlLy.
81


1he defeaL of Lhe L11L ln 2009 has done llLLle Lo address Lhe concerns and fears
of Lhe 1amlls as Lhey relaLe Lo Slnhalese domlnaLlon. lnsLead of formlng more lncluslve
relaLlonshlps wlLh Lhe mlnorlLy, Lhe Slnhalese governmenL has used Lhls LranslLlonal
perlod Lo reasserL Slnhalese domlnaLlon. Accordlng Lo several reporLs by Lhe
lnLernaLlonal Crlsls Croup (lCC), Lhe Srl Lankan governmenL ls underLaklng ma[or efforLs
Lo Slnhallze" Lhe norLh, consequenLly sLrlpplng 1amlls of Lhelr mlnorlLy rlghLs. 1he
heavy mlllLary presence ln Lhe norLh has resulLed ln Lhe erecLlon of Slnhalese slgns Lo
replace 1amll ones, Lhe renamlng of sLreeLs Lo Slnhalese names, Lhe consLrucLlon of
monumenLs Lo Slnhalese war heroes, Lhe openlng of museums only accesslble Lo
Slnhalese clLlzens, and Lhe encroachmenL of Slnhalese naLlonals on 1amll lands and
LerrlLory. 1hls mlllLarlzaLlon and subsequenL SlnhallsaLlon" of Lhe norLh rlsks renewlng
Lenslons beLween 1amlls and Lhe Slnhalese governmenL as lL falls Lo address Lhe old
grlevances whlch preclplLaLed Lhe clvll war. 1he maln drlver of Lhe 1amll separaLlsL
movemenL led by Lhe L11L was Lo address Lhe sub[ugaLlon of 1amll rlghLs under Lhe
Slnhalese governmenL. 1he SlnhallsaLlon" of 1amll LerrlLory and consequenL derogaLlon
of 1amll culLural clalms only serves Lo reopen Lhe old wounds LhaL led Lo war ln Lhe flrsL
place.
82

E.E.: 5%N%O% C'N%O*U%*+ =L,MOLUL*"+L'* 'O 7M+LN% 8%QO%,,L'* 7V"L*,+ )'UUP*"$
CO'PQ,

1he end of Lhe 26-year clvll war creaLed an opporLunlLy for Lhe Srl Lankan
governmenL Lo recognlze Lhe mulLl-eLhnlc and mulLl-rellglous naLure of Lhe counLry and
Lo reach ouL across eLhnlc and pollLlcal dlvldes Lo devlse a susLalnable pollLlcal soluLlon
accepLable Lo lLs dlfferenL eLhnlc groups. ln pracLlcal Lerms, Lhls requlred a speedy and
senslLlve response Lo Lhe pllghL of Lhe hundreds of Lhousands of people dlsplaced by Lhe
war, beglnnlng wlLh a clear and lncluslve reseLLlemenL and reconsLrucLlon plan for Lhe
1amlls who had been baLLered ln Lhe lasL sLages of Lhe war and Lhen kepL ln closed
lnLernmenL camps, Lhe Musllms who were evlcLed from Lhe norLh by Lhe L11L ln 1990,

81
MlnorlLles aL 8lsk ro[ecL, AssessmenL for Srl Lankan 1amlls ln Srl Lanka."
82
'Srl Lanka's norLh l: 1he uenlal of MlnorlLy 8lghLs', lnLernaLlonal Crlsls Croup Asla 8eporL n219, 16 March 2012.



26
Lhe Slnhalese who fled Lhe norLh and easL Lo avold vlolence, and 1amll refugees ln lndla
and elsewhere. lL also requlred Lhe governmenL Lo work accordlng Lo a clear and Llme-
bound road map promoLlng a pollLlcal power-sharlng arrangemenL LhaL responded Lo
Lhe lnsecurlLy and asplraLlons of 1amlls and Musllms ln Lhe norLh and easL. AlmosL flve
years slnce Lhe end of Lhe war, Lhere has been llLLle progress on any of Lhese fronLs.

As menLloned above, Lhe Slnhalese governmenL has lmplemenLed several
pro[ecLs Lo Slnhallze" Lhe norLh LhaL demonsLraLe an acLlve efforL by Lhe sLaLe Lo
dlscrlmlnaLe agalnsL 1amlls and deny Lhem any form of pollLlcal or economlc leverage.
8a[apaksa's governmenL has conslsLenLly broken promlses made Lo Lhe 1nA regardlng
Lhe lmplemenLaLlon of power-sharlng lnlLlaLlves LhaL were meanL Lo peacefully address
Lhe grlevances of Lhe 1amll. ln 2012, Lhe governmenL pushed for Lhe 1nA Lo [oln a
parllamenLary selecL commlLLee (SC), whlch slgnlflcanLly dlluLed Lhe pollLlcal leverage
LhaL 1amlls had, especlally compared Lo Lhe orlglnal separaLlsL movemenL. 1he
governmenL's unwllllngness Lo negoLlaLe on any maLLers LhaL lnvolve power sharlng
undermlnes Lhe LranslLlonal process and rlsks lnclLlng mlllLanL 1amll groups Lo vlolence
ln order Lo force Lhe governmenL's hand. 1he governmenL's aLLlLude led Lo Lhe cessaLlon
of Lalks from !anuary 2012 Lo !uly 2013. ln !uly 2013, Lhe 8a[apaksa resLarLed Lalks wlLh
Lhe 1nA on holdlng free and falr elecLlons ln Lhe counLry's norLh, days afLer Lhe maln
1amll parLy sklpped a key parllamenLary panel meeLlng on devolvlng power Lo Lhe
provlnces.
E.E.> 8P$L*V CO'PQ =%%U, <P+VO'PQW,X +' #% ="*V%O'P,

1he mlllLarlzaLlon and SlnhallsaLlon" of Lhe norLh has lncreased Lenslons
beLween 1amlls and Lhe Srl Lankan governmenL and acLlve pollLlcal dlscrlmlnaLlon
coupled wlLh pre-exlsLlng economlc and culLural dlscrlmlnaLlon may be Lhe lasL sLraw for
1amll exLremlsLs.
83


lurLhermore, Lhe heavy mlllLarlzaLlon of 1amll-ma[orlLy areas ln Lhe norLh
suggesLs LhaL Lhe governmenL sLlll percelves Lhe reglon Lo be dangerous. All ma[or
reconsLrucLlon efforLs Lhere are currenLly conLrolled by Lhe mlllLary, whlch has done
noLhlng Lo recLlfy decades of mlsLrusL and anlmoslLy beLween Lhe eLhnlc groups. 1he Srl
Lankan governmenL conLlnues Lo promoLe Lhe rheLorlc of Lhe 1amll LerrorlsL" whlle
subsequenLly presenLlng a false appearance of norLhern revlLallzaLlon, called Lhe
norLhern Sprlng."
84
!ournallsLs for uemocracy ln Srl Lanka (!uS) argues lnsLead LhaL Lhe
Srl Lankan governmenL has conLlnued Lhe same sLrucLural and sysLemaLlc" sLaLe
vlolence LhaL was used Lo flghL 1amll Lerrorlsm aL Lhe helghL of Lhe clvll war.


83
lnLernaLlonal Crlsls Croup, Srl Lanka: 1amll ollLlcs and Lhe CuesL for a ollLlcal SoluLlon," ?)*(+)%*1#)%" '+1/1/ !+#;0, november
20, 2012, (u8L accessed november 23, 2012) hLLp://www.crlslsgroup.org/en/reglons/asla/souLh-asla/srl-lanka/239-srl-lanka-Lamll-
pollLlcs-and-Lhe-quesL-for-a-pollLlcal-soluLlon.aspx.
84
ALhlLhan !ayapalan, SLaLe 1errorlsm and 8eslsLance: 1he Cenocldal CccupaLlon of Lhe 1amll Pomeland," S#;+)%"1/*/ ,#+
@(>#4+%42 1) 6+1 8%)9%G november 21, 2012, (u8L accessed november 30, 2012) www.[dslanka.org/lndex.php/20120-01-31-
17/pollLlcs-a-economy/218-sLaLe-Lerrorlsm-and-reslsLance-Lhe-genocldal-occupaLlon-of-Lhe-Lamll-homeland.



27
1he heavy mlllLarlzaLlon and survelllance of 1amll-lnhablLed areas has led crlLlcs
of Lhe reglme Lo fear Lhe resumpLlon of confllcL, especlally as Lhe governmenL
underLakes efforLs LhaL are consldered genocldal" by 1amlls and some lnLernaLlonal
crlLlcs (see PlsLory of Cenoclde")F AlLhough Lhe World 8ank soclal lncluslon/equlLy
clusLer does noL necessarlly reflecL eLhnlc dlvlslons ln Srl Lankan socleLy, lL ls a sLrong
general lndlcaLor of how lncluslve (or excluslve) LhaL Srl Lankan governmenL pollcles are.
8eLween 2007 and 2012 lncluslve, Srl Lanka ranked hlghesL ln 2008 and 2009 wlLh a
raLlng of 3.8 ouL of 6, only Lo gradually decrease Lo 4.7 ln 2010, and 3.6 ln 2011 and
2012.
83
AlLhough Lhe decremenLs are raLher small, Lhey are an lmporLanL area for fuLure
monlLorlng, especlally as lL perLalns Lo Lhe lncluslon of 1amlls ln Srl Lankan socleLy and
Lhe poLenLlal redress of excluslonary pollcles. A conLlnued decllne mlghL lndlcaLe LhaL
Lhe Srl Lankan governmenL sLlll percelves 1amlls as a LhreaL and are consequenLly
adopLlng pollcles LhaL reflecL Lhls. 1he pollcles for soclal lncluslon and equlLy clusLer
lncludes gender equallLy, equlLy of publlc resource use, bulldlng human resources, soclal
proLecLlon and labor, and pollcles and lnsLlLuLlons for envlronmenLal susLalnablllLy.
E.E.E )T"OL,U"+LM @%"R%O,TLQ +T"+ C%*%O"+%, 6",, G'$$'Y%O,TLQ

CharlsmaLlc leadershlp LhaL appeals Lo soclal lnLanglbles such as naLlonal prlde
and presLlge can faclllLaLe mass aLroclLles lncludlng genoclde ln volaLlle slLuaLlons by
encouraglng members of Lhe domlnanL group Lo elLher acLlvely parLlclpaLe or passlvely
encourage Lhe oppresslon of Lhe mlnorlLy group.
86
ln Lhe Srl Lankan case, Lhe conLlnued
appeal Lo Slnhalese naLlonallsm by resldenL 8a[apaksa has done llLLle Lo lmprove eLhnlc
relaLlons beLween Lhe Slnhalese and 1amll eLhnlc groups. Accordlng Lo uelon Madavan,
a lecLurer aL Lhe arls-Sorbonne unlverslLy, 8a[apaksa conLlnues Lo make an acLlve
efforL Lo appear as Lhe embodlmenL of Slnhalese naLlonallsm," even uslng Slnhalese
celebrlLles Lo campalgn on hls behalf ln parllamenLary elecLlons. 1he exLenL of
8a[apaksa's popullsm" ls reflecLed ln Madavan's noLe LhaL resldenL 8a[apaksa's
unlque brand of parllamenLary popullsm exhlblLs a keener awareness of Lhe lmporLance
of a cerLaln language and reglsLer of naLlonallsm Lhan LhaL of hls Lyplcal forbears, Lhe
8andaranalkes."
87


8a[apaksa's appeals Lo Slnhalese naLlonallsm have won hlm some key supporLers
LhaL pose a LhreaL Lo any poLenLlal 1amll-Slnhalese reconclllaLlon. 1he mosL noLable
group ls Lhe naLlonal PerlLage arLy (!Pu), comprlsed of hard-llne mlllLanL monks who
alm Lo resLore Srl Lanka Lo lLs Slnhalese, 8uddhlsL rooLs. 1he !Pu's bellefs are largely
founded ln Lhe slxLh-cenLury legend of A%-%7%>/% wrlLLen by monks ldenLlfylng Lhe
Slnhalese as 8uddha's chosen people and glvlng Lhem a responslblllLy Lo preserve Lhe


86
SenLlnel ro[ecL, Larly Warnlng Manual," 36.
87
uelon Madavan, 'ollLlcs and ldeology ln Lhe Slnhalese ress: A SlLe for ower and SLruggle,' by SumlLh Chaamlnda," 6+1 8%)9% T
@1%/0#+%/ U$/(+7(*#1+( 3";+%<1/410"1)%1+(G SepLember 1, 2012, (u8L accessed uecember 13, 2012)
hLLp://slkdlaspo.hypoLheses.org/693?lang=en_C8.



28
rellglon ln lLs mosL prlsLlne form," lncludlng Lhe vanqulshlng of 1amll lnvaders.
88
1he
!Pu has consequenLly been one of Lhe blggesL opponenLs of any sorL of 1amll-Slnhalese
reconclllaLlon. Accordlng Lo some observers, proLesL acLlvlLy by Lhe !Pu was one of Lhe
maln reasons why Lhe 2002 norweglan-led peace seLLlemenL was unsuccessful. 1he
group, led by Lhe war monk" ALhuraylle 8aLhana, was vehemenLly opposed Lo any
concesslons LhaL would have preclplLaLed peace and lnsLead argued for prolonged war lf
necessary Lo secure a Slnhalese vlcLory, lf Lhey glve up Lhelr weapons, Lhen we can
Lalk," 8aLhana was quoLed as saylng. lf noL, Lhen we wlll conLrol Lhem by any means
necessary. We should flghL now and Lalk laLer."
89


1he !Pu has closely allgned lLself wlLh Lhe Srl Lankan governmenL slnce Lhe end
of Lhe clvll war, sLaglng proLesLs and aLLacks on 1amll and Musllm areas LhaL Lhey
belleve rlghLfully belong Lo Lhe Slnhalese.
90
rlor Lo hls elecLoral vlcLory ln 2003,
8a[apaksa made several pollLlcal pacLs wlLh leaders of Lhe !Pu as parL of hls appeal Lo
Slnhalese naLlonallsm, Lhls was an acLlon LhaL many feared would furLher Loughen hls
1amll pollcles.
91
1he !Pu's resorL Lo vlolence ln Lhe pasL ln order Lo obsLrucL peace
negoLlaLlons beLween Lhe Slnhalese and 1amlls demonsLraLes Lhelr conLlnued lnslsLence
on Slnhalese naLlonallsm. 8a[apaksa's assoclaLlon wlLh Lhe group sends a message Lo Lhe
1amll communlLy LhaL Lhe governmenL wlll never be wllllng Lo concede any rlghLs Lo
Lhem and LhaL lL condones, albelL unofflclally, vlolenL acLlon perpeLraLed agalnsL Lhem
by exLremlsL groups llke Lhe !Pu. 1hls percepLlon may ln Lurn Lrlgger furLher vlolence
from 1amlls who feel LhreaLened by a hard-llne governmenL or by Slnhalese naLlonallsL
groups llke Lhe !Pu LhaL assume governmenL endorsemenL.
E.E.D <OL%*+"+L'* !'Y"OR, G'OM% "*R )'%OML'* +' 5%L]% "*R 6"L*+"L* H'Y%O

1he Srl Lankan governmenL conLlnues Lo resorL Lo force and vlolence ln order Lo
sllence lLs crlLlcs and consolldaLe power. Several reporLs by dlssldenL Srl Lankan medla
ouLleLs and human rlghLs groups have repeaLedly accused Lhe Srl Lankan governmenL of
resorLlng Lo vlolence and oLher lllegal means Lo sllence lLs crlLlcs. 1he recenL dayllghL
aLLack on !udge Man[ula 1llakaraLne by unldenLlfled men has renewed lnLernaLlonal
aLLenLlon Lo Lhe lssue. 1llakaraLne served as secreLary of Lhe !udlclal Servlces
Commlsslon ln charge of appolnLlng and Lransferrlng [udges and maglsLraLes. A monLh
before Lhe aLLack, he had been vocal abouL Lhe governmenL's aLLempLs Lo pressure and
lnLlmldaLe Lhe Commlsslon lnLo concedlng on cerLaln lssues, Lhe aLLack ls belleved by
many Lo be punlshmenL by Lhe governmenL for havlng spoken ouL and 1llakaraLne ls buL
one of many cases.
92



88
Wllllam McCowan, 8uddhlsLs 8ehavlng 8adly: WhaL ZealoLry ls uolng Lo Srl Lanka," K#+(15) I,,%1+/G AugusL 2, 2012, (u8L accessed
uecember 13, 2012) hLLp://www.forelgnaffalrs.com/arLlcles/137812/wllllam-mcgowan/buddhlsLs-behavlng-badly?page=show
89
lbld.
90
lbld.
91
Colombo 1elegraph, Wlklleaks: resldenL 8a[apaksa's Amerlcan 8eporL Card," '#"#>$# C("(5+%0-G CcLober 6, 2012, (u8L
accessed uecember 13, 2012) hLLp://www.colomboLelegraph.com/lndex.php/wlklleaks-presldenL-ra[apaksas-amerlcan-reporL-card.
92
Clobal 1lmes, SecreLary Lo Srl Lanka's maln [udlclal body assaulLed", !"#$%" C1>(/ , CcLober 8, 2012, (u8L accessed SepLember 13
2013) hLLp://www.globalLlmes.cn/conLenL/736874.



29
A recenL Puman 8lghLs WaLch reporL provldes numerous examples of forced
dlsappearances and exLra[udlclal kllllngs carrled ouL agalnsL crlLlcs of Lhe 8a[apaksa
reglme, lncludlng Lhe deaLh of LasanLha WlckremaLunge, an edlLor of Lhe 6;)<%2
8(%<(+, a newspaper crlLlcal of Lhe governmenL, who was shoL and kllled ln broad
dayllghL near a pollce sLaLlon, and Lhe dlsappearance of pollLlcal saLlrlsL rageeLh
Lknellgoda, who dlsappeared Lwo days before Lhe presldenLlal elecLlon and has noL
been heard from slnce.
93
1he presldenL's broLher, CoLabhaya 8a[apaska, who serves as
defence secreLary, has dlsmlssed slmllar cases of exLra[udlclal kllllngs and forced
dlsappearances as lles lnLended Lo undermlne Lhe lnLernaLlonal and domesLlc progress
of Srl Lanka, argulng lnsLead LhaL many of Lhe people who were recorded mlsslng were
crlmlnals who had escaped abroad."
94
1he fallure Lo address Lhese abuses of power
glves Lhe Srl Lankan governmenL a cerLaln measure of lmpunlLy and makes lL appear
accepLable Lo resorL Lo force ln order Lo seLLle pollLlcal dlspuLes. An escalaLlon ln
vlolence by governmenL forces or pro-governmenL paramlllLary groups Lo lnclude mass
kllllngs or posslbly genoclde would llkely go unpunlshed slnce a precedenL has already
been esLabllshed for governmenL lmpunlLy. See also SLaLe SecurlLy Agencles CperaLlng
wlLh a lew ConsLralnLs," Low uegree of uemocracy," and PlsLory of Cenoclde."
E.E.I 3*,+"$$"+L'* '( " ;%Y$SZ)O%"+%R 8%VLU%

lollowlng Lhe 2010 naLlonal elecLlons, Srl Lanka wlLnessed Lhe lnauguraLlon of a
new pollLlcal reglme, besL descrlbed as a hybrld reglme, slmllar Lo LhaL prevalllng ln
souLheasL Aslan counLrles such as Malaysla and Slngapore. 1hese reglmes, bullL around
a domlnanL parLy, conslsL of a mlxLure of auLhorlLarlan and democraLlc elemenLs where
formal democraLlc processes such as perlodlc elecLlons comblne wlLh a sLrong
lncumbenL parLy Lo llmlL Lhe organlzaLlonal capaclLy of Lhe pollLlcal opposlLlon.

A dlsLlncLlve feaLure of Lhls new pollLlcal culLure ls Lhe organlzaLlonal
coheslveness of parLy and sLaLe lnsLlLuLlons, whlch provldes slgnlflcanL lnformal
advanLages Lo Lhe domlnanL pollLlcal parLy, enabllng lL Lo reach deep lnLo boLh clvll
socleLy and Lhe pollLlcal economy. lL ls now clear LhaL Lhe end of Lhe clvll war acLually
acceleraLed a fundamenLal process of sLaLe LransformaLlon leadlng Lo Lhe emergence of
a hybrld reglme ln whaL amounLs Lo a one-parLy sLaLe, consLlLuLlng a slgnlflcanL
deparLure from Lhe earller pollLlcal eLhos wlLh grave lmpllcaLlons for Srl Lanka's
hlsLorlcal engagemenL wlLh democraLlc lnsLlLuLlons and pracLlces.

ln addlLlon Lo Lhe formal advanLages Lhe governmenL en[oys, Lhere ls ofLen a
Lendency for Lhe governmenL Lo rely lncreaslngly on Lhe lnformallzaLlon of power," LhaL
ls, Lhe advanLages of lnformal power galned Lhrough personal alllances and sysLems of
paLronage. 1hese lnformal powers are relnforced by a sysLem LhaL allows Lhe presldenL

93
Puman 8lghLs WaLch, Srl Lanka: Address 8lghLs 8ollback 8evlew," Q;>%) .15-*/ H%*4-, CcLober 20, 2012, (u8L accessed
november 12, 2012) www.hrw.org/news.2012/10/29/srl-lanka-addresses-rlghLs-rollback-revlew.
94
Charles Pavlland, CoLabhaya 8a[apaksa: Srl Lanka norLh 'noL !usL for 1amlls,'" ==' D(E/G May 28, 2012, (u8L accessed uecember
16, 2012) www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asla-18207198.



30
Lo delegaLe execuLlve powers Lo key members of Lhe lnLelllgence servlces, mlllLary,
securlLy servlces, and [udlclary wlLhouL Laklng Lhe clvlllan leadershlp lnLo accounL.
lndeed, one of Lhe key feaLures of Lhe currenL pollLlcal slLuaLlon ls Lhe creaLlon of a
deep sLaLe" - a parallel governmenL organlzed by Lhe lnLelllgence and securlLy
apparaLus, and engaglng ln llllclL vlolence Lo proLecL Lhe sLaLus and lnLeresLs of Lhe
currenL reglme agalnsL LhreaLs from Lhe clvll socleLy and opposlLlon.
93


As presenLed ln Lhe secLlons SLaLe SecurlLy Agencles CperaLlng wlLh lew
ConsLralnLs" and lsolaLlon from Lhe lnLernaLlonal communlLy," Lhe Srl Lankan mlllLary
esLabllshmenL has Laken cenLre sLage ln Lhe new power ellLe and soughL Lo explolL
clvlllan lnLeresLs wlLh whom Lhe mlllLary have enLered lnLo a coallLlon. 1he mlllLary has
assumed a key role ln deLermlnlng and shaplng Lhe lmplemenLaLlon of naLlonal pollcy
and declslon maklng ln many areas lncludlng educaLlon, forelgn relaLlons, and
developmenL.
E.E.F )'UUL+U%*+ +' " ?"OU(P$ 3R%'$'VS

1he currenL Srl Lankan governmenL has demonsLraLed a commlLmenL Lo a
harmful ldeology LhaL draws on Slnhalese naLlonallsm ln order Lo [usLlfy Lhe sub[ugaLlon
of Lhe 1amll mlnorlLy. As dlscussed prevlously, Lhe currenL governmenL conLlnues Lo
deny 1amlls offlclal pollLlcal and culLural recognlLlon on Lhe naLlonal sLage. AL Lhe hearL
of Lhls denlal ls a bellef LhaL 1amlls do noL possess an excluslve rlghL or prlvllege Lo Lhe
norLhern and easLern reglons Lhey occupy desplLe Lhe facL LhaL Lhe dlspuLed LerrlLory
was hlsLorlcally parL of Lhe 1amll !affna klngdom unLll orLuguese annexaLlon ln 1619.
96

1amlls have a dlsLlncL language, pracLlce Plndulsm, and have dlsLlncL culLural pracLlces
from Lhe Slnhalese, who speak Slnhalese and pracLlce 8uddhlsm.
97
AlLhough
compeLlLlon over LerrlLory and resources beLween boLh groups predaLes colonlallsm, lL
was exacerbaLed by Lhe dlvlde-and-conquer sLraLegy of 8rlLlsh colonlal rule. 1he
mlnorlLy 1amlls were awarded admlnlsLraLlve poslLlons under colonlal rule, exacerbaLlng
dlvlslons and enmlLles wlLh Lhe Slnhalese, whlch have survlved ever slnce.

Srl Lankan lndependence saw a reversal of roles beLween boLh groups as Lhe
Slnhalese assumed power and confronLed" Lhe 1amlls who had prevlously held
promlnenL poslLlons ln Srl Lankan socleLy. Slnce lndependence, Lhe Slnhalese ellLe have
repeaLedly relled on Lhls narraLlve of 1amll-Slnhalese relaLlons as a basls for bulldlng
Slnhalese pollLlcal supporL.
98
1he enacLmenL of laws ln Lhe 1930s LhaL emphaslzed
Slnhalese domlnaLlon, lncludlng Lhe Slnhalese Cnly" language pollcy as well as Lhe
recognlLlon of 8uddhlsm as Lhe sLaLe rellglon reflecLs Lhls excluslonary and anLagonlsLlc
ldeology LhaL has been perpeLuaLed by Lhe Slnhalese ellLe. 1he emergence of 1amll

93
1he "deep sLaLe" has a speclflc meanlng and orlgln ln 1urkey where an ALaLurklsL (le secular, naLlonallsL and anLl-democraLlc)
elemenL of Lhe Army peneLraLed Lhe sLaLe and consplred Lo conLrol lL, organlslng coups and ln effecL runnlng a shadow mlllLary
dlcLaLorshlp llmlLlng Lhe freedom of pollLlcal parLles and reLalnlng a sLranglehold on 1urklsh democracy
96
MlnorlLles aL 8lsk, Srl Lankan 1amlls."
97
lbld, A. 8. M. lmLlyaz and 8en SLavls, LLhno-ollLlcal ConfllcL ln Srl Lanka," ln S#;+)%" #, C-1+< H#+"< 6*;<1(/ 23 (2008): 133 - 132.
98
lmLlyaz and SLavls, LLhno-ollLlcal ConfllcL."



31
rebel groups seeklng auLonomy and lndependence ln Lhe 1970s, lncludlng Lhe formaLlon
of Lhe L11L, ls aLLrlbuLed Lo Lhls eLhnlclzaLlon of pollLlcs" by Slnhalese ellLes followlng
Srl Lanka's lndependence.
99


AnoLher source of anLagonlsLlc ldeology has been Lhe anclenL 8uddhlsL narraLlve
A%-%7%>/% (CreaL Chronlcle) whlch porLrays Lhe Slnhalese people as Lhe chosen
people of 8uddha and Lhe rlghLful lnhablLanLs of Srl Lanka, where 8uddha envlsloned a
8uddhlsL sLaLe, even Lelllng Lhe Lale of a young Slnhalese prlnce who leads a group of
8uddhlsL monks agalnsL a 1amll lnvaslon.
100
roponenLs of Lhls anLagonlsLlc ldeology
have lncluded ma[or flgures ln Lhe Srl Lankan governmenL, lncludlng Lhe presldenL's
broLher, as well as more exLreme pollLlcal leaders llke ALhuraylle 8aLhana (see
CharlsmaLlc Leadershlp LhaL CeneraLes Mass lollowershlp").

1he refusal Lo recognlze 1amll clalms Lo Lhe norLhern areas desplLe Lhelr
hlsLorlcal Lles Lo Lhe land, and consequenLly equaLlng 1amll grlevances wlLh Lerrorlsm, as
was Lhe case durlng Lhe clvll war, ls a manlfesLaLlon of Lhe anLagonlsLlc ldeology LhaL
asserLs Lhe domlnance and superlorlLy of Lhe Slnhalese ma[orlLy whlle slmulLaneously
devalulng Lhe rlghLs of 1amlls.
101
1hls refusal Lo recognlze 1amll clalms by Lhe currenL Srl
Lankan governmenL ls especlally dangerous because Lhe 1amll appeal for auLonomy and
power sharlng have been based on Lhelr hlsLorlcal clalms Lo Lhe dlspuLed land. 1hls
excluslonary and anLagonlsLlc ldeology noL only undermlnes Lhese clalms buL also lnsulLs
Lhe cenLral componenL of 1amll ldenLlLy and culLure, Lhelr land.
102
noL only does Lhls
lncrease Lhe poLenLlal for renewed 1amll vlolence agalnsL assaulLs on Lhelr land and
culLure, lL also rlsks lncreaslng governmenL represslon, whlch would llkely appeal Lo
Slnhalese naLlonallsm and lncrease Lhe llkellhood of resumed clvll war.
E.E.^ @'Y =%VO%% '( GO%%R'U '( 5Q%%MT

1here have been numerous cases of governmenL represslon of Lhe freedom of
speech ln Srl Lanka. As lndlcaLed ln Lhe Low uegree of uemocracy" secLlon, Lhe
governmenL conLlnues Lo acLlvely lnLlmldaLe [ournallsLs and publlc flgures who are
crlLlcal of Lhe currenL reglme. Puman 8lghLs WaLch regularly reporLs cases of ralds on
medla offlces, publlc LhreaLs from governmenL offlclals, forced dlsappearances, and
exLra[udlclal kllllngs. lor example, ln !une 2012, governmenL forces ralded Lhe offlces of
Lhe new webslLes Lhe 6+1 8%)9% A1++#+ and 6+1 8%)9% V D(E/, Lhe laLLer belonglng Lo Lhe
opposlLlon parLy, Lhe unlLed naLlonal arLy. Cfflcers of Lhe Crlmlnal lnvesLlgaLlon
ueparLmenL arresLed nlne people and selzed compuLers as well as several documenLs
LhaL Lhey consldered Lo be evldence of propagaLlng false and uneLhlcal news on Srl

99
lbld.
100
McCowan, 8uddhlsLs 8ehavlng 8adly."
101
!ayapalan, SLaLe 1errorlsm."
102
lnLernaLlonal Crlsls Croup, ollLlcal SoluLlon."





32
Lanka."
103
ln March 2012, followlng Lhe release of Lhe unP8C resoluLlon on Srl Lanka,
cablneL mlnlsLer Mervyn Sllva LhreaLened Lo break Lhe llmbs" of local human rlghLs
advocaLes who had expressed supporL for Lhe resoluLlon.
104


1he Srl Lankan governmenL's conLlnued aLLempLs Lo suppress Lhe freedom of
speech has drawn lnLernaLlonal aLLenLlon Lo lLs vlolaLlons as well as calls from Lhe
lnLernaLlonal communlLy Lo address Lhe lssue. Cn 17 !une 2013, Lhe MlnlsLry of Mass
Medla and lnformaLlon offlclally proposed a Code of Medla LLhlcs LhaL would apply Lo
prlnL and elecLronlc medla lncludlng Lhe lnLerneL. 1hls comes aL a Llme when Lhe
governmenL has Laken varlous measures Lo clamp down on Srl Lanka's once vlbranL
medla, lncludlng forclng some ouLleLs crlLlcal of Lhe governmenL Lo close down.
Accordlng Lo P8W, governmenL-enforced codes of conducL for Lhe medla are
unnecessary and lnvarlably lnfrlnge upon Lhe rlghL Lo free expresslon as esLabllshed
under Lhe lnLernaLlonal CovenanL on Clvll and ollLlcal 8lghLs (lCC8).
103



103
Puman 8lghLs WaLch, 8ollback 8evlew."
104
lbld.
103
Srl Lanka: roposed Medla Code 1hreaLens lree Speech," Puman 8lghLs WaLch !une 18, 2013, (u8L accessed !uly 3 2013)
hLLp://www.hrw.org/news/2013/06/18/srl-lanka-proposed-medla-code-LhreaLens-free-speech.



33
E.D )<;G@3)! 7;= 2H?0747@
E.D.- ?L,+'OS '( )'*($LM+

Srl Lanka was under colonlal rule for cenLurles, flrsL by Lhe orLuguese, Lhen Lhe
uuLch, and flnally Lhe 8rlLlsh. rlor Lo colonlzaLlon, Slnhalese and 1amlls had a long
hlsLory of llvlng largely ln peace. As menLloned above, Lhe 8rlLlsh favored Lhe 1amlls,
resulLlng ln a backlash followlng lndependence ln 1948 whlch was codlfled by Lhe
passage of a dlscrlmlnaLory law ln 1936 by Lhe Slnhalese governmenL. 1hls law was
followed by Lhe flrsL eLhnlc rloLs beLween 1amlls and Slnhalese, slnce lndependence.
Slmllar laws have conLrlbuLed Lo furLher eLhnlc Lenslons and 1amlls have grown
lncreaslngly resLless, wlLh Lhe governmenL lgnorlng Lhelr grlevances and frequenLly
suppresslng peaceful proLesLs, Lhls led Lo Lhe creaLlon of lncreaslngly naLlonallsLlc
groups wlLhln Lhe 1amll communlLy ln Lhe 1970s. AcLlvlsLs began asklng for a separaLe
1amll sLaLe buL Lhe compleLe re[ecLlon of Lhelr demands pushed Lhem furLher Lowards
vlolenL mlllLancy. ln 1971, a lefLlsL uprlslng ln Lhe souLh led by Lhe !anaLha vlmukLhl
eramuna, a marxlsL-lenlnsL communlsL pollLlcal parLy of Srl Lanka, provoked a mlllLary
response whlch lefL Lhousands dead.
106


1he early 1980s saw clashes beLween 1amll mlllLanL groups and governmenL
securlLy forces. lor example, ln 1983 1amll mlllLanLs murdered LhlrLeen pollcemen,
whlch sparked a pogrom LhaL lefL an esLlmaLed 1,000 1amlls dead. Lmerglng from Lhese
1amll mlllLanL groups were Lhe L11L, whlch would Lhen become known for Lhelr aLLacks
on securlLy forces and governmenL offlclals. 1989 and 1990, are recalled as years of
Lerror, wlLh governmenL forces Lrylng Lo suppress revolLs on boLh Lhe norLhern and
souLhern fronLs, whlle Lhe L11L had become a full-fledged LerrorlsL group.
107
1hls clvll
war conLlnued unLll Lhe aforemenLloned ceaseflre agreemenLs LhaL ulLlmaLely falled.
1he L11L flnally losL all of lLs LerrlLory lncludlng lLs admlnlsLraLlve caplLal by May 2009,
when Lhe governmenL declared vlcLory.
108


Srl Lanka sllenL march Lhrough Lhe sLreeLs of Colombo ln defense
of freedom of expresslon ln 2009.

106
MlnorlLles aL 8lsk, Srl Lanka: 1he lallure of Lhe eace rocess."
107
lbld.
108
lnLernal ulsplacemenL MonlLorlng CenLre, Srl Lanka."



34

E.D.: ?L,+'OS '( C%*'MLR%

1he Lype of vlolence wlLnessed Lhus far ln Srl Lanka does noL flL Lhe legal
deflnlLlon of genoclde recognlzed by Lhe lnLernaLlonal communlLy buL some observers
have sLlll applled Lhls Lerm. lor example, a recenL arLlcle publlshed by !ournallsLs for
uemocracy ln Srl Lanka, an organlzaLlon of expaLrlaLe Srl Lankan human rlghLs
defenders, argues LhaL Lhe Srl Lankan governmenL has perpeLraLed - and conLlnues Lo
perpeLraLe - whaL Lhey have ldenLlfled as genoclde. 1he arLlcle argues LhaL Lhe
8a[apaksa reglme conLlnues Lo conducL a proLracLed genoclde" by porLraylng Lhe 1amll
cause as a LerrorlsL one," and uslng Lhe Lerm Lo [usLlfy sLaLe vlolence and governmenL
pollcles LhaL are benL on marglnallzlng and condlLlonlng Lhe 1amll capaclLy Lo llve Lhelr
llves wlLh dlgnlLy and Lo . reproduce Lhelr naLlonal consclousness [and] ldenLlLles."
109

1he arLlcle clLes Lhe heavy mlllLarlzaLlon, survelllance, and land grabs ln Lhe norLh as
evldence of ongolng genoclde. Several hlgh-proflle human rlghLs advocaLes, lncludlng
Allan keenan, Lhe lCC Srl Lanka ro[ecL ulrecLor, have called for an lndependenL
lnvesLlgaLlon lnLo genoclde clalms, especlally wlLh regard Lo Lhe lasL few monLhs of Lhe
clvll war.
110



1amlls ln Lhe unlLed SLaLes proLesLlng Lhe Srl Lanka genoclde ln 2009.

Some lnLernaLlonal groups have also acknowledged Lhe perpeLraLlon of genoclde
agalnsL 1amlls by Lhe Srl Lankan governmenL. 1he uublln 1rlbunal, an lndependenL
[udlclary founded by Lhe lrlsh lorum for eace ln Srl Lanka (llSL), Lhe lnlLlaLlve for
eace ln Srl Lanka, and Lhe lnLernaLlonal Puman 8lghLs AssoclaLlon 8remen called for an

109
!ayapalan, SLaLe 1errorlsm."
110
1amllneL, Cenoclde needs lnvesLlgaLlon buL SeparaLlon ConLexLually unwlse: Allan keenan," C%>1" D(E/ D(*E#+9F4#>G CcLober
12, 2012, (u8L accessed november 10, 2012) hLLp://www.LamllnewsneLwork.com/2012/10/10/genoclde-needs-lnvesLlgaLlon-buL-
separaLlon-conLexLually-unwlse-alan-keenan



33
lnvesLlgaLlon lnLo accusaLlons of genoclde perpeLraLed by Lhe Srl Lankan governmenL.
111

CLher nCCs, parLlcularly Lhose LhaL focus on genoclde prevenLlon, such as World
WlLhouL Cenoclde, have exposed pasL genocldal pracLlces of Lhe Srl Lankan governmenL
lncludlng Lhe lnLernmenL of 1amlls ln refugee camps wlLhouL adequaLe access Lo food,
educaLlon, and healLhcare.
112
Cenoclde WaLch has placed Srl Lanka aL sLage 3 of lLs 8-
sLage model, meanlng LhaL Lhe slLuaLlon ls characLerlzed by polarlzaLlon - Lhe dlvlslon of
groups, spreadlng of haLe propaganda, and lncreased efforLs Lo lnLlmldaLe moderaLes.
113

1hls ls conslsLenL wlLh Lhe news releases and reporLs clLed LhroughouL Lhls assessmenL
regardlng Lhe Srl Lankan governmenL's aLLempLs Lo oppress Lhe 1amll eLhnlc group,
especlally slnce Lhe 1amll grlevances LhaL lnclLed Lhe clvll war have yeL Lo be adequaLely
addressed.

As has been presenLed ln Lhe secLlon PlsLory of ConfllcL," Lhere were many
lnsLances of vlolence leadlng up Lo Lhe clvll war ln Lhe 1980s, such as Lhe 1983 pogrom
LhaL lefL 1,000 1amlls dead. Many oLher lnsLances of mass vlolence were reporLed, such
as ln Mannar dlsLrlcL on 4 uecember 1984 when Lhe army kllled 107 clvlllans afLer 1amlls
aLLacked a [eep and kllled a soldler. 1amlls were also lnvolved ln vlolence such as ln
1983, when 1amll mlllLanLs dressed ln army unlforms capLured a bus and kllled all 146
clvlllans on board lncludlng 8uddhlsL pllgrlms.
114
Cne of Lhe mosL slgnlflcanL L11L-led
massacres Look place on 11 !une 1990, when members of Lhe L11L kllled 600 unarmed
pollcemen.
113


8oLh Lhe governmenL and Lhe L11L have commlLLed mass aLroclLles durlng Lhe
clvll war buL Lhe governmenL's greaLer share of kllllngs has broughL lL under un
lnvesLlgaLlon for Lhe massacres. 1he un released a reporL enLlLled 1he 8eporL of Lhe
SecreLary-Ceneral's anel of LxperLs on AccounLablllLy ln Srl Lanka" whlch has found
credlble allegaLlons whlch, lf proven, lndlcaLe LhaL a wlde range of serlous vlolaLlons of
lnLernaLlonal humanlLarlan rlghLs law was commlLLed boLh by Lhe CovernmenL of Srl
Lanka and Lhe L11L, some of whlch would amounL Lo war crlmes and crlmes agalnsL
humanlLy."
116
1he reporL sLaLes LhaL Lhe panel found credlble allegaLlons of mass
vlolence agalnsL clvlllans beLween SepLember 2008 and May 2009 as Lhe mlllLary carrled
ouL lLs campalgn wlLh wldespread shelllng. 1he governmenL was found Lo have used
arLlllery on a large scale ln no-flre zones where clvlllan populaLlons belleved Lhey would
be safe. Shelllng sysLemaLlcally LargeLed hosplLals on Lhe fronL llnes, un-managed food

111
eople's 1rlbunal on Srl Lanka, uublln 1rlbunal llnds AgalnsL Srl Lanka on Charges of War Crlmes," lrlsh lorum for eace ln Srl
Lanka, !anuary 18, 2009, (u8L accessed uecember 16, 2012)
hLLp://www.lfpsl.org/lndex.php?opLlon=com_conLenL&Lask=vlew&ld=24&lLemld=1
112
World WlLhouL Cenoclde, Srl Lanka," H#+"< H1*-#;* !()#41<( %* H1""1%> A1*4-("" '#""(5( #, 8%E, (u8L accessed uecember 14,
2012) hLLp://worldwlLhouLgenoclde.org/genocldes-and-confllcLs/srl-lanka
113
Cenoclde WaLch, Srl Lanka," , Cregory P. SLanLon, 8 SLages of Cenoclde," !()#41<( H%*4-, 1998, (u8L accessed CcLober 3,
2012) hLLp://www.genocldewaLch.org/genoclde/8sLagesofgenoclde.hLml
114
Puman 8lghLs WaLch, laylng Lhe Communal Card": Communal vlolence and Puman 8lghLs", Puman 8lghLs WaLch, 1993, (u8L
accessed CcLober 3 2012) hLLp://www.hrw.org/reporLs/1993/communal.
113
8a[aslngham, k. 1. Srl Lanka: 1he unLold SLory. ChapLer 43: War conLlnues wlLh 8ruLallLy", Asla 1lmes Cnllne, !une 22 2012 (u8L
accessed !uly 13 2013), hLLp://www.aLlmes.com/lnd-pak/ul22uf04.hLml
116
1he 8eporL of Lhe SecreLary-Ceneral's anel of LxperLs on AccounLablllLy ln Srl Lanka", unlLed naLlons, 31 March 2011, (u8L
accessed !uly 30 2013) hLLp://www.un.org/news/dh/lnfocus/Srl_Lanka/CL_8eporL_lull.pdf



36
dlsLrlbuLlon llnes, and areas near 8ed Cross shlps. 8eLween Lhese bombardmenLs and
Lhe deprlvaLlon of humanlLarlan ald, Lens of Lhousands of llves were losL. As sLaLed ln
Lhe reporL, MosL clvlllan casualLles ln Lhe flnal phases of Lhe war were caused by
CovernmenL shelllng."
117
1he reporL does noL dlsmlss Lhe mass vlolence perpeLraLed by
Lhe L11L, whlch forced clvlllans Lo remaln ln combaL zones under LhreaL of deaLh, used
people as human shlelds, and flred arLlllery aL large numbers of lus.
118



8esulLs of Lhe Srl Lanka Clvll War
(source: hLLp://klckess.wordpress.com/2011/09/23/causes-and-
consequences-of-lnLer-eLhnlc-confllcL-ln-srl-lanka/)


MlllLary-run lnLermenL camp for 1amlls afLer Lhe war.

117
lbld.
118
lbld.



37



Srl Lankan clvlllans suffered greaL hardshlps and many were dlsplaced durlng Lhe confllcL.
(source: hLLp://www.ukLamllnews.com)

E.D.> H'$L+LM"$ 2QT%"N"$

1he dlsplacemenL of large amounLs of people, lncludlng ellLes and lnsLlLuLlons,
poses a genoclde rlsk slnce lL presenLs an opporLunlLy for boLh Lhe esLabllshed reglme
and lLs challengers Lo elLher forLlfy or Lransform Lhe exlsLlng order by ellmlnaLlng LhreaLs
and consolldaLlng power.
119
1he challenge LhaL Lhe Srl Lankan governmenL currenLly
faces ln Lerms of reseLLllng Lhe 470,000 people who were dlsplaced durlng Lhe clvll war
could presenL an opporLunlLy for mass aLroclLles Lo be perpeLraLed. A recenL reporL
publlshed ln CcLober 2012 by Lhe luMC presenLs a dlre ouLlook on Lhe currenL
rebulldlng efforLs. As of SepLember 2012, 130,000 lus remaln aL-large," many sLlll
llvlng ln camps, hosL communlLles, and LranslL slLes, whlle oLhers have been forcefully
relocaLed. Lven Lhose who have successfully reLurned home lack access Lo baslc
necesslLles llke food, shelLer, cloLhlng, and proper sanlLaLlon, Lhey are consequenLly
unable Lo rebulld Lhelr llves.
120


MlllLary lnLerference ln Lhe reconsLrucLlon process, as ouLllned ln Lhe secLlon
Socloeconomlc ueprlvaLlon Comblned wlLh Croup-based lnequallLy," has made
LranslLlon Lo normal llfe much more dlfflculL for lus. 1he mlllLary has assumed

119
SenLlnel ro[ecL Larly Warnlng Manual," 39.
120
lnLernal ulsplacemenL MonlLorlng CenLre, Srl Lanka," 10.



38
responslblllLy noL only for overseelng developmenL pro[ecLs ln Lhe reglon buL also for
approvlng whaL pro[ecLs are pursued, who lmplemenLs Lhem, and who beneflLs from
Lhem. Local 1amlls have Lhus been allowed a negllglble role ln Lhe developmenL of Lhelr
own land. 1he mlllLary ls also ln charge of seLLllng dlspuLes and overseelng meeLlngs
beLween local auLhorlLles.
121
lear of belng accused of Lerrorlsm or supporLlng Lhe L11L
has prevenLed locals from challenglng mlllLary declslons.
122
Land grabs conducLed by Lhe
mlllLary Lo bulld mlllLary bases and house mlllLary famllles have exacerbaLed relaLlons
beLween 1amlls and Lhe Slnhalese governmenL. 1hese mlllLary camps are so
concenLraLed ln vannl, once a sLronghold of Lhe L11L, LhaL Lhey consLlLuLe an
unprecedenLed physlcal enLrenchmenL of Lhe mlllLary ln Lhe dally llfe of Lhe norLhern
populaLlon, wlLh negaLlve effecLs on Lhe hoped-for reLurn Lo normalcy."
123
1he heavy
mlllLarlzaLlon of Lhe area also serves as a survelllance meLhod Lo prevenL Lhe
resumpLlon of confllcL beLween Lhe eLhnlc groups.

Accordlng Lhe lCC, Lhe acLlons on behalf of Lhe governmenL Lo Slnhallze" Lhe
norLhern reglon are parL of a sLraLegy Lo undermlne 1amll clalms Lo self-deLermlnaLlon
based on Lhelr occupaLlon of Lhe land. An lncreased presence of Slnhalese people ln Lhe
reglon changes Lhe facLs on Lhe ground" so LhaL should Lhe 1amlls conLlnue Lo seek
auLonomy, Lhe federal governmenL can slmply deny Lhem LhaL rlghL based on Lhe
presence of a formldable Slnhalese communlLy ln Lhe dlspuLed LerrlLory.
124


ConslsLenL wlLh Lhe llLeraLure on pollLlcal upheaval as a rlsk facLor for mass
aLroclLles, Lhe dlsplacemenL of hundreds of Lhousands of 1amlls durlng Lhe clvll war and
subsequenL reconsLrucLlon efforLs have awarded Lhe Srl Lankan governmenL an
opporLunlLy Lo Lransform Lhe soclal and pollLlcal sLrucLure of Lhe norLh Lhrough lLs heavy
mlllLarlzaLlon and SlnhallsaLlon. 1hese efforLs have lncreased resenLmenL by local 1amlls
agalnsL Lhe Srl Lankan governmenL and mlllLary, whlch could manlfesL lLself ln lncreased
anLl-governmenL proLesL LhaL wlll undoubLedly lead Lo vlolenL clashes beLween Lhe Lwo
eLhnlc groups and exLreme measures Lo subdue furLher challenges Lo governmenL
auLhorlLy.
E.D.E <*V'L*V 3*,POV%*MS '( )LNL$ \"O

1here have been no lnsurgencles or lnsLances of clvll war slnce Lhe governmenL
vlcLory over Lhe L11L ln May 2009, mosLly because many 1amlls have fled and are only
now slowly reLurnlng Lo a very mlllLarlzed norLh. 1helr small number would noL be able
Lo susLaln an lnsurgency or clvll war aL presenL.

121
lnLernaLlonal Crlsls Croup, 8ebulldlng under 1he MlllLary."
122
lbld., 16.
123
lbld., 17.
124
lbld.



39
E.D.D @"OV%Z5M"$% ;'*Z4L'$%*+_ 7*+LZC'N%O*U%*+ HO'+%,+

1here have been numerous non-vlolenL proLesLs agalnsL Lhe Srl Lankan
governmenL's mlllLary Lakeover of Lhe 1amll norLh as well as agalnsL lLs vlolenL
crackdown agalnsL pollLlcal dlssldenLs. Some of mosL noLeworLhy proLesLs have been
organlzed by unlverslLy sLudenLs, such as Lhose held on 28 november 2012 by 1amll
sLudenLs from Lhe unlverslLy of !affna who boycoLLed classes Lo proLesL agalnsL mlllLary
harassmenL on campus. 1he sLudenLs were aLLacked by boLh Lhe mlllLary and Lhe pollce,
resulLlng ln a vlolenL clash and Lhe arresLs of four of Lhe proLesLers.
123
Slnce Lhe vlolenL
crackdown agalnsL sLudenLs, several groups have held nonvlolenL proLesLs of Lhelr own
Lo show supporL for Lhe cause lncludlng unlverslLy Leachers and 1amll pollLlcal parLles.
1he Srl Lankan governmenL has slnce responded Lo Lhe sLudenL proLesLs wlLh physlcal
lnLlmldaLlon and oLher scare LacLlcs. lLs 1errorlsL lnvesLlgaLlon ueparLmenL has slnce
accused several sLudenLs from !affna of recelvlng lnsLrucLlons" and money" from Lhe
WesLern 1amll dlaspora and ls currenLly conducLlng lnvesLlgaLlons and lnLlmldaLlon
LacLlcs agalnsL sLudenLs ldenLlfled on a wanLed llsL."
126
SLudenL groups ln Lhe 1amll
dlaspora have also held proLesLs Lo show solldarlLy, someLlmes engaglng non-sLudenL
members of Lhe broader dlaspora. lor example, ln 1oronLo ln 2009, abouL 43,000 1amlls
proLesLed agalnsL whaL Lhey consldered Lhe genoclde of Lhelr people ln Srl Lanka. Many
held plcLures of chlldren kllled ln Lhe vlolence, oLhers denounced Lhe deaLhs of clvlllans
ln general.
127


1here have also been non-vlolenL proLesLs agalnsL Lhe Srl Lankan governmenL by
non-sLudenL groups. 1he sLabblng of Man[ula 1llakaraLne, a Plgh CourL [udge and
secreLary of Lhe !udlclal Servlces Commlsslon, shorLly afLer he accused Lhe Srl Lankan
governmenL of lnLerferlng wlLh Lhe lndependenL [udlclary, Lrlggered a hlgh-proflle
proLesL from Srl Lankan [udges. Cn 7 CcLober 2012, all courLs ln Srl Lanka were closed ln
supporL of 1llakaraLne.
128
1he 26 !une 2012 proLesL by several 1amll pollLlcal groups,
lncludlng Lhe 1amll naLlonal Alllance (1nA) and Lhe uemocraLlc eople's lronL (ul),
agalnsL land grabs belng commlLLed by Lhe Srl Lankan army was consldered Lhe flrsL
large-scale proLesL slnce Lhe end of Lhe clvll war.
129
Whlle all Lhese cases seem lsolaLed,
Lhey are parL of a growlng wllllngness by Srl Lankans Lo proLesL agalnsL governmenL
represslon of 1amlls. 1he Srl Lankan governmenL's conLlnued response Lo pollLlcal
crlLlclsm wlLh vlolence wlll conLlnue Lo Lrlgger proLesLs agalnsL lL.

123
lnlC8M, 8lghLs AcLlvlsLs on Lhe ALLack of Lhe !affna unlverslLy SLudenLs," C-( 6+1 8%)9%) !;%+<1%), uecember 8, 2012, (u8L
accessed uecember 13, 2012) hLLp://www.srllankaguardlan.org/2012/12/rlghLs-acLlvlsLs-on-aLLack-of-[affna.hLml , 1amllneL,
eaceful SLudenL roLesL ALLacked by MlllLary ln !affna," C%>1" D(E/ D(*E#+9G november 28, 2012, (u8L accessed uecember 12,
2012) hLLp://www.LamllnewsneLwork.com/2012/11/28/peaceful-sLudenL-proLesL-aLLacked-by-sl-mlllLary-ln-[affna
126
1amllneL, 1lu lnLerrogaLors labrlcaLe AccusaLlon AgalnsL 14 SLudenLs ln !affna," C%>1" D(E/ D(*E#+9G uecember 9, 2012, (u8L
accessed uecember 13, 2012) hLLp://www.LamllnewsneLwork.com/2012/12/09/Lld-lnLerrogaLors-fabrlcaLe-accusaLlon-agalnsL-14-
sLudenLs-ln-[affna
127
Clarula 1aylor, Lesley. 1amlls proLesL 'genoclde'", C-( 6*%+, 30 !anuary 2009, (u8L accessed CcLober 11
2013) hLLp://www.LhesLar.com/news/gLa/2009/01/30/Lamlls_proLesL_genoclde.hLml
128
1amllneL, Srl Lankan !udges on SLrlke over SLabblng," C%>1" D(E/ D(*E#+9G CcLober 9, 2012, (u8L accessed CcLober 12, 2012)
hLLp://www.LamllnewsneLwork.com/2012/10/09/srl-lankan-[udges-on-sLrlke-over-sLabblng.
129
!ayapalan, SLaLe 1errorlsm."



40
E.D.I )'*($LM+ <N%O 5+"+P,_ H'Y%O "*R 8LVT+,

1he grlevances of Srl Lankan 1amlls have always been rooLed ln Lhe deslre for
recognlLlon and self-deLermlnaLlon slnce Lhey had hlsLorlcally occupled Lhe norLhern
and easLern parLs of presenL-day Srl Lanka as an auLonomous sLaLe unLll Lhe 1amll
klngdom of !affna was annexed by orLugal ln 1619. As explalned above, when Lhe
8rlLlsh came Lo Srl Lanka, Lhey favored Lhe 1amlls and gave Lhem mosL of Lhe promlnenL
poslLlons wlLhln Lhe clvll servlce.
130
1he subsequenL SlnhallsaLlon" of Lhe posL-
lndependence sLaLe, has been Lhe greaLesL source of Lenslon beLween Lhe groups.

Slnce lndependence, Lhe Srl Lankan governmenL has adopLed pollcles LhaL asserL
Slnhalese superlorlLy over 1amlls. ShorLly afLer lndependence, Lhe governmenL made
Slnhalese Lhe offlclal sLaLe language and 8uddhlsm, whlch ls pracLlced by Slnhalese, Lhe
offlclal rellglon.
131
Slnhalese people qulckly assumed poslLlons of lnfluence, belng
awarded Lhe mosL promlnenL poslLlons ln Lhe sLaLe. 1hls excluslon was LhreaLenlng Lo
1amlls and Lrlggered requesLs for more auLonomy ln Lhe 1amll-populaLed norLhern and
easLern reglons. ConfllcL arose as 1amlls soughL buL were denled greaLer rlghLs and
auLonomy, culmlnaLlng ln Lhe assasslnaLlon of rlme MlnlsLer Solomon 8andaranalke,
who had been aLLempLlng reconclllaLlon, ln 1939.
132
Slnhalese-1amll rloLs ln 1936, 1981,
and 1983 furLher exacerbaLed Lenslons beLween boLh groups and gave rlse Lo several
1amll rebel groups, Lhe mosL promlnenL and mlllLanL of whlch was Lhe L11L ln 1976.
133


Language and rellglon have been ma[or sources of 1amll grlevances slnce
lndependence and Lhe SlnhallzaLlon" of Srl Lanka Lhrough varlous dlscrlmlnaLory
pollcles, lncludlng Lhe 1936 Slnhalese Cnly AcL LhaL made Slnhalese Lhe offlclal sLaLe
language, has been a greaL polnL of conLenLlon for 1amlls. As a recenL lCC reporL noLes,
Lhe language barrler had a devasLaLlng effecL" on 1amll clvll servanLs who dld noL speak
Slnhalese and were consequenLly unable Lo galn slgnlflcanL governmenL poslLlons. As
Lhe reporL also noLes, Lhe acL effecLlvely lnsLlLuLlonallzed 1amlls as second-class clLlzens.
AlLhough lL was amended ln 1987 Lo lnclude 1amll as an offlclal language, Lhe reporL
noLes LhaL language has conLlnued Lo pose a barrler for 1amlls who experlence
dlscrlmlnaLlon as a resulL of noL speaklng Slnhalese.
134


8ellglous dlscrlmlnaLlon remalns an obsLacle Lo 1amll-Slnhalese reconclllaLlon.
MosL 1amlls pracLlce Plndulsm and mosL Slnhalese pracLlce 8uddhlsm. As menLloned
above, 8uddhlsm was adopLed as Lhe offlclal sLaLe rellglon shorLly afLer lndependence
and has conLlnued as such.
133
As Lhe lCC reporL also noLes, Lhe offlclal narraLlve
perpeLuaLed by Lhe Srl Lankan governmenL Lhrough varlous medla ls LhaL Srl Lanka ls a

130
MlnorlLles aL 8lsk, Srl Lankan 1amlls."
131
lbld.
132
ln uepLh: 1he PlsLory of Srl Lanka," '%)%<1%) =+#%<4%/*1)5 '#>0%)2G lebruary 4, 2009, (u8L accessed uecember 13, 2012)
hLLp://www.cbc.ca/news/world/sLory/2009/02/04/f-srl-lanka.hLml
133
MlnorlLles aL 8lsk, Srl Lankan 1amlls."
134
lnLernaLlonal Crlsls Croup, ollLlcal SoluLlon."
133
MlnorlLles aL 8lsk, Srl Lankan 1amlls."



41
Slnhalese 8uddhlsL sLaLe.
136
1he erecLlon of Slnhalese war monumenLs and 8uddhlsL
sLaLues ln Lhe norLh as parL of lLs SlnhallsaLlon" program conLlnues Lo reafflrm Lhe ldea
LhaL Srl Lanka ls a Slnhalese sLaLe ln whlch 1amlls do noL belong.
137


1he Srl Lankan 1amll communlLy has also repeaLedly been denled mlnorlLy
recognlLlon and rlghLs as a naLlonal group. 1he consolldaLlon of power aL Lhe federal
level has lefL 1amlls wlLh vlrLually no conLrol over pollcles LhaL affecL Lhem, even ln Lhe
norLhern and easLern parLs of Lhe counLry where Lhey consLlLuLe a ma[orlLy.
138
1helr lack
of power and recognlLlon has made 1amlls parLlcularly suscepLlble Lo physlcal vlolence
and economlc dlscrlmlnaLlon slnce Lhey have no legal basls upon whlch Lo seek
redress.
139
1he hard-llne 1amll naLlonallsL poslLlon Lhus emerged as a consequence of
Slnhalese lnsLlLuLlonal dlscrlmlnaLlon and was endorsed by Lhe 1amll communlLy as lL
seems Lo be a way ouL of Lhelr slLuaLlon and a means Lo regaln auLonomy. 1hls quesL for
naLlonallsm was expressed ln Lhe 1hlmpu rlnclples of 1983, whlch demanded LhaL Lhe
Srl Lankan governmenL recognlze four clalms: LhaL 1amlls are a dlsLlncL naLlonal group,
LhaL 1amlls have a dlsLlncL LerrlLorlal homeland whose lnLegrlLy musL be recognlzed as
such, LhaL 1amlls have an lnallenable" rlghL Lo self-deLermlnaLlon, and LhaL 1amlls have
Lhe rlghL Lo full Srl Lankan clLlzenshlp and oLher democraLlc rlghLs.
140
1he Srl Lankan
governmenL has repeaLedly refused Lo address Lhese 1amll demands, especlally as Lhey
relaLe Lo mlnorlLy rlghLs and Lhe rlghL Lo self-deLermlnaLlon. As menLloned above, Lhe Srl
Lankan governmenL has repeaLedly equaLed any 1amll acLlvlsm wlLh Lerrorlsm,
especlally as lL relaLes Lo Lhe Llme of Lhe clvll war.



136
lnLernaLlonal Crlsls Croup, ollLlcal SoluLlon."
137
lnLernaLlonal Crlsls Croup, MlnorlLy 8lghLs."
138
lnLernaLlonal Crlsls Croup, ollLlcal SoluLlon," p.2.
139
lbld., p.3.
140
lbld., p.3.



42
D./ <4087@@ 75505560;!

1he overall rlsk of genoclde ln Srl Lanka ls medlum Lo hlgh. WlLh Lhe excepLlon of
economlc facLors, all oLher condlLlons polnL Lo a llkely renewal of confllcL ln Srl Lanka
LhaL could escalaLe Lo mass aLroclLles lncludlng genoclde under Lhe rlghL clrcumsLances.

1he expecLaLlon LhaL all Lhe grlevances of boLh sldes would be addressed ln a
shorL Llme whlle Lhe ramlflcaLlons of Lhe war are sLlll promlnenL feaLures of Srl Lankan
socleLy ls unreallsLlc. 1he vlcLory of Lhe Srl Lankan army over Lhe L11L has been largely
celebraLed as a vlcLory of Slnhalese over 1amlls. 1he governmenL has marked lLs
Lrlumph by clamplng down on democraLlc rlghLs, and especlally Lhose LhaL would allow
pollLlcal dlssldenLs, parLlcularly Lhose crlLlcal of Lhe LreaLmenL of 1amlls, Lo volce Lhelr
dlsapproval. vlolence by Lhe pollce and mlllLary has been Lhe prlmary means Lo address
ouLsLandlng pollLlcal clalms and crlLlclsm, whlch has done noLhlng Lo mlLlgaLe Lhe
posslble resumpLlon of war due Lo llngerlng grlevances.

1he Srl Lankan governmenL's lack of accounLablllLy, especlally as power
conLlnues Lo be consolldaLed ln Lhe 8a[apaksa famlly, ln addlLlon Lo lLs dlsLanclng lLself
from Lhe un and oLher crlLlcal members of Lhe lnLernaLlonal communlLy, precludes lL
from havlng Lo serlously answer for lLs acLlons and lmplles an alr of lnvlnclblllLy and
lmpunlLy LhaL could be used Lo [usLlfy severe represslon of 1amlls, lncludlng genoclde.
1he governmenL's refusal Lo conducL lnvesLlgaLlons lnLo posslble acLs of genoclde and
war crlmes perpeLraLed by boLh Lhe naLlonal army and Lhe L11L ln Lhe lasL phase of Lhe
war, comblned wlLh lLs lack of accounLablllLy for Lhe lncreaslngly common exLra[udlclal
kllllngs and forced dlsappearances of lLs crlLlcs lndlcaLes LhaL Lhe governmenL en[oys
slgnlflcanL lmpunlLy.

1he perslsLenL soclal and pollLlcal dlvlslons wlLhln Srl Lankan socleLy also make lL
suscepLlble Lo mass aLroclLles. 8oLh Slnhalese and 1amlls have developed ldenLlLles and
ldeologles LhaL are largely based on Lhe excluslon and denlgraLlon of Lhe oLher.
Slnhalese naLlonallsm, for example, has been esLabllshed on Lhe bellef LhaL 1amlls are
noL Lhe rlghLful lnhablLanLs of Srl Lanka, or LhaL Lhey do noL deserve recognlLlon as a
dlsLlncL group. 1he Slnhalese refusal Lo recognlze 1amll naLlonallsm has ln Lurn fueled a
more aggresslve 1amll sLance LhaL noL only demands pollLlcal recognlLlon and
dlsLlncLlon, buL also LhreaLens furLher vlolence and posslble secesslon should Lhe
governmenL deny Lhem Lhelr rlghLs. 1haL ls Lo say, Lhe grlevances LhaL caLapulLed Lhe Srl
Lanka lnLo clvll war 26 years ago sLlll remaln unaddressed and very much allve Loday.
AddlLlonally, as has been presenLed, Lhere are lncreaslng reporLs of 8uddhlsL exLremlsLs
LargeLlng Musllms. AlLhough Lhls does noL dlrecLly relaLe Lo Lhe LreaLmenL of 1amlls, Lhe
onseL of such vlolenL behavlor Lowards Musllms lndlcaLes a general dlsdaln for
mlnorlLles and could escalaLe Lo mass aLroclLles under Lhe rlghL condlLlons. lf 8uddhlsLs
exLremlsLs can become mlllLanL ln Lhelr acLlons agalnsL Musllms, slmllar aLLacks agalnsL



43
1amll Plndus or ChrlsLlans are noL unLhlnkable, and would ln Lurn be llkely Lo renew
vlolenL confllcL beLween Lhe groups.

Srl Lanka's only poslLlve facLor seems Lo lle ln lLs economy. lnLernaLlonal
lnsLlLuLlons such as Lhe World 8ank and Lhe World 1rade CrganlzaLlon conLlnue Lo
predlcL a poslLlve Lra[ecLory for Lhe sLaLe's economy, whlch greaLly dlmlnlshes Lhe
economlc facLors LhaL may lead Lo mass kllllngs, lncludlng long-Lerm dlfflculL llfe
condlLlons as well as sudden and severe economlc hardshlp. Lven so, Lhe federal
governmenL's Lendency Lo dlscrlmlnaLe economlcally agalnsL 1amlls, favorlng Slnhalese
buslnesses and economlc endeavors, mlghL be a hoLbed for renewed confllcL ln Lhe
fuLure. Already, Lhe developmenL process ls belng conducLed on a preferenLlal basls
whlch favours Slnhalese buslnessmen and seLLlers over local 1amll communlLles. 1he
mlllLarlzaLlon and SlnhallsaLlon of norLhern rovlnce ls parLlcularly problemaLlc and wlll
llkely fuel vlolenL clashes beLween boLh groups as lL has only served Lo escalaLe Lenslons
beLween Lhe Lwo. 1he reglon has already seen recenL proLesLs by unlverslLy sLudenLs
and pollLlcal groups whlch are becomlng bolder and reslsLlng lnLlmldaLlon, Lhe pollce
and army has responded Lo nonvlolenL proLesLs wlLh vlolence ln Lhe pasL and wlll llkely
conLlnue Lo do so, creaLlng a perpeLual cycle of vlolence LhaL could escalaLe Lo mass
aLroclLles, lncludlng genoclde.