Topic 4 Periodic Table

X INTRODUCTION
Hello and lets start Topic 4! In this topic, you will learn about the periodic table.
Before we go further, do you know that there are 118 discovered elements in
nature? Most of these elements are naturally occurring elements. However, a few
of these elements are made up artificially in nuclear reactors. Elements with the
same chemical properties were grouped together by chemists, resulting in
the development of the periodic table. This systematic method of classifying
elements has enabled us to study and generalise the chemical and physical
properties of elements in the same group.

We will learn more about the periodic table as we track back its history and
study how the groups and periods of the periodic table can be analysed. This is
followed by the electronic structures and the periodic table, and properties and
usages of transition elements.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Analyse the periodic table;
2. Summarise the electronic structures and periodic table;
3. Identify properties and usages of transition elements;
4. Identify the electronic structure, group trends, physical properties
and chemical properties of Group 1 and Group 17;
5. Summarise noble gases; and
6. Identify the properties and classification of Period 3 elements.

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X Periodic Table
TOPIC 4 PERIODIC TABLE W

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Then, we will examine the electronic structure, group trends, physical properties
and chemical properties of Group 1 and Group 17. Last but not least, we will look
at noble gases and Period 3 elements. Are you ready now? Let us start the
journey!

HISTORY OF THE PERIODIC TABLE
Let us now review the history of the periodic table as well as the events which
led to the development of the modern periodic table. Do you know that the
majority of the elements that we know today were actually discovered during the
18th and 19th century? You will notice that elements with similar properties were
grouped together systematically in a table. This marked the beginning of the
development of the periodic table.

Chemists such as Lavoiser, Dobereiner, Newlands, Meyer, Mendelev and Mosely
contributed to the development of the periodic table in use today. We will now
read about their respective contributions.
4.1.1 Antoine Lavoisier (17431794)
Do you know that Antoine Lavoisier (Figure 4.1) was the first scientist to classify
elements into four groups? He classified substances, including light and heat,
into metals and non-metals.

Figure 4.1: Antoine Lavoisier (17431794)
Source: http://www.sciencephoto.com

However, his classification was not successful due to wrong information. For
example, non-elements such as heat and light, and compounds such as silica,
magnesia, chalk, barita and alumina were included in his classification table.

4.1
X TOPIC 4 PERIODIC TABLE
76
Table 4.1: Antoine Lavoisiers 1789 Classification of Substances
Acid-making Gas-like Elements Metallic Elements Earthy Elements
Sulphur Light Cobalt, Mercury,
Tin
Lime (Calcium
Oxide)
Phosphorus Caloric (Heat) Copper, Nickel, Iron Magnesia
(Magnesium Oxide)
Charcoal (Carbon) Oxygen Gold, Lead, Silver,
Zinc
Barytes (Barium
Sulphate)
Azote (Nitrogen) Manganese,
Tungsten
Argilla (Aluminium
Oxide)
Hydrogen Platina (Platinum) Silvex (Silicon
Dioxide)
Source: http://www.docbrown.info/page12/gifs/Lavoisier1789.gif
4.1.2 Johann Dobereiner (17801849)
Johann Dobereiner (Figure 4.2) divided the elements into groups. Each group
consists of three elements with similar chemical properties and is called a triad.
In each triad, the atomic weight of the middle element is the average of the other
two elements. According to the Law of Triad, the atomic mass of sodium is the
mean of the total atomic mass of lithium and potassium. Thus, the atomic mass of
sodium is 23 (refer to Table 4.2).

Figure 4.2: Johann Dobereiner (17801849)
Source: http://elements-table.com/history/


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Table 4.2: Law of Triad
Element Symbol A (Atomic Mass)
Lithium Li 7
Sodium Na 23
Potassium K 39
Mean of Li + K = (7 + 39)/2 = 46/2 = 23 (The value of Na)

However, this classification was unsuccessful because the classification was
limited to a few elements only. Then, other scientists realised that there was a
relationship between the properties and atomic masses of the elements, as shown
in Table 4.3.

Table 4.3: Relationship between the Properties and Atomic Masses of the Elements
Triads III IV
Elements Copper
Cu
Silver
Ag
Gold
Au
Zinc
Zn
Cadmium
Cd
Mercury
Hg
Atomic weights 635 108 197 65 112.5 200
Mean Weights 130.25 132.5
Source: http://www.tutornext.com/ws/402-g-limit
4.1.3 John Newlands (18371898)
Another chemist that contributed to the existence of the periodic table was John
Newlands (Figure 4.3).

Figure 4.3: John Newlands (18371898)
Source: http://elements-table.com

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Newlands arranged all the known elements horizontally in the ascending
order of their atomic masses. Each row consisted of seven elements. He found
that elements with similar properties recurred at every eighth element. This
arrangement was known as the Law of Octaves.

However, this law was only obeyed by the first 17 elements. Thus, it was not
successful. There were no positions allocated for elements yet to be discovered.
However, Newlands contibution to the development of the periodic table was
very important as he was the first chemist who discovered the existence of
periodicity in the elements.
4.1.4 Lothar Meyer (18301895)
Lothar Meyer (Figure 4.4) plotted a graph of atomic volume against atomic mass
for all known elements. He found that elements with the same chemical
properties occupied the same relative positions on the curve. He showed that the
properties of the elements were in a periodic pattern with their atomic masses.
Hence, Meyer also proved that the properties of the elements recur periodically.

Figure 4.4: John Newlands (18371898)
Source: http://www.wou.edu


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4.1.5 Dmitri Mendeleev (18341907)
Dmitri Mendeleev (Figure 4.5) showed that the properties of elements changed
periodically with their atomic mass. He arranged the elements in the order of
increasing atomic mass and grouped them according to similar chemical
properties. He was able to predict the properties of undiscovered elements and
left gap for these elements.

Figure 4.5: Dmitri Mendeleev (18341907)
Source: http://chemistry.about.com

Mendeleev had also correctly predicted the properties of the elements gallium,
scandium and germanium which were only discovered much later. Mendeleevs
table was used as a blueprint for the modern periodic table. Figure 4.6 shows
Mendeleevs periodic table.

Figure 4.6: Mendeleevs periodic table
Source: http://www.msnucleus.org
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4.1.6 Henry J. G. Moseley (18871915)
Henry J. G. Moseley (Figure 4.7) studied the x-ray spectrum of elements. He
concluded that the proton numbers should be used as a basis for the periodic
change of chemical properties instead of the atomic mass. He rearranged the
elements in the ascending order of their proton numbers.

Figure 4.7: Henry J. G. Moseley (18871915)
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org

Similar to Mendeleev, Mosely left gaps for elements yet to be discovered. He
produced a periodic table which was almost the same as Mendeleevs periodic
table. Thus, he confirmed the work of Mendeleev.

Due to Moseleys work, the periodic table was successfully developed and being
used today. The modern periodic table is based on the arrangement of elements
in the ascending order of their proton numbers. Finally, the periodic table is as
what we see today.

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4.1.7 Modern Periodic Table
Based on our earlier discussions about the early history of the periodic table,
what can you conclude about it? How would you define the periodic table?

Later, Glenn Seaborg (Figure 4.8) discovered that the transuranium elements
have atomic numbers from 94 to 102, resulting in the redesign of the periodic
table.

Figure 4.8: Gleen Seaborg
Source: http://www.wired.com

Technically, both the lanthanide and actinide series of elements are to be placed
between the alkaline earth metal and the transition metal.

However, by doing this, the periodic table would be too wide. Thus, the
lanthanide and actinide series of elements were placed under the rest of the
periodic table. This is the periodic table that we use today. Dr Seaborg and his
colleagues were also responsible for identifying more than 100 isotopes of
elements.

The periodic table is a classification of elements whereby
elements with the same chemical properties are placed in
the same group. This makes the study of the chemistry of
these elements easier and more systematic.
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Figure 4.9 shows the modern periodic table. From here on, we will do an in-
depth study of the periodic table. Based on calculation, there are 118 elements in
the current periodic table but for the purpose of study for this module, only 111
elements will be considered.

Figure 4.9: The modern periodic table
Source: http://www.webelements.com/

1. List the name of the chemists who played a significant role in the
early development of the periodic table.

2. What was the conclusion of the study by Henry J. G. Moseley?

3. Define the periodic table in your own words.

4. Differentiate between the old version and the modern version of
the periodic table.
SELF-CHECK 4.1

83

ANALYSIS OF THE PERIODIC TABLE
Let us refer to the periodic table to see the arrangement of the elements. The
elements in the periodic table are arranged in rows called the periods and
columns which are known as the groups. Notice that in the periodic table, the
atomic number increases when moving across a row or a period. Let us learn
more about groups and periods.
4.2.1 Groups
Firstly, there are 18 groups of elements in the periodic table. Some of these
groups have special names:
(a) Group 1 elements are called alkali metals.
(b) Group 2 elements are called alkaline earth metals.
(c) Group 3 to Group 12 elements are known as transition elements.
(d) Group 17 elements are called halogens.
(e) Group 18 elements are called noble gases.

Do you know that there is a guideline for you to easily differentiate between
elements in the group? The guideline is based on their classification as metals
and non-metals:

4.2
1. Visit http://www.webchem.net/JSPT.htm and see the animated
version of the periodic table. Based on the periodic table, find
the:
(a) Atomic weight, melting point, boiling point and electron
configuration of sodium, magnesium, calcium and
bromine; and
(b) Properties of other elements from the periodic table.

2. Compare and contrast the findings of each of the scientists
periodic table against the modern periodic table. What are the
similarities and differences among the periodic tables?
ACTIVITY 4.1
84
(a) Metals
The elements in Groups 1 to 13 are metals.

(b) Non-metals
The elements in Groups 15, 16 and 17 are non-metals. Carbon and silicon
from Group 14 are also non-metals.

Keep in mind that each member of a group shows similar chemical properties
although their physical properties such as density, melting point and colour
show a gradual change when descending the group.
4.2.2 Periods
How about periods? What can you say about it? The horizontal rows in the
periodic table are called periods. Let us take a look at the number of rows in the
periodic table. You can see that there are seven rows from Period 1 to Period 7.
The elements are arranged horizontally in the ascending order of their proton
numbers in the periodic table. This means that when going across the rows from
left to right, the proton number increases.

How do we determine the position of the period of an element in the periodic
table? The position of the period of an element in the periodic table is determined
by the number of shells occupied with electrons in the atom of the particular
element.

Do you know that the first three periods are called the short periods? Period 1
has two elements only Hidrogen and Helium, while Periods 2 and 3 have eight
elements each.

As for Periods 4 and 5, they have eighteen elements each and they are called the
long periods. Period 6 has thirty-two elements and not all the elements can be
listed on the same horizontal row. The elements with proton number 58 to 71 are
separated and are grouped below the perodic table. These elements are also
known as the Lanthanide Series.

Lastly, let us look at Period 7. Period 7 has thirty-one elements and not all the
elements can be listed on the same horizontal row. The elements with proton
number 90 to 103 are grouped below the perodic table. These elements are also
known as the Actinide Series.


85

1. Describe what you understand by the following terms. Provide
specific examples for each term:
(a) Groups of elements; and
(b) Periods of elements.

2. Find the number of elements from the following periods by
referring to the periodic table.
(a) Period 1;
(b) Periods 2 and 3;
(c) Periods 4 and 5;
(d) Period 6; and
(e) Period 7.

3. Fill the following particulars in the diagram below:
(a) Number the groups;
(b) Number the periods;
(c) Identify the position of alkali metals, alkaline earth metals,
transition elements, halogens and noble gases; and
(d) Identify the location of lanthanides and actinides.

Source: http://www.chemeddl.org/collections/tsts/PeriodicTable.gif
SELF-CHECK 4.2
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ELECTRONIC STRUCTURES AND THE
PERIODIC TABLE
Before we go futher, let us recall what we have learnt in the previous topic on the
subject of the electronic structure of an atom. The numbering of the shells starts
from 1, 2, 3 and so on, starting from the one closest to the nucleus. The first shell
can hold a maximum of two electrons, the second shell eight electrons and the
third shell eight electrons if the number of electrons is less than 20. If the number
of electrons is more than 20, the third shell can hold a maximum of up to 18
electrons.

Do you still remember valence electrons? What are they? Valence electrons are
electrons found in the outermost occupied shell of an atom. The number of
valence electrons in an atom can be determined from its electronic structures.

All members of the same group have the same number of valence electrons. The
number of valence electrons of Group 1 and Group 2 elements is the same as its
group number. For example, members of Group 1 have one valence electron
each.

For elements more than two valence electrons, namely, those in Group 13 to
Group 18, this is how we determine them:

The group number = Number of valence electrons + 10

For example, elements of Group 17 have seven valence electrons each.

Table 4.4 shows the relationship between the number of valence electrons and the
group number.

Table 4.4: Number of Valence Electrons and Group Number
Number of Valence
Electrons
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
8
(except
Helium)
Group 1 2 13 14 15 16 17 18

4.3

87
Keep in mind that the period number is indicated by the number of filled
electron shells. For example, elements in Period 1 each have only one electron
shell filled with electrons. All elements in the same period have the same number
of filled electron shells.

Table 4.5 shows the relationship between the number of shells and the period
number.

Table 4.5: Number of Shells and Period Number
Number of
Shells Occupied
with Electrons
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Period Number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Keep in mind that the chemical properties of the elements in a period are the
same but the physical properties of these elements change gradually. For
example, the atomic radius of an element (which is half the distance between the
nuclei or two atoms of the element joined by a single covalent bond) decreases as
it goes across a period from left to right.

How about the electronegativity of an element? First, let us remember its
definition. Do you still recall? Electronegativity of an element is the ability of the
element to pull the electron to itself. The electronegativity of elements increases
when going across a period from left to right.

How about the metal characteristics of the elements? The metal characteristics of
the elements decrease when going across the period. It changes from metal to
semi-metal and finally to non-metal. The oxide characteristics of the elements
change from alkaline to acidic when going across the period.

1. What is the meaning of the term valence electrons?
2. How do we determine the value of valence electrons?
3. What are the periodic patterns noticed in the periodic table?
SELF-CHECK 4.3
88

1. Fill in the blank of the Periodic Table with the right words to
match the appropriate arrows. The first arrow provides an
example of metal and non-metal.
Metal Nonmetal Conductor Insulator
Ductile Brittle Basic in water Acidic in water
Reductants Oxidants Cations Anions

40 Element X has a proton number of 11.
(a) Draw the electron arrangement of atom X;
(b) State the number of valence electrons of atom X; and
(c) Predict the group and period of atom X in the periodic
table.
ACTIVITY 4.2

89

TRANSITION ELEMENTS
Firstly, what does it mean by transition elements? Transition elements are
elements in a block located between Group 2 and Group 13 of the periodic table
as seen in Figure 4.10. There are 10 elements in each series and they are arranged
horizontally.

Figure 4.10: Transition elements of the Periodic Table

We will learn more about these transition elements as we look at their properties
and usages in the following subtopics.
4.4.1 Properties
Firstly, keep in mind that all transition elements are metals which display the
following physical properties:
- Silvery surface;
- Hard;
- High density;
- Ductile and malleable;
- High melting and boiling point; and
- Good electrical conductivity.

4.4
90
Do you know that transition elements also exhibit four special characteristics
which other metals do not have? These special characteristics of transition
elements are listed in Figure 4.11.

Figure 4.11: Special characteristics of transition elements

Let us learn more about these four special characteristics:

(a) Transition Elements Form Coloured Compounds
Transition elements can form compounds of different colours. Aqueous
solutions of transition element compounds or their ions exhibit certain
colours. Table 4.6 shows you the colours of some aqueous solutions of ions
of the transition elements.

Table 4.6: Colours of Aqueous Solutions of Ions
Ions Colour
Fe
2+
Light green
Fe
3+
Brown
Cu
2+
Blue
Co
2+
Pink
Ni
2+
Green
Cr
3+
Green
Mn
2+
Pink
Cu
2+
Blue
MnO
4
Purple
CrO
4
2
Yellow
Cr
2
O
7
2
Orange

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Do you know that the colours of gemstones and precious stones occur
naturally due to the presence of the transition elements in them? For
example, emerald is green because it contains the transition elements,
nickel and iron. Ruby is red due to the existence of chromium.

Also, note that aqueous solutions of transition element compounds can
react with sodium hydroxide solution and ammonia solution to form
coloured precipitates of metal hydroxides. These precipitates may be
soluble or insoluble in excess sodium hydroxide solution and ammonia
solution. The precipitates formed are coloured because these are
compounds of transition elements.

(b) Transition Elements Have Variable Oxidation Numbers
Firstly, what is the function of oxidation number? Oxidation number
measures the charge carried by an element in its compounds. Transition
elements show different oxidation numbers in their compounds. This
means they can form more than one ion.

Some of the examples are: Iron(II), Fe
2+
, and Iron(III), Fe
3+
; and Copper(I),
Cu
+
,

and Copper(II), Cu
2+
.

(c) Many Transition Elements and Their Compounds Have Catalytic Properties
Firstly, what does a catalyst stand for? A catalyst is a substance that speeds
up a reaction but does not change chemically after a reaction. Many
catalysts are transition elements or their compounds. For example:

(i) Nickel
Nickel is used as a catalyst in the manufacture of margarine.

2 2 2 3 3
Ni
CH CH H CH CH = +

(ii) Iron
Iron is used as a catalyst in the Haber process for the manufacture of
ammonia.

2( ) 2( ) 3( )
3 2
Fe
g g g
N H NH +

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(d) Transition Elements Can Form Complex Ions
Lastly, transition elements can form complex ions. What is a complex ion?
A complex ion is a polyatomic cation or anion consisting of a central metal
ion with other groups bonded to it.

An example of a complex ion is tetraamminecopper(II) ion ([Cu (NH
3
)
4
]
2+
) ,
which consists of four ammonia molecules bonded to the central copper(II)
ion.

( )
2
2
3 3
4
4 Cu NH Cu NH
+
+
(
+

4.4.2 Industrial Uses
Now, let us look at how these transition elements are used in industrial
production. Metals in the transition elements are used widely in society. Some of
their usages are shown in Figure 4.12.

Figure 4.12: Industrial uses of transition elements
What are the FOUR characteristics exclusively attributed to transition
elements?
SELF-CHECK 4.4

93

GROUP 1
Now, let us focus on Group 1. Do you know that Group 1 elements are also
known as the alkali metals? What are the elements inside Group 1? The elements
of Group 1 are lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, caesium and francium (see
Table 4.7). These elements are metals which can react with water to form alkaline
solutions.

Table 4.7: Elements of Group 1 and their Symbols
Element Element Symbol
Lithium Li
Sodium Na
Potassium K
Rubidium Rb
Caesium Cs
Francium Fr

The following subtopics will explain to you the electronic structure, group
trends, and physical and chemical properties of Group 1 elements.
4.5.1 Electronic Structure
Keep in mind that all elements of Group 1 have one valence electron. The atoms
of Group 1 elements are able to achieve the stability of a duplex or octet by
giving away their valence electron and form singly charged positive ions. You
can refer to Table 4.8, which shows the electronic structures of elements in
Group 1.

Table 4.8: Electronic Structure of Group 1 Elements
Element Electron Arrangement
Lithium 2.1
Sodium 2.8.1
Potassium 2.8.8.1
Rubidium 2.8.18.8.1
Caesium 2.8.18.18.8.1
Francium 2.8.18.32.18.8.1
4.5
94
4.5.2 Group Trends
Let us now examine Group 1 trends. Group 1 elements show certain trends when
descending the group. For example, the atomic radius increases down the group.
This is due to the fact that the number of filled electron shells increases down the
group; therefore, the distance between the outermost electron shell and the
nucleus increases.

The density increases down the group as the increase in mass of the atom is
greater than the increase in the atomic radius of the atom. The melting point
decreases as we go down Group 1 because the metallic bond between the atoms
becomes weaker down the group as the atomic radius increases.

How about electropositivity? First, let us know the meaning of electropositivity.
Electropositivity is a measurement of the ability of an atom to lose an electron
and form a positive ion. As we go down Group 1, the electropositivity of the
metal increases because the further the position of the valence electron from the
nucleus, the weaker the force of attraction between the nucleus and the valence
electron. Hence, the elements lose the single valence electron more easily down
the group. As a conclusion for Group 1 trends, you can refer to Table 4.9. It
shows some of the properties of Group 1 elements and their trends.

Table 4.9: Properties of Group 1 Elements
Element
Proton
No.
Nucleon
No.
Density
(gcm
3
)
Hardness
(Brinell)
Melting
Point
(C)
Boiling
Point
(C)
Atomic
Radius
(nm)
Electro-
negativity
Lithium 3 7 0.53 0.06 181 1347 0.15 1.0
Sodium 11 23 0.97 0.07 98 886 0.19 0.9
Potassium 19 39 0.86 0.04 64 774 0.23 0.8
Rubidium 37 85 1.53 0.03 39 688 0.25 0.8
Caesium 55 133 1.87 0.02 28 678 0.26 0.7
Francium 87 223 2.40 n/a 27 677 0.29 0.7


95

1. Refer to Table 4.9 and answer the questions based on the
explanation given.

State the properties of the elements as you go down the group:
(a) The atomic size;
(b) Hardness;
(c) Melting point;
(d) Boiling point; and
(e) The densities.

2. The above diagram shows the electron arrangement of
Rubidium (Rb) and Caesium (Cs). The further the valence
electron is from the nucleus of an atom, the easier it is to
remove.
(a) What do you notice about the distance of the valence
electron from the nucleus as you go down Group 1?
(b) Why is it so? Relate this to the reactivity of alkali metal.

ACTIVITY 4.3
96
4.5.3 Physical Properties
What can we say about the physical properties of Group 1 elements? All
elements of Group 1 (alkali metals) are soft solids and can be easily cut. When
you cut the alkali metals, you will notice that they resemble grey solids with
shiny silvery surfaces.

However, their surfaces will turn dull very fast when exposed to air. Alkali
metals are very reactive; hence, they react rapidly with oxygen and water vapour
in the air when exposed. Thus, they have to be kept in paraffin oil. Alkali metals
have low densities compared to heavy metals such as iron and copper. They are
also good conductors of heat and electricity.
4.5.4 Chemical Properties
Lastly, let us look at the chemical properties of Group 1. As explained earlier,
Group 1 elements are also called alkali metals due to their chemical properties
whereby they can readily dissolve in water to form hydroxides, which are
strongly alkaline in nature. Keep in mind that they can also form alkaline oxides.

Group 1 elements exhibit similar chemical properties in their reactions with the
following elements:
(a) React with water to liberate hydrogen gas and form metal hydroxide;
(b) React with oxygen to produce metal oxides;
(c) React with chlorine to produce metal chloride; and
(d) React with bromine to produce metal bromide.

1. Watch this video to see the reactions of Group 1 metals to water at
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ft4E1eCUItI&feature=playe
r_embedded. After watching the simulation, what can you
conclude?
2. Find out how you can investigate the chemical properties of
Group 1 alkali metals when they react with oxygen.
3. How do we investigate the chemical properties of Group 1 metals
in their reactions with chlorine and bromine?
ACTIVITY 4.4

97

GROUP 17
Let us learn more about Group 17. What are the elements inside Group 17?
Group 17 elements are fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine and astatine (see
Table 4.10).

Table 4.10: Elements of Group 17 and Element Symbols
Element Element Symbol Molecular Formulae
Fluorine F F
2

Chlorine CI Cl
2

Bromine Br Br
2

Iodine I I
2

Astatine At At
2

Do you know that they are known as halogens? This comes from a Greek word
for salt producer. Halogens are very reactive elements and most of them exist
naturally as halide salts. Halogens are non-metals and exist as diatomic covalent
molecules.

Next, let us investigate the electronic structure, group trends, physical properties,
and chemical properties of Group 17.
4.6.1 Electronic Structure
Firstly, note that all elements of Group 17 have seven valence electrons. The
atoms of Group 17 elements are able to achieve the stability of an octet
arrangement by accepting one electron and form negative ions. Table 4.11 shows
the electronic structures of elements in Group 17.
4.6
SELF-CHECK 4.5
1. How many valence electrons does an atom of rubidium have?
2. Compare the melting point of rubidium and potassium. Explain
your answer.
3. A small piece of rubidium is added to cold water. Observe what
happens and write an equation for the reaction.
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Table 4.11: Electronic Structure of Group 17 Elements
Flourine 2.7
Chlorine 2.8.7
Bromine 2.8.18.7
Iodin 2.8.18.18.7
Astatine 2.8.18.32.18.7
4.6.2 Group Trends
How about the group trends of Group 17 elements? Group 17 elements show a
certain trend when descending the group. For example, the atomic radius
increases gradually down the group. This is because the number of shells
occupied with electrons increases down the group, resulting in an increase in the
distance between the outermost electron shell and the nucleus.

How about the density? The density increases down the group due to the fact
that the increase in atomic mass is greater than the increase in volume down the
group.

Generally, the halogens have low melting and boiling points because the forces
of attraction between the molecules are weak. However, the melting and boiling
points of halogens increase down the group because the molecular size increases
down the group. As the molecular size of halogens increases, the van der Waals
forces of attraction between the molecules become stronger.

Therefore, more heat is required to overcome the forces of attraction between the
molecules, resulting in an increase in the melting and boiling points. For instance,
the first two elements (fluorine and chlorine) have low boiling points and are
gases at room temperature. Bromine is a liquid whereas iodine and astatine are
solids at room temperature.


99
How about their colours? The colour of halogen becomes darker down the
group. For example, fluorine is a pale-yellow gas, chlorine is a greenish-yellow
gas, and bromine is a reddish-brown liquid whereas iodine is a purplish-black
solid.

Lastly, let us look at the trend of electronegativity. Firstly, what does it stand
for? Electronegativity is a measurement of the tendency of an atom to attract
an electron and form a negative ion. Generally, all halogens are electronegative
non-metals.

However, the electronegativity of halogens decreases from fluorine to iodine.
This is because as the atomic radius becomes larger down the group, the force of
attraction between the nucleus and the valence electrons becomes weaker; hence,
the strength of the nucleus to attract electrons becomes weaker. Table 4.12 shows
some of the properties of Group 17 elements and their trends.

Table 4.12: Properties of Group 17 Elements and their Trends
Element Fluorine Chlorine Bromine Iodine
Proton number 9 17 35 53
Atomic radius (nm) 0.071 0.099 0.114 0.133
Density (gcm
3
) 0.0017 0.0032 3.13 4.94
Melting point (C) 220 101 7 114
Boiling point (C) 188 35 59 184
Colour Pale-yellow Greenish-
yellow
Reddish-
brown
Purplish-
black
Electronegativity 4.0 3.0 2.8 2.5
Source: http://www.rsc.org
100
4.6.3 Physical Properties
How about the physical properties of Group 17? Earlier, we learnt that all Group
17 elements are non-metals. Therefore, they are insulators of heat and electricity.
Generally, all halogens have low melting and boiling points due to poor forces of
attraction between the molecules. All halogens have low densities.
4.6.4 Chemical Properties
Lastly, let us check out the chemical properties of Group 17. Keep in mind that all
Group 17 elements have seven valence electrons and react in a similar manner
due to the electron arrangement. The reactivity of halogen decreases as they go
down the group. Halogens can easily gain one electron to achieve a stable octet
electron arrangement and therefore are good oxidising agents. As the reactivity
of halogens decreases down the group, their strength as oxidising agents also
decreases down the group.

Note that Group 17 elements exhibit similar chemical properties when they react
with:
(a) Water;
(b) Iron; and
(c) Cold sodium hydroxide solution.

Halogens react with water to produce acidic solutions. However, the solubility of
halogens in water decreases when going down group 17. For example, chlorine
and bromine dissolve readily in water, forming acidic solutions which turn blue
litmus paper red. The solution formed is also bleaching agents which turn the
litmus paper white due to the presence of hypochlorous acid or hypobromus
acid.

On the other hand, iodine is only very slightly soluble in water. Chlorine,
bromine and iodine react with hot iron to produce a brown iron(III) halides solid.
The reactivity of the halogens in their reaction with iron decreases from chlorine
to bromine.

The halogens react with cold sodium hydroxide solution to produce water and a
colourless solution containing salts of sodium halide and sodium halate(I). The
reactivity of the halogens in their reaction with cold sodium hyroxide solution
decreases from chlorine to iodine.

101

NOBLE GASES
Now we move on to noble gases. Generally, what can we say about noble gases?
Noble gases are elements of Group 18, consisting of helium, neon, argon,
krypton, xenon and radon, as shown in Table 4.13.

Table 4.13: Elements of Noble Gases (Group 18) and their Symbols
Helium He
Neon Ne
Argon Ar
Krypton Kr
Xenon Xe
Radon Rn

Keep in mind that noble gases are chemically unreactive because the atoms have
a stable electronic structure. Helium atoms have two electrons in their only
electron shell and this electronic structure is also known as the duplet electron
arrangement.

On the other hand, the outermost shell of the atoms of the other noble gases has
eight electrons and this electronic structure is known as the octet electron
arrangement. Table 4.14 shows the electronic structure of the atoms of noble
gases.

Table 4.14: Electronic Structure of Noble Gases Elements
Helium 2
Neon 2.8
Argon 2.8.8
Krypton 2.8.18.8
Xenon 2.8.18.18.8
Radon 2.8.18.32.18.8

4.7
102
Generally, all noble gases have these characteristics:
(a) Exist as monoatom gases;
(b) Colourless and insoluble in water;
(c) Cannot conduct electricity and are poor conductor of heat;
(d) Have very low melting and boiling points because noble gases are held
together by weak Van der Waals forces of attraction; and
(e) Have very low densities but the density increases slowly when going down
the group because the increase in atomic mass is greater than the increase in
volume.

Lastly, do you know that noble gases are used in various activities and
equipment in our daily lives? These are due to their inert property. Table 4.15
shows some physical properties of noble gases elements.

Table 4.15: Properties of Noble Gases Elements
Element Helium Neon Argon Krypton Xenon Radon
Proton number 2 10 18 36 54 86
Atomic radius
(nm)
0.050 0.070 0.094 0.109 0.130
Density (gcm
3
) 0.17 0.84 1.66 3.45 5.45
Melting point (C) 270 248 189 156 112 71
Boiling point (C) 269 246 186 152 107 62
Source: http://www.rsc.org

ACTIVITY 4.5
Can you find the usage of noble gases in various activities and
equipment in our daily lives? You can search the Web and have
discussions with your friends during tutorial class. Good luck!

103

PERIOD 3
Before we begin this lesson, let us recall the meaning of period. As stated
before, period refers to the elements in each horizontal row of the periodic table.
How about Period 3? Period 3 elements are located in the third row of the
periodic table. This row consists of elements such as sodium, magnesium,
aluminium, silicon, phosphorus, sulphur, chlorine and argon (see Table 4.16).

Table 4.16: Period 3 Elements and the Element Symbol
Sodium Na
Magnesium Mg
Aluminium Al
Silicon Si
Phosphorus P
Sulphur S
Chlorine CI
Argon Ar

What are the properties for the elements in Period 3? They are explained further
in Table 4.17.

Table 4.17: Properties of the Elements in Period 3
Element Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
Proton Number 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Electron
arrangement
2.8.1. 2.8.2 2.8.3 2.8.4 2.8.5 2.8.6 2.8.7 2.8.8
Atomic Radius
(nm)
186 160 143 118 110 104 100 94
Electronegativity 0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.5 3.0
Melting Point (C) 98 649 660 111 44 113 101 189
Boiling Point (C) 886 1090 2467 2355 280 444 35 186
Source: http://www.chemguide.co.uk

4.8
104
Do you know that elements of Period 3 can be classified into metals and non-
metals? This is based on the basic or acidic properties of their oxides which can
determine the metallic or non-metallic properties of the elements. Metals form
oxides with basic properties only. Some metals can form oxides with both acidic
and basic properties. These oxides are known as amphoteric oxides. Non-metals
form oxides with acidic properties only.

Properties of oxides of the elements in Period 3 can be summarised as in
Table 4.18.

Table 4.18: Properties of Oxides of the Elements in Period 3
Oxides of the
Elements in
Period 3
Na
2
O MgO Al
2
O
3
SiO
2
P
4
O
10
SO
2
Cl
2
O
7

Properties of
Oxide
Basic Basic Amphoteric Acidic Acidic Acidic Acidic

Based on Table 4.18, we can conclude that properties of oxides of the elements
change from basic to acidic when going across Period 3 from left to right.
4.8.1 Chloride and Hydride for Elements in Period 3
Before we end this topic, let us learn more about chloride and hydride for
Period 3 elements. You can refer to Table 4.19, which shows chloride and hydride
for elements in Period 3.

Table 4.19: Chloride and Hydride for Elements in Period 3
Group 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Formula of
chloride
NaCl MgCl
2

AlCl
3
SiCl
4
PCl
5
S
2
Cl
2
Cl
2

Melting
point (K)
1074 987 463 203 435 193 172
Bonding Ionic Ionic Covalent Covalent Covalent Covalent Covalent
Solubility
in water
Very Very Hydrolysed Hydrolysed Hydrolysed
pH of
solution
7 7 3 0 0


105
Based on Table 4.19, we can deduce the following when going across Period 3
from left to right:
(a) The bonding changes from ionic to covalent;
(b) They react with water rather than dissolve in it; and
(c) The compound solution changes from neutral to acidic.

1. The letters A to K are used to represent a few elements in the
periodic table as shown below.

(a) With reference to the above table, name the element that is:
(i) A halogen;
(ii) A transition metal;
(iii) An inert gas; and
(iv) The most reactive metal.

(b) Why is inert gas inactive?
(c) State the element which forms coloured ions in an aqueous
solution.
(d) Element K has a proton number of 23 and nucleon number
of 51. How many neutrons and electrons are there in a K
5+
ion? Write the oxide formula of the K
5+
ion.

2. The aqueous solutions of ions of transition elements have certain
colours. What are the colours of the following solutions?
(a) Potassium Manganate(VII)
(b) Iron(II) Sulphate
ACTIVITY 4.6
106

- The elements in the periodic table are arranged in rows of periods and
columns called the groups.
- The development of the periodic table began with Antoine Lavoisiers effort
in classifying elements into groups. Over the years, improvements were
made to the table, resulting in the birth of the modern day periodic table
revised by Glenn Seaborg.
- The number of valence electrons in an atom decides the position of the group
of that element in the periodic table.
- Some groups have special names:
Group 1 elements are called alkali metals;
Group 2 elements are known as alkaline earth metals;
Group 3 to Group 12 elements are known as transition elements;
Group 17 elements are called halogens; and
Group 18 elements are called noble gases.
- Elements are arranged horizontally in the ascending order of their proton
numbers in the periodic table.
3. Name the transition element which is used as a catalyst in the
following processes.
(a) Contact process.
(b) Haber process.

4. Cu
2+
ions react with ammonia solution to form sediment.
(a) State the colour of the sediment that forms initially.
(b) Write the above equation of the reaction.
(c) Why does the sediment become soluble again when excess
ammonia solution is added?

107
- Elements in a group have very similar chemical properties.
- The atomic radius increases when going down the group and decreases when
going across a period from left to right.
- The electronegativity of an element is the ability of the element to pull the
electron towards itself. The electronegativity of elements increases when
going across a period from left to right.
- The metal characteristic of the elements decreases when going across the
period. It changes from metal to semi-metal and finally to non-metal.
- The oxide characteristics of elements change from alkaline to acidic when
going across the period.
- The outer electron is also known as the valence electron. It is found in the
outermost occupied shell of an atom.
- Transition elements are elements in a block located between Group 2 and
Group 13 of the periodic table.
- Aqueous solutions of transition element compounds can react with sodium
hydroxide solution and ammonia solution to form coloured precipitates of
metal hydroxides.
- Transition elements are metals that have four special characteristics which
other metals do not have:
They form coloured compounds;
They have variable oxidation numbers;
They have catalytic properties; and
They form complex ions.
- Metals in the transition elements have industrial uses and are used in the
production of paints, glass, vegetable oil, sulphuric acid, nitric acid and
ammonia.
- Group 1 elements are also called alkali metals because they readily dissolve
in water to form hydroxides, which are strongly alkaline in nature. They also
form alkaline oxides.
- All alkali metals are soft grey solids with shiny silvery surfaces when freshly
cut.
108
- Alkali metals are very reactive and they react rapidly with oxygen and water
vapour in the air when exposed.
- Alkali metals have low densities compared to heavy metals such as iron and
copper.
- They are also good conductors of heat and electricity.
- Group 1 elements exhibit similar chemical properties in their reactions with:
Water to liberate hydrogen gas and form metal hydroxide;
Oxygen to produce metal oxides;
Chlorine to produce metal chloride; and
Bromine to produce metal bromide.
- Group 17 elements are fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine and astatine.
- They are known as halogens and are reactive non-metals. They exist as
diatomic covalent molecules.
- Group 17 elements exhibit similar chemical properties in their reactions with:
Water to produce two types of acids;
Iron to produce iron(III) halides; and
Sodium hydroxide solution to produce two types of sodium salts and
water.
- Elements of Period 3 can be classified as metals and non-metals based on the
basic or acidic properties of their oxides.
- Metals form oxides with basic properties only. Some metals can form oxides
with both acidic and basic properties. These oxides are known as amphoteric
oxides. Non-metals form oxides with acidic properties only.
- When going across Period 3 from left to right, the oxide properties of
elements change from basic to acidic.
- When going across Period 3 from left to right:
The bonding changes from ionic to covalent;
They react with water rather than dissolve in it; and
The compound solution changes from neutral to acidic.

109

Actinides
Alkali metals
Alkaline earth metals
Atomic radius
Electronegativity
Groups
Halogens
Lanthanides
Long periods
Metals
Noble gases
Non-metals
Oxide characteristics
Periodic table
Periods
Short periods
Transition elements
Valence electrons

Briggs, J. G. R. (2003). Science in focus chemistry for GCE O level. Singapore:
Pearson Education Asia Pte Ltd.
Conoley, C., & Hills, P. (2002). Chemistry (2nd ed.). London: Harper-Collins.
Hewitt, P. G. (1998). Conceptual physics (8th ed.). Massachusetts: Addison-
Wesley.
Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia Bahagian Pendidikan Guru. (1995). Buku
sumber pengajaran pembelajaran sains sekolah rendah: Strategi pengajaran
dan pembelajaran sains. Kuala Lumpur: Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia.
Ralph, A. B. (2003). Fundamentals of chemistry. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Whitten, K. W., Davis, R. E., Peck, M. L., & Stanley, G. G. (2010). Chemistry
(9th ed.). Belmont: Brooks/Cole.

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