10 Abrasive Machining Processes

1
Abrasive Machining
Processes
ABRASI VE MACHI NI NG PROCESSES
ME202
Manuf act ur i ng
Tech nol ogi es
ME 202 Manufacturing Technologies 2
Abrasive Machining
Processes
Abrasive Machining
Abrasive machining is the basic process in which chips are
formed by very small cutting edges that are integral
parts of abrasive particles.
An abrasive is a hard material that can cut or abrade
other materials.
2
Abrasive Machining
Processes
Natural abrasives
Sandstone was used by ancient people to sharpen tools
and weapons.
Emery, a mixture of alumina (Al
2
O
3
) and magnetite
(Fe
3
O
4
), is another natural abrasive still in use today.
Corundum (natural Al
2
O
3
) and diamonds are other
naturally occurring abrasive materials.
Today, the only natural abrasives that have commercial
importance are quartz, sand, garnets, and diamonds.
Abrasives
Abrasive Machining
Processes
Artificial abrasives
Artificial abrasives date from 1891, when Edward G.
Acheson, while attempting to produce precious gems,
discovered how to make silicon carbide (SiC).
Silicon carbide is made by charging an electric furnace
with silica sand, petroleum coke, salt, and sawdust.
By passing large amounts of current through the charge,
a temperature of over 4000 F (2200 C) is maintained
for several hours, and a solid mass of silicon carbide
crystals result.
After the furnace has cooled, the mass of crystals is
removed, crushed, and graded.
Abrasives
3
Abrasive Machining
Processes
Artificial abrasives
Other artificial abrasives used today are:
Aluminum oxide (Al
2
O
3
) is the most widely used artificial
abrasive.
Diamonds are the hardest of all materials.
Those that are used for abrasives are either natural,
off-color stones that are not suitable for gems;
or small, synthetic stones that are produced
specifically for abrasive purposes.
Cubic Boron Nitride (CBN) is extremely hard.
It is the second-hardest material known, and is often
referred to, along with diamonds, as a superabrasive.
It is not found in the nature, it is produced.
Abrasives
Abrasive Machining
Processes
Abrasives
4
Abrasive Machining
Processes
Grinding
Grinding Machines
Work Holding Devices
Tool and Cutter Grinding
Snagging
Mounted Wheels and Points
Coated Abrasives
Honing
Superfinishing
Lapping
Abrasive Machining Processes
Abrasive Machining
Processes
Grinding
Grinding is the most common abrasive machining process.
Generally not suitable for bulk material removal,
but used for dimensional accuracy and surface
improvement by removing a small amount of material
from the workpiece surface.
The cutting tool, which rotates during the process is called
the grinding wheel, wherein the abrasives are bonded
together into a wheel of some shape.
There are a lot of bonding materials used for this purpose.
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Abrasive Machining
Processes
Bonding Materials for Grinding Wheels
1. Vitrified bonds are composed of clays and other
ceramic substances.
2. Resinoid, or phenolic resins can be used.
3. Silicate wheels use silicate of soda (waterglass) as the
bond material.
4. Shellac-bonded wheels are made by mixing the
abrasive grains with shellac in a heated mixture.
5. Rubber bonding is used to produce wheels that can
operate at high speeds that must have a considerable
degree of flexibility.
6. Superabrasive wheels are either electroplated, or a thin
segmented drum of vitrified CBN surrounds a steel
core.
Abrasive Machining
Processes
Grinding Wheel Shapes
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Abrasive Machining
Processes
FIGURE 28-10 Meaning
of terms structure and
grade for grinding
wheels.
(a) The structure of a
grinding wheel depends
on the spacing of the
grits.
(b) The grade of a
grinding wheel depends
on the amount of
bonding agent (posts)
holding abrasive grains
in the wheel.
Grinding Wheel Structure
Abrasive Machining
Processes
Grinding
During the process, material is also removed from the
grinding wheel.
The G-ratio is defined as the ratio of workpiece material
removed to grinding wheel material removed.
Ratios of 20:1 to 80:1 are
common.
Abrasives are sized to
control material removal
rate and resulting surface
finish of the workpiece.
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Abrasive Machining
Processes
A grinding wheel is made by bonding many grains with non-
specific geometry together into a wheel of some shape.
Many grains have negative rake angles ().
The specific cutting energy (W/cm
3
/min) is much larger in
comparison to turning or milling.
The volume cut is small per unit time; thus time consuming.
Hence an expensive process.
Grinding
Abrasive Machining
Processes
Used when;
A high dimensional accuracy is required,
A smooth surface, (high surface quality) is required,
Surfaces with high hardness need to be cut, where it
will be difficult to remove the material by turning or
milling,
Very thin layers of material need to be removed from
the surface.
Also used when small forces should be applied to the
workpieces in order to have small deformations.
(Cutting forces in grinding are relatively small.)
why Grinding?
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Abrasive Machining
Processes
FIGURE 28-9
SEM micrograph of stainless steel chips
from a grinding process.
The tops (T) of the chips have the typical
shear front-lamella structure while the
bottoms (B) are smooth where they slide
over the grit.
Grinding
Rake angles of abrasive particles
can be positive or negative.
Abrasive Machining
Processes
Grinding wheels lose their geometry with use.
Truing restores the original shape by removing a small
amount of material from the wheel surface, in order to
expose new grinding media and new cutting edges on
worn glazed grains.
Grinding Wheel Truing
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Abrasive Machining
Processes
As grinding wheels are used they tend to become loaded
with lodged metal chips in the cavities.
Dressing is used to remove the lodged metal chips.
Grinding Wheel Dressing
Abrasive Machining
Processes
Grinding Wheel Truing and Dressing
Tools used for
grinding wheel
truing
Grinding wheel
dresser
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Abrasive Machining
Processes
Grinding is done in three ways:
Infeed, moving the wheel across the workpiece surface by
moving the wheel into the work, or the work into the
wheel.
Then the desired surface is produced by traversing the
wheel across the workpiece, or vice versa.
Plunge-cut, feeding of the wheel radially into the work
while the work is rotating on centers. Usually a formed
grinding wheel is used. It is similar to form cutting on a
lathe.
Creep feed, the workpiece is feed past the wheel.
Grinding
Abrasive Machining
Processes
Grinding
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Abrasive Machining
Processes
Center type Cylindrical Grinding
Chucking type Grinding
Tool-post Grinders (an attachment)
Centerless Grinding
Surface Grinding
Grinding Processes
Abrasive Machining
Processes
Grinding Machines
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Abrasive Machining
Processes
I . Center Type Cylindrical Grinding
Commonly used for producing external cylindrical
-and conical (tapered)- surfaces.
During the process, the grinding wheel revolves at an
ordinary cutting speed, and the workpiece rotates on
centers at a much slower speed, usually at 23-38
m/min.
The grinding wheel and the workpiece move in opposite
directions at their point of contact.
The depth of cut is determined by infeed of the wheel or
the workpiece.
This motion also determines the finished diameter of the
workpiece, therefore accurate control of this movement
is required.
Abrasive Machining
Processes
Center Type Cylindrical Grinding
Plain center type cylindrical
grinding machine
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Abrasive Machining
Processes
1 - Plain Center Type
Cylindrical Grinding Machines
The work is mounted between headstock and tailstock centers.
The headstock and tailstock are mounted on a table, which can be
swiveled approximately 10 about a vertical axis with respect to
the table carrier on which it is mounted. This permits grinding of
tapered cylinders up to about 10.
For the traverse motion, the table assembly can be reciprocated
along the ways on the main frame either manually or by power.
Infeed is provided by movement of the wheelhead at right angles to
the longitudinal axis of the table.
They contain systems for storing, filtering and circulating adequate
amounts of grinding fluid.
Their size is designated by the maximum diameter and length of
work that can be ground between centers.
Abrasive Machining
Processes
2 - Universal Center Type
Cylindrical Grinding Machines
Basically the same as plain center-
type grinders except for two
features.
Both the headstock and the
wheelhead can be swiveled about
vertical axes to grind tapers of all
angles, and to do certain other
types of work that cannot be done
on plain center-type grinders.
Most machines have dual spindles
on the swiveling wheelhead, one
for external grinding and the other
for internal grinding. Either spindle
can be brought into use by
swiveling or tilting the wheelhead.
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Abrasive Machining
Processes
Center Type Cylindrical Grinding
Plunge Cut
FIGURE 28-14
Continuous
crush roll dressing
and truing of a
grinding wheel
(form-truing and
dressing throughout
the process rather
than between cycles)
doing plunge cut
grinding on a cylinder
held between
centers.
Abrasive Machining
Processes
3 - Roll Grinder
Roll grinders are basically plain center-type machines designed
for grinding large, cylindrical mill and calendar rolls.
Because of the weight of such workpieces, the wheelhead,
instead of the work, reciprocates.
15
Abrasive Machining
Processes
I I . Chucking Type Grinding
The workpiece is held in a chuck for grinding
both external and internal cylindrical surfaces.
Abrasive Machining
Processes
1- Chucking Type External Grinding
Chucking type grinding machines are production-type
machines, for use in rapid grinding of relatively short
parts, such as ball bearing races.
Chucks or collets can be used to hold the workpieces.
Frequently they have two spindles so that the work can be
removed from one while another piece is being ground
in the other.
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Abrasive Machining
Processes
2- Chucking Type I nternal Grinding
a - Regular
Infeed movement of the wheelhead is normal to the axis of
rotation of the work.
There are plain and universal regular chucking-type internal
grinders. On plain internal grinders of this type, the
workhead can be swiveled so that both straight internal
cylinders and beveled holes can be ground. On universal
internal grinders, the workhead not only can be swiveled, but
it also is mounted on a cross slide.
In the regular chucking-type
internal grinders, the chuck-
held workpiece revolves, a
relatively small, high-speed
grinding wheel is rotated on
a spindle arranged so that it
can be reciprocated in and
out of the workpiece.
Abrasive Machining
Processes
2- Chucking Type I nternal Grinding
b - Planetary
The revolving grinding wheel also has planetary rotation about
an axis that is coincident with the axis of the finished cylinder.
The diameter of the ground surface is controlled by adjusting the
radius of the planetary rotation.
On this type of machines, the work is reciprocated past the
wheel.
Planetary-type
internal grinders are
used for work that is
too large to be
rotated conveniently.
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Abrasive Machining
Processes
Tool Post Grinder
The entire mechanism is mounted either on the tool post or on
the compound rest.
The grinding wheel is attached to the tool-post grinder.
The lathe spindle provides rotation for the workpiece, and the
lathe carriage is used to reciprocate the wheelhead.
Tool-post grinders
are attachments used
to permit occasional
grinding to be done
on a lathe.
Abrasive Machining
Processes
I I I . Centerless Grinding
Centerless grinding makes it possible to grind both
external and internal cylindrical surfaces without the
necessity of the workpiece being mounted between
centers or in a chuck, which eliminates center holes in
workpieces and the necessity for mounting the
workpiece, and reduces the cycle time.
The workpiece rests between two wheels, one providing
the grinding and the other providing regulation of the
grinding speed and traverse.
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Abrasive Machining
Processes
1 - External Centerless Grinding
Two abrasive wheels are used.
The larger one operates at regular grinding speeds and
does the actual grinding.
The smaller wheel is the regulating wheel and is mounted
at an angle to the plane of grinding wheel to control the
rotation and longitudinal motion of the workpiece.
It usually is a plastic or rubber bonded wheel with a fairly
wide face.
The workpiece is held against the work-rest blade by the
cutting force exerted by the grinding wheel and rotates
at approximately the same surface speed as that of the
regulating wheel.
Abrasive Machining
Processes
External Centerless Grinding
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Abrasive Machining
Processes
Abrasive Machining
Processes
In thrufeed grinding, the workpiece is of constant diameter
and is fed completely through between the rolls, starting
at one end. This is the simplest type and can easily be
made automatic.
In infeed centerless grinding the work rest and the
regulating wheel are retracted, so that the work can be
put in position and removed when grinding is completed.
This arrangement permits multiple diameters and curved
parts to be ground.
Operations
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Abrasive Machining
Processes
In endfeed centerless grinding, both the grinding and
regulating wheels are tapered and thus produce tapered
workpieces. The stock is fed from one side until it
reaches the stop.
For ball grinding, the regulating wheel is grooved and
inclined to impart random rotation.
Operations
Abrasive Machining
Processes
In centerless internal grinding, three rolls support the
workpiece on its outer surface and impart rotation to it.
The grinding wheel traverses into the workpiece.
2 - I nternal Centerless Grinding
External surface of the
cylinder should be
finished accurately
before the operation.
Centerless internal
grinding assures the
concentricity of external
and internal cylindrical
surfaces of tube-like
workpieces.
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Abrasive Machining
Processes
1. It is very rapid; infeed centerless grinding is almost
continuous.
2. Very little skill is required of the operator.
3. It can often be made automatic (single-cycle automatic).
4. At the location of cutting, the work is fully supported by
the work rest and the regulating wheel.
This permits heavy cuts to be made.
5. Because there is no distortion of the workpiece,
accurate size control is easily achieved.
6. Large grinding wheels can be used, thereby wheel wear
can be minimized.
Advantages of Centerless Grinding
Abrasive Machining
Processes
1. Special machines are required that can do no other
type of work.
2. The workpieces must be round - no flats, such as
keyways, can be present.
3. Its use on workpieces having more than one diameter
or on curved parts is limited.
4. In external centerless grinding of tubes, there is no
guarantee that the outside and inside surfaces of the
tube are concentric;
In internal centerless grinding, outside
and inside surfaces are concentric.
Disadvantages of Centerless Grinding
22
Abrasive Machining
Processes
I V. Surface Grinding
Surface grinding is primarily
used to grind flat surfaces.
However formed, irregular
surfaces can be produced on
some types of surface grinders
by using a formed wheel.
Abrasive Machining
Processes
1. Horizontal Spindle and Reciprocating Table
The wheelhead is given a transverse motion at the end
of each table motion.
Infeed is controlled by lowering the grinding wheel
toward the work.
2. Vertical Spindle and Reciprocating Table
The wheel diameter should exceed the width of the
surface to be ground.
Usually, no transverse motion of either the table or the
wheelhead is provided.
Can produce very flat surfaces, and are used primarily
for production-type work.
Surface Grinding Machines
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Abrasive Machining
Processes
3. Horizontal Spindle and Rotary Table
Produce very flat surfaces.
Usually made in rather small sizes.
4. Vertical Spindle and Rotary Table
Production-type machines.
Frequently have two or more grinding heads, so both
rough and finish grinding is accomplished in one rotation
of the workpiece.
By using a special rotary feeding mechanisms,
machines of this type often are made automatic.
Parts are damped on the rotary feeding table and fed
automatically onto work-holding devices and moved past
grinding wheels.
After they pass the last grinding head, they are
automatically removed from the machine.
Surface Grinding Machines
Abrasive Machining
Processes
Surface Grinding
FIGURE 28-1 Schematic of surface grinding, showing infeed and cross feed
motions along with cutting speeds V
S
, and workpiece velocity V
W
.
24
Abrasive Machining
Processes
Surface Grinding
Abrasive Machining
Processes
Surface Grinding
25
Abrasive Machining
Processes
Surface Grinding
Abrasive Machining
Processes
Workpiece Holding during
Surface Grinding
Magnetic, electrostatic and vacuum chucks can be used to
hold the workpieces.
Magnetic chucks can use electromagnets, or permanent
magnets.
Can only be used for ferromagnetic materials.
Electrostatic chucks can be used for any electrically
conductive material, and also for nonmetals coated with
metals.
Vacuum chucks can be used for both nonmetals and
metals.
26
Abrasive Machining
Processes
Magnetic Chucks
Abrasive Machining
Processes
Magnetic Chuck w/
Permanent Magnets
27
Abrasive Machining
Processes
Electrostatic Chuck
Abrasive Machining
Processes
Vacuum Chuck
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Abrasive Machining
Processes
Tool and Cutter Grinding
Simple, single-point tools often are sharpened by hand on
bench or pedestal grinders.
More complex tools, such as milling-cutters, reamers, and
single-point tools for production-type operations, require
more complex grinding machines, commonly called
universal tool and cutter grinders.
These machines are somewhat similar to small universal
cylindrical center-type grinders.
Bench
Grinder
Abrasive Machining
Processes
Tool and Cutter Grinders
29
Abrasive Machining
Processes
Tool and Cutter Grinders
Abrasive Machining
Processes
Snagging
A type of rough grinding that is done in a foundry to remove fins,
gates, risers, and rough spots from castings, preparatory to
further machining.
The primary objective is to remove substantial amounts of metal
rapidly without much regard for accuracy.
30
Abrasive Machining
Processes
Mounted Wheels and Points
Abrasive Machining
Processes
Coated Abrasives
Coated abrasives are used in finishing both metal and
nonmetal products.
These are made by gluing abrasive grains onto a cloth or
paper backing.
They are available in sheets, rolls, or endless belts and
disks of various sizes.
When the abrasive particles become dull, the article must
be replaced.
31
Abrasive Machining
Processes
Coated Abrasives
Belt
Grinder
Abrasive Machining
Processes
Honing is used to remove small amounts of material to
produce an exact size and surface finish.
It can be used both for finishing and sizing.
The most common application is to produce precise surface
finish in engine cylinder walls and hydraulic cylinder
fabrication.
Other applications are manufacturing of bearings, hydraulic
cylinders, gun barrels, ... .
Combined rotation and axial oscillation is used to produce
the desired surface throughout the entire length of the
hole.
Honing
32
Abrasive Machining
Processes
Honing uses fine abrasive stones to remove very small
amounts of metal.
It is used to size and finish bored holes, removing common
errors left by boring, or remove the tool marks
(scratches) left by grinding.
The amount of metal removed usually is typically about
0.10 - 0.15 mm.
Virtually all honing is done with stones made by bonding
together various fine artificial abrasives. They are called
honing stones, and usually are held in a honing head.
The honing head is not guided externally but instead floats
in the hole being guided by the work surface.
Honing
Abrasive Machining
Processes
Either flat or round surfaces may be honed, but majority of
honing is done on internal, cylindrical surfaces, such as
automobile cylinder walls.
Although honing occasionally is done by hand, as in
finishing the face of a cutting tool, it is usually done by
using special equipment.
For honing single, small internal cylindrical surfaces the
workpiece is manually held and reciprocated over a
rotating hone.
Single and multiple-spindle honing machines are available
in both horizontal and vertical types.
In honing internal cylinders, a small rotation is combined
with an oscillatory axial motion.
Honing
33
Abrasive Machining
Processes
A cutting fluid is used in virtually all honing operations.
A complete honing cycle, including loading and unloading
the work, is often less than 1 minute.
Honing
Cross-hatched
surface helps to
retain the
lubricant during
the operation of
the component.
Abrasive Machining
Processes
Honing Machine
Honing
Machine
Honing
Head
34
Abrasive Machining
Processes
Errors that can be Corrected by Honing
Abrasive Machining
Processes
Superfinishing
Variation of honing that can be applied to both flat and
cylindrical surfaces.
Improves surface finish (finishing).
Leads to very uniform surfaces with repeatable
smoothness.
Not used to change dimensions (not sizing).
Uses large amount of lubricant to:
Keep workpiece surface at uniform temperature,
Wash away abraded metal particles so as to prevent
scratching.
35
Abrasive Machining
Processes
Superfinishing
Abrasive Machining
Processes
Superfinishing is based on the phenomenon that, a
lubricant of given viscosity will establish and maintain a
separating, lubricating film between two mating surfaces
if their roughness does not exceed a certain value, and if
a certain critical pressure, holding them together, is not
exceeded.
Consequently, as the minute peaks on a surface are cut
away by the honing stone, applied with a controlled
pressure, a certain degree of smoothness is achieved.
When this certain degree of smoothness is achieved, the
lubricant establishes a continuous lubricating film
between the stone and the workpiece and separates
them so that no further cutting action occurs.
Superfinishing
36
Abrasive Machining
Processes
Superfinishing
Cylindrical Surfaces
Abrasive Machining
Processes
Superfinishing
Flat Surfaces
37
Abrasive Machining
Processes
Superfinishing Machine
Crankshaft
Abrasive Machining
Processes
Lapping
Lap is a tool made by charging (causing to become
embedded) fine abrasive particles into a soft material.
Lap materials range from various types of cloth, or a soft
metal such as copper.
Lap material should be softer than the material to be
finished, being only a holder for the hard abrasive
particles.
As the charged lap is rubbed against a surface, the
abrasive particles in the surface of the lap remove
small amounts of material from the harder surface.
Lap material itself does not remove material from the
workpiece surface.
38
Abrasive Machining
Processes
Lapping
Lapping removes material very slowly and is typically used
to remove machining or grinding marks (scratch marks),
producing a polished surface.
Used to obtain very flat and smooth surfaces.
But, slow, thus expensive, and it should not be specified
unless such a surface is absolutely necessary.
Can be done by hand or special machines, in which the
workpieces are placed loosely in holders and are held
against the rotating lap by means of floating heads.
A special type, centerless lapping machine is used for
lapping small, cylindrical parts, such as piston pins and
ball-bearing races.
Abrasive Machining
Processes
Lapping Machine
39
Abrasive Machining
Processes
Surface Roughness
Measurement
( Mechanical)
Abrasive Machining
Processes
Polished surface RMS = 1.65 nm
Peak to valley St = 12.7 nm
Diamond turned RMS = 19.8
1 (Angstrom) = 1.0 10
-10
meters
Surface Roughness
Measurement
( Optical)
40
Abrasive Machining
Processes
Typical
Surface Roughness
Values
Abrasive Machining
Processes
Related Chapter in the Textbook
Chapter 28 Abrasive Machining
Processes

10 Abrasive Machining Processes

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