HOU5NC: QUF5TON5 AND ATTTUDF5, APPROACHF5 AND DFA5 - An Fssay

*
Cerurdo 8rownMunrlque
~ ~
! #$%&'()* +%,&-'$(& .(/ .--'-%/,&
.ln houslng urtlculurly does the true fuce of the domlnunt cluss reveul ltself.

ln deullng wlth the concet of muss houslng, one mlght muke the followlng ruther sturk observutlon: thut when evuluutlng
efforts done to dute ln thls ureu, the concet of suce und volume of the bullt envlronment hus not been ultered. Ruther,
the hyslcul dlmenslons of thls envlronment huve. lor the houslng of the musses, ellteestubllshed, reguluted und enforced
suce requlrement huve usuully been decreused. 1hus, these decreuslng suces und volumes huve become less und less u
functlon of thelr need, und more often the result of lund und constructlon economy, together wlth the luck of
understundlng of the needs of the users. An extreme result ls the use of "suce' by the ellte us un lnstrument for
lntlmldutlon und suresslons.
!"! $%&'()%*+, -.'/*/0/.'&
1he roblem of the unuvullublllty of muss houslng cume ubout ln lts most drumutlc
form us u result of the lndustrlul Revolutlon.
z
Lurlng the lute Llghteenth und eurly
Nlneteenth Centurles, us the lndustrlullzutlon of the Luroeun contlnent reuched u hlgh level, the ucuteness of the houslng
shortuge ln the urbun centers romted some ubllc uctlvlty ln the form of governmentul suly of houslng, us well us ln
the lmlementutlon of houslng stundurds. Eowever, ln terms of the uctuul efforts, us descrlbed by lrledrlch Lngels ln !"#
%&'()*+ ,'#(-)&*, these ln no wuy uddressed themselves to the cuuses of the soculled houslng crlsls. As Lngels stutes, the
uer clusses becume concerned only becuuse they felt menuced: uny eldemlc thut mlght uttuck the overcrowded urbun
worker houslng sectors would no doubt uttuck the uercluss sectors us well.

1hus, for exumle, ln Lnglund u 8ourd of

Eeulth wus estubllshed durlng the flrst urt of the Nlneteenth Century to suervlse mlnlmum sunltury requlrements ufter u
"fortultous outbreuk of choleru.'

1hough luter dlsbunded when the eldemlc wus controlled, lt murked the beglnnlng, ln
8rltuln, of offlclul regulutlon und monltorlng of houslng condltlons ln worker sectors.

* Lssuy wrltten ln , us urt of u gruduute course ut Cornell Unlverslty whlle ursulng un M.Arch.

Meyer (,z), ,.
z
8uuer wrltes thut "the houslng roblem us we know lt.owes lts mujestlc scule to the develoments of the lust
century.' (), ,.

Lngels (,), . Also 8ehrendt (,), 8.

Puwley (,), z. 8uuer quotes un eurly work by Lngels (8z) ln descrlblng the condltlons ln Lnglund: "At the
bottom flows, or ruther stugnutes, the lrk [ln Munchester], u nurrow coulbluck, foulsmelllng streum, full of debrls und
refuse.Eere euch house ls ucked close behlnd lts nelghbor, und u lece of euch ls vlslble, ull bluck, smoky, crumbllng,
unclent.' (), .
!"#$%& () *+,-./0 12
ECUSlNC: Questlons und Attltudes, Arouches und ldeus z
!"1 2+),3 45/.'%/'6 7/.'8)3
8y the turn of the century, there exlsted u very ucute shortuge of houslng, urtlculurly ln Luroe. lollowlng the llrst vorld
vur, durlng whlch there wus un ulmost comlete stouge ln the constructlon of houslng,

the rute of bulldlng usturts

slowly begun to lncreuse, but the resultlng roduct nelther rovlded the sufflclent quuntltutlve demunds, nor dld lt sutlsfy ln
uny wuy the osslble quulltutlve requlrements. 1he roblem wus, us Eunnes Meyer olnts out, thut
.the rure gems of resldentlul urchltecture ure trunsformed lnto sources of roflt for seculutors und
flnunclers.
6

1hls ls ulso olnted out by Puwley und others. 1here were ulmost mujor houslng efforts,
wlth the mujorlty of the ventures belng the result of cooerutlve grou lnltlutlves.
,
ln
Cermuny und Austrlu, for exumle, ollcles durlng thls erlod estubllshed houslng us u
ubllc utlllty,
8
thus uttlng lt ut u ur wlth the constructlon of rouds und other utllltles und, ldeully, out of the seculutlve
murket's control.
.z. Lurlng the zz erlod, there wus un uurent stublllzutlon ln the vurlous economlc sectors. Cf thls erlod,
two mujor observutlons ure mude by Meyer.
1here wus u "reufflrmutlon of those new forms of resldentlul constructlon, stundurdlzutlon und tylflcutlon of
constructlon element.'
z Cultullst socletles used thls erlod to lncreuse the efflclency of lund use und lts rent collectlon und to "lncreuse
the beneflt derlved from the roflteer exloltutlon of the houslng.'

1he mujorlty of these houslng efforts could be descrlbed us belng u "rutlonullzutlon ugulnst the level of llfe und the 'modus
vlvendl' of the vust worklng clusses.'
c
1he blrth of the mlnlmum house comes ubout the comurtmentullzutlon und
cusulutlon beglns. 1he tylcul unlt wus churucterlzed by the reductlon ln
".the number und surfuce of the llvlng und clrculutlon ureus wlthout corrldors, sleelng cublns [closets?|,
dlvlslble rooms, etc. 1he kltchendlnlng ureu wus reduced slowly to u kltchen, u smull corner kltchen, even u
slmle closetkltchen.'

1here were osltlve lmrovements, however, ln terms of the technosunltury lnstullutlons of the dwelllngs.

Meyer (,z), ,, 8ehrendt (,), zc, Puwley (,), zz.

6
Meyer (,z), 8c.
,
Puwley (,), z.
8
8ehrendt (z,), zc.

Meyer (,z), 8.
c
Meyer (,z), 8z.

Meyer (,z), 8z.

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ECUSlNC: Questlons und Attltudes, Arouches und ldeus
ln terms of the house groulngs, there ls un lncreuse ln the tye of houslng thut otlmlzes the vertlcul clrculutlon of the
groulng, the ./'0#*+/*+"/'( or gullery house. ln thls tye of dwelllng, for constructlons of four storles whlch rovlde
the otlmum ln constructlon efflclency und cost u to thlrty dwelllngs could be
served by one stulr tower.
z

Stlll, there were vurlous outstundlng efforts ln houslng durlng thls erlod. Lurlng the
zc, the munlclul houslng rojects suerblocks bullt by the government of
the Clty of vlennu rovlded ,ccc houslng unlts for dwelllng. 1wo of these ure the lurlMurxEof und the Lngelslutz
roject. 1he flrst roject rovldes ,z unlts ln u suerblock of some two kllometers ln length, locuted ln the Nlnth Llstrlct
of the clty, to the north und outslde the centrul rlng. Lngelslutz, neur the revlous roject, ls locuted to the eust und ucross
the Lunube cunul und hus ,6, unlts. ln ull cuse, the suerblock rojects lncororuted vurlous lnfrustructure suort
elements such us duycure centers, schools, shos, ost offlces, und communlty centers. ln ull, there were , suerblocks ln
thls umbltlous houslng rogrum.

ln Cermuny, there wus un outstundlng rogrum ln lrunkfurtumMuln. 1here, the clty
urchltect, Lrnst Muy, develoed stundurd uurtment tyes whlch were to be used ln ull
munlclul houslng rojects. 1hese vurled from studlo uurtments wlth roof gurden, to
houses wlth two, three bedrooms together wlth u guesthouse. 1here wus rovlslon for communulllke green ureus, rlvute
gurdens, stores, und other communlty fucllltles. 1here were vurlous new develoments bullt us urt of thls rogrum, wlth u
totul number of ,ccc unlts, umong them Rmmerstudt. 1hough ut u smuller scule thun the rogrum ln vlennu, these
rojects lntroduced the concets of stundurdlzutlon und refubrlcutlon ln houslng, und ure un outstundlng exumle of
soclully orlented und resonslve houslng rogrums osslble.

ln the Sovlet Unlon, where rogresslve urchltecturul movements hud reuched thelr uogee ln the lute zcs ufter becomlng
the vunguurd of the 8olshevlk Revolutlon urt ldeology, u tye of houslng not revlously found ln Czurlst Russlu wus
lntroduced, whlch reflected the hllosohy of the new soclety: the communul house.

1he flrst of thls new tye of houslng

comlex bullt ln Moscow wus constructed ln z,z8, deslgned by C. volfenzon.
6
Probubly the most outstundlng exumle
of thls new tye ls the Nurkomfln Aurtment 8ulldlng ln Moscow, bullt ln z8z.
,


z
Meyer (,z), 8z.

1#23 (:,c), zzzz6, Eurdy (), Schwunzer (6), zcz.

8ehrendt (,), zc,zc8, Puwley (,), 6, Muy (c).

"ve ure oosed to such rerevolutlonury bulldlng tyes us the seculutlve uurtment house, the rlvute
resldence, the 'noblemun's club,' etc., ull roducts of rerevolutlonury soclul, technlcul, und economlc clrcumstunces. [und
lnsteud roose| new tyes of communul houslng, new tyes of clubs.whlch ln fuct should be conductors und condensers
of soclullst culture' (CSA resolutlon, z Arll z8). Quoted ln lo (6,), .
6
lo (6,), c.
,
lo (6,), 6.
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ECUSlNC: Questlons und Attltudes, Arouches und ldeus
1here were vurlous other houslng efforts durlng thls erlod, wlth commenduble quulltles, but of less umbltlous mugnltude
thun those ulreudy descrlbed. ln Cermuny, us urt of the ldeu of houslng us u utlllty, vurlous houslng comlexes were bullt,
umong them the Crosledlung Slemensstudt und the Eufelsensledlung ln 8erlln.
8
Another scule of rogrum wus thut of the
verkbund, founded ln Munchen ln c, by Eermunn Mutheslus, und whlch brought together not only some of the
romlnent urchltects of the duy, but lndustrlul deslgners und englneers us well, to ".udvocute the stundurdlzutlon und
modulur coordlnutlon of lndustrlul roducts so thut ull munner of urts und leces would flt together.'

1he verkbund
sonsored und orgunlzed, umong other thlngs, exhlblts. 1hese lncluded houslng exhlblts ln Stuttgurt (z,) und ln vlennu
(c). 8ecuuse they were efforts to show thut "good' deslgn ln thut they were reresentutlve of the lnternutlonul Style
could be ulled to houslng, us well us to show whut the urchltects ln vogue hud to offer, they dld not, und do not,
reresent un urouch ut solvlng houslng needs of the workers, us hud been the cuse ln the revlous efforts.
"lt seems,' wrltes Eunnes Meyer, "thut the urchltects, becuuse of thelr urtlstlc nuture, felt themselves to be mlsslonurles of
the 'new' urchltecture or the 'old', but ln reullty were the ones thut reresented oenly or secretly, the flnunclul cultul to
whlch they were subjected.'
zc

.z.z lollowlng the Creut Leresslon (z), there were vurlous other roblems thut develoed und whlch hlndered
the roer und sufflclent rovlslon of houslng. Cne wus thut, becuuse of the deendency on governmentul fundlng for the
constructlon of ulmost everythlng, rojects cume under the strlct control of the whlms und tustes of the ower structure.
z

Another roblem wus thut the contlnuul demund for urbun houslng encouruged the subdlvlslon of exlstlng unlts.
1he most slgnlflcunt, though, wus the rlse of lusclsm und wlth lt, the exodus of the leudlng rudlcul deslgners, lncludlng Lrnst
Muy, Eunnes Meyer, vulter Crolus, und others, from the nutlon whlch hud begun to show the wuy ln whlch houslng
should be treuted so us to best meet the needs of the workers: Cermuny. vhut cuused the exodus wus not just the rlse of
the fusclst governments ln both Cermuny und ltuly, but thelr uvowed uttuck on everythlng thut reresented "modernlsm'
und thus untlnutlonullsm (lnternutlonullsm belng ooslte to nutlonullsm). 1he olltlcul develoments ure too extenslve to
cover, but lt sufflces to suy thut the leuders ln terms of deslgn hud to flnd refuge outslde. vhere they went, however, ls very
lmortunt, for lt glves u clue us to thelr commltment to urchltecture us u soclully resonslve rofesslon: Muy und Meyer,
ulong wlth Muy's stuff ln lrunkfurt, to the Sovlet Unlon, where they would try thelr tulents ln the 'new soclety', Crolus,
Mles und most of the teuchers of the 8uuhuus from whlch, whlle servlng us dlrector ufter Crolus reslgned und before
belng succeeded by Mles, Meyer wus forced to reslgn by the rlghtwlng clty councll of Lessuu becuuse of hls commltment

8
Slemensstudt wus deslgned by Crolus, Erlng, Schuroun und 8urtnlng (z), Eufelsensledlung, ulso known
us 1uutSledlung, by 8runo 1uut (zz,). Eoffmunn (68), , 8ehrendt (,), zc,, Ungers (66), zc.

von Lckhurdt (6,), ,z.

zc
Meyer (,z), 8.
z
Meyer stutes thut "ln the Unlted Stutes the cultul[lsts| refused the flnunclng of bulldlngs for houslng of slmle or
'modern style.' lor feur of the robuble lnflutlon credlt wus glven for bulldlngs rlch ln decorutlons of clusslcul style, whlch
ueured to guuruntee u lurger reul vulue' (,z), 86.
ECUSlNC: Questlons und Attltudes, Arouches und ldeus
to unlonlzutlon und soclullsm
zz
eventuully cume to the Unlted Stutes where they would eventuully serve the cororute
lnterests.
z

lrom the lusclst governments, there were few slgnlflcunt contrlbutlons to the houslng of the worklng cluss, though ln
Cermuny the Nuzl government udvertlsed houses for the New Cermuny showlng u return, ln thelr curtoon udvertlsements,
to the eru of the country cottuge wlth ltched roof und u gurden fenced uround, u good house for every cltlzen of the Relch.
1he v 1rlennlul ut Mllun, ulso from thls erlod, resented u osltlve contrlbutlon. lrom these, llttle more wus done. lt must
be remembered, so us to not loose ersectlve of the overull sltuutlon, thut nothlng wus belng done ln the soculled
'Lemocrutlc' nutlons, us wus ulreudy stuted, thut osltlvely contrlbuted to the 'solutlon' of the houslng sltuutlon. And ln the
Sovlet Unlon, the 'New Soclety' hud degeneruted from the rogresslve 8olshevlk uttltude, to the revlslonlst bureuucrutlc
uttltude whlch wus very slmllur, ln lts hyslcul munlfestutlons, to the develoments ln the ldeologlcullyooslte cum:
monumentullty wlth u tuste of newjneoclusslclsm. Lrnst Muy left for Afrlcu, und Eunnes Meyer left for Mexlco.
!"9 4$2 :;<4=>-? :2?@;A
After unother erlod of urmed confllct, whlch ln thls cuse uffected more of Luroe thut the flrst, und went uround the
Clobe, the roblem of houslng becume even more ucute. A result wus the lncreused reoccuutlon wlth the ldeu of
refubrlcutlon of houslng, usuully druwlng u slmllurlty to the uutomoblle lndustry, und ulso usuully, followlng the ulreudy
estubllshed trend brought ubout by the lndustrlul Revolutlon, leudlng to the reductlon of suce the contlnued
encusulutlon of mun ln generul, und the worklng clusses ln urtlculur. vlth the best of lntentlons, roosuls mlnlmlzed the
'needed' suce to the scule of ullowlng mlnlmul movement uround set furnlshlngs whlch ure to meet seclfled functlonul
requlrements. Lfflclency ln lund use, so us to ullow the greutest roflts for the lundholder, ussed off ln gulse of efflclency of
constructlon und servlce.
vhut ls more, the ldeullzutlon of whut cltles should be, us reuched by Le Corbusler, begun to tuke form ln even more
totullturlun terms thun those of the governments of Cermuny und ltuly, before the wur, und the Sovlet Unlon durlng und
ufter.
z
And whut becume u worse condltlon wus the uttemt to solve, or try to solve, the houslng crlsls ln terms of u
unlversul model of mun. Eouslng stundurds rutlonullzed ln terms of the unthroomorhlc churucterlstlcs of the lnhubltunt
or u reusonuble fucslmlle thereof. 1hus, for exumle, u slngle tye of houslng comlex, u vertlcul clty the unlte
could be droed unywhere und lt would 'flt.'

zz
Meyer (,z), cc.
z
Cne U.S. roject by Mles thut uddressed ltself to the houslng of workers, Lufuyette Purk ln Letrolt, ls u beuutlfully
deslgned comlex, ln the Mles ldlom, whlch remulns sterlle und cold, und does not reresent, ln my olnlon, u slgnlflcunt
enough contrlbutlon towurd the rovlslon of houslng for the worklng clusses.
z
A rlme exumle ls 8ruslllu, the resentduy verslon of vllle Rudleuse lunnlng. 1he forms sketched by Le Corbusler
to show how hls houslng block could be ussembled tuke form, ln unother exumle, outslde Amsterdum: 8ljlmermeer.
ECUSlNC: Questlons und Attltudes, Arouches und ldeus 6
1hls "grund slum' urouch hus contlnued, und there huve been muny roosuls und munlfestoes wrltten to 'solve' the
houslng crlsls.
z
lt would be unfulr to not mentlon, ufter so much negutlve commentury on whut hus been done ln the fleld,
the more slgnlflcunt contrlbutlons to the roblem of houslng.
1wo quullty exumles whlch stlll only lllustrute Meyer's urgument ubout most of the good houslng done ln the zcs thut
these urchltecturul jewels ure for the bourgeolsle ure the Neue vuhr develoment by Aulto ln 8remen, done ln 6z,
und the Sledlung Eulen develoment neur 8ern, by Ateller , ulso of thut erlod.
0 #$%&'()* .112$.3#,& .(/ '/,.&
vhlle the emhusls of thls essuy hus so fur been on the hlstorlcul develoment of the resentduy uttltude towurd houslng,
lt ls lmortunt to ulso resent u crltlque of toduy's urouch, ulreudy urtly lllustruted ut the end of the flrst sectlon.
1"! 46/ :)/&/.' -BB)(+*6 '( $(8&%.C
vhut the urouch hus been towurds the rovlslon of houslng cun be lllustruted by the followlng uurently confuslng
sltuutlon of the deslgned solutlon vlsvls the soclul und culturul churucterlstlcs of Norwuy. vhlle Cslo hus umle flut lund
to bulld on, most of Norwuy ls mountulnous, wlth llttle exloltuble lund. A mujor soclul houslng roject bullt ln Cslo ln 6
,c wus deslgned uround the ldeu of hlgh denslty, hlgh rlse houslng, wlth oen green lund ull uround. vhlle concetuully
sound, lt ls ln ructlce not only hlghly wusteful but ulso contrudlctory to u buslc Scundlnuvlun bellef of closeness to the
ground und the forest. ln contrust, unother roject, bullt uround the sume tlme, mukes use of lessdeslruble lund on u stee
hlll, und rovldes the closeness to the forest ldeu. A thlrd, though ln oen lund, rovldes slmllur umenltles of closeness to
the ground, und ln thls cuse ulso us u soclul houslng roject.
Another exumle ls thut of Eubltut ut Lxo 6, ln Montreul. 1hough lt exlores the concet of refubrlcutlon to u level not
revlously uchleved, lt full becuuse, slnce lt wus not currled out to u mugnltude where refubrlcutlon would become
economlcully feuslble, lt ls fur too exenslve for even the mlddle clusses to ufford. 1he result, not only there but ln slmllur
rojects, ls thut lt uguln becomes u showcuse for the ellte, the sume ellte thut belleves ln bulldlng such rojects us the South
Mull, recently renumed Lmlre Stute Mull, ln Albuny, NY, whlle neurby lt bullds luln, dlsturblng rojects wlthln slght of the
glltter of the murble.
vhut erhus ls the only bulldlng tye thut uroxlmutes the ldeu of soclul houslng ls, ruther surrlslng, the unlverslty
dormltory comlex. lt shows muny of the sume churucterlstlcs of the communul houslng tye of the zcs ln the Sovlet
Unlon, though obvlously does not ln uny wuy uddress ltself to the houslng needs of the worklng clusses.
1"1 46/ 7(DB+)'D/.'+,%E+'%(.
Purtly us u result of the drlve towurds refubrlcutlon, urtly becuuse of the economlcullymotlvuted declslons revlously
dlscussed, und urtly becuuse of 'chlc' ldeus, there ls un exlstlng uttltude to mlnlmlze und mlnluturlze the dwelllng unlts fur

z
Among the muny, see the Smlthson's "Crlterlu for Muss Eouslng,' 425")-#5-'2/. 6#()+* (:6,), , llkutuke's
"Muss Eouslng Munlfesto,' 7/8/* 425")-#5- (6:,z), zz8.
ECUSlNC: Questlons und Attltudes, Arouches und ldeus ,
beyond thelr ulreudy tlght churucterlstlcs, thls erhus lnslred by the uurent efflclency und functlonully lntegrul quullty
of u shl's cublns. Llther us futurlstlc roosuls, such us Severlno's, these stlll ure dlsturblng becuuse, ln thelr ullcutlon,
there ls no sufeguurd ugulnst the buslc reuson for fullure ln most houslng uttemts. 1hut ls, these roosuls do not lnclude
the necessury soclul und olltlcul reforms whlch would muke them successful. ln other words, whlle lt ls erhus totully
reusonuble to decreuse, let's suy, the suce ullotted for the lndlvlduul wlthln u totul comlex so us to lncreuse und lmrove
the grou suces us seclul condensers lf ln terms of the communul houses of the zcs, when the decreuse ln lndlvlduul
suce ls solely for economlc reusons, lt urchltecture becomes solely u tool for oresslon, und does not resond to
the soclul needs of the musses.
1"9 46/ -,'/).+'%F/
ln contrust to thls, for exumle, the reductlon of lndlvlduul suce on one level so us to lncreuse the suce for the musses ut
the other, comuctness becuuse of soclullymotlvuted reusons, ls lllustruted by the 66 roosul of 1eum Ancuus whlch hus
us lts buslc ldeologlcul remlse the communul resonslblllty, ruther thun the trudltlonul fumlly one.
z6

8ut ln reullstlc terms, the ulternutlves, or the rouds to the ulternutlve, ure ut once cleur und hldden, uttulnuble und
lmosslble. 1hey requlre soclul commltment of ull, und thls ln turn soclul resonslblllty only uttulnuble through soclul
revolutlon. lt requlres u chunge of uttltude, from regurdlng houslng us u luxury, us lt ls consldered toduy ln Cultullst
socletles, to thut of u rlght, us lt ls ln Soclullst socletles.
z,
A resultlng churucterlzutlon ln the uttltudes towurds houslng dlffer
shurly wlth the revulllng ones ln Cultullst socletles:
1he "houslng roblem' houslng stundlng ln the wuy of roductlveness would be nonexlstent, slnce the
goul of the government und eole would be the lmrovement of the soclety, und houslng us u rlght ls no
longer seen us un lmosltlon on the methods und roductlve mechunlsms of the soclety, but ruther us urt of
thls mechunlsm.
z 1he ldeu of "soclul houslng' us u seurute tye u concesslon to ueuse the wunts und needs of the
roleturlut would be nonexlstent slnce ull houslng would be soclul.
ln other words, there would not be the contrudlctlon between muss houslng houslng for the worklng musses und
rlvute houslng houslng for the ellte. All houslng would be for ull the eole.

z6
1hls roject wus one of the entrles to the 66 Shlnkenchlku resldentlul deslgn cometltlon. 425")-#5-'2/. 6#()+*
(:6,), z.
z,
See Segre (68, ,c), Eurdoy (,), und Curclu vzquez (68) for whut ls robubly the best exumle of thls
uttltude, thut of Cubu.
ECUSlNC: Questlons und Attltudes, Arouches und ldeus 8
45 6'67'$)2.1#8
(Anonymous)
,c "Lle vlener Suerblocks zz.' 1#23 (:,c), z6.
Archltecturul Revlew (edltors)
6 QLz (1he Queen Lllzubeth Second)(lssue) 425")-#5-'2/. 9#:)#; (6:6).
8uuer, Cutherlne
<&=#2* %&'()*+. 8oston: Eoughton Mlfflln Co.
8ehrendt, vulter Curt
, <&=#2* >').=)*+ ? @-( A/-'2#B C2&0.#D(B /*= E&2D(. New York: Eurcourt, 8ruce & Comuny.
Cook, Peter (edltor)
, 425")+2/D. New York: Prueger Publlshers.
Lngels, lrledrlch
8z !"# F&*=)-)&* &G -"# 1&23)*+ F./(( )* H*+./*= )* IJKK [Quoted ln 8uuer ()|.
, F&*-2)0'5)L* /. 82&0.#D/ =# ./ :):)#*=/. 8uenos Alres: Ldltorlul Clurldud, S.A.
Curclu vzquez, lrunclsco
68 4(8#5-&( =#. 8./*#/D)#*-& M =# ./ :):)#*=/ #* F'0/. 8uenos Alres: 'orge Alvurez Ldltor, S.A.
Eurdoy, 'orge Lnrlque
, C&.N-)5/( '20/*/( M 2#G&2D/ '20/*/ #* F'0/. (Mlmeogruh) 8uenos Alres: lnstltuto 1orcuuto Ll1ellu.
Eurdy, Churles C.
!"# %&'()*+ C2&+2/D &G -"# F)-M &G O)#**/. vushlngton, L.C.: 1he 8rooklngs lnstltutlon.
Euber, 8enedlkt, Stelnegger, 'eunCluude (edltors)
, 7#/* C2&':P? C2#G/02)5/-)&*B Q-2'5-'2#( #- H.#D#*-(. London: Pull Mull.
Eoffmunn, Cretl (edltor)
68 9#)(#GR"2#2 S'2 D&=#2*# 425")-#3-'2. Stuttgurt: 'ullus Eoffmunn verlug.
llkutuke, llyonorl
,z "Muss Eouslng Munlfesto.' 7/8/* 425")-#5- (6:,z), z,z8.
lo, Anutole
6, !&;* /*= 9#:&.'-)&*. London: 1humes und Eudson.
Le Corbusler
8 6)# 1&"*#)*"#)- /D %#).(0#2+#2 62#)#53B >#2.)*T UV'*)-P =V"/0)-/-)&* =# +2/*=#'2 5&DG&2DB -M8 >#2.)*. 8erlln
Crunewuld: verlug fur luchllterutur.
Muy, Lrnst
c 6/( A#'# E2/*3G'2-. :z. lrunkfurtumMuln: verlug Lnglert und Schlosser.
Meyer, Eunnes
,z H. /2W')-#5-& #* ./ .'5"/ =# ./( 5./(#( M &-2&( #(52)-&(. 8urcelonu: Ldltorlul Custuvo Clll, S.A.
Nltschke, Cunter
6, "Commentury on the Metubollsts.' 425")-#5-'2/. 6#()+* (:6,), zcz6.
Puwley, Murtln
, 425")-#5-'2# :#2('( %&'()*+. New York: Prueger Publlshers.
Schwunzer, Lr. lurl
6 1)#*#2 >/'-#* IXYY 0)( "#'-#. vlennu: Csterrelchlsches 8uuzentrum.
Segre, Roberto
68 "Archltecture, Underdeveloment und Revolutlon.' 425")-#5-'2# =V4'Z&'2=V"') (:c, Cct.Nov.).
,c F'0/? 42W')-#5-'2/ =# ./ 2#:&.'5)L*. 8urcelonu: Ldltorlul Custuvo Clll.
ECUSlNC: Questlons und Attltudes, Arouches und ldeus
Severlno, Renuto
6, "CLCA Steel Eouslng Cometltlon (cometltlon entry).' 425")-#5-'2/. 6#()+* (:6,), z.
,c HW')8&-#*-)/. Q8/5#? E2##=&D )* 425")-#5-'2#. New York: Prueger Publlshers.
Smlthsons, Alllson und Peter
6, "Crlterlu for Muss Eouslng.' 425")-#5-'2/. 6#()+* (:6,).
Ungers, C.M.
66 [2&\G&2D#* )D 1&"*'*+(0/'. verffentllchungen zur Archltektur No. . 1U 8erlln (zz:66).
von Lckhurdt, volf
6, 4 C./5# -& U):#? !"# F2)()( &G -"# F)-)#(. New York: Lell Publlshlng Co., lnc.
vorschlugen des Leutschen verkbundes lm Auftrug (v.L.v.A.)
z, >/' '*= 1&"*'*+. Stuttgurt: Akud. verlug Lr. lr. vedeklnd & Co.